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Concise Pathology
For Exam Preparation
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RELX India Pvt. Ltd.
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Concise Pathology For Exam Preparation, 3rd Edition, Geetika Khanna Bhattacharya
Copyright © 2016, 2011, 2009 by RELX India Pvt. Ltd.
All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-81-312-4421-0
eISBN: 978-81-312-4422-7
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other
than as may be noted herein).
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Dedicated to Shriya and Elaina
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Preface to the Third Edition
Evaluation, a critical and human-error prone component of the medical curriculum, contin
ues to evoke dread in students due to its sometimes “unpredictable” outcome. This book
was originally conceived for the students of Pathology, who are naturally apprehensive
about this “unpredictability”. The enthusiastic response to the previous editions, sugges-
tions received from the student community and the newer learning points now incorpo-
rated in standard textbooks, have all necessitated this Edition.
Special effort has been made to include all the latest concepts and changes in the subject
including clinical information, wherever feasible, in the chapters to accentuate the
relevance of each section to actual patient situations. The text has been presented in a
tabulated format, wherever required, to enable easy learning and recall. Definitions and
classifications have been incorporated as per World Health Organization and other stan-
dard currently accepted guidelines. Many new illustrations and flowcharts have been
added to make the book more student-friendly, particularly to the “visual learner”. Micro-
photographs and gross pictures have been introduced in all the chapters to enhance com-
prehension of the subject. At the same time, every effort has been made to restrict the
increase in page extent so that students are not overloaded with information.
In addition, complimentary access to online assessment questions and images along
with complete e-book is also provided.
The main objectives of this book remain the same:
• To allow a quick self-assessment and revision before the examination.
• To highlight the “must know” areas (the areas covered in this book are the ones that are
frequently referred to/stressed upon by examiners, and are also relevant to the student
from knowledge point of view. Proficiency in these topics will aid students’ in under-
standing their clinical subjects in the coming years).
• To enable students to learn and present their knowledge in a format that is easy to
appreciate and assess during an examination.
I am certain that this edition is more useful and convenient compared to earlier ones
and will find greater acceptability among the undergraduate pathology students.
I would be grateful for any criticism or suggestions which would make this book better
in any way. Suggestions and comments from teachers and students can be e-mailed at
gtka0612@gmail.com or indiacontact@elsevier.com.
vii
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Preface to the First Edition
As an examiner and teacher, one often encounters students who have read extensively
and have grasped the basic concepts of pathology from their textbooks, but are unable to
organize or prioritize this succinctly into the type of answers the examiners expect and
appreciate, thus, preventing them from achieving good results/scores in their assessments.
The need for a revision or reference manual, which enables students to understand the
nuances of key principles of pathology and express them efficiently in the limited time that
is usually available to them, thus became obvious.
This book has been written with the following objectives:
• To allow a quick self-assessment and revision before the examination.
• To highlight the areas that need focus (must know areas) and are relevant to the student
from both knowledge and examination point of view. (The areas covered in this book
are the ones that are frequently referred to/stressed upon by examiners. Also, proficiency
in these topics will aid the students in understanding their clinical subjects in the com-
ing years.)
• To enable students to learn and present their knowledge in a format that is easy to ap-
preciate and assess, in the limited time available, during an examination. This book has
been primarily written for the discerning undergraduate (MBBS, BDS, and Nursing);
however, some topics are covered more extensively, and may benefit the postgraduate
as well. I welcome any criticism and suggestions that would contribute towards
enhancement of this book.
ix
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Acknowledgements
I am both delighted and humbled by the most enthusiastic reception of the first and
second editions of this book and am immensely grateful to my students for all their valu-
able insights and suggestions, which I have tried to incorporate in this edition. Their
overwhelming response keeps me going and makes the entire effort worthwhile.
I would not have been able to complete this all encompassing project without the
tremendous patience and endurance of my daughter, the valued support and guidance of
my husband, the blessings of my parents, and the constant encouragement and motivation
of my brother.
I would like to offer my sincere appreciation to my friends, particularly Dr Sonal
Sharma, who has always very generously helped me whenever required. I am also grateful
to my departmental staff for their unquestioning support and cooperation.
I am extremely thankful to my publisher, RELX India Pvt. Ltd., particularly Shabina
Nasim, Sr Manager–Education Solutions; and Goldy Bhatnagar, Sr Content Development
Specialist, for overseeing this project with great commitment and efficiency while conced-
ing to my requests for changes and amendments till the last minute. It has been an abso-
lute pleasure working with them.
Last but not the least I continue to be indebted to the authors of the various publica-
tions and reference books that I have consulted during the compilation of this book and
regret being unable to acknowledge them all, individually.
xi
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Contents
SECTION I
General Pathology 1
1 Cell Injury and Cell Death 2
2 Acute and Chronic Inflammation 31
3 Healing and Repair 53
4 Haemodynamic Disorders, Thrombosis and Shock 67
5 Diseases of Immunity 89
6 Neoplasia 123
7 Infections 150
8 Genetic and Paediatric Disorders 189
9 Environmental and Nutritional Pathology 211
SECTION II
Diseases of Organ Systems 227
10 Blood Vessels 228
11 Disorders of the Heart 254
12 Haematology 285
13 The Lung 356
14 The Oral Cavity and Gastrointestinal Tract 384
15 Diseases of the Hepatobiliary System and Pancreas 420
16 Diseases of the Kidney and Lower Urinary Tract 453
17 Male Genital Tract 489
18 Female Genital System 502
19 The Breast 522
xiii
xiv Contents
20 Endocrinology 534
21 Musculoskeletal System 569
22 The Skin 603
23 The Central Nervous System 613
Index 625
Cell in homeostasis
Cellular adaptation
FLOWCHART 1.2. Cellular adaptation.
Intracellular
accumulations
4. Cell ageing: Represents progressive accumulation over the years of sublethal injury
that manifests with either cell death or inadequate response of the cell to injury. Ageing
is influenced by genetic factors, diet and social environment as well as diseases like
atherosclerosis, diabetes and osteoarthritis.
Hyperplasia
Definition
Increase in number of cells in an organ or tissue leading to increased size/mass of the tissue
or organ. Hyperplasia takes place in cells, which are capable of synthesizing DNA. In nondivid-
ing cells, only hypertrophy occurs.
Mechanism
• Production of transcription factors that induce genes encoding growth factors, receptors
for growth factors and cell-cycle regulators.
• In hormonal hyperplasia, hormones themselves act as growth factors and trigger tran-
scription of genes.
• In compensatory hyperplasia, there is proliferation of remaining cells and development of
new cells from stem cells.
Types
1. Physiologic hyperplasia:
(a) Hormonal hyperplasia: Hormonal stimulation increases the functional capacity of
the tissue when needed, eg, breast and uterus in puberty, pregnancy and lactation.
(b) Compensatory hyperplasia: Increase in tissue mass after damage or partial resection,
eg, regeneration of liver after partial hepatectomy.
2. Pathologic hyperplasia: Hyperplasia due to excessive hormonal stimulation or excessive
effects of growth factors on target cells, eg, endometrial hyperplasia (occurs when bal-
ance between progesterone and oestrogen is disturbed) and benign nodular prostatic
hyperplasia or NHP (occurs due to androgen excess; Fig. 1.2).
Hypertrophy
Definition
Increase in size of the cell due to increased synthesis of structural components and not due
to cellular swelling is known as hypertrophy. Nondividing cells, eg, myocardial fibres,
undergo hypertrophy only. Dividing cells (stable cells, quiescent cells) undergo both
hyperplasia and hypertrophy.
Papillary
projection
Stroma
Proliferating
glands
FIGURE 1.2. NHP prostate showing hyperplastic glands lying back to back. The glands are lined
by two distinct layers of epithelium indicating benign nature of the lesion (H&E; 1003).
6 SECTION I General Pathology
Mechanism
Induction of genes stimulates synthesis of cellular proteins, eg, genes encoding transcrip-
tion factors, growth factors and vasoactive agents. In the heart, increased workload (me-
chanical stretch), growth factors (transforming growth factor-beta and Insulin-like growth
factor-1) and a-adrenergic hormones activate signal transduction pathways (phos-
phoinositide-3-kinase/AKT pathway and downstream signalling of G-protein coupled
receptors), which in turn activate transcription factors like GATA4 (critical transcription
factor for proper mammalian cardiac development and essential for survival of the em-
bryo), NFAT (nuclear factor of activated T cells) and MEF 2 (myocyte enhancer 2). They
work together to increase synthesis of proteins responsible for cardiac hypertrophy.
Types
1. Physiological hypertrophy: This occurs due to increased functional demand and stimula-
tion by growth factors and hormones, eg, uterine enlargement in pregnancy and breast
hypertrophy during lactation.
2. Pathological hypertrophy:
(a) Hypertrophy of cardiac muscle in systemic hypertension and aortic valve stenosis
(chronic haemodynamic overload) leading to left ventricular hypertrophy (Fig. 1.3).
(b) Compensatory hypertrophy, which occurs when an organ or tissue is called upon to
do additional work or to perform the work of destroyed tissue or of a paired organ.
Atrophy
Definition
A decrease in size of a body organ, tissue or cell along with decreased function, owing to
disease, injury or lack of use.
Mechanism
Atrophy is the result of decreased protein synthesis or increased protein degradation.
Protein degradation is mediated by
• Lysosomal acid hydrolases, which degrade endocytosed proteins (taken up from
extracellular environment, cell surface as well as some cellular components).
• Ubiquitin-proteasome pathway, which causes degradation of many cytosolic and nuclear
proteins.
Left Hypertrophy
ventricle
Right
ventricle
FIGURE 1.4. Atrophic testis showing marked loss of germ cells within the tubules, with peri-
tubular and interstitial fibrosis and proliferation of interstitial cells of Leydig (H&E; 1003).
Types
1. Physiological atrophy: Common during early development, eg, atrophy of notochord or
thyroglossal duct during fetal development and uterus after parturition.
2. Pathological atrophy:
(a) Decreased workload due to immobilization and prolonged functional inactivity
leads to disuse atrophy.
(b) In denervation atrophy, there is loss of innervation of muscle which induces its
wasting, as in polio and motor neuron disease.
(c) Atherosclerosis can cause ischaemic atrophy.
(d) Nutritional deficiency, eg, marasmus and cancer cachexia are associated with the
use of skeletal muscle as a source of energy and lead to nutritional atrophy.
(e) Loss of endocrine stimulation after menopause induces atrophy of reproductive
organs.
(f) Senile atrophy is an ageing-associated cell loss which is typically seen in tissues
containing permanent cells, eg, brain and heart or testes (Fig. 1.4).
Metaplasia
Definition
Reversible change in which there is replacement of one adult/differentiated cell type (epi-
thelial or mesenchymal) by another adult/differentiated cell type.
Mechanism
Occurs owing to altered/aberrant differentiation of stem cells due to their reprogramming.
Examples
• Columnar to squamous metaplasia in respiratory tract, in response to chronic irritation
(cigarette smoking) and vitamin-A deficiency. Stones in excretory ducts of salivary
glands, pancreas and gall bladder may also result in squamous metaplasia. Squamous
metaplasia in cervix is usually associated with chronic infection (Fig. 1.5).
• Connective tissue metaplasia (formation of cartilage, bone or adipose tissue in tissues
that normally do not contain these elements), eg, bone formation in muscle (myositis
ossificans), which occurs after bone fracture.
Note: The factors that predispose to metaplasia, if persistent, may eventually lead to induc-
tion of cancer in metaplastic epithelium, eg, metaplasia from squamous to columnar
epithelium in Barrett’s oesophagus may progress to adenocarcinoma oesophagus.
8 SECTION I General Pathology
Squamous
metaplastic
lining
Endocervical
glands
FIGURE 1.5. Section from cervix showing squamous metaplasia of the endocervical mucosa
(H&E; 1003).
Q. Define dysplasia.
Ans. Dysplasia indicates disordered cellular development characterized by
• Loss of orientation of cells with respect to one another, eg, disorderly arrangement of
the cells from basal to surface layer as in stratified squamous epithelium (architectural
disorientation).
• Lack of uniformity of individual cells (cellular pleomorphism).
• Causes of dysplasia include diverse cellular insults, including physical, chemical and
biological.
• It is typically seen in epithelial cells and may be reversible (at least in its early stage).
More severe dysplasia is known to progress to carcinoma in situ and invasive carcinoma.
• Dysplastic cells are characterized by the following cellular features:
• Accelerated cell proliferation (increased mitoses);
• Nuclear abnormalities such as hyperchromasia (increased basophilia on staining with
haematoxylin) and pleomorphism (altered nuclear size and nuclear shape; Fig. 1.6);
• Increased nuclear-cytoplasmic ratio.
Intact basement
membrane
Stroma
FIGURE 1.6. Stratified squamous epithelium showing severe dysplastic changes (diffuse
atypia and loss of maturation) (H&E; 2003).
1 Cell Injury and Cell Death 9
Ischaemia
Decreased ATP
The morphological features of necrosis vary with its type. Changes common to most
types include
1. Cytoplasmic changes
• Increased eosinophilia of the cytoplasm, which is due to
• loss of normal cytoplasmic basophilia caused by the loss of RNA and
• denaturation of cytoplasmic proteins which then bind strongly to the dye eosin:
• Glassy homogenous cytoplasm due to loss of glycogen.
• Swelling and vacuolation of the cytoplasm (occurs after enzymatic digestion has
started).
• Cellular and organelle swelling may eventually lead to discontinuities in cell and
organelle membranes and ultimately rupture.
• Formation of myelin figures (phospholipid masses derived from damaged cell
membranes).
2. Nuclear changes
The changes in nucleus appear in one of the following three patterns:
• Nuclear shrinkage and increased basophilia (pyknosis)
• Nuclear fragmentation (karyorrhexis)
• Loss or fading of basophilia due to DNase activity (karyolysis)
Morphological patterns of necrosis include
1. Coagulative necrosis
• It is the most common pattern of necrosis and is caused by ischaemic injury resulting
in hypoxic death of cells in all tissues except the brain.
• There is preservation of the basic architectural outlines and type of tissue can be
recognized but cellular details are lost.
1 Cell Injury and Cell Death 13
Viable cardiac
myocytes
Infarcted
myocardium
FIGURE 1.7. Infarcted myocardium surrounded by viable cardiac myocytes (H&E; 1003).
• Cell injury leads to increasing intracellular acidosis, which denatures not only struc-
tural proteins but also enzymatic proteins, and so blocks the proteolysis of the cell,
thereby preventing loss of architecture of the tissue.
• On gross examination, the affected tissue is pale in colour and firm in texture.
• Microscopically, increased eosinophilia of the cytoplasm and decreased basophilia of
the nucleus are observed. Myocardial infarction is an excellent example in which
acidophilic, coagulated anucleate cells are seen (Fig. 1.7).
Mechanism of evolution of coagulative necrosis is shown in Flowchart 1.7.
Decreased pH
Full thickness
liquefactive
necrosis of the
bowel
Disintegrating
neutrophils/debris
3. Gangrenous necrosis
This is a clinical term, not a specific pattern of necrosis. It is usually used in context
of the lower limbs, which have lost their blood supply and have undergone necrosis,
initially coagulative (dry gangrene), and later liquefactive due to secondary bacterial
infection and immigrating leukocytes (wet gangrene) (Table 1.6).
Mechanism of evolution of gangrenous necrosis is shown in Flowchart 1.9.
4. Caseous necrosis
• This type of necrosis is typically associated with tuberculous infection.
• On gross examination, the necrotic areas appear cheesy white (caseous). Micro-
scopically, the debris appears amorphous, eosinophilic and granular (Fig. 1.9), and
is surrounded by a distinct inflammatory reaction called granulomatous reaction.
• Tissue architecture is completely obliterated unlike coagulative necrosis (Table 1.5).
Dystrophic calcification may be seen.
5. Enzymatic fat necrosis
• It refers to a focal area of fat destruction that converts adipocytes to necrotic cells
with shadowy outlines and basophilic calcium deposits, surrounded by an inflam-
matory reaction (Fig. 1.10).
• It is typically seen in acute pancreatitis and traumatic fat necrosis of breast.
Mechanism of evolution of enzymatic fat necrosis in acute pancreatitis is shown in Flowchart 1.10.
1 Cell Injury and Cell Death 15
Caseous necrosis
Dystrophic calcification
FIGURE 1.9. Section from a lymph node showing amorphous, eosinophilic and granular de-
bris (caseous necrosis) surrounded by a granulomatous reaction composed of Langhans giant
cells and chronic inflammatory cells (H&E; 1003).
FIGURE 1.10. Fat necrosis in the breast showing disruption of normal adipocytes and accumula-
tion of lipid-laden foamy histiocytes and a multinucleate giant cell (H&E; 2003).
Oli ollut kuuma päivä, ja aivan hikisenä olit joutunut veturiin. Siellä
oli värisyttänyt ja miltei paleltanut. Ja minkä näköiseksi olit tullut —
öljyiseksi ja nokiseksi käsistäsi ja vaatteistasi; oikeastaan teki mielesi
mennä suoraa päätä kylpemään. Mutta et sitäkään jaksanut.
Sinä iltana läksit pian levolle, sillä sinun piti nousta varhain
seuraavana aamuna.
33.
34.
— Minäpä tiedän, mitä sinä voisit oppia sitten kun tulet terveeksi.
Oppisit kutomaan verkkoja. Se tulisi olemaan sinulle sopivaa työtä
ensi syksynä.
Yötä päivää olin puolestasi rukoillut siitä hetkestä asti, jona sinut
vietiin kotoa. Viltteihin peitettynä oli sinut paareilla kannettu
puutarhan läpi ja sitten tietä pitkin pysäkille. Lehtolan asukkaat olivat
osaaottaen ikkunoistaan katselleet synkkää saattoa, ja Tapiolan
isäntä oli metsäpirtistään rientänyt sairasta saattamaan. Itse olit ollut
tyyni. Olin pannut sinisen harsoni kasvojesi yli, ettei tulisi tomua
sieramiisi, ja sinä olit harson alta seurannut molemmin puolin tietä
näkyviä peltojen lyhteitä.
Ja oli kuin olisit tahtonut minua siinä auttaa ja kuin olisin kuullut
iloisen äänesi lapsuutesi ajoilta, kun keinutuolissa istuen huudahdit:
Niin mutta kyllä teillä olisi ikävä, ellei minua olisi!
— Matkaani.
Et vastannut mitään.
35.
Kai hän oli oikeassa. Ja kaiketi olikin niin, että ihmisten sieluissa
tuikki valo ja että heistä itsestään riippui, pääsikö se valaisemaan
heidän silmäinsä ikkunoista elämän hämärään. Useimmat tuskin
ovat mistään niin varuillaan kuin siitä, ettei heidän sisäinen minänsä
millään tavoin pääse itseään ilmaisemaan. Luukut kiinni ja ovet
salpaan! Ja niinpä jääkin elämä monelle erämaaksi, jossa jokainen
astuu polkuansa muista paljoa tietämättä.
*****
36.
37.