All the notes have been updated to match the CIE IGCSE Biology (0610) syllabus

for examinations in 2020, 2021 and 2022.

 Movement an action by an organism causing a change of position or place

 Respiration the chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient molecules and release

energy

 Sensitivity the ability to detect and respond to changes in the environment

 Growth a permanent increase in size

 Reproduction the processes that make more of the same kind of organism

 Excretion the removal from organisms of toxic materials and substances in excess of

requirements

 Nutrition as taking in of materials for energy, growth and development.

Concept & Use of a Classification System

 Organisms can be classified into groups by the features that they share

 Classification systems aim to reflect evolutionary relationships (change of adaptive features

of a population over time, as a result of natural selection)

 Species: organisms which can reproduce successfully

 Classification is traditionally based on studies of morphology and anatomy

 Morphology: the overall form and shape of their bodies e.g. wings or legs

 Anatomy: the detailed body structure determined by dissection

 Binomial system: a system of naming species in which the scientific name of an organism

is made up of two parts showing the genus (starting with a capitol letter) and species (starting

with a lower-case letter), written in italics when printed (therefore underlined when written)

e.g. Homo sapiens

KING PHILIP CAME OVER FOR GOOD SPAGHETTI

 Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

 Kingdom --> Species = Similarity increases

 DNA is the chemical from which chromosomes are made

 Each DNA molecule is made up of strings of smaller molecules containing four bases

 Biologists compare the sequences of the bases in the DNA of organisms from two different

species

 The more similar the base sequence, the more closely related the species are to one another

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 Organisms which share a more recent ancestor have base sequences in DNA that are more

similar than those that share only a distant ancestor

 The sequences of bases in DNA and of amino acids in proteins are used as a more accurate

means of classification (cladistics)

The Five Kingdoms

 Animal: Multi-cellular ingestive heterotrophs (eat living organisms)

 Plant: Multi-cellular photosynthetic autotrophic (make their own food) organism with a

cellulose cell wall.

 Fungi: Single celled or multi cellular heterotrophic organism with cell wall not made of

cellulose, spread by spreading of spores in moist/dark/warm environment, saprotrophs

(feed off dead organisms) or parasites

 Prokaryotes: Single celled organism with no true nucleus

 Protocist: Single celled organism with a nucleus

Arthropods (Invertebrates with Legs)

CAMI

 Crustaceans: (e.g. crabs)

o Have an exoskeleton

o 1 pair of compound eyes

o 2 body segment – cephalothorax and abdomen

o More than four pairs of legs

o 2 pairs of antennae sensitive to touch and chemicals

 Arachnids: (e.g. spiders)

o 2 body segment – cephalothorax and abdomen

o Four pairs of legs

o Pair of chelicerae to hold prey

o Two pedipalps for reproduction

o Simple eyes

 Myriapods: (e.g. centipede)

o Segmented body

o Additional segments formed

o One pair of antennae

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 o 70+ pairs of legs – 1 or 2 pairs on each segment

o Fused head and thorax and segmented abdomen

o Simple eyes

 Insects: (e.g. bees)

o 3 body segments – head, thorax and abdomen

o 3 pairs of legs

o 1 pair of antennae

o 1 or 2 pairs of wings

o Compound and simple eyes

Viruses and Bacteria

Virus Bacteria

Covered by: Protein coat Cell wall

Cell membrane: No Yes

Cytoplasm: No Yes

Genetic DNA or RNA – only a few DNA – enough for several 100
material: genes genes

Living or not? Non-living unless in host Living

 Two examples of virus structure

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Characteristics and Classification of Living Organisms

Characteristics of Living Organisms

 Movement: action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change of position or

place

 Respiration: the chemical reactions that break down nutrient molecules in living cells to

release energy

 Sensitivity: ability to detect or sense changes in the environment (stimuli) and to make

responses

 Growth: permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in cell number or cell size

or both

 Reproduction: processes that make more of the same kind of organism

 Excretion: removal from organisms of toxic materials, the waste products of metabolism

(chemical reactions in cells including respiration) and substances in excess of requirements

Nutrition: taking in of nutrients which are organic substances and mineral ions, containing

raw materials or energy for growth and tissue repair, absorbing and assimilating them

Classifying Plants

 Ferns:

o Do not produce flowers

o They are plants with roots, stems and leaves

o Have leaves called fronds

o Reproduce by spores

 Flowering plants:

o They are plants with roots, stems and leaves

o Reproduce sexually by means of flowers and seeds

o Seeds are produced inside the ovary in the flower

Monocotyledons Dicotyledons

One cotyledon Two cotyledons

Parallel veins Veins netlike

Fibrous root Taproot present

Floral parts in 3s Floral parts in 4s or 5s

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Vertebrates

 Mammals

o Fur/hair on skin

o Can live on land and in water

o 4 legs

o Lungs to breathe

o Give birth to live young

 Reptiles:

o Scales on skin

o Usually 4 legs

o Lungs to breathe

o Hard eggs

 Fish:

o Wet scales

o External fertilization and soft eggs

o Gills to breathe

 Amphibians:

o Smooth, moist skin

o External fertilization and soft eggs

o Gills/lungs to breathe so can live on land and in water

o 4 legs

 Birds

o Feathers on body and scales on legs

o Have 2 legs and 2 wings

o Lungs to breathe

o Hard eggs

Organization of the Organism

Cell structure and Organization
 All living things are made of cells.

 All typical cells have:

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o Cell membrane: differentially or partially permeable to allow certain substances to enter

and leave the cell.

o Cytoplasm: where chemical reactions take place

o Nucleus: contains DNA and controls the cell

o Mitochondria: organelle where aerobic respiration happens

o Ribosome: makes protein and can be found floating within the cytoplasm

 A typical animal cell (e.g. the liver cell) has all above

 Only plant cells have:

o Vacuole: stores food & water & helps to maintain shape of cell

o Cell wall: rigid to keep shape of cell

o Chloroplasts: contain chlorophyll, which absorbs light energy for photosynthesis

 A typical plant cell (e.g. the palisade cell) has all the above things.

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Levels of Organization

Cell Function Adaptation(s) Diagram

Biconcave shape

Red blood No nucleus

Transport of oxygen
cell Flexible

Has haemoglobin

Long
Contracts to get
Muscle cell structures closer Many protein fibres in
together cytoplasm to shorten cell
when energy available

Move and push

Ciliated cell Tiny hairs called cilia
mucus

Absorb minerals and Elongated shape for more

Root hair cell
water surface area

No cytoplasm so water
passes freely

No cross walls so cells

connect to form tube
Transport water and
Xylem vessel
support plant

Lignin makes it strong and

waterproof

Regular shape so many can

fit in a small space

Palisade cell Photo-synthesizes

Many chloroplasts

 Organelle: a specialized part of a cell that has its own function, e.g. the nucleus

 Cell: the smallest part of a living structure that can operate as an independent unit e.g. red

blood cell

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 Tissue: a group of cells with similar structures, working together to perform a shared

function e.g. muscle tissue

 Organ: a structure made up of a group of tissues, working together to perform specific

functions e.g. heart

 Organ system: group of organs with related functions, working together to perform body

functions e.g. respiratory system

State that living organisms are made of cells

Living organisms are made of cells.

Describe and compare the structure of a plant cell with an animal cell, as seen under a

light microscope, limited to cell wall, nucleus, cytoplasm, chloroplasts, vacuoles and

location of the cell membrane

Study the diagram – it has everything you need to know regarding this point.

Nucleus: a double membraned organelle containing the cell’s DNA. DNA regulates the cell’s

activities, making the nucleus the ‘control centre’ of the cell.

The cell membrane is a double-layered membrane that surrounds the cell.

Cytoplasm is a clear, jelly-like substance.

Chloroplast is a cell organelle that is basically a double membranous structure (a structure

with two layers of membranes) containing chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is a green pigmented

structure that converts light energy into chemical potential energy – in other words, it uses

energy from the sun to create carbohydrates, which can later be chemically broken down to

release energy for the cell.

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Plant cells under light microscope:

This is an example of what you might see when you look at plant cells through a light

microscope. You can’t see the cell surface membrane and cell wall as separate structures

because they’re too close together for us to differentiate – you’ll need an electron microscope

for that (a much more powerful type of microscope) – but the line around the edges of each

cell is thicker because of the cell wall. The black dot in each cell is the nucleus. At some

resolutions, you can make out the vacuole (you know it’s a vacuole because you’ll see the

tonoplast. The tonoplast is the membrane of the vacuole.) The blackened cells in this image are

damaged cells.

The best way to know that it’s plant cells you are looking at is to observe the tight arrangement

of cells, the cell walls on the cells, and the regularity of their shape – animal cell shapes are

much more regular.

Note, plant cell walls are made of cellulose, a type of sugar.

Animal cells under light microscope:

Zoomed out, they look like that. Notice how irregular they are compared to plant cells.

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Zoomed in, though, it looks like this.

Note that while animal cells may possess small, temporary vacuoles, plant cells contain large,

permanent vacuoles.

State the functions of the structures seen under the light microscope in the plant cell

and in the animal cell.

Nucleus: this ‘organelle’ has two primary functions – it stores the cell’s genetic material (DNA)

and coordinates the cell’s processes, including growth, some reactions that occur in the cell,

protein synthesis, and reproduction (cell division).

Cytoplasm: a clear, jelly-like fluid that supports and suspends the cell organelles. It is the site

for many metabolic reactions (metabolic reactions are reactions that give off energy). Contains

dissolved nutrients and salts, is the site for many cellular processes such as protein synthesis,

etc.

Cell surface membrane: this is a double membrane that surrounds the cell. It separates the

contents of the cells from the surrounding environment. Cell surface membranes are also

semi-permeable – they only allow some substances through, allowing the cell to regulate what

goes in and out of the cell.

Cell wall: This is a cellulose layer that surrounds the plant cell. It gives the cell structure and

shape and prevents the plant cell from bursting when it absorbs a lot of water. It is fully

permeable.

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Chloroplasts: a cell organelle that is basically a double membranous structure (a structure

with two layers of membranes) containing chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is a green pigmented

structure that converts light energy into chemical potential energy – in other words, it uses

energy from the sun to create carbohydrates, that can later be chemically broken down to

release energy for the cell.

Vacuoles: Vacuoles act as a store for nutrients and waste matter, and keep their contents

separate from the cell cytoplasm. They also store water, and when they have lots of water, they

push outwards on the cell, providing support and helping the cell become rigid.

Relate the structure of the following to their functions:

 Ciliated cells – movement of mucus in the trachea and bronchi

 Root hair cells – absorption

 Palisade mesophyll cells – photosynthesis

 Red blood cells – transport of oxygen

 Sperm and egg cells – reproduction

Ciliated cells:

These cells line your trachea and bronchi in your airways .

They’re also found in the fallopian tubes and in the uterus

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 .

Goblet cells secrete mucus, trapping unwanted things like pathogens and pollutants. Then

come in the ciliated epithelium cells.

These cells have tiny hair-like structures that emerge from one side of the cell. These hair-like

structures, known as cilia, move back and forth simultaneously, like a wave, essentially beating

the mucus up and out of the respiratory tract into our throat, where we can swallow it into our

digestive system. Anything dangerous is then killed by the concentrated hydrochloric acid in

our stomach. If you’re having trouble visualising the movement of cilia, here’s a

video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=miEEluVlemQ

But yeah, the structure of ciliated cells (the cilia they possess) allow them to carry out their

function (moving mucus out of the respiratory tract).

Root hair cells:

These cells are found in the roots of plants. They are found in the outer layer of cells in plant

roots. Root hair cells have a long finger-like projection, which increases their surface area.

Greater surface area means more area for the absorption of water and ions, thus increasing

the rate of absorption.

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Palisade mesophyll cells:

The diagram shows a section of a leaf

and the cells that make it up.

The tall, cuboidal layer of cells near

the top is the palisade mesophyll

cells. These cells carry out most of the

photosynthesis in a leaf, which is why

they are so close to the top. Leaves in

a shady area may only have one layer

of palisade mesophyll but leaves that

absorb lots of light may have up to

five. Generally, though, when drawing a diagram, only draw one layer of palisade mesophyll

UNLESS you’re told otherwise/ copying a picture/ drawing what you see in a microscope.

Palisade mesophyll also have lots of chloroplasts, allowing them to increase their rate of

photosynthesis. They also have small, precise spaces between them to allow CO2 to diffuse in

(for photosynthesis) and are packed as tightly as they are so that more cells are exposed to the

sunlight, allowing more photosynthesis to occur. The regular shape of the cells allows more

cells to be packed together, so more cells have sunlight exposure, again increasing the rate of

photosynthesis.

Red blood cells:

Red blood cells or RBCs are found in the

blood. They contain millions of

haemoglobins, the pigment that makes

them red. Haemoglobin is a protein

structure that contains iron (haem means

iron), and oxygen binds to this iron. One

haemoglobin can carry up to four

molecules of oxygen. This makes RBCs

very good at carrying lots of oxygen.

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RBCs are very small (about 7 μm in diameter – that’s seven-thousandths of a millimetre),

allowing them to travel in the smallest blood capillaries so that they can be brought as close to

oxygen needy cells as possible.

RBCs also have a ‘biconcave disc shape’ – that’s the shape shown in the diagram. It means they

have a disc shape, except it dips inwards on both sides, increasing the surface area of the cell,

allowing oxygen to diffuse in faster.

They can also be ‘squished’ slightly (I think the proper way to say this is ‘they can be slightly

elastically deformed’) to travel through capillaries more easily.

Egg cells/ Ovum:

The ovum is a female sex cell. Its job

is to fuse with a male sex cell to form

a zygote that will eventually develop

into a full organism. Note: sex cells

are also known as gametes.

Ova (the plural of ovum) are

produced by the plants, animals,

fungi and protists that reproduce

sexually. E.g. in humans, the sex cells are ova and sperm, and in flowering plants, the sex cells

are ova and pollen.

Each species has a specific number of chromosomes in the nucleus of all their body (somatic)

cells. For humans, our body cells contain 46 chromosomes. Our chromosomes can also all be

paired up – meaning we can sort our chromosomes into two sets of 23. So, since our somatic

cells normally have two sets of chromosomes, our ‘ploidy number’ is 2n. In other words, we

have diploid cells (diploid is the word used to describe a nucleus with two sets of

chromosomes).

Our sex cells, however, only have one set of chromosomes – their ploidy number is 1n or n,

and they can be described as haploid cells. This means, in humans, sex cells only have 23

chromosomes each. This is important because when two sex cells fuse, the resulting zygote

should have the correct number of chromosomes. E.g. in humans, when an ovum is fertilised

by a sperm, and their nuclei fuse, the resulting zygote will have 46 chromosomes (23 from the

egg cell and 23 from the sperm). If sex cells did not have half the chromosomes of somatic cells,

14
then every time a zygote is made, they will have twice the chromosome number of their parent

organism, resulting in an entirely different organism altogether!

Fun fact: the ovum is the largest human cell – it’s the only one you can see with your naked eye

and is about the same size as the full stop at the end of this sentence. The main thing that

makes it so big is the layers of padding it has, all to protect the information contained in the

nucleus – the DNA.

Around the outside of the cell is a layer of different cells – the follicular cells. They form the

corona radiata (I don’t think you’ll have to learn this name for your exams). They provide

support and nourishment to the ovum.

Surrounding the ovum is the jelly coat (marked in the diagram as zona pellucida). This acts as

a barrier to sperm – once one sperm has burrowed its way through the zona pellucida and

successfully fertilised the egg, a chain of reactions are set off, which ultimately make the jelly

coat impermeable to any more sperm, stopping multiple sperm from fertilising the same egg.

The cytoplasm, also known as the yolk, contains nutrients to provide to the growing zygote,

once the egg cell is fertilised.

Note: In an exam, the most important parts you’ll need to remember in relation to the structure

and function of the ovum is what I’ve written about its chromosome number, its cytoplasm,

and its jelly coat.

Sperm cells:

These are the male gametes/ sex cells in humans. During sexual intercourse, they are

ejaculated, in a solution called semen, into the vagina. From there, they must swim all the way

through the cervix, through the uterus, and into the fallopian tube, where the ovum should be

located. There is, however, a catch – the ovum will only be there after the female has ovulated,

that is, released the ovum from the ovary. This happens about halfway through the menstrual

cycle (approximately 14 days before a

female menstruates/ goes on her

period).

This is a pretty long distance for such a

small cell, so it requires a number of

adaptations to fulfil its role in fertilising

an ovum:

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 It has a nucleus, which contains a haploid number of DNA, to contribute to the zygote upon

fertilisation.

 It has a tail (scientifically known as the

flagellum), to help it swim to the egg cell. Its tail

helps it swim by propelling it forward using a

whipping motion.

 The sperm also has a large, spiral

mitochondrion (an organelle that produces

energy for its cell, the plural is mitochondria). The spiral shape gives it a large surface area

to produce more energy, and its size allows it to produce more energy.

 It has a vesicle containing acrosomes in its head – these are digestive enzymes that will help

the sperm burrow its way through the jelly coat on the egg.

 It has a streamlined shape to help it swim with greater ease and speed.

 It is very small, meaning it needs less energy to swim.

I thought it might be helpful to watch the whole process of fertilisation in a video, so you can

really understand what it looks like. Follow the link if you’re

interested: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_5OvgQW6FG4

At the IGCSE level, though, you’ll only need to watch up until 4:07 (the part where the sperm

fuses with the egg) – the rest of the video deals with matter you’ll learn about in A level biology.

o Calculate the magnification and size of biological specimens using millimetres as

units.

I = AM

This is the formula connecting magnification, image size, and actual size.

In words, it is

Image size = Actual size x Magnification

That means

M = I/A

To calculate the magnification of an image, measure the length of a particular part of the image

and substitute this value for I. Then measure the actual length of the thing you measured in

the image and substitute this value for A. When calculating M, it doesn’t matter what units you

measure I and A in, as long as they are both the same unit. Then calculate M.

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e.g. If you measure the diameter of one of

those cells on the image to be 7mm, then

measure the actual diameter of the cell to

be 7μm, you need to first convert the

readings to the same unit.

So, you can either convert 7 mm to μm, by

multiplying into 1000 (there are 1,000 μm in 1 mm).

This gives you M = (7 x 1,000)/7 = 7,000/7 = 1,000

OR you can convert μm to mm – in this case, you’ll have to divide by 1000

This gives you M = 7/ (7/1,000) = 7/0.007 = 1,000

Both ways, you get a magnification of x1,000.

If you want to calculate the actual size of something using the image size and magnification,

however, you’ll need to rearrange the formula to make A the subject:

A = I/M

The syllabus is asking you to use millimetres as units, so when you measure the image size,

make sure you measure it in mm. Then substitute the respective values and calculate A.

For example:

In this situation, they’ve given you a line to measure the diameter of the RBC along, and a line

to figure out the magnification (the scale) of the image with (along the bottom).

First, calculate the magnification.

M = I/A

Your first step should be measuring the line at the bottom. Let’s imagine it measures 20 mm.

We know that if this image was shrunk down to meet the actual size of the cells in the image,

that line would only measure 3.5 μm, because 3.5 μm is written next to the line. This means

that the A of the line is 3.5 μm.

So, M = 20 mm/3.5 μm = (20 x 1,000) μm/3.5 μm = 20,000/3.5 = 5,710 (to three significant

figures)

We now have the Magnification of the image.

Next, we want to calculate the actual size of the RBC in the image.

So, measure the diameter along the diagonal white line. Let’s pretend this measures 40 mm.

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This means,

A = I/M = 40/5,710 = 0.0070 mm or 7.0 μm (to two significant figures)

o Define diffusion as the net movement of particles from a region of their higher

concentration to a region of their lower concentration down a concentration gradient,

as a result of their random movement.

Make sure to learn the above definition!

o Investigate the factors that influence diffusion, limited to surface area, temperature,

concentration gradients and diffusion distance.

Just to recap/ expand on the definition of diffusion, when particles diffuse, they move, often

across different barriers like cell membranes. I think it’s also important to note that in diffusion,

the end result is usually equilibrium (as long as nothing else interferes, preventing equilibrium

from happening). Equilibrium is a state in which all the particles are equally spread.

Surface area: the larger the surface area, the more space there is for particles to diffuse across,

increasing the rate of diffusion.

Temperature: higher temperatures give particles more energy, allowing them to move faster.

This increases the rate of diffusion.

Concentration gradients: A concentration gradient is a measure of the difference in

concentration of a certain particle between two different areas. The steeper the concentration

gradient, the greater the difference in concentrations. This means, more particles will move

from their region of higher concentration to their region of lower concentration to achieve

equilibrium, thereby increasing the rate of diffusion.

Diffusion distance: this is the distance that particles have to travel to achieve equilibrium. The

greater the diffusion distance, the more time it takes to achieve equilibrium, so the lower the

rate of diffusion.

o State that substances move into and out of cells by diffusion through the cell

membrane.

Many (not all) substances can diffuse freely across cell membranes, and thus, diffusion is their

main method of transport across cell membranes.

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4. State that water diffuses through partially permeable membranes by osmosis.

Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a semi-permeable membrane. Note that a semi-

permeable membrane is a membrane that only allows some substances through.

Imagine there are two aqueous solutions separated by a semi-permeable membrane, where

one has a higher solute concentration (so lower water concentration) and the other has a lower

solute concentration (so higher water concentration). The semi-permeable membrane blocks

the movement of the solute molecules – only water can pass freely through the membrane.

Therefore, water will diffuse across the membrane, until both solutions are of equal

concentration.

This process is osmosis.

Note that we don’t usually refer to it as ‘water concentration’ the term we use is usually ‘water

potential’.

5. State that water moves into and out of cells by osmosis through the cell membrane.

Since waters can move by osmosis across cell membranes, this is one of the main methods of

transport of water.

6. Define osmosis as the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water

potential (dilute solution) to a region of lower water potential (concentrated solution),

through a partially permeable membrane.

Learn the above definition, kiddos

7. Investigate and describe the effects on plant tissues of immersing them in solutions

of different concentrations.

Things you will need to know before we start:

Plant cells have cell walls – this is quite important when thinking about the effect of immersing

plant tissue in solutions of different concentrations.

Cells are primarily made of water (on average, about 70% of total cell mass is water).

Every cell cytoplasm has its own specific concentration of solutes, and this concentration is

usually pretty similar across the same type of tissue (e.g. palisade cells will have similar

concentrations of solutes in their cell cytoplasms), and that the pressure that water applies in

plants (i.e. the water pressure), is known as turgor pressure.

Turgidity is the state of being ‘turgid’ or swollen, especially due to high fluid content. Plants

need turgid cells to help them maintain their shape and in turn, help the plant stay upright.

19
Water is mainly stored in the vacuole in the cytoplasm, and it is mainly this vacuole that

regulates the turgidity of a plant cell.

Now, let’s move on to the main matter of this learning objective:

o When you immerse plant tissue in solutions of lower water potential (hypertonic solution)

than that of the plant cells:

Water diffuses out of the cell by osmosis. This means there is less matter inside the cell.

This causes the cytoplasm to shrink, and thus the cell membrane gets ripped away from the

cell wall. This process is called plasmolysis. Cells become weak and flaccid, as there isn’t

enough cytoplasm to support the cell and help it maintain its shape.

o When you immerse plant tissue in a solution of equal water potential to their cell cytoplasm

(isotonic solution).

Since the concentration of the solution is equal inside and outside of the plant cells, there is no

net movement of water. This means the volume or shape of the plant cell is unlikely to

change.

o When you immerse plant tissue in solutions of higher water potential than their cell

cytoplasm (hypotonic solution).

Here, the solution inside the cells is more concentrated than solution outside, so water diffuses

down its concentration gradient into the cell, by osmosis. This causes the amount of cell matter

inside the cell to increase. As the cytoplasm enlarges, it pushes outwards on the cell surface

membrane more and more. Normally, this would usually cause the cell surface membrane to

eventually burst (once the pressure, otherwise known as turgor pressure, in this case, grows

too large). However, plant cells have very strong cell walls. This holds the plant cell intact, and

as the cytoplasm pushes outside, the cell simply swells to its full size and becomes rigid. This

cell is turgid.

8. Explain the effects on plant tissues of immersing them in solutions of different

concentrations by using the terms turgid, turgor pressure, plasmolysis and flaccid.

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Explain the importance of water potential and osmosis in the uptake of water by plants

Water potential is the potential of water to leave a system.

This is affected by:

1. water pressure

2. the volume of the water relative to the volume of the system (e.g. a lot of water in a small

system will force water out of the system)

3. the concentration of the water

Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential (dilute

solution) to a region of lower water potential (concentrated solution), through a partially

permeable membrane.

In the uptake of water by plants, the soil around the plant must contain water that is more

dilute than the water in root hair cells. This allows water to diffuse in by osmosis (the water

outside the root hair cell will have a higher water potential than the water inside the root hair

cell).

10. Explain the importance of water potential and osmosis on animal cells and tissues.

Unlike plant cells, animal cells do not have a cell wall to support them.

So, if you insert them in a hypertonic solution, water will move out of the cell by osmosis,

causing the cell to shrivel up.

If you immerse them in an isotonic solution, there will be no net movement of water.

If you immerse them in a hypotonic solution, the water will diffuse into the animal cell by

osmosis. However, there is no cell wall to keep the cell intact, so the water pressure grows so

great that the cell bursts – it undergoes lysis.

1. List the chemical elements that make up:

 Carbohydrates

 Fats

 Proteins

21
All three biomolecules contain Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen.

Proteins also contain Nitrogen. Proteins sometimes contain Sulfur and Phosphorus too.

2. State that large molecules are made from smaller molecules, limited to:

 Starch and glycogen from glucose

 Proteins from amino acids

 Fats and oils from fatty acids and glycerol

Polymers are large molecules made from small, similar molecules (often referred to as

subunits).

In the case of carbohydrates, starch and glycogen are large polymer molecules made of

glucose.

Note: the simplest sugar is a glucose molecule (C6H12O6).

In the case of proteins, amino acids are the monomers.

Different amino acids bond together, to form chains known as peptides. The bonds between

these amino acids are known as peptide bonds. These peptides come together to form proteins

such as enzymes.

22
The most common type of fats and oils are triglycerides. A triglyceride is made up of three fatty

acid molecules bonded to a glycerol molecule. The bond between a fatty acid and a glycerol

molecule is known as an ester bond. Because the subunits in fats and oils aren’t all similar, they

aren’t known as polymers – they are not made of similar subunits (fatty acids and glycerol are

rather different, actually).

Fats are triglycerides that are solid at rtp (room temperature and pressure). Remember, rtp is

a temperature of 20oC and a pressure of 1 atm.

Oils are liquid at rtp.

3. Describe the use of:

 Iodine solution to test for starch

This test is super easy! All that needs to be done is adding a few drops of iodine to the test

solution/ test material. If it contains starch, the solution will turn blue-black, if not, it’ll remain

an orangey/ brown colour (the colour of iodine).

 Benedict’s solution to test for reducing sugars

To a known volume of test solution, you add

the equal volume of Benedict’s reagent/

solution. Give it a stir and look for any colour

changes. If none, try heating it in a warm

water bath (about 80oC), and look for any

colour changes. If there are no changes,

there are no reducing sugars present in the

solution.

23
Benedict’s reagent is blue in colour. If there are any sugars present, it’ll change from blue to

green, to yellow, to orange, to red (the fire colours). Green means that there are only traces of

reducing sugars and red means that the solution has a high concentration of reducing sugars.

Note: sucrose is not a reducing sugar.

 Biuret test for proteins

Biuret reagent is a mix of two chemicals – copper

sulfate (CuSO4) mixed with either sodium

hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide

(KOH).

The biuret test is done to show the presence of

peptide bonds. Remember, peptide bonds are

the bonds that link the amino acids together in a

protein. If peptide bonds are present, the blue

biuret reagent will turn mauve or purple.

To perform the test, simply add the biuret reagent to the test solution. (Note, if the test material

is solid and not liquid, crush it and mix it with distilled water, to form a solution). The volume

of biuret reagent you add should be the same as the volume of the test solution you add it to.

In some cases, you won’t get a ready mixed biuret reagent solution. In this case,

Measure out a known volume of test solution into a test tube. About 1cm3 should be enough.

Add the same volume of NaOH (or KOH) to the test tube and stir.

Add a few drops of CuSO4 solution, shaking after each drop.

After you have completed the test, observe the colour of the solution. If it’s mauve or purple,

there are peptide bonds in the solution, so there are probably proteins in the solution.

 Ethanol emulsion test for fats and oils

This test is pretty simple too! You add the test sample to a concentrated ethanol solution. You

put the resulting mixture into a test tube of distilled water, close it, and shake it around. If a

cloudy emulsion forms, fats are present; if not, there are no fats.

o State that water is important as a solvent

Water is extremely important as a solvent. All reactions in our body occur in water, our cells

are 70% water on average, substances are transported around our body after being dissolved

in water, etc. So water is essential for life.

24
Biological Molecules

 Carbohydrates: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen (CHO)

 Fats and oils: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen (CHO)

 Proteins: made from Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen and sometimes Sulfur (CHON{S})

Basic units (monomers) Larger molecules (macromolecules)

Simple sugars Starch and glycogen

Fatty acids and glycerol Fats and oils

Amino acids Proteins

Effect of Temperature on Enzymes

 Enzymes have an optimum temperature: the temperature at which they work best giving the

fastest reaction ≈ 37°C in animals

 When temperature increases, molecules move faster so collide with an enzyme in less time

 Having more energy makes them more likely to bind to active site.

 If temperature is too high, enzyme molecules vibrate too vigorously and enzyme is

denatured; it loses its shape and will no longer bind with a substrate.

 When the temperature is too low there is not enough kinetic energy for the reaction so it

reacts too slowly.

Graphs for Changes in Enzyme Activity

Effect of Temperature Effect of pH

25
Enzymes

 Catalyst: a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction and is not changed by the reaction

 Enzymes: proteins that function as biological catalysts

 Enzymes lowers amount of energy needed for reaction to take place

 Enzyme lowers the activation energy needed for reaction to take place

 Lock and key theory:

 Substrate: the molecule(s) before they are made to react

 Product: the molecule(s) that are made in a reaction

 Catabolic reaction: molecules are broken down

 Anabolic reaction: molecules are combined

Enzymes and their Uses

 Seeds to germinate: the enzymes turn insoluble food stores to soluble.

 Biological washing powders: enzymes are added to washing powders to help remove

stains for example:

o Lipase for lipids from fatty foods and greasy fingerprints

o Protease for proteins from blood stains

 Food industry:

o Isomerase converts glucose to fructose which is sweeter, so less is needed to give a sweet

taste

o Pectinase helps break down cell walls in fruit juice production so it increases yield, lowers

viscosity and reduces cloudiness

Effect of pH on Enzymes
 Enzymes are sensitive to pH

 Some enzymes work best in an acid and others in an alkaline

 Enzymes work best at their optimum pH

26
 If the pH is changed then the enzyme will denature and will no longer fit with substrate- no

reaction takes place

Define enzymes as proteins that function as biological catalysts

This learning objective is pretty easy

Just memorise the definition:

Enzymes are proteins that function as biological catalysts

o Explain enzyme action with reference to the complementary shape of the active

site of an enzyme and its substrate and the formation of a product

In a reaction, you generally have two types of chemicals: the reactants and the products.

The reactants react together to form the products.

In an enzymatic reaction (i.e. a reaction catalysed by an enzyme), the reactants are known as

‘substrates’.

Enzymes work on substrates to form products.

Enzymes have an ‘active site’ – this is the part of the enzyme that binds to the substrate. Every

enzyme’s active site is ‘specific’. This means that one particular active site can only bind to one

type of substrate.

There are a lot of theories that explain how enzymes work. One of the most important ones is

the lock and key mechanism. This is the mechanism you need to learn for your syllabus:

The shape of the active site is ‘complementary’ to its substrates – this means that the

substrate(s) fits into the enzyme in the same way a key fits into a lock. This complementary

nature is what makes the enzyme specific to a substrate.

27
So, in a reaction, the substrate will be randomly moving around. As a result of this random

motion, the substrate will collide with and bind to an enzyme that it is specific to. This results

in the formation of an enzyme-substrate complex. The enzyme then catalyses the reaction –

either breaking up a substrate (a catabolic reaction) or joining two substrates together (an

anabolic reaction).

It then releases the products, to make space for more substrates, so that the enzyme can

catalyse more reactions.

o Investigate and describe the effect of changes in temperature and pH on enzyme

activity

The temperature an enzyme works best at is its ‘optimum temperature’.

The pH an enzyme works best at is its ‘optimum pH’.

Most enzymes in our body have an optimum pH of 7, and an optimum temperature of 37oC,

because those are the conditions in most parts of our body, and our enzymes are well adapted

to function inside us.

One exception is pepsin. This enzyme is present in our stomach, and functions best in our

stomach’s acidic (HCl) conditions – pH2.

The general rule goes: the lower the temperature (when lower than optimum temperature),

the slower the enzyme works; the higher the temperature (when higher than optimum

temperature), the less the enzyme works.

The lower the pH (when lower than optimum), the less the enzyme functions; the higher the

pH (when higher than optimum), the less the enzyme works.

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o Explain the effect of changes in temperature on enzyme activity, in terms of kinetic

energy, shape and fit, frequency of effective collisions and denaturation

The kinetic energy of an object is that energy that it possesses due to its motion. The faster it

moves, the higher its kinetic energy.

Now, I’ve already explained that enzymes bind to their substrates due to the random motion

of the substrates. What I haven’t mentioned, though, is that everything in a reaction has kinetic

energy – the enzymes, the substrates, the products. So you have a lot of moving things. Because

there are so many things moving around in random directions, there will be a lot of random

collisions.

Generally, objects with kinetic energy move in a straight line, until they collide with something

else. Then, their kinetic energy changes so that they either change direction, speed, or stop

moving altogether.

This random motion of particles in a fluid resulting from their collision with other moving

particles in the fluid, is called ‘Brownian motion’.

Due to Brownian motion, enzymes and substrates will collide a lot. Sometimes, even when an

enzyme and substrate collide, it won’t bind (maybe because the substrate didn’t collide with

the active site of the enzyme, or the part of the substrate that is supposed to bind to the active

site didn’t collide to the active site, maybe they just bounced off of each other instead of

binding, etc.) A collision that does not result in the completion of the reaction is unsuccessful.

To create an enzyme-substrate complex, we need an effective collision.

Now for the main part of the explanation (refer to the enzyme activity-temperature graph

above as you read this explanation):

As you increase the temperature of a reaction, you are supplying the reaction with more

thermal energy.

As the particles absorb more thermal energy, they move faster, because this thermal energy

becomes converted into kinetic energy.

As the particles move faster, there are more collisions in a given amount of time.

As there are more collisions, there are a higher number of effective collisions in a given amount

of time (there is a higher frequency of effective collisions).

As there is a higher frequency of effective collisions, the enzymes catalyse more reactions in a

given period of time (the rate of reaction increases).

29
As the temperature rises, the enzymes continue to work faster in this way, up until the enzymes

are working as fast as they possibly can. Once enzymes achieve their maximum activity, they

are working at their optimum temperature.

If you increase the temperature even more than this, the atoms in the enzymes start to gain

too much kinetic energy to maintain the shape of the enzyme. They vibrate so vigorously that

they break the bonds holding them together, causing the active site of the enzyme to lose its

shape – the enzyme becomes denatured. So, what you need to put on your exam paper is,

when you increase the temperature to a value greater than the optimum temperature of the

enzyme, the enzyme becomes denatured. This causes the active site to lose its shape, so it can

no longer bind to its substrate. If it can’t bind to its substrate, the enzyme can’t function

anymore.

As the temperature increases beyond the optimum temperature, more enzymes become

denatured.

As more enzymes become denatured, less effective collisions can take place.

As less effective collisions take place, enzyme activity falls back down to 0.

o Explain the effect of changes in pH on enzyme activity in terms of shape and fit and

denaturation.

Refer to the enzyme activity-pH

graph above.

The lower the pH, the more acidic an

environment is.

The higher the pH, the more alkaline

an environment is.

Enzymes function best at their

optimum pH.

The further away the pH of the

environment is from the enzyme’s optimum pH, the more enzymes slow down and denature.

This causes the active site to lose its shape, so the substrate(s) can no longer fit into the active

site.

This causes enzyme activity to fall.

30
1. Define photosynthesis as the process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates

from raw materials using energy from light.

We have another definition to learn here! Simply memorise it:

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from raw materials

using energy from light.

2. State the word equation for photosynthesis: carbon dioxide + water –> glucose +

oxygen, in the presence of light and chlorophyll

Again, simply memorise this point!

3. State the balanced equation for photosynthesis

4. Explain that chlorophyll transfers light energy into chemical energy in molecules, for

the synthesis of carbohydrates

Photosynthesis is an energy-consuming process.

For plants to power this process, the energy from sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll and

converted into a form that plants can use – chemical energy. This chemical energy is what

fuels photosynthesis.

5. Outline the subsequent use and storage of the carbohydrates made in photosynthesis

Carbohydrates made during photosynthesis are used for:

 Energy from respiration can be used for a variety of things like

 Active transport

 Growth

 Reproduction

 Movement... etc.

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 Producing cellulose (a critical structural component in plant cell walls). Cellulose is a polymer

made of many glucose subunits. It provides plant cell walls with strength and rigidity – in

fact, about 50% of wood is cellulose. You would also need energy from respiration to help

power the synthesis of cellulose. Note: you might make cellulose because you’re trying to

thicken cell walls, make more cells, increase cell sizes, or repair damaged cell walls.

Other uses of glucose include:

 Converting it to sucrose, so that they can be transported to different parts of the plant

through the phloem. This is also part of the plant that can’t photosynthesise/ can’t

photosynthesise as much as other parts of the plant, receive enough carbohydrates. Some

parts of the plant may not be able to photosynthesise as they do not contain any chlorophyll,

e.g. flowers or roots. Another reason they may not be able to photosynthesis is that they do

not receive any sunlight, e.g. the roots.

 Making proteins: Glucose and nitrates are used to form amino acids, which can then be used

to create different proteins. Proteins are important: they are needed for:

 Making enzymes – enzymes catalyse almost all the metabolic processes in plants and

animals. Without enzymes, these reactions will not be able to occur at all, or will not happen

fast enough to sustain life. This makes enzymes extremely important.

 Making hormones – many hormones are made of proteins. Hormones regulate many

processes – e.g. it is a hormone that controls which direction a plant grows.

 Growth – proteins are used in many structural components of plants and plant cells. Without

proteins, it would be impossible to increase cell size/ increase the number of cells in a plant,

so a plant would not be able to grow.

 Cell and tissue repair – as proteins are an important structural component of plants, if a part

of a plant is damaged, it likely needs proteins to help fix it.

Carbohydrates are stored as:

 Starch – when in a plant, glucose is often converted to starch and then stored in plant cells.

Starch is a large polymer made of glucose subunits.

 Oils – glucose may be converted to an oil. Oils are very good at storing energy because they

have a lot of chemical bonds, so they can store a lot of chemical potential energy. This is

especially important in seeds – oils are a huge way of energy storage in seeds.

32
6. Investigate the necessity for chlorophyll, light and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis,

using appropriate controls

Chlorophyll:

Take a potted plant with variegated leaves (leaves that have both green and white patches, and

de-starch the plant by keeping it in complete darkness for two days (about 48 hours).

Place it in sunlight for a few days, so that it can form some new starch. Finally, perform the

starch test on one of the leaves (add a few drops of iodine to the leaf.)

The green parts (i.e. the parts with chlorophyll) will turn blue-black, and the white parts will be

orange-brown. This shows that starch is only formed where chlorophyll is present. Hence,

photosynthesis can only occur in the presence of chlorophyll.

Light:

Destarch a plant.

Cut out a strip of opaque black paper and

clip it a section of one of the leaves.

Leave the plant in sunlight for a few days.

Perform the starch test and observe.

The areas that turn blue-black (and hence

contain starch) are the areas exposed to

sunlight, and the orange-brown area was

the section covered by paper. This shows

that light is necessary for photosynthesis.

Carbon dioxide:

Destarch two potted plants.

Cover both plants in transparent plastic bags; place a petri dish of sodium hydrogen carbonate

in one, and a petri dish of soda lime in the other (as shown in the diagram). Sodium hydrogen

carbonate gives off carbon dioxide, and soda lime absorbs carbon dioxide from the air.

Leave these two plants in sunlight for a day (at least 6 hours). Perform the starch test on a leaf

from each plant.

33
You will find that the leaf from the plant with sodium hydrogen carbonate turns blue-black, and

the leaf from the plant with soda lime turns orange-brown. This shows that carbon dioxide is

necessary for photosynthesis.

7. Investigate and describe the effect of varying light intensity and temperature on

the rate of photosynthesis (e.g. in submerged aquatic plants)

This experiment is a little bit more complicated, so I’ll write out the full procedure

Apparatus

 Lamp

 Metre rule

 Stopwatch

 Timer

 Gas syringe (not necessary)

 400cm3 beaker

 Thermometer

 Test tube containing dilute sodium hydrogen carbonate solution

 An aquatic plant, e.g. Canadian pondweed

Method

1. Cut the stem of a pondweed that has been well illuminated and is hence, producing bubbles.

Place the stem upside down in the test tube. Place the test tube in a beaker of water (this

water prevents the temperature varying too much – water has a high specific heat capacity),

and note the temperature. This temperature should be checked at regular intervals to make

sure that it remains constant – add hot water to increase the temperature and cold water to

lower it.

2. Attach the gas syringe, if you have one.

3. Place the set up in a dark room; if you don’t have one, darken the room as much as possible

(turn off all the lights, draw any curtains and blinds, etc.) and place a lamp 10cm away from

the beaker.

4. Allow the plant to adjust to the light intensity – this is apparent when the plant produces

bubbles at a constant rate. If you have a gas syringe, attach the tube over the opening of the

test tube, and measure the volume of gas produced over five minutes. Otherwise, simply

34
 count the number of bubbles produced over 5 minutes, and divide by 5 (to gain the bubbles/

min)

5. Repeat steps 3 and 4, changing the distance between the lamp and beaker each time. Use

regular intervals, e.g. 10cm, 20cm, 30cm, 40cm, 50cm and 60cm. Record your results. Light

intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance, so doubling the distance

quarters the intensity.

6. Plot a graph of your recorded values.

You should find that, as the distance increases, the volume of gas collected/ number of bubbles

produced per minute falls. As the process of photosynthesis gives off oxygen gas, we can

infer that the more gas is given off, the more photosynthesis is occurring.

So, this shows that the rate of photosynthesis falls with falling light intensity. We can rewrite

this statement to show that the rate of photosynthesis increases with increasing light

intensity.

However, after a certain point, as the light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis will

no longer increase; as it has reached a maximum

To measure the effect of temperature on photosynthesis, you can use the same experimental

setup. Except this time, instead of changing the light intensity, you change the temperature

of the warm water bath that the test tube with the plant is in.

Now to explain the results:

In the region (a), you will notice that as you increase the temperature, the amount of gas

collected increases. So the rate of photosynthesis increases. This continues until

photosynthesis reaches its maximum rate – the graph flattens out. This is section (b)

The temperature at (b) is the optimum temperature for photosynthesis.

After (b), as you continue to increase the temperature, the rate of photosynthesis dramatically

falls. This is because the enzymes and proteins involved in photosynthesis start to denature,

so they can no longer function. This region of the graph is (c).

8. Identify the chloroplasts, cuticle, guard cells and stomata, upper and lower epidermis,

palisade mesophyll, spongy mesophyll, vascular bundles, xylem and phloem in leaves

of a dicotyledonous plant

35
Structure of a dicot leaf:

9. Describe the significance of the features of a leaf in term of functions, to include:

 Palisade mesophyll and distribution of chloroplasts – photosynthesis

 Stomata, spongy mesophyll and guard cells – gas exchange

 Xylem for transport and support

 Phloem for transport

It is mostly the mesophyll cells that contain chloroplast. Of these mesophyll cells, the palisade

mesophyll cells contain the most chloroplast. Therefore, these are the cells they perform the

most photosynthesis. Also, note that the palisade cells are closer to the top of the cells, and so

receive more sunlight than the spongy mesophyll. Palisade mesophyll cells are also packed

tightly together, so as many cells as possible can receive a high amount of sunlight.

Guard cells are the two cells surrounding a stoma. It is the gap between to guard cells that form

a stoma (the plural of stoma is stomata). Guard cells control whether the stoma is open or

close.

Stomata are present to allow gases to diffuse into and out of the leaf. Stomata are mostly

present on the lower epidermis of a leaf; however, all plant surfaces that are exposed to the

air have stomata. The leaf has the most, as this is where photosynthesis occurs, so plenty of

carbon dioxide is required from the air. Of this, the underside has more, so that the rate of

water loss (due to transpiration) won’t be as high.

Remember, carbon dioxide and water are needed for photosynthesis. When the availability of

water is extremely low, guard cells become flaccid (less stiff), so they close. This prevents

carbon dioxide from diffusing in through the stoma, halting photosynthesis. This stops the

plant cells from using up too much of what little water is left.

When water is freely available, the guard cells are turgid, forcing them apart and allowing the

stoma to open. This allows carbon dioxide to diffuse in, allowing photosynthesis to occur.

The spongy mesophyll is named ‘spongy’ because there are many intercellular air spaces

between the mesophyll cells in this layer, giving the layer a spongy texture. These air gaps allow

gases to diffuse all around the leaf – so the mesophyll cells (especially the palisade mesophyll)

can receive plenty of carbon dioxide. The intercellular air spaces in spongy mesophyll also

make it easier for gases the diffuse in from the stoma and reach the other leaf cells. The air

spaces also make it easier for gases from other leaf cells to diffuse and find their way out

through the stoma.

36
When plants photosynthesis, they require CO2. This diffuses in through the stomata, through

intercellular airspaces present between the spongy mesophyll, and into the photosynthesising

cells.

Now, as for the vascular bundles: these contain the xylem and phloem, usually encased in an

endodermis which can be one to several cells thick. In a dicot leaf, the xylem is typically present

above the phloem.

Xylem vessels are long continuous tubes made up of dead cells that transport water and

mineral ions from the root to different parts of the plant.

Water in the soil first diffuses into a root hair (the long finger-like process on a root hair cell),

by osmosis. It then diffuses across the root cortex and into the xylem. Note: the root cortex is

made up of the cells under the epidermis (the outer layer of cells of the root) and outside the

xylem.

Xylem vessels are very strong as they have a woody material called lignin deposited in their cell

walls. Therefore, they also act as structural support for the plant.

Phloem vessels transport assimilates (substances made by the plant itself) from a source (a

place where these assimilates are produced, e.g. a leaf) to a sink (a place where assimilates are

used or stored, e.g. the stem, root).

10. Describe the importance of:

 Nitrate ions for making amino acids

Proteins are made up of amino acids. Each amino acid has at least one amine group (-NH2), and

plants get the nitrogen for this amino acid synthesis from nitrate ions. Protein synthesis is vital

for plants to stay alive – proteins make up enzymes, hormones, are used for growth and repair,

etc.

 Magnesium ions for making chlorophyll

Magnesium forms the central ion in a chlorophyll molecule. Chlorophyll is essential for

photosynthesis.

11. Explain the effects of nitrate ion and magnesium ion deficiency on plant growth

Nitrate ions are required to make proteins. Growth involves cell division or just a general

increase in cell size. This means more proteins! So a deficiency of nitrate ions will result in

stunted plant growth. It also causes leaves to turn yellow.

37
Less magnesium means less chlorophyll, which in turn means less photosynthesis. This means

that the plant won’t have enough energy for growth.

1. State what is meant by the term balanced diet for humans

A balanced diet is a diet consisting of the right proportions of every type of nutrient

(carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, etc.) in suitably sized portions.

A balanced diet should contain carbohydrate, fat, protein, fibre, vitamins, minerals and water.

Note that fibre cannot be digested; it is used to form ‘roughage’ in the intestines, so the

intestine walls have something to push against when moving the fool along the alimentary

canal.

A balanced diet for different people is slightly different because our energy and nutrient

requirements vary from person to person.

List the principal sources of, and describe the dietary importance of:

 Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates can be found in almost any food, but are present in large quantities in staple

foods such as rice, potatoes, wheat, cereal, bread, etc.

They are our primary source of energy – they are broken down to release energy in respiration.

 Fats

Fats are found in oil, butter, margarine, the white stuff on animal meat, etc.

Fats insulate the body, helping reduce fluctuations in our body temperature.

They are also a good store of energy – fats have a higher chemical potential energy per gram

than carbohydrates, so they can store more energy in the same space. Often, excess

carbohydrates are converted into fats for storage. When we don’t have enough carbohydrates

for respiration, we can break down and respire fats, too.

 Proteins

Proteins are found in meats, such as chicken, beef, fish, etc. It is also found in vegetables such

as lentils and beans.

Proteins form our muscles, enzymes, skin, hair, etc.

 Vitamins, limited to C and D

Vitamin C is found in many fresh fruits, especially citrus fruits, e.g. oranges, lemons, peppers,

etc. It is also found in dark leafy greens.

38
Vitamin C is required for the development and maintenance of scar tissue, blood vessels and

cartilage. It’s needed to make ATP (your source of energy), too. Vitamin C contributes to healthy

teeth and gums as well.

Most of the vitamin D in our body is formed under our skin as a reaction to sunlight. Food

sources include oily fish (e.g. salmon, sardines and mackerel), eggs, fortified fat spreads,

fortified breakfast cereals, and some powdered milks.

Vitamin C is equally important to the maintenance of bone health as calcium because it

regulates the flow of calcium into the bloodstream. This is done by promoting the absorption

of calcium from food.

 Mineral salts, limited to calcium and iron

Calcium is found in so many foods! Dairy foods such as milk, cheese and yoghurt contain it;

greens like kale, broccoli and Chinese cabbage are good vegetable sources; fish with bones soft

enough to eat, such as sardines and salmon; most grainy food, like bread or rice; etc.

Almost all calcium is stored in bones and teeth, where it supports their structure and hardness.

Calcium is required for muscles to move and for nerves to carry messages between the brain

and every body part. It’s also used to help blood vessels move blood through the body and to

help release hormones and enzymes (almost every function in the body is regulated by

hormones and enzymes).

Iron can be found in liver, meat, beans, nuts, dried fruit, whole grains (e.g. brown rice), fortified

breakfast cereals, clams, oysters, shrimps and dark green leafy vegetables.

Iron is primarily needed to form the haemoglobin in RBCs. It also plays an essential role in the

process of respiration (the actual complete process of respiration is much more complicated

than the simple equation you have to learn about in IGCSE… not to worry, you can suffer

through that in A levels :p)

 Fibre (roughage)

There are two types of fibre: soluble and insoluble. In IGCSE, you should only have to learn

about insoluble fibres. These fibres can not be digested. It basically adds bulk and ‘roughage’

to your food so that your intestines can push it along your alimentary canal. Insoluble fibre

keeps your bowels healthy and helps prevent digestive problems.

Insoluble fibre sources include wholemeal bread, bran, cereals, nuts and seeds (other than

golden linseeds).

39
 Water

Water is usually present in varying amounts in food, but that’s not nearly enough for our body.

Water can be drawn from wells, taken from springs, rivers, and other freshwater sources (salty

seawater isn’t very good drinking water), but hopefully, you live in a house with running tap

water.

Every cell in our body is made of and surrounded by water (unless they’re dead. Then maybe

not.) – and as a whole, we are approximately 70% water. Every reaction in our body (respiration,

digestion, growth, etc.) occurs in water. Hormones and other substances are dissolved in water;

most of your blood is made of plasma (which is 92% water), gas exchange is possible because

the gas exchange surface area moistened using water, etc. Basically, water, to us, is the ‘Elixir

of Life’.

1. Explain how age, gender and activity affect the dietary needs of humans including

during pregnancy and while breast feeding

The amount of energy need is provided mainly by our carbohydrate and fat intake.

Growth in general also requires structures that are used for manufacturing cells like proteins,

calcium, vitamin D, iron, etc.

In general, our energy demand increases until we stop growing (the bigger we are, the more of

us there is to fuel).

While children are growing, they need more protein per kilogram of body weight than adults

do. This means teenagers need more proteins and energy altogether than adults.

Generally, males use up more energy than females, too.

However, this varies significantly according to body type and activity – some body types have a

higher metabolism, so they require more energy.

Pregnant females require a lot of protein, iron, vitamin D, calcium, too, because they are

growing a foetus. However, women who are already eating a healthy diet do not need to

increase their food intake when pregnant. Breastfeeding women need a lot of water. Note:

breastfeeding women may also be referred to as lactating women. Lactating means producing

milk.

People who lead a more active lifestyle or work manual labour jobs will require more energy –

so they will have higher carbohydrate and fat requirements.

40
1. Describe the effects of malnutrition in relation to starvation, constipation,

coronary heart disease, obesity and scurvy

Malnutrition occurs when you don’t have a balanced diet. The definition I found online states

that malnutrition is “lack of proper nutrition, caused by not having enough to eat, not eating

enough of the right things, or being unable to use the food that one does eat.” (You don’t have

to learn this definition!)

Starvation is caused by consuming too little food (maybe due to lack of food supply or a mental

disorder causing an intense fear of gaining weight). This leads to acute weight loss, organ

damage and in severe cases, death.

Constipation is when you are unable to defecate – which can be extremely painful. This is

caused by a lack of fibre – your intestines won’t have anything to push on to move the food

along the alimentary canal if there’s no fibre.

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is when cholesterol sticks to the walls of your arteries.

Sometimes, this even forms blood clots. This cuts off or limits the supply of blood that your

heart muscles receive, leading to a heart attack. This arises from consuming too many

saturated fats.

Obesity arises from consuming too much food. This can lead to several diseases such as

diabetes, strokes, difficulty breathing, etc.

Scurvy is a disease resulting from a lack of vitamin C (also known as ascorbic acid). It is very

rare because it is pretty difficult to get scurvy – your diet has to be that bad. Early symptoms

include weakness, feeling tired and sore arms and legs. Without treatment, you may have less

red blood cells, gum disease, thinning hair, and bleeding from the skin. Since vitamin C is found

in most fresh fruit and vegetables, especially citrus fruit like oranges and lemons, simply eat

these fruit and vegetables to treat scurvy.

1. Explain the causes and effects of vitamin D and iron deficiencies

One cause of vitamin D deficiency is a poor diet. If you don’t have enough vitamin D in your

diet, you won’t ingest enough vitamin D. Lack of exposure to sunlight could also result in a

vitamin D deficiency.

41
Vitamin D deficiency symptoms include bone pain and muscle weakness and rickets (a disease

where the bone tissue doesn’t properly mineralize, leading to soft bones and skeletal

deformities).

Iron deficiency could be due to a poor diet – you’re not eating enough iron-rich foods. Pregnant

women need more iron than the rest of us, so are at a higher risk of iron deficiency.

Inflammatory bowel disease can cause iron deficiency, and high blood loss through heavy

periods or bleeding can also cause iron deficiency.

Iron deficiency is the leading cause of anaemia (a condition where there is a deficiency in RBCs

or haemoglobin in the blood). As a result of the anaemia, and the iron deficiency itself, you may

experience fatigue, decreased work and school performance, slow cognitive and social

development in childhood, difficulty in regulating body temperature, decreased immune

function and glossitis (an inflamed tongue).

1. Explain the causes and effects of protein-energy malnutrition, e.g. kwashiorkor

and marasmus

Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) is a common childhood disorder. PEM is principally caused

by lack of energy, protein and micronutrients, and is mostly seen in communities that have

limited access to food. Drinking too much alcohol can also lead to PEM.

A child with PEM may be underweight, stunting (they have difficulty growing in height), wasting

(unintended weight loss leading to weakness), kwashiorkor, and/or marasmus.

Kwashiorkor:

This occurs in people with severe protein deficiency. Kwashiorkor typically develops in children

that are older than the children who develop marasmus. Having a mainly carbohydrate-based

diet can lead to kwashiorkor.

Early Kwashiorkor symptoms include fatigue, irritability and lethargy. As the person continues

to be deprived of protein, they may develop oedema (a puffy, swollen appearance due to fluid

build-up in different parts of the body – there is often oedema in the legs of children with

kwashiorkor), a bulging abdomen, an inability to grow or gain weight, and decreased immunity.

Marasmus:

42
This occurs more commonly in young children and babies. It leads to dehydration and weight

loss. Marasmus is a form of wasting. Marasmus symptoms include weight loss, stunting,

dehydration, chronic diarrhoea, and stomach shrinkage.

1. Define ingestion as the taking of substances, e.g. food and drink, into the body

through the mouth

Learn the definition, guys!

Ingestion is the taking of substances, e.g. food and drink, into the body through the mouth

2. Define digestion as the breakdown of large, insoluble food molecules into small,

water-soluble molecules using mechanical and chemical processes

Seriously, just memorise these definitions for the exam – it’s an easy way to rack up those

marks.

3. Define mechanical digestion as the break down of food into smaller pieces without

chemical change to the food molecules

Look, yet another definition to learn!

4. Define chemical digestion as the break down of large, insoluble molecules into

small, soluble molecules

You guys should know the drill by now.

5. Define absorption as movement of digested food molecules through the wall of the

intestine into the blood

Learn the definition, my dudes.

6. Define assimilation as the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of

the body where they are used, becoming part of the cells

Guess what you need to do!

That’s right – memorise the definition

7. Define egestion as passing out of food that has not been digested, as faeces,

through the anus

I’m not even going to say anything at this point

8. Identify the main regions of the alimentary canal and associated organs, including

mouth, salivary glands, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, pancreas, liver, gall

bladder, large intestine and anus

43
Food passes through the alimentary canal using the following route:

1. Mouth

2. Oesophagus

3. Stomach

4. Small intestine (here, most of your nutrients and water are absorbed into your body)

5. Large intestine (here, some nutrients and water are absorbed into your body)

6. Anus

The organs listed above make up your alimentary canal.

Note: the alimentary canal is called a ‘canal’ because it is essentially one long canal that starts

at your mouth and ends at your anus.

Note: your small intestine is made up of three parts. The ‘C’ shaped curve immediately after

the stomach is the first part of your small intestine. It’s called the duodenum. After the

duodenum is the jejunum, followed by the ileum. The jejunum and ileum don’t look significantly

different. You don’t strictly need to know this, it’s just useful to know.

Food enters your body via the mouth, and leaves the body via the anus.

Now, for the associated organs:

Your salivary glands empty into your mouth using ducts.

The liver produces bile, a substance that is important for digestion. The bile is emptied into the

gall bladder, where it is stored.

The pancreas and gall bladder both empty into the duodenum.

9. Describe the functions of the regions of the alimentary canal listed above, in

relation to ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion of food

Mouth:

The mouth contains saliva, which is secreted from the salivary glands. Saliva contains salivary

amylase – an enzyme that breaks down carbohydrates (chemical digestion). The mouth also

contains teeth, that cut, chew and grind food (mechanical digestion). Food is formed into a

bolus, which is then swallowed.

The mouth is used for ingestion, as well as both mechanical and chemical digestion.

Since the salivary glands use nutrients to produce saliva, this can be considered a site of

assimilation.

Oesophagus:

44
The swallowing of food causes it to move from the mouth to the stomach through the

oesophagus, by peristalsis.

I found a nice definition of peristalsis online, which I’ll put here:

the involuntary constriction and relaxation of the muscles of the intestine or another canal, creating

wave-like movements which push the contents of the canal forward.

Stomach:

The stomach is an organ containing gastric juices (mainly hydrochloric acid and protease

enzymes). The acidity (pH2) kills bacteria and the proteases digest proteins. The stomach also

churns the food in it. It releases small amounts of food at a time into the duodenum, storing

the rest.

Mechanical and chemical digestion occurs in the stomach.

Pancreas:

Secretes pancreatic juices to the duodenum.

As the pancreas uses nutrient molecules to do this, this can be considered a site of assimilation.

Gall bladder:

Stores bile which is produced by the liver, and secretes it to the duodenum.

Small Intestine:

The Pancreas and the gall bladder are connected to the duodenum by ducts. Pancreatic juices

and bile (stored in gall bladder) are transported to the small intestine via these ducts.

Pancreatic juices contain proteases, lipases (fat-digesting enzymes), amylases and sodium

hydrogencarbonate (which neutralises the acid from the stomach).

Bile, produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder, contains bile acids, also known as bile

salts – which emulsify fats. Bile is also alkaline, which helps neutralise stomach acids.

The epithelial lining of the rest of the small intestine secretes yet more enzymes which

breakdown maltose and peptides. The jejunum and ileum have a huge surface area due to the

villi present, allowing a greater amount to be absorbed at a time.

The small intestine is a site of both chemical digestion and absorption.

The large intestine:

The main function of most of the large intestine is to reabsorb the water from the undigested

food.

The last part of the large intestine, called the rectum, stores faeces until it is egested.

45
Anus:

The anus is the site of egestion – it has sphincter muscles that control when faeces is egested

from the body.

1. Identify the types of human teeth (incisors, canines, premolars and molars)

The following diagram has everything you need to know:

The above diagram has more detail than you need to know – just learn where the incisors,

canines, premolars and molars are, and what they look like.

Note: the bottom edge of incisors are usually flat, while the bottom edge of canines are pointy.

2. Describe the structure of human teeth, limited to enamel, dentine, pulp, nerves and

cement, as well as the gums

Enamel: Hard outer layer of the crown. The hardest substance in the body.

Dentine: not as hard as enamel. It forms the bulk of the tooth. If there are gaps in the enamel

that expose the dentine to the outside, or enamel is very thin, your teeth will be sensitive.

Pulp: soft tissue, contains blood capillaries and nerve supply to the tooth.

Cementum: also known as cement. The layer of bone-like tissue covering the root. Not as hard

as enamel.

Gums: soft tissue that immediately surrounds the teeth and bone. Protects the bone and roots

of the teeth, provides an easily lubricated surface.

3. Describe the functions of the types of human teeth in mechanical digestion of food

Incisors are sharp and are used for cutting food into small chewable pieces.

Canines are at corners, and are even sharper – they’re also used to bite into and tear food.

Premolars: These have a flat surface, and are used to chew and grind food.

Molars serve the same purpose as premolars and also have flat surfaces.

4. Describe the proper care of teeth in terms of diet and regular brushing

Brush your teeth twice a day with fluoride toothpaste and floss your teeth daily – fluoride helps

protect your teeth, and brushing and flossing your teeth prevents the build-up of food particles

and plaque.

Visit your dentist at least once every 6 months.

Eat a well-balanced diet – eating food with high sugar and carbohydrate content can cause

dental decay.

46
Don’t smoke – smoking or using spit (smokeless) tobacco can lead to dental decay.

Eating calcium and vitamin C rich foods can also promote the health of your teeth – Vitamin C

increases the absorption of calcium, and calcium strengthens your teeth. Vitamin C also keeps

your gums strong – lack of vitamin C can lead to weak gums, which can cause your teeth to

come loose, your gums to bleed, etc.

5. State the causes of dental decay in terms of a coating of bacteria and food on teeth,

the bacteria respiring sugars in the food, producing acid which dissolves the enamel and

dentine.

Bacteria tend to colonise around any leftover food particles in your teeth. They respire the

sugars in the food and produce an acid as a result of that respiration. This acid dissolves your

enamel, forming small holes called cavities. Once those holes grow deep enough to reach your

dentine, the acid dissolves the dentine too.

These cavities bring the outside of the tooth closer to the nerves in the pulp. The acid irritates

the nerve endings on those nerves, causing a toothache.

Eventually, the bacteria will get into the pulp cavity and create a painful abscess in the root.

Often, the only way to treat the abscess is to pull out the tooth. To prevent the cavity from

progressing this far, dentists must clean and fill the cavity.

Eating high sugar foods (like cake, biscuit, drinking fizzy drinks, etc.), especially at frequent

intervals, will increase the likelihood of dental decay – so eat sugary foods less often.

Poor teeth brushing habits, like forgetting to brush your teeth twice a day or brushing your

teeth with bad technique means that sugar particles may be left in your teeth. This again

increases the likelihood of dental decay. Note: brushing your teeth is more important in

preventing gum disease than removing bacteria – it doesn’t do much in the way of eliminating

bacteria. However, the fluoride in fluoride toothpaste kills bacteria and increases the resistance

of your teeth to dental decay.

Flossing also helps remove food particles from between your teeth and helps protect against

gum disease.

Having a check-up with your dentist every six months means that any dental issues can get

treated at an early stage.

6. State the significance of chemical digestion in the alimentary canal in producing

small, soluble molecules that can be absorbed.

47
Food molecules must be small soluble to be absorbed.

Ultimately, it is mainly the chemical properties of a molecule that determine whether or not it

is water-soluble. Mechanical digestion can help break up large clumps of food but does not

alter the chemical structure of the food. Chemical digestion, however, breaks up large food

molecules like fats and starch, into smaller food molecules like fatty acids, glycerol, sugars, etc.

It converts large insoluble molecules into small, soluble molecules that can be absorbed, using

enzymes.

7. State the functions of enzymes as follows:

 Amylase breaks down starch to simpler sugars

Amylase is an enzyme that breaks up the bonds between the sugar monomers in starch. As a

result, you get simpler sugars like glucose.

 Protease breaks down protein to amino acids

Protease enzymes break the ‘peptide bonds’ that hold amino acids together. This gives you

smaller peptides and amino acids.

 Lipase breaks down fats to fatty acids and glycerol

Lipase breaks down the ‘ester bonds’ holding the fatty acids and glycerol in a fat molecule

together. Note: most fats are triglycerides (glycerol bonded to three fatty acids), so may also be

referred to as a triglyceride.

8. State where, in the alimentary canal, amylase, protease and lipase are secreted.

Amylase: from salivary glands into the mouth, and from the pancreas into the duodenum.

Protease: the stomach and the pancreas.

Lipase:

The pancreas

9. State the functions of the hydrochloric acid in gastric juice, limited to killing bacteria

in food and giving an acid pH for enzymes

Hydrochloric acid makes the stomach contents very acidic. This kills any bacteria that manage

to enter the stomach.

The low pH maintained by hydrochloric acid is also the optimum pH of the protease enzyme.

This means the enzyme can efficiently break down proteins.

10. Explain the functions of the hydrochloric acid in gastric juice, limited to the low pH:

 Denaturing enzymes in harmful microorganisms in food

48
 Giving the optimum pH for protease activity

Certain specialised cells in the stomach wall secrete hydrochloric acid. The hydrochloric acid

maintains the stomach contents at a pH of 2.

This low pH denatures any proteins in the stomach (by breaking the specific bonds that hold

the protein in shape), including enzymes that belong to harmful microorganisms that may have

entered the stomach. This prevents those microbes (microbe is short for microorganism) from

carrying out any reactions, stopping them from doing anything harmful.

The optimum pH of the protease enzymes secreted into the stomach is pH 2, so maintaining

the stomach at a low pH helps protease enzymes function more efficiently.

Note: not all protease enzymes have an optimum pH of 2.

11. Outline the role of bile in neutralising the acidic mixture of food and gastric juices

entering the duodenum from the stomach, to provide a suitable pH for enzyme action.

Bile is alkaline in nature. This helps neutralise the acids in the gastric juice and food that enter

the duodenum.

Enzymes secreted from the pancreas and in the small intestine have an optimum pH that is

slightly alkaline or neutral (pH 7 and up). The neutralisation of the acids helps provide the

enzymes with an environment with a pH closer to their optimum pH. This allows enzymes to

function more efficiently.

12. Outline the role of bile in emulsifying fats to increase surface area for the chemical

digestion of fat to fatty acids and glycerol by lipase

Bile contains something called bile salts. Bile salts may also be called bile acids or bile pigments.

These emulsify fats, which increases their surface area. I found a nice definition of

emulsification at https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/emulsification

“The breakdown of large fat globules in the intestine into smaller, uniformly distributed particles,

largely accomplished through the action of bile acids, which lower surface tension.”

Since the emulsified fats have a larger surface area, there is more surface for the enzyme lipase

to act on.

Lipase breaks up the fats into fatty acids and glycerol, making them suitable for absorption.

13. Explain the significance of villi in increasing the internal surface area of the small

intestine.

49
Villi (singular: villus) are in-foldings or finger-like projections in the internal intestinal wall. These

villi are covered in microvilli which are further finger-like projections, as shown in the diagram.

Note that a lacteal is basically just a small lymphatic vessel.

These “infoldings” significantly increase the surface area of the small intestine, so nutrient

molecules can diffuse into the blood or lymph faster!

Describe the structure of a villus.

This has already been done in the previous learning objective!

15. Describe the roles of capillaries and lacteals in villi

Broken down nutrients are transported across the intestine wall into the capillaries and

lacteals. These nutrients are then transported to other parts of the body, where they can be

assimilated.

Primarily, glucose and amino acids are transported into the capillaries and lipids (fats) are

transported into the lacteals.

1. Define ingestion as the taking of substances, e.g. food and drink, into the body

through the mouth

Ingestion is the taking of substances, e.g. food and drink, into the body through the mouth

2. Define digestion as the breakdown of large, insoluble food molecules into small,

water-soluble molecules using mechanical and chemical processes

3. Define mechanical digestion as the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without

chemical change to the food molecules

4. Define chemical digestion as the breakdown of large, insoluble molecules into small,

soluble molecules

5. Define absorption as movement of digested food molecules through the wall of the

intestine into the blood

6. Define assimilation as the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the

body where they are used, becoming part of the cells

7. Define egestion as passing out of food that has not been digested, as faeces, through

the anus

50
8. Identify the main regions of the alimentary canal and associated organs, including

mouth, salivary glands, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, pancreas, liver, gall

bladder, large intestine and anus

Food passes through the alimentary canal using the following route:

1. Mouth

2. Oesophagus

3. Stomach

4. Small intestine (here, most of your nutrients and water are absorbed into your body)

5. Large intestine (here, some nutrients and water are absorbed into your body)

6. Anus

The organs listed above make up your alimentary canal.

The alimentary canal is called a ‘canal’ because it is essentially one long canal that starts at your

mouth and ends at your anus.

Your small intestine is made up of three parts. The ‘C’ shaped curve immediately after the

stomach is the first part of your small intestine. It’s called the duodenum. After the duodenum

is the jejunum, followed by the ileum. The jejunum and ileum don’t look significantly different.

You don’t strictly need to know this, it’s just useful to know.

Food enters your body via the mouth, and leaves the body via the anus.

Now, for the associated organs:

Your salivary glands empty into your mouth using ducts.

The liver produces bile, a substance that is important for digestion. The bile is emptied into the

gall bladder, where it is stored.

The pancreas and gall bladder both empty into the duodenum.

9. Describe the functions of the regions of the alimentary canal listed above, in relation

to ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion of food

Mouth:

The mouth contains saliva, which is secreted from the salivary glands. Saliva contains salivary

amylase – an enzyme that breaks down carbohydrates (chemical digestion). The mouth also

contains teeth, that cut, chew and grind food (mechanical digestion). Food is formed into a

bolus, which is then swallowed.

The mouth is used for ingestion, as well as both mechanical and chemical digestion.

51
Since the salivary glands use nutrients to produce saliva, this can be considered a site of

assimilation.

Oesophagus:

The swallowing of food causes it to move from the mouth to the stomach through the

oesophagus, by peristalsis.

I found a nice definition of peristalsis online, which I’ll put here:

the involuntary constriction and relaxation of the muscles of the intestine or another canal, creating

wave-like movements which push the contents of the canal forward.

Stomach:

The stomach is an organ containing gastric juices (mainly hydrochloric acid and protease

enzymes). The acidity (pH2) kills bacteria and the proteases digest proteins. The stomach also

churns the food in it. It releases small amounts of food at a time into the duodenum, storing

the rest.

Mechanical and chemical digestion occurs in the stomach.

Pancreas:

Secretes pancreatic juices to the duodenum.

As the pancreas uses nutrient molecules to do this, this can be considered a site of assimilation.

Gall bladder:

Stores bile which is produced by the liver, and secretes it to the duodenum.

Small Intestine:

The Pancreas and the gall bladder are connected to the duodenum by ducts. Pancreatic juices

and bile (stored in gall bladder) are transported to the small intestine via these ducts.

Pancreatic juices contain proteases, lipases (fat-digesting enzymes), amylases and sodium

hydrogencarbonate (which neutralises the acid from the stomach).

Bile, produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder, contains bile acids, also known as bile

salts – which emulsify fats. Bile is also alkaline, which helps neutralise stomach acids.

The epithelial lining of the rest of the small intestine secretes yet more enzymes which

breakdown maltose and peptides. The jejunum and ileum have a huge surface area due to the

villi present, allowing a greater amount to be absorbed at a time.

The small intestine is a site of both chemical digestion and absorption.

52
The large intestine:

The main function of most of the large intestine is to reabsorb the water from the undigested

food.

The last part of the large intestine, called the rectum, stores faeces until it is egested.

Anus:

The anus is the site of egestion – it has sphincter muscles that control when faeces is egested

from the body.

1. Identify the types of human teeth (incisors, canines, premolars and molars)

The following diagram has everything you need to know:

The above diagram has more detail than you need to know – just learn where the incisors,

canines, premolars and molars are, and what they look like.

Note: the bottom edge of incisors are usually flat, while the bottom edge of canines are pointy.

2. Describe the structure of human teeth, limited to enamel, dentine, pulp, nerves and

cement, as well as the gums

Enamel: Hard outer layer of the crown. The hardest substance in the body.

Dentine: not as hard as enamel. It forms the bulk of the tooth. If there are gaps in the enamel

that expose the dentine to the outside, or enamel is very thin, your teeth will be sensitive.

Pulp: soft tissue, contains blood capillaries and nerve supply to the tooth.

Cementum: also known as cement. The layer of bone-like tissue covering the root. Not as hard

as enamel.

Gums: soft tissue that immediately surrounds the teeth and bone. Protects the bone and roots

of the teeth, provides an easily lubricated surface.

3. Describe the functions of the types of human teeth in mechanical digestion of food

Incisors are sharp and are used for cutting food into small chewable pieces.

Canines are at corners, and are even sharper – they’re also used to bite into and tear food.

Premolars: These have a flat surface, and are used to chew and grind food.

Molars serve the same purpose as premolars and also have flat surfaces.

4. Describe the proper care of teeth in terms of diet and regular brushing

53
Brush your teeth twice a day with fluoride toothpaste and floss your teeth daily – fluoride helps

protect your teeth, and brushing and flossing your teeth prevents the build-up of food particles

and plaque.

Visit your dentist at least once every 6 months.

Eat a well-balanced diet – eating food with high sugar and carbohydrate content can cause

dental decay.

Don’t smoke – smoking or using spit (smokeless) tobacco can lead to dental decay.

Eating calcium and vitamin C rich foods can also promote the health of your teeth – Vitamin C

increases the absorption of calcium, and calcium strengthens your teeth. Vitamin C also keeps

your gums strong – lack of vitamin C can lead to weak gums, which can cause your teeth to

come loose, your gums to bleed, etc.

5. State the causes of dental decay in terms of a coating of bacteria and food on teeth,

the bacteria respiring sugars in the food, producing acid which dissolves the enamel and

dentine.

Bacteria tend to colonise around any leftover food particles in your teeth. They respire the

sugars in the food and produce an acid as a result of that respiration. This acid dissolves your

enamel, forming small holes called cavities. Once those holes grow deep enough to reach your

dentine, the acid dissolves the dentine too.

These cavities bring the outside of the tooth closer to the nerves in the pulp. The acid irritates

the nerve endings on those nerves, causing a toothache.

Eventually, the bacteria will get into the pulp cavity and create a painful abscess in the root.

Often, the only way to treat the abscess is to pull out the tooth. To prevent the cavity from

progressing this far, dentists must clean and fill the cavity.

Eating high sugar foods (like cake, biscuit, drinking fizzy drinks, etc.), especially at frequent

intervals, will increase the likelihood of dental decay – so eat sugary foods less often.

Poor teeth brushing habits, like forgetting to brush your teeth twice a day or brushing your

teeth with bad technique means that sugar particles may be left in your teeth. This again

increases the likelihood of dental decay. Note: brushing your teeth is more important in

preventing gum disease than removing bacteria – it doesn’t do much in the way of eliminating

bacteria. However, the fluoride in fluoride toothpaste kills bacteria and increases the resistance

of your teeth to dental decay.

54
Flossing also helps remove food particles from between your teeth and helps protect against

gum disease.

Having a check-up with your dentist every six months means that any dental issues can get

treated at an early stage.

6. State the significance of chemical digestion in the alimentary canal in producing

small, soluble molecules that can be absorbed.

Food molecules must be small soluble to be absorbed.

Ultimately, it is mainly the chemical properties of a molecule that determine whether or not it

is water-soluble. Mechanical digestion can help break up large clumps of food but does not

alter the chemical structure of the food. Chemical digestion, however, breaks up large food

molecules like fats and starch, into smaller food molecules like fatty acids, glycerol, sugars, etc.

It converts large insoluble molecules into small, soluble molecules that can be absorbed, using

enzymes.

7. State the functions of enzymes as follows:

 Amylase breaks down starch to simpler sugars

Amylase is an enzyme that breaks up the bonds between the sugar monomers in starch. As a

result, you get simpler sugars like glucose.

 Protease breaks down protein to amino acids

Protease enzymes break the ‘peptide bonds’ that hold amino acids together. This gives you

smaller peptides and amino acids.

 Lipase breaks down fats to fatty acids and glycerol

Lipase breaks down the ‘ester bonds’ holding the fatty acids and glycerol in a fat molecule

together. Note: most fats are triglycerides (glycerol bonded to three fatty acids), so may also be

referred to as a triglyceride.

8. State where, in the alimentary canal, amylase, protease and lipase are secreted.

Amylase: from salivary glands into the mouth, and from the pancreas into the duodenum.

Protease: the stomach and the pancreas.

Lipase:

The pancreas

55
9. State the functions of the hydrochloric acid in gastric juice, limited to killing bacteria

in food and giving an acid pH for enzymes

Hydrochloric acid makes the stomach contents very acidic. This kills any bacteria that manage

to enter the stomach.

The low pH maintained by hydrochloric acid is also the optimum pH of the protease enzyme.

This means the enzyme can efficiently break down proteins.

10. Explain the functions of the hydrochloric acid in gastric juice, limited to the low pH:

 Denaturing enzymes in harmful microorganisms in food

 Giving the optimum pH for protease activity

Certain specialised cells in the stomach wall secrete hydrochloric acid. The hydrochloric acid

maintains the stomach contents at a pH of 2.

This low pH denatures any proteins in the stomach (by breaking the specific bonds that hold

the protein in shape), including enzymes that belong to harmful microorganisms that may have

entered the stomach. This prevents those microbes (microbe is short for microorganism) from

carrying out any reactions, stopping them from doing anything harmful.

The optimum pH of the protease enzymes secreted into the stomach is pH 2, so maintaining

the stomach at a low pH helps protease enzymes function more efficiently.

Note: not all protease enzymes have an optimum pH of 2.

11. Outline the role of bile in neutralising the acidic mixture of food and gastric juices

entering the duodenum from the stomach, to provide a suitable pH for enzyme action.

Bile is alkaline in nature. This helps neutralise the acids in the gastric juice and food that enter

the duodenum.

Enzymes secreted from the pancreas and in the small intestine have an optimum pH that is

slightly alkaline or neutral (pH 7 and up). The neutralisation of the acids helps provide the

enzymes with an environment with a pH closer to their optimum pH. This allows enzymes to

function more efficiently.

12. Outline the role of bile in emulsifying fats to increase surface area for the chemical

digestion of fat to fatty acids and glycerol by lipase

Bile contains something called bile salts. Bile salts may also be called bile acids or bile pigments.

These emulsify fats, which increases their surface area.

56
“The breakdown of large fat globules in the intestine into smaller, uniformly distributed particles,

largely accomplished through the action of bile acids, which lower surface tension.”

Since the emulsified fats have a larger surface area, there is more surface for the enzyme lipase

to act on.

Lipase breaks up the fats into fatty acids and glycerol, making them suitable for absorption.

13. Explain the significance of villi in increasing the internal surface area of the small

intestine.

Villi (singular: villus) are in-foldings or finger-like projections in the internal intestinal wall. These

villi are covered in microvilli which are further finger-like projections, as shown in the diagram.

Note that a lacteal is basically just a small lymphatic vessel.

These “infoldings” significantly increase the surface area of the small intestine, so nutrient

molecules can diffuse into the blood or lymph faster!

14. Describe the structure of a villus.

This has already been done in the previous learning objective!

15. Describe the roles of capillaries and lacteals in villi

Broken down nutrients are transported across the intestine wall into the capillaries and

lacteals. These nutrients are then transported to other parts of the body, where they can be

assimilated.

Primarily, glucose and amino acids are transported into the capillaries and lipids (fats) are

transported into the lacteals.

1. State the functions of xylem and phloem

Xylem transports water taken up from the soil by the roots, to the rest of the plant.

Phloem transports assimilates (substances made by the plant) from the source (i.e. areas

where they are produced, like leaves) to a sink (areas where they are used or stored, like the

root or the flower).

2. Identify the position of xylem as seen in sections of roots, stems and leaves, limited

to non-woody dicotyledonous plants

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3. Identify root hair cells, as seen under the light microscope, and state their functions

The cells with finger-like projections coming out of them are root hair cells. The red arrow

points to a root hair cell.

4. Explain that the large surface area of root hairs increases the rate of the absorption

of water and ions

The root hair on root hair cells (the finger-like projection) increases the surface area of the root

hair cell. Specifically, it increases the surface area of the root hair cell exposed to the soil and

the soil contents. This means there is more surface area available to absorb water and mineral

ions from the soil, so absorption can occur at a higher rate.

5. State the pathway taken by water through the root, stem and leaf as root hair, root

cortex cells, xylem and mesophyll cells

Water first diffuses into the root hair by osmosis.

It then diffuses from cell to cell or cell wall to cell wall (or any other combination of cells and

cell walls) through the root cortex, where it eventually reaches the xylem.

Water is taken up through the xylem until it reaches a leaf, where it diffuses out into the

surrounding mesophyll cells.

Water diffuses from the mesophyll cells to the surrounding intercellular air spaces as water

vapour, and finally, out of the leaf through the stomata.

6. Investigate, using a suitable stain, the pathway of water through the above-ground

parts of a plant

Cut the base of a stalk of celery (the non-leafy end) underwater.

58
Place the stalk in a beaker of water that has been stained with red food-dye, the base end

down, and place it in room temperature conditions, under a bright light and a slight breeze.

You may observe red lines travelling up the stalk, and then through the leaves. If you cut the

stalk halfway, you can also see where the xylem are placed (the small areas stained red).

7. State that water is transported from the roots to leaves through the xylem vessels

Water is transported from the roots to leave through xylem vessels.

8. Define transpiration as loss of water vapour from plant leaves by evaporation of water

at the surfaces of mesophyll cells followed by diffusion of water vapour through the

stomata

All you need to do is memorise that definition!

9. Explain the mechanism by which water moves upwards in the xylem in terms of a

transpiration pull, helping to create a water potential gradient that draws up a column

of water molecules, held together by cohesion.

There are some terms here that I should explain first:

Capillary action is essentially the forces that cause water to travel up a hollow tube on its own

(try sticking the end of a straw in a glass of water and watch as the water moves up a few

millimetres without any help). Capillary action consists of two forces – cohesive force (the

property of water molecules that make them stick to each other) and adhesive force (the

property causing water molecules to stick to other things).

Water potential is a measure of the ability of water to leave a system. Remember the definition

of osmosis? How it’s only osmosis if the case concerns the movement of water across a

membrane? Yeah, well, think about that – water potential is the ability of water to move across

that membrane (or to leave the system it is already in). You’ll learn about this in detail in As

level, but for now, simply think of it as water concentration – that helped me while I was doing

my IGCSE’s.

Water moves up the xylem in much the same way as water moves all the way up a straw when

you suck on the end – as water vapour evaporates from the mesophyll cell surface and leaves

the leaf, a sucking force is created. This means that there is less water pressure at the top than

the bottom, creating a hydrostatic pressure gradient, and hence, a water potential gradient.

This draws water up the xylem.

This only works because of the cohesive and adhesive forces present:

59
Without cohesive forces, a gap in the column of water travelling up the xylem may be created,

and as the sucking force (AKA the ‘pull’) created by transpiration can’t pass through that gap,

the rest of the water can’t be drawn up.

Without the adhesive forces, the water won’t stick properly to the wall of the xylem, again

creating gaps and making it difficult to draw water up the length of the xylem.

10. Investigate and describe the effects of variation of temperature and humidity on

transpiration rate

To measure the transpiration rate, you’ll need a potometer. A potometer consists of:

 A container of water

 A capillary tube

 A scale

 Rubber tubing

The rubber tubing connects the capillary tube and the plant

The scale is used to measure how far the bubble travels in the capillary tube – due to

transpiration the transpiration pull created by the plant, as the water column is sucked up, the

bubble moves up.

There are two measures of transpiration rate you can calculate using this method:

1. Distance travelled by bubble per unit time (your unit will be m/s or m/min or cm/min,

depending on the units of distance and time that you use.)

2. The volume of water transpired per minute (your unit will be ml/min or l/min

(litres/minute)). This is a more accurate measure of the transpiration rate than the first one.

To calculate i, simply measure the distance travelled by the bubble in a known length of time.

Then divide the distance travelled by the time taken.

To calculate ii, measure the distance travelled by the bubble in a known length of time. Measure

the diameter of the capillary tube, and then divide it in half to calculate the radius. Calculate

the cross-sectional area of the capillary tube using , where is the radius. Multiply the cross-

sectional area into the distance travelled by the bubble to get the volume transpired. Divide

volume transpired by the time taken, to get the rate of transpiration. Note: some potometers

come with a volume scale, so you don’t need to go through all of the described steps to

calculate the volume of water transpired.

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To investigate the effect of varying temperature on transpiration, conduct the experiment

under different temperature conditions (cold room and warm room, or next to a heater and

far away from the heater).

To investigate the effect of varying humidity on transpiration, conduct the experiment in:

A room with a dehumidifier

A normal room

 Spray water in a plastic bag and wrap the bag around the plant.

Effect of temperature on transpiration rate:

The higher the temperature, the greater the transpiration rate, until the plant is transpiring at

its maximum rate. Then the transpiration rate remains at its maximum. Hypothetically, if you

increased the temperature high enough that you damaged the plant, the transpiration rate

would fall back down to zero.

Effect of humidity on transpiration rate:

The higher the humidity of the air outside the leaf relative to the air inside the leaf, the lower

the transpiration rate.

11. Explain the effects of variation of temperature and humidity on transpiration rate

Temperature:

The higher the temperature, the greater the transpiration rate, because water vapour

molecules will have more kinetic energy and hence move out of the leaf faster.

Humidity:

The higher the humidity of the air outside the leaf relative to the air inside the leaf, the lower

the transpiration rate. This is because water usually diffuses down a concentration gradient.

However, if the air outside is already saturated with water, there is more likely to be a net

movement of water into the leaf (providing the stomata are open) rather than out.

12. Define translocation in terms of the movement of sucrose and amino acids in phloem:

 From regions of production (source)

 To regions of storage OR to regions where they are used in respiration or growth (sink)

Translocation is the movement of sucrose and amino acids in phloem from a source (regions

of production) to a sink (region of storage or usage, where they may be used in respiration or

growth).

Chlorophyll Is Necessary for Photosynthesis

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 Take a potted plant with variegated (green and white) leaves.

 Destarch the plant by keeping it in complete darkness for about 48 hours.

 Expose the plant to the sunlight for a few days.

 Leaf boiled in water for 2 minutes to break down cell walls, denature enzymes and allow for

easier penetration by ethanol.

 Warmed in ethanol until leaf is colourless to extract chlorophyll, which would mask

observation

 Dipped in water briefly: to soften leaf

 Leaf is placed on a white tile and iodine is added. If starch is present, colour will be blue-black

and if absent, it will remain orange

Leaf Structure

 Cuticle: waxy layer that prevents water loss from top of the leaf

 Epidermis: transparent cell that allows sunlight to pass through to the palisade cell

62
 Palisade: found at the top of the cell and contains many chloroplasts which absorbs sunlight.

 Spongy mesophyll layer: irregularly shaped cells which create air spaces to allow gaseous

exchange to take place; do not contain many chloroplasts

 Vascular Bundle: made up of xylem and phloem

 Xylem: vessel which transports water and dissolved minerals and has lignified walls made of

cellulose

 Phloem: vessel which transports nutrients

 Stomata: little holes that opens and

closes to allow gaseous exchange to

take place. The stomata close to

prevent water loss and open to let

gases come in and out. When guard

cells lose water, the stoma close (at

night), while the stoma open when

guard cells gain water & swell (during

the day).

Carbon Dioxide is Necessary for Photosynthesis

 Take two destarched potted plants.

 Cover both the plants with bell jars and label them as A and B.

 Inside A, keep NaHCO3 (sodium bicarbonate). It produces CO2.

 Inside B, keep NaOH (Sodium hydroxide). It absorbs CO2.

 Keep both the set-ups in the sunlight for at least 6 hours.

 Perform the starch test on both plants.

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 The leaves of Plant A will turn black after the starch test

 The leaves of Plant B will remain orange/brown after starch test

Phloem

 Bidirectional vessel

 Contains sieve elements

which allow sugars to pass from one

cell to next downwards

 Contains companion cells

which provide energy for active

transport of sugars all over plant.

 Translocation moves organic

molecules (sugars, amino acids)

from source to sink.

 Phloem vessels still have cross walls called sieve plates that contain pores.

 Companion cells actively load sucrose into the phloem.

 Water follows high solute in phloem by osmosis. A positive pressure potential develops

moving mass of phloem sap forward.

 Phloem still contains small amount of cytoplasm along the walls but the organelle

content is greatly reduced.

 Companion cells actively unload (ATP used) the organic molecules

Plant Nutrition

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 Photosynthesis: process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from raw materials

using energy from light.

Carbon Dioxide + Water \xrightarrow{light + cholorophyll} Glucose +

OxygenCarbonDioxide+Waterlight+cholorophyllGlucose+Oxygen

6CO_2 + 6H_2O\xrightarrow{light + cholorophyll}+C_6H_{12}O_6+6O_26CO2+6H2

Olight+cholorophyll+C6H12O6+6O2

 The carbon dioxide diffuses through the open stomata of the leaf of a plant and water is taken

up through roots.

 Chlorophyll is a dye, which traps light energy and converts it into chemical energy for the

formation of carbohydrates and their subsequent storage.

Plant Nutrition

 Photosynthesis: process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from raw materials

using energy from light.

Carbon Dioxide + Water \xrightarrow{light + cholorophyll} Glucose +

OxygenCarbonDioxide+Waterlight+cholorophyllGlucose+Oxygen

6CO_2 + 6H_2O\xrightarrow{light + cholorophyll}+C_6H_{12}O_6+6O_26CO2+6H2

Olight+cholorophyll+C6H12O6+6O2

 The carbon dioxide diffuses through the open stomata of the leaf of a plant and water is taken

up through roots.

 Chlorophyll is a dye, which traps light energy and converts it into chemical energy for the

formation of carbohydrates and their subsequent storage.

Glasshouse Systems
To increase the crop yield, farmers control the limiting factors:

 CO2 enrichment: paraffin is burnt to increase CO2 concentration by three times the

original amount and doubling the yield

 Optimum temperature: thermostatically controlled heaters make the temperature right

for enzymes to work

 Optimum light: light has a high intensity for more photosynthesis, the correct

wavelengths (red and blue not green) and duration controls production of fruit

65
Limiting Factors
 Limiting factor: something present in the environment in such short supply that it restricts life

processes.

Light intensity

As the amount of light increases, the rate of

photosynthesis increases (a-b)

The limiting factor is light

Increasing the amount of light after a certain point

has no effect on the rate (c)

The limiting factor is now carbon dioxide or

temperature

Carbon dioxide concentration

As the amount of carbon dioxide increases, the

rate of photosynthesis increases (a-b)

The limiting factor is carbon dioxide

Increasing amount of carbon dioxide after a

certain point has not effect on rate (c)

The limiting factor is now light or temperature

(warmth)

Temperature

As temperature increases, the rate of

photosynthesis increases until it reaches

optimum temperature 40°C (a)

The limiting factor is the temperature

66
 Temperature

Increasing the temperature above 40°C will

cause the enzymes to denature (b)

This will decrease rate of photosynthesis

Mineral Requirements

Nitrogen Magnesium

Needed for protein synthesis Needed for chlorophyll synthesis

Deficiency: small plant, slow growth, top leaves Deficiency: plant lack chlorphyll,

pale, bottom leaves dead and roots slightly affected leaves yellow but normal roots

 Nitrogen fertilizers: provide nitrogen in the form of nitrate ions, nitrite ions or ammonium

ions. But using fertilisers can lead to eutrophication, which is when the fertiliser is transported

by rain and leaches into stagnant water e.g. pond or river

Light Is Necessary for Photosynthesis

 Destarch the plant by keeping it in darkness for 48hrs

 Place a stencil over part of a leaf

 Place the leaf in sunlight for 4-6 hours

 Remove the stencil and test for starch

 +ve result = parts which received light turn black

 -ve result = parts which didn’t receive light remain yellow/brown

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Xylem

 Unidirectional vessel which transports water

and dissolved minerals.

 Walls are made out of waterproof lignin.

 Water moves up due to transpiration and

osmosis

Transport in Plants

Xylem and Phloem

 Functions of xylem and phloem

o To transport substances from source, where they are taken in or made, to the sinks, where

they are used

o To support the stem

Factors Affecting Rate of Transpiration

 Temperature: higher temperatures increase water-holding capacity of air and increases

transpiration rate

 Humidity: low humidity increases water potential gradient between leaf and atmosphere ∴

increasing transpiration rate

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 Light intensity: high light intensity causes stomata to open (to allow more photosynthesis)

which causes increase in transpiration

Pathway Taken by Water

 Water enters root hair cell from moist soil via osmosis because water potential is higher in

soil than in cytoplasm.

 Water passes through the cortex cells by osmosis but mostly by “suction”.

 Water and minerals are forced to cross the endodermis.

 Water enters xylem then leaves when it gets to mesophyll cells

Root Hair Cell

 Function: to absorb water and minerals from the soil

 They have an elongated shape for more surface area which increases the rate of absorption

of water by osmosis and ions by active transport

Translocation
69
 Movement of sucrose and amino acids in phloem; from regions of production (sources) to

regions of storage or to regions of utilization in respiration or growth (sinks).

 Translocation in different seasons:

o Spring: sucrose transported from stores in roots to leaves

o Summer & early autumn: sucrose goes from photosynthesizing leaves to root stores,

Uptake of Water

 Caused by water loss in leaves which lowers its water potential

 Water moves from xylem to leaf tissues via osmosis

 Water moves up the stem in the xylem due to tension (because of cohesion of water

molecules to each other) caused by water loss from the leaves

 Ends with the gain of water through roots

 This upward flow of water is called the transpiration stream

1. Describe the circulatory system as a system of blood vessels with a pump and valves

to ensure one-way flow of blood

The circulatory system is a system of blood vessels with a pump, and it has valves to ensure

the one-way flow of blood.

2. Describe the double circulation in terms of circulation to the lungs and circulation to

the body tissue in mammals

Double circulation means that the blood flows through two circuits – one low-pressure circuit

and one high-pressure circuit.

The low-pressure circuit is when the blood travels from the heart, to the lungs, and back. This

is also known as the pulmonary circuit.

The high-pressure circuit, or systemic circuit, is when blood flows from the heart to the rest of

the body, and back. This is higher pressure because the blood has to travel further, so the heart

applies a greater force on this blood.

3. Explain the advantages of double circulation

Double circulation is important because it maintains a high blood pressure to all the main

organs of the body:

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 The right side of the heart collects blood from the body, builds up pressure, and pumps the

blood to the lungs to be oxygenated. As the blood travels, the pressure drops.

 The left side of the heart collects the oxygenated blood from the lungs, builds up pressure,

and then pumps the blood to the rest of the body. As blood travels, the pressure drops, until it

collects in the right side of the heart again.

Double circulation also helps keep the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood separate and

prevents their mixing – this allows a highly efficient supply of oxygen to the body.

4. Name and identify the structures of the mammalian heart, limited to the muscular

wall, the septum, the left and right ventricles and atria, one-way valves and coronary

arteries

In the left diagram, the heart has been flattened and splayed out so it’s easier for you to see

and understand how the structures connect together. The right one shows how the structures

actually look

Note: your left is the heart’s right, which is why the lefts and rights are swapped in the diagram.

The heart is made of four chambers: the left and right atrium at the top, and the left and right

ventricles at the bottom.

The right side of the heart is split from the left side by the muscular septum.

The heart has ‘atrioventricular’ valves between the atria and ventricles on both sides of the

heart.

The atrioventricular valve on the right is called the tricuspid valve because it has three ‘cusps’.

The atrioventricular valve on the left is called the bicuspid valve because it has two cusps. It is

also called the mitral valve.

The wall of the heart is made of a special type of muscle called ‘cardiac muscle’ or ‘myocardium’.

The wall of the ventricles is thicker than the atrial walls. The left ventricle’s walls are slightly

thicker than the right ventricle’s walls.

The heart needs a very high amount of energy to pump blood fast enough around our bodies,

so it has a very high rate of respiration. This means the heart uses up a lot of oxygen. The blood

71
inside the heart chamber isn’t enough to supply the heart with oxygen, so the heart has special

arteries called ‘coronary arteries’ that supply the muscular wall of the heart with blood.

5. State that blood is pumped away from the heart into arteries and returns to the heart

in veins

Blood is pumped away from the heart into arteries and returns to the heart in veins.

6. Describe the functioning of the heart in terms of the contraction of muscles of the

atria and ventricles and the action of the valves

When the entire heart is relaxed, the heart is in diastole. During diastole, the pulmonary and

aortic semilunar valves, and the atrioventricular valves are open. During diastole, the atria are

filled with blood.

Next is atrial systole:

In this stage, the muscular walls of the atria contract, squeezing blood into the ventricles. The

atrioventricular valves are forced open, but the semilunar valves are pushed shut due to the

pressure of the blood.

Finally, in ventricular systole, the atria relax and the ventricular walls contract. This causes the

atrioventricular valves to close and the semilunar valves to open, so blood is pushed out into

the aorta and pulmonary artery.

Then, ventricular diastole occurs again, and so the cycle restarts.

7. Name the main blood vessels to and from the:

 Heart, limited to vena cava, aorta, pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein

The superior vena cava collects blood from the head and upper parts of the body and empties

it in to the right atrium. The inferior vena cava collects blood from the rest of the body and

empties it into the right atrium.

The pulmonary artery carries blood from the right ventricle to the lungs

The pulmonary veins collect blood from the lungs and empties it into the left atrium.

The aorta takes blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body.

 Lungs, limited to the pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein

The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the

lungs.

The pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart.

 Kidney, limited to the renal artery and the renal vein

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The renal artery carries blood to the kidney.

The renal vein carries blood away from the kidney.

8. Describe coronary heart disease in terms of the blockage of coronary arteries and

state the possible risk factors as diet, stress, smoking, genetic predisposition, age and

gender

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is caused by atherosclerosis.

This is when plaque builds up in your arteries, thereby narrowing or blocking them up. This

plaque is made of cholesterol, fatty substances, cellular waste products, calcium and fibrin.

This build-up of plaque usually takes several years.

Overtime, the plaque may harden, reducing the flow of oxygen rich blood to the heart muscles.

Sometimes, this plaque might rupture (break apart), causing the formation of blood clots, or

the broken piece of plaque to travel down to a narrow arteriole and block it up. Both of these

completely cut off the supply of oxygen to the heart muscles. This could cause heart failure.

This is coronary heart disease.

CHD can be caused by a diet high in fat, especially saturated fats. It can be caused by stress,

smoking, and sometimes, it is hereditary (you may have a genetic predisposition towards CHD).

There is also plenty of evidence that shows that females, while menstruating, are much less

likely to develop CHD than males. Once females stop menstruating, they seem to have a similar

risk of developing CHD as males.

9. Investigate and state the effect of physical activity on pulse rate

Measure the pulse rate of a person at rest.

This can be done by pressing two fingers down on the inside of their wrist, between the bone

and the tendon on their thumb side. You should be able to feel pulses. This is because, during

ventricular systole, blood is forced down the arteries, so they expand slightly. Using a

stopwatch, count the number of pulses in 30 seconds, and multiply by two to gain the pulse

rate per minute.

That person should then undergo exercise, e.g. jogging for 1 – 5 minutes.

Measure their pulse rate again and compare.

Physical activity increases pulse rate.

10. Explain the effect of physical activity on the heart rate

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Physical activity increases heart rate. This is because physical activity increases the body’s need

for energy, increasing the rate of respiration and thus the demand for oxygen. This means the

heart needs to pump blood around the body faster, to deliver oxygen faster to the needy

tissues, so the heart rate increases. If the heart rate increases, the number of ‘pulses’ of blood

pushed out by the ventricles per minute also increases, so the pulse rate increases.

Note: pulse rate is usually equal to heart rate.

11. Describe the structure and functions of arteries, veins and capillaries

Arteries carry blood away from the heart. They divide into smaller and smaller vessels until

they become capillaries. It is in capillaries that materials such as oxygen, carbon dioxide,

nutrients and waste are exchange between the blood and tissues. Capillaries join up to form

larger vessels, until they eventually form veins. Veins carry blood back to the heart.

Arteries have the thickest walls. The elastin in their walls allow them to expand to

accommodate the blood during each pump of the ventricle (instead of bursting), and it allows

them to recoil to push the blood and maintain the high pressure.

Veins have much thinner walls, so their tunica media and tunica externa are relatively thin. As

opposed to arteries, veins have valves to prevent the back flow of blood, especially when blood

has to flow against gravity. The muscles around veins contract and relax, providing a force to

push blood along the veins.

Capillaries are the smallest blood vessel, and carries the lowest pressure blood. Usually, only

one RBC can fit through the diameter of the capillary (Capillaries usually have a diameter of

approximately 7 micrometres, and RBCs have a diameter that is approximately equal to that.).

This means they only have one layer, instead of three.

All three blood vessels have a single layer of endothelial cells (squamous epithelium). Arteries

and veins have a tunica media (smooth muscle) and a tunica externa (elastin and collagen).

Arteries have more elastin than veins in their tunica externa.

Arteries have a relatively small lumen (space inside the vessel), and veins have a larger lumen.

Capillaries have the smallest lumen.

12. Explain how the structures of arteries, veins and capillaries are adapted for their

function

Arteries have the highest-pressure blood flowing through them, so they have the thickest walls.

They don’t need valves.

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Veins have blood at a lower pressure flowing through them, so their walls don’t have to be as

thick. They also have a much larger lumen, allowing blood to flow much more easily through

them. Veins need valves to prevent the back flow of blood.

Capillaries are very small in diameter, allowing them to bring blood closer to the needy tissues.

This reduces the diffusion distance of oxygen from RBCs to tissue, and carbon dioxide from the

tissue to the RBCs. They have a single cell thick wall, again reducing diffusion distance, and

blood flows relatively slowly through arteries, allowing more time for diffusion.

Capillaries form an extremely extensive network of blood vessels, so despite individual

capillaries having a small cross-sectional area, capillaries have the largest total cross-sectional

area of all three blood vessel types.

13. List the components of blood as red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and

plasma

Blood is made up of red blood cells (this is what makes blood red), white blood cells, platelets

and plasma.

14. Identify red and white blood cells, as seen under the light microscope, on prepared

slides and in diagrams and photomicrographs

Red Blood Cells:

The image to the left is taken from a light microscope. The

vast majority of cells in the image are red blood cells –

notice how they are darker around the edges and lighter

towards the centre. This is because RBCs are thinnest at

the centre.

Note: this image has a white blood cell in it. Specifically, it

has a neutrophil. There is more information about white

blood cells below.

White Blood Cells:

White Blood Cells, also known as leukocytes, are a little bit

more complicated, as there are many types of WBCs.

There are 5 main types of WBCs –

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 Monocytes, which later mature into macrophages – They have a long lifespan and help kill

bacteria.

 Lymphocytes – These create antibodies that play an important role in the battle against

foreign bodies like bacteria and viruses.

 Neutrophils – These are the most common WBC (50 – 70% WBCs in circulation are

neutrophils). They digest and kill bacteria by phagocytosis.

 Basophils – they ‘sound an alarm’ by secreting chemicals, to alert other WBCs of infectious

pathogens.

 Eosinophils – They attack and kill parasites, destroy cancer cells, and help with allergic

responses.

These WBCs are often sorted into two groups called granulocytes (the WBCs with granules in

their cytoplasm) and agranulocytes (the WBCs without granules).

The granulocytes are neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils.

The agranulocytes are monocytes and lymphocytes.

They are also sorted into two different groups – lymphocytes (the cells that produce antibodies)

and phagocytes (the cells that perform phagocytosis).

Neutrophils are characterised by multiple lobes on their nuclei, and granules in their

cytoplasm.

Eosinophils have two lobes on their nuclei and granules.

Basophils have two lobes on their nuclei again, are usually stained purplish-black, and have

granules

Lymphocytes are the smallest of the WBCs and have a large spherical nucleus that takes up

most of the cytoplasm.

Monocytes have a kidney-shaped nucleus and plenty of cytoplasm.

State the functions of the following components of blood:

 Red blood cells in transporting oxygen, including the role of haemoglobin

Red Blood Cells contain many thousands of haemoglobin, each of which are made of four

polypeptides. Each polypeptide has one iron ion (Fe2+) attached to it. This is where an oxygen

molecule binds. This means, each haemoglobin molecule can carry up to 4 oxygen molecules

and hence, 8 oxygen atoms.

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When the RBCs are in the lungs, they are surrounded by a high concentration of oxygen, leading

to more and more oxygen binding with the haemoglobin. This leads to the blood becoming

saturated with oxygen – it is carrying its maximum amount of oxygen. As the RBCs leave the

lungs, and are transported in blood to respiring tissue, they are transporting oxygen to these

tissues. As these tissues use up oxygen, the RBCs are surrounded by less oxygen, resulting in

the release of oxygen from the haemoglobin. This is possible because the bond between the

oxygen molecule and the haemoglobin isn’t strong enough to be permanent.

 White blood cells in phagocytosis and antibody production

Neutrophils, macrophages, eosinophils and basophils can perform phagocytosis, and so, they

are called phagocytes.

However, if they ask which WBC performs phagocytosis in a paper, the expected answer is

usually neutrophils.

Phagocytosis is the ingestion and digestion of bacteria by white blood cells. This successfully

breaks down the pathogen into its harmless components.

The stages of phagocytosis:

1. Ingestion: the bacteria/ food particles are engulfed by the WBC. This results in the

formation of a food vacuole (also called a phagosome)

2. Vesicles, called lysosomes, containing digestive enzymes and other toxic chemicals, fuse

with the food vacuole, dumping the enzymes into said vacuole. This forms a phagolysosome.

3. The bacteria are digested.

4. The components of the bacteria are often egested (dumped outside the WBC).

Antibodies are formed by lymphocytes.

On the left is a diagram of an antibody. Different lymphocytes can develop to produce

antibodies that are different to each other.

The Fv is the ‘variable region’ of the antibody and the Fc is the ‘constant region’ of the antibody.

The shape of the Fv is specific to the bacteria that it binds to – its shape means that it can only

bind to one specific area of one specific type of cell. Lymphocytes can develop to produce many

different types of antibodies, ensuring that each different bacterium can be binded to by an

antibody. The Fc is the same in every antibody.

The functions of antibodies include:

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 Act as a label: Cells with antibodies binded to them can be identified as target cells by

phagocytes.

 Neutralisation: the binding of an antibody to a harmful toxin can neutralise the toxin, making

it useless.

 Agglutination: They may cause several pathogens to stick together, preventing them from

dividing and multiplying, causing them to die out. It also makes them easier for phagocytes to

find and phagocytose.

 Platelets in clotting (details are not required)

Platelets are small disc shaped cell fragments – they are created by cell fragments breaking off

of a very large type of white blood cell called ‘megakaryocyte’. They are involved in the

formation of blood clots.

 Plasma in the transport of blood cells, ions, soluble nutrients, hormones and carbon

dioxide

About 55% of blood is plasma. This is the solution that carries blood cells, and other solutes

around the body.

Plasma is a pale-yellow sticky liquid. It is 92% water, 8% dissolved protein, soluble nutrients,

hormones and carbon dioxide.

It takes RBCs close to respiring tissue to supply them with oxygen, it takes carbon dioxide from

the respiring tissue and to the lungs, it carries nutrients from their sites of production to their

sites of usage or storage, and transports hormones to their target organs.

The main protein in plasma is albumin.

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1. Name and identify the lungs, diaphragm, ribs, intercostal muscles, larynx, trachea,

bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and associated capillaries

The capillary network around the alveoli are the associated capillaries.

2. List the features of gas exchange surfaces in humans, limited to large surface area,

thin surface, good blood supply and good ventilation with air

 Alveolar walls are very thin – only a single cell thick – reducing the diffusion distance.

 Capillary walls are very thin – only a single cell thick – reducing diffusion distance.

 Alveolar walls are moist, to prevent the cells from drying out and to allow the gases to

dissolve in the water on the alveolar walls. This reduces diffusion distance.

 Alveoli have a very high surface area: volume ratio, making diffusion easier.

 Collectively, the alveoli have a huge surface area, making it possible for large amounts

of gas to diffuse at the same time.

 Good blood supply and proper ventilation ensure that steep carbon dioxide and oxygen

concentration gradients are maintained.

During gas exchange, oxygen diffuses from the alveoli, across the alveolar membrane and

capillary wall, into the bloodstream, to be picked up by the RBCs. Carbon dioxide diffuses from

the blood into the alveoli. This causes the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli to dwindle

and the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the alveoli to increase.

Note: partial pressure is the pressure of one gas in a mixture of gases. It is proportional to its

concentration.

Therefore, inspiration allows the dwindling supply of oxygen in the alveoli to be replenished,

and expiration enables the maintenance of a low carbon dioxide concentration.

The steady flow of blood prevents oxygen from building up and keeps bringing more carbon

dioxide close to the alveoli.

These two processes help maintain the steep oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration

gradient.

3. State the differences in composition between inspired and expired air limited to

oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour

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4. Explain the differences in composition between inspired and expired air

The air in our atmosphere is typically made up of 21% oxygen and 0.04% carbon dioxide. The

amount of water vapour in our air can vary, depending on where we are in the world, the

climate, etc.

When you inspire air, you are breathing in the air in our atmosphere. This is why inspired air

has 21% oxygen, 0.04% carbon dioxide and variable water vapour levels.

While that air is in your alveoli, it loses oxygen to your blood and picks up carbon dioxide from

your blood. Because the inside of your body is moist – your mouth has saliva, your nasal cavity

and airways are lined with mucus, and your alveoli have a thin layer of water inside – a lot of

the water evaporates into the air that you inspired.

So when you expire, the air that you expired has less oxygen, more carbon dioxide and more

water vapour than atmospheric air. This is why expired air has 16% oxygen, 4% carbon dioxide

and is saturated with water vapour.

Note: inspiration (noun) (verb = inspire) is when you breathe in air. Expiration (noun) (verb =

expire) is when you breathe out air. A saturated solution is a solution containing the maximum

amount of solute. Air saturated with water vapour means the air contains the maximum

amount of water vapour it can carry.

5. Use limewater as a test for carbon dioxide to investigate the differences in

composition between inspired and expired air

We use limewater (Ca(OH)2), because it turns cloudy/ milky when carbon dioxide is bubbled

through it. How milky it appears is proportional to the amount of carbon dioxide bubbled

through it.

Inspired air is the same as the air around us, so we can fill a balloon with a known volume of

the air around us. Clip the end of the balloon closed.

To collect expired air, we can fit a balloon to one end of a glass tube and breathe into the other

end, to fill the balloon with the air we exhale. Clip the end of the balloon closed to prevent the

expired air from escaping.

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Set up apparatus so that we have two containers filled with limewater, each with a delivery

tube that has one end submerged in the limewater.

Using a gas syringe, we can take a known volume of gas from each balloon, and feed it into

their respective delivery tubes. The milkier limewater has more carbon dioxide.

6. Investigate and describe the effects of physical activity on rate and depth of

breathing

To measure the rate of breathing, simply use a stopwatch, and count the number of breaths

(one breath being one inspiration and one expiration) that the person takes in one minute. You

now have the number of breaths this person takes per minute.

Physical activity results in an increase in breathing rate.

Physical activity also results in an increase in breathing depth.

In normal breathing, the volume of air breathed in and out is usually about 0.5 litres (this is the

tidal volume), and the breathing rate is about 12 – 14 breaths per minute.

During exercise, the inspired and expired volume increases to about 5 litres – this depends on

the age, sex, size and fitness of the person.

The maximum amount of air breathed in and out in one breath is the vital capacity of a person.

The breathing rate can increase to over 20 breaths a minute.

The total lung capacity is greater than the vital capacity because some air always remains in

the lungs (this is the residual volume). Otherwise, the airways would collapse.

7. Explain the effects of physical activity on rate and depth of breathing in terms of the

increased carbon dioxide concentration in the blood, causing an increased rate of

breathing

When we exercise, our muscles are working harder. This means they need more energy, so

their rate of respiration increases.

Remember, the equation for respiration is

Glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water (+ energy)

As the rate of respiration increases, the amount of CO2 produced increases. This CO2 is picked

up by the blood, increasing the carbon dioxide concentration in the blood. Specialised sensory

nerve cells called chemoreceptors pick up this increase in carbon dioxide concentration and

sends this information to the brain. The brain sends nerve impulses to the muscles that control

ventilation to increase the rate and depth of your breathing.

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Increased rate of breathing means you can expel carbon dioxide from your body faster, making

the carbon dioxide concentration gradient steeper. This helps carbon dioxide diffuse out of

your blood more quickly.

Increased depth of breathing means that you can breathe in a higher volume of oxygen per

breath, increasing your oxygen concentration gradient. This allows more oxygen to diffuse into

your blood.

Note: the main muscles that control ventilation are your intercostal muscles and your

diaphragm. During inspiration, your diaphragm contracts, making it move down. Your external

intercostal muscles also contract, causing your ribs to move outwards and upwards. This

causes the volume of your lungs to increase, making the air in the atmosphere rush inside to

fill up the excess space.

During expiration, your diaphragm relaxes and your internal intercostal muscles contract. This

makes your diaphragm move up, and your ribs move down and inwards. This causes the

volume of your lungs to fall, pushing the excess air out into the atmosphere.

8. Explain the role of goblet cells, mucus and ciliated cells in protecting the gas exchange

system from pathogens and particles

A thin layer of mucus lines your trachea, bronchus and bronchioles. It is a sticky substance

produced by cells called goblet cells. This sticky substance traps dust particles, smoke particles

and pathogens.

Cilia are the small finger-like projections found on the cell membranes of the epithelial cells

that line the upper respiratory tract. The cells with cilia are ciliated epithelial cells. These cells

are found from your nose to your bronchi, and in some bronchioles.

Cilia sweep mucus up and out of the respiratory tract by a beating motion, and into your mouth.

That mucus can then be swallowed into your alimentary canal. This helps destroy any

pathogens trapped in the mucus and prevents the build-up of mucus and pathogens in the

respiratory tract.

9. State that tobacco smoking can cause chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD),

lung cancer and coronary heart disease

Tobacco smoking can cause COPD, lung cancer and coronary heart disease (CHD).

10. Describe the effects on the gas exchange system of tobacco smoke and its major toxic

components, limited to carbon monoxide, nicotine and tar

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Tar is a carcinogen – it increases the risk of cancer. It is deposited along the airways. It irritates

goblet cells, causing them to produce more mucus, and damages/paralyses ciliated epithelial

cells, so mucus builds up and blocks the airways. This can result in COPD.

Nicotine is an addictive substance. It increases heart rate and blood pressure.

Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas. It combines permanently with haemoglobin, preventing it from

binding to and transporting oxygen.

 Chemical reactions that break down nutrient molecules in living cells to release energy.

 Uses of energy in the body of humans: muscle contraction, protein synthesis, cell

division, active transport, growth, the passage of nerve impulses and the maintenance

of a constant body temperature.

 Respiration involves the action of enzymes in cells

Anaerobic Respiration

 Release of a relatively small amount of energy by the breakdown of food substances in

the absence of oxygen.

 In muscles:

Glucose → lactic acid

C6H12O6 → 2 C3H6O3

 In yeast (single-cell fungi):

Glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide

C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + CO2

 Disadvantages of anaerobic respiration:

o Only produces 1/20 of the energy per glucose molecule that aerobic respiration

would

o Produces poisonous lactic acid

 Lactic acid:

o Transported in blood to heart, liver and kidneys, which oxidize it

o The heart, liver and kidneys need extra oxygen to do this which causes you to

continue breathing heavily after exercise.

o The extra oxygen is called the oxygen debt.

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Aerobic Respiration

 Release of a relatively large amount of energy in cells by the breakdown of food

substances in the presence of oxygen.

Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + waterGlucose+oxygen→carbondioxide+water

C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2\rightarrow6CO_2+6H_2OC6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O

1. State the uses of energy in the body of humans limited to: muscle contraction, protein

synthesis, cell division, growth and the maintenance of a constant body temperature.

Humans require energy for:

 Muscle contraction

 Protein synthesis

 Cell division

 Growth

 The maintenance of a constant body temperature

2. Define aerobic respiration as the chemical reactions in cells that use oxygen to break

down nutrient molecules to release energy

All you need to do is memorise that definition!

3. State the word equation for aerobic respiration as glucose + oxygen à carbon dioxide

+ water

The word equation for aerobic respiration is:

Glucose + water à carbon dioxide + water (+ energy)

4. State the balanced chemical equation for aerobic respiration as:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 à 6CO2 + 6H2O

5. Define anaerobic respiration as the chemical reaction in cells that break down

nutrient molecules to release energy without using oxygen

Learn the definition!

6. State the word equation for anaerobic respiration in muscles during vigorous

exercise (glucose à lactic acid)

During vigorous exercise, the rate of respiration is very high. The body can not supply enough

oxygen to meet the demand, so anaerobic respiration takes place.

So glucose is broken down into lactic acid instead:

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Glucose à lactic acid

7. State that lactic acid builds up in muscles and blood during vigorous exercise causing

an oxygen debt

The temporary shortage of oxygen during vigorous exercise is ‘oxygen debt’.

During vigorous exercise, your heart can’t pump blood around your body fast enough for

enough oxygen to be supplied to your muscles – your muscles require too much energy. In

order to gain enough energy, in addition to respiring aerobically, your muscle cells also respire

anaerobically, resulting in the build-up of lactic acid.

In higher concentrations, lactic acid can prove to be toxic to muscles cells, causing cramps, etc.

Therefore, after exercise, we continue to breathe hard and our heart rate remains high for

some time, to supply your muscles with enough oxygen to further break down lactic acid into

carbon dioxide and water.

This is the oxygen debt – an easy way to remember this is, during exercise, you ‘borrowed’ extra

energy without ‘paying’ for it with oxygen.

Your breathing rate and heart rate return to normal after you finish breaking down all the lactic

acid.

8. State the word equation for anaerobic respiration in microorganism yeast (glucose à

alcohol + carbon dioxide)

Glucose à alcohol + carbon dioxide

The specific type of alcohol produced by yeast during anaerobic respiration is ethanol.

9. Describe the role of anaerobic respiration in yeast during bread-making

The first stage of bread making usually involves mixing yeast, water and sugar. This activates

the yeast to begin respiring anaerobically. After flour is added to make dough, it is left in a

warm place to rise. The dough rises due to the carbon dioxide produced during respiration.

Baking kills the yeast and evaporates any alcohol formed.

10. State that anaerobic respiration releases much less energy per glucose molecule than

aerobic respiration

Anaerobic respiration releases much less energy per glucose molecule than aerobic

respiration. This is because in aerobic respiration, glucose is completely oxidised to carbon

dioxide and water, so all the chemical potential energy in glucose is released. In anaerobic

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respiration, however, glucose is only partially oxidised to lactic acid – there is still more chemical

potential energy that can be released.

1. Describe a nerve impulse as an electrical signal that passes along nerve cells called

neurones

A nerve impulse is an electrical signal that passes along nerve cells called neurones.

2. Describe the human nervous system in terms of:

 The central nervous system consisting of brain and spinal cord

 The peripheral nervous system

 Coordination and regulation of body functions

The human nervous system consists of two main parts:

1. The peripheral nervous system – this consists of receptor cells (the cells that detect changes

in stimuli and send information down the sensory neurones), sensory neurones (the

neurones that carry information from receptors) and the motor neurones (the neurones

that carry information to the effectors).

2. The central nervous system – the main components of the CNS are the brain and the spinal

cord.

The role of the CNS is to coordinate messages travelling through the nervous system. When a

receptor detects a stimulus, it sends an electrical impulse to the brain or spinal cord, which

then sends an electrical impulse to the appropriate effectors.

Examples of receptors include taste receptors (in your taste buds), thermoreceptors (these

detect temperature changes and are present in your skin and in the hypothalamus in your

brain) and osmoreceptors (these detect changes in the water potential of your blood).

A stimulus is any factor in the environment (light, temperature, etc.) or inside your body (blood

sugar, blood water potential, etc.) that changes.

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3. Distinguish between voluntary and involuntary actions

Two types of actions are controlled by the human nervous system: voluntary actions and

involuntary actions.

4. Identify the motor (effector), relay (connector) and sensory neurones from diagrams

Motor neurone:

Relay neurone:

Sensory neurone:

The part of the neurones that contain the nucleus is called the cell body.

A long cytoplasmic branch stretches out from the cell body – these are called axons. Axons are

very long – in fact, there’s actually one that starts in your brain and ends in your big toes! The

electrical impulse that neurones transmit sweep along axons.

In some sensory and motor neurones, the axons are insulated by ‘Schwann cells’. These cells

wrap around the axon to form myelin sheaths, as a form of insulation. The exposed space

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between the myelin sheaths are called nodes of Ranvier. As the area under the myelin sheath

is insulated, impulses can skip this part of the axon, and instead jump from node to node,

allowing them to travel along the axons much faster.

The thin cytoplasmic processes that extend from the cell bodies and carry information towards

them are called dendrites. This is true for motor neurones, relay neurones and sensory

neurones. Note: dendrites carry information towards the cell body, while axons carry

information away.

At the end of every axon, the neurone branches out, and at the end of each branch are the

synaptic knobs (they’re labelled as synaptic endings on the relay and sensory neurone

diagrams, and the motor neurone diagram doesn’t even mention them. Don’t worry about that,

though. We’ll call them synaptic knobs.)

When there are multiple neurones in one ‘pathway’, they don’t actually touch each other –

instead, there is a space between them called the synaptic cleft. The neurone membrane

before the synaptic cleft (the presynaptic membrane), the synaptic cleft, and the neurone

membrane after the synaptic cleft (the postsynaptic membrane) make up the synapse.

When an electrical impulse reaches the end of the neurone (i.e. it reaches the presynaptic

membrane), the neurone releases chemical transmitter substances such as acetylcholine.

These substances travel along the synapse, allowing the electrical impulse to be transmitted to

the postsynaptic neurone.

Also, this isn’t really mentioned in the syllabus either, but I’ve seen related questions in some

past papers:

The brain and spinal cord actually have two major parts: grey matter and white matter.

Grey matter contains cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated axons (axons without myelin

sheaths) and axon terminals. White matter is composed primarily of myelinated axons (axons

with myelin sheaths) and contains some blood vessels.

5. Describe a simple reflex arc in terms of receptor, sensory neurone, relay neurone,

motor neurones and effector

The reflex arc:

Stimulus -> receptor cells (not always present – some sensory neurones can act as receptors

themselves) -> sensory neurones -> relay neurones (this part is entirely in the brain or spinal

cord) -> motor neurones -> effector -> the reaction

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The interneuron in the diagram is the relay neurone.

Note: technically, in a scientific context, the spelling is neuron, not neurone, but Cambridge

uses the spelling neurone, and neurone Is the traditional British spelling, so I recommend that

you spell neurone with the e.

6. Describe a reflex action as a means of automatically and rapidly integrating and

coordinating stimuli with the responses of effectors (muscles and glands)

A reflex action is a means of automatically and rapidly integrating and coordinating stimuli with

the responses of effectors (muscles and glands)

1. Identify the structures of the eye, limited to cornea, iris, pupil, lens, retina, optic

nerve, ciliary muscles, suspensory ligaments and blind spot

Note: ciliary body in the diagram is the ciliary muscles

Each eye is set in a bony socket called the orbit. Only the front of the eye isn’t surrounded by

bone.

Your eye is attached to your skull by muscles (shown by the branches that extend up and down

from the eyeball in the diagram).

The iris is the coloured part of your eye.

The gap through which light enters the eye is called the pupil.

The suspensory ligaments hold the lens in place and contract and relax to change the shape of

the lens so that light can be focused onto the retina. The ciliary muscles control the tension in

the suspensory ligaments, determining whether the suspensory ligaments are contracted or

relaxed.

The aqueous humour contains salts to nourish the lens.

The main body of the eye (called the vitreous chamber) contains the semi-solid fluid called the

vitreous humour. This supports the eyeball by helping it retain its shape.

Next is the retina – this is the part that’s actually sensitive to light (it contains the light receptor

cells). Some receptor cells are sensitive to light of different colours, helping to build up a

coloured image.

When light falls onto the retina, impulses are sent down the optic nerve. Note that there are

no receptor cells in the part where the optic nerve leaves the eye, so this part is called the blind

spot.

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2. Describe the function of each part of the eye, limited to:

 Cornea – refracts light

The convex shape of the cornea allows the cornea to refract light to enter the eye through the

pupil.

 Iris – controls how much light enters the pupil

The iris is the coloured part of the eye. It contains pigments that absorb light to prevent it from

getting through to the retina. The gap through which light enters the eye is called the pupil.

Thie size of the pupil (i.e. the aperture of the eye) can be adjusted to control how much light

enters the eye. If too much light enters the eye, this can damage the retina.

 Lens – focuses light onto retina

The suspensory ligaments hold the lens in place. The suspensory ligaments and ciliary body

work together to change the shape of the lens, so that light can be focused onto the retina.

 Retina – contains light receptors, some sensitive to light to different colours

The retina contains light receptors. There are two types of receptor cells in the retina: rod cells

and cone cells. Rod cells are sensitive to dim light but can’t detect colours. Cone cells, on the

other hand, are sensitive to colour but are only functional in bright light. There are three types

of cone cells – ones that detect red light, blue light and green light (the three primary colours

of light).

 Optic nerve – carries impulses to the brain

When light falls on the retina, the receptor cells generate electrical impulses called action

potentials. These impulses are sent down the optic nerve to the brain, where the information

is processed by the brain to produce the image that we see.

3. Explain the pupil reflex in terms of light intensity and antagonistic action of circular

and radial muscles in the iris

The iris contains two types of muscles – circular muscles and radial muscles. These control the

contraction and relaxation of the pupil to change how much light enters the eye.

Note: the circular muscles and radial muscles are antagonistic – as one contracts, the other

relaxes.

Radial muscles run outwards from the edge of the pupil and circular muscles circle the pupil.

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In bright light (high light intensity), the radial muscles relax and the circular muscles contract,

making the pupil smaller. This means less light can enter the eye.

In low light, the opposite occurs – radial muscles contract and the circular muscles relax,

causing the pupil to dilate. This means more light can enter the eye.

This action of the muscles in the iris is called pupil reflex or iris reflex.

This is an example of a reflex action (because we do not need to make the conscious decision

to do it – our body does it by itself.)

4. Explain accommodation to view near and distant objects in terms of the contraction

and relaxation of the ciliary muscles, tension in the suspensory ligaments, shape of

the lens and refraction of light

Accommodation is the ability of the eye to change the shape of its lens to alter its focus from

distant to near objects, and vice versa.

To focus light on the fovea, light must be refracted by the eye. This is done by the cornea and

the lens. The cornea does most of the refracting, and the lens makes finer adjustments to get

a clear, sharp, focused image.

Note that the image formed on the retina is inverted (upside down), but the brain interprets it

so that we perceive it the right way up.

Light rays coming from a distance will be almost parallel, so they need to be refracted less.

The lens is held in place by a ring of suspensory ligaments. The tension in the suspensory

ligaments, and thus the shape of the lens, is altered by the ciliary muscle.

When focusing on distant objects, the ciliary muscle is relaxed and the pressure in the vitreous

humour causes the suspensory ligaments to be pulled tight. This causes the lens to be

stretched thin, so the light is refracted less, allowing it to focus on the retina.

When focusing on nearby objects, the ciliary muscle contracts, allowing the suspensory

ligaments to relax, so the lens gets thicker (it bulges), refracting the light more.

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 1. Define hormone as a chemical substance, produced by a gland, carried by the

blood, which alters the activity of one or more specific target organs

A hormone is a chemical substance, produced by a gland, carried by the blood, which alters

the activity of one or more specific target organs.

2. Describe adrenaline as the hormone secreted in ‘fight or flight’ situations and its

effects, limited to increased breathing and pulse rate and widened pupils

Adrenaline is produced in a ‘fight or flight’ situation – when you are scared or excited, your body

produces adrenaline. Adrenaline is secreted from the adrenal glands (there is one above each

kidney) and is released into the blood, so that it can travel to the appropriate target organs.

Adrenaline stimulates the heart to beat faster – the pulse rate increases. This means more

blood (and thus, more oxygen) can be pumped around the body. It also stimulates the muscles

that control your breathing to increase your breathing rate. This allows your blood to absorb

more oxygen and helps the body expel more carbon dioxide. Both of these outcomes are

useful because it means our body tissues are provided with more oxygen and can respire

faster, giving us more energy to deal with whatever situation put us in ‘fight or flight’ mode.

3. Give examples of situations in which adrenaline secretion increases

As previously mentioned, adrenaline is secreted in ‘fight or flight’ situations. Examples include

writing an exam, public speaking, being left alone in a horror house, riding a roller coaster, or

being the last person left in the family version of the game bulldog. The horror.

Even better, if you’re desi, or really, from any Asian family, the true fear lies in being left alone

with all your overly curious and nosy aunties and uncles. I’m sure you can think of your own

fight or flight situations, though.

4. Discuss the role of the hormone adrenaline in the chemical control of metabolic

activity, including increasing the blood glucose concentration and pulse rate

As previously explained, adrenaline stimulates the heart to beat faster – the pulse rate

increases. This means more blood (and thus, more oxygen) can be pumped around the body.

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It also stimulates the contraction of blood vessels in the skin and digestive system, so more

blood is pumped to the muscles and the brain. This means they can respire faster, providing

more energy to deal with whatever put you in ‘fight or flight’ mode.

The liver is signalled to begin ‘gluconeogenesis’ too. This is the process of the production of

glucose – either by breaking down glycogen (which is a storage polymer, made of many glucose

molecules) or breaking down the lactic acid produced by muscles in exercise. This increases

the blood glucose concentration. Because the body respires glucose to give energy, more

glucose means more energy.

5. Compare nervous and hormonal control system in terms of speed and longevity of

action

While we tackle this learning objective, I figured I might as well make a table that compares the

nervous and endocrine system as a whole:

1. Define homeostasis as the maintenance of a constant internal environment

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment.

2. Explain that homeostasis is the control of internal conditions within set limits

Homeostasis is the control of internal conditions within set limits.

For example, the normal set limit for body temperature in humans is about 37oC. Homeostatic

mechanisms control our body temperature so that even when it fluctuates it, it stays very close

to the set limit.

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Similarly, we have a set limit for blood glucose levels. After a meal, when blood glucose levels

shoot up, homeostatic mechanisms cause the blood glucose concentration to fall back down

to the set limit.

3. Explain the concept of control by negative feedback

Negative feedback is when a fluctuation in a particular parameter, such as body temperature,

is reduced so that it returns to its normal range of functioning. This is done by triggering a

sensor that stimulates a response in an effector that reduces the fluctuation. In other words,

any change is counteracted so that it returns to its set-point.

Examples of negative feedback systems include thermoregulation (control of body

temperature), blood glucose concentration, osmoregulation (control of blood water potential),

etc. This is because any changes in any of these parameters results in the body acting so that

the change is minimised and is brought back to its normal range.

For example, if body temperature rises, the body will act to decrease the temperature back to

37oC (which is the set-point of body temperature). If body temperature falls, the body will act

to increase its temperature back to 37oC.

4. Describe the control of the glucose content of the blood by the liver and the roles of

insulin and glucagon from the pancreas

The hormones insulin and glucagon, secreted by the pancreas, control blood glucose

concentration.

Insulin is produced by the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. Glucagon is

produced by the alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.

The hormones travel to the liver in the blood, which is the organ that controls blood glucose

levels.

Glycogen is a short-term storage molecule. It is a polymer made of glucose molecules.

When the blood glucose level increases above its set point:

The pancreas secretes insulin, which travels to the liver in the bloodstream. Insulin stimulates

liver cells to absorb glucose and stimulates the conversion of glucose to glycogen. Insulin also

encourages an increase in the rate of respiration – this means more blood glucose is taken up

by cells and respired. All of this reduces blood glucose levels.

When the blood glucose level decreases below its set point:

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Glucagon is secreted by the pancreas, which then travels to the liver via blood. The hormone

glucagon stimulates the conversion of glycogen to glucose (this process is gluconeogenesis),

and glucose is released back into the bloodstream. This increases blood glucose levels.

5. Name and identify on a diagram of the skin: hairs, hair erector muscles, sweat glands,

receptors, sensory neurones, blood vessels and fatty tissue

Here are two diagrams, seeing as I couldn’t find everything that you should probably know on

just one:

The sensory receptors labelled in the first diagram could be a touch receptor, pressure

receptor, temperature receptor, etc.

6. Describe the maintenance of constant internal body temperature in humans in terms

of insulation, sweating, shivering and the role of the brain (limited to blood

temperature receptors and coordination)

Since the next learning objective also covers something very similar, I’m going to put that here,

too, before I start explaining.

7. Describe the maintenance of a constant internal body temperature in humans in

terms of vasodilation and vasoconstriction of arterioles supplying skin surface

capillaries

Humans maintain our body temperature at 37oC.

Fat is an insulator, so when the external temperature fluctuates, it prevents our internal

temperature from similarly fluctuating. This is because it traps heat inside our body and slows

down the warming up of our body from an external source.

When the temperature changes, temperature receptors in the skin detect this information and

send it as impulses through nerves to a part of our brain called the hypothalamus. This part of

our brain is in charge of maintaining constant body temperature – it works like a thermostat.

It sends electrical impulses along nerves to body parts that help regulate body temperature.

When the temperature rises, the hypothalamus stimulates:

 Hair to lie flat – the hair erector muscle is relaxed, allowing the hair to lie flat against the

skin, so no air is trapped close to the skin, so we are insulated less. This is less effective

in humans as we do not have as much body hair/ fur as some animals.

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  Vasodilation – the muscles in the walls of the arterioles supplying skin-surface capillaries

relax, increasing the size of the arteriole lumen. More blood flows, so more heat can be

lost to the environment from the blood at a time.

 Sweating – sweat is secreted by sweat glands. It evaporates, taking heat from the skin

with it, causing the body to cool down.

 Metabolism slows down – metabolism usually consists of exothermic reactions

(reactions that give off heat energy) so slower metabolism means less heat is given off

at a time.

When the temperature falls, the hypothalamus stimulates:

 Hair to stand erect – the erector muscle contracts, pulling the hair to stand up straight.

This allows the hair to trap air close to the skin. As air is an insulator, it traps heat close

to the skin, warming up the body.

 Vasoconstriction – muscles in arteriole walls contract, making the lumen smaller, so less

blood travels through the skin at a time, reducing the heat loss per unit time.

 Reduces sweating – so less sweat evaporates, making the body cool down less.

 Metabolism may increase.

 Shivering – muscles in some part of the body involuntarily contract and relax very

quickly, producing heat as a result.

1. Define gravitropism as a response in which parts of a plant grow towards or away from

gravity

Gravitropism is a response in which parts of a plant grow towards or away from gravity. Note:

gravitropism used to be called geotropism, which is why some past papers may mention

geotropism instead.

2. Define phototropism as a response in which parts of a plant grow towards or away

from the direction from which light is coming

Phototropism is a response in which parts of a plant grow towards or away from the direction

from which light is coming.

3. Explain phototropism and gravitropism of a shoot as examples of the chemical

control of plant growth

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Certain chemicals in plants regulate plant growth.

Phototropism and geotropism are examples of how chemicals like plant hormones regulate

plant growth.

In phototropism, these chemicals move to the part of the plant receiving less light. This causes

that part of the plant to grow more than the side receiving light, making the plant bend towards

the light.

In gravitropism, the plant hormone gathers on the lower side of the plant. This has different

effects on different parts of the plant:

 In the shoot, the chemical stimulates growth, so the stem curves upwards

 In the root, the chemical slows growth, so the root curves down.

4. Investigate gravitropism and phototropism in shoots and roots

Note: auxin is the main plant hormone that regulates gravitropism and phototropism.

Investigating gravitropism:

if you want a more detailed experiment plan then go online to this link:

https://www.education.com/science-fair/article/geotropism-plant-movement-due-gravity/

Investigating phototropism:

Take two cardboard boxes. In one, cut a small hole (about 2’’ in diameter) on the top and in the

other, cut a hole of the same size on the side of the box, about 3cm up from the bottom. Cover

both holes with clear plastic.

Take a photo of two small plant shoots growing in their own separate plant pots from the front.

Place one in each box, lining them up with the holes. You can grow your own bean plant shoots

for this experiment. Take a photo of both plants from above.

Position the boxes in different parts of the same room, and place lamps next to the boxes. Each

one should be lined up with the holes on the boxes, so that maximum light can get inside from

the direction of the hole.

Every morning, turn on both lamps and every night, turn them off. Make sure they are properly

watered and fertilized (both should be provided water and fertilizer in the exact same

amounts). Do this for one week. Open the boxes and take pictures of the plants from above

and in front. You will notice that both plants grew in the direction of the holes.

Explanation: In phototropism, the auxins move away from the light, towards the shaded side,

so this side of the plant will grow more, causing the plant to bend towards the light.

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5. Explain the role of auxin in controlling shot growth, limited to:

 Auxin made in shoot tip (only)

 Auxin spreads through the plant from the shoot tip

 Auxin is unequally distributed in response to light and gravity

 Auxin stimulates cell elongation

The hormones that regulate plant growth are called auxins.

Note that auxins in the shoot stimulate cell elongation (by stimulating the absorption of water,

forcing cells to expand) and that auxins in the root slow down cell growth.

Auxins are produced in the shoot tips of growing plants. These regions are called ‘meristems’.

More specifically, a meristem is a region of cell division in a plant, but I don’t think you’ll have

to know this term at the IGCSE level. All you need to know for your exam is that auxins are

produced in shoot tips.

Auxin spreads through the plant from the shoot tip, however, its distribution throughout the

plant is unequal. This is because of its response to light and gravity.

In phototropism, auxin moves to the part of the plant receiving less light. This causes the cells

on the shaded part of the plant to elongate, making the plant bend towards the light.

In gravitropism, auxin gathers on the lower side of the plant. This has different effects on

different parts of the plant:

 In the shoot, auxin stimulates cell elongation, so the stem curves upwards

 In the root, auxin slows growth, so the root curves down.

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1. Define asexual reproduction as a process resulting in the production of genetically

identical offspring from one parent

Asexual reproduction results in daughter nuclei that have an identical replica of the genes of

their parent nuclei. The definition is already given in the prompt!

2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction to a population

of species in the wild

Advantages:

 Species can multiply faster, as no courting is required – only one parent needed for

asexual reproduction.

 Species can colonise new habitats faster and more efficiently.

 In case of a mutation that is advantageous towards survival, e.g. a new gene giving rise

to an enzyme that allows resistance to a drug, the effect on the population can be seen

without a lot of delay. What I mean is, you have the new mutant cell, that has an

advantage over the other cells, thanks to a gene mutation. In the case of most asexual

bacteria, within the hour, you’ll have thousands of these new mutant cells, so the failure

of this drug to eradicate these cells becomes obvious. For this kind of effect to be seen

in organisms that rely on sexual reproduction takes years or decades.

Disadvantages:

 Because the genetic makeup of daughter cells are identical to that of their parent cells,

species that rely on asexual reproduction have minimal variation. The only way variation

can occur is through gene mutations.

 Due to limited variation, such a species has a limited chance of survival in a different or

changing environmental conditions, because all of them will only be adapted to a

particular set of ‘normal’ conditions.

 The species will not evolve as efficiently as sexually reproducing species.

 If an organism experiences a gene mutation resulting in a disadvantageous trait arises,

it will be easier for it to produce offspring and pass on its disadvantageous gene, as it

doesn’t require a sexual partner.

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  Due to its rapid multiplication rate, a mutation leading to a disadvantageous trait will

rapidly achieve a significant effect on its population, provided the disadvantaged

organisms survive long enough to reproduce.

3. Identify examples of asexual reproduction from information provided

Asexual reproduction, as the definition above stated, is the reproduction that results in

genetically identical offspring from one parent.

Any reproduction where the offspring are genetically identical, and only one parent produces

the offspring, is asexual reproduction.

4. Define sexual reproduction as a process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two

gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote and the production of offspring that are

genetically different from each other

This is a pretty self-explanatory point.

5. State that the nuclei of gametes are haploid and that the nucleus of a zygote is diploid

A haploid nucleus is a nucleus with one complete set of chromosomes. A diploid nucleus is a

nucleus with two complete sets of chromosomes.

The ‘ploidy number’ of a nucleus is the number of sets of chromosomes that the nucleus has.

Gametes are haploid and zygotes are diploid.

This is because two gametes (haploid) fuse to form a zygote. This means that the zygote has a

set of chromosomes from each gamete, resulting in the zygote possessing two complete sets

of chromosomes. So it is diploid.

6. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction to a population of

species in the wild

Advantages:

 Gives rise to variation.

 Due to variation, the species has a higher chance of survival in different or changing

conditions.

 This makes it easier for it to colonise new habitats.

 As variation is the driving force of evolution, evolution occurs efficiently.

 A negative mutation takes longer to inflict a significant effect on a population, or may

never be passed on to the next generation.

Disadvantages:

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  Takes a long time to court.

 Takes a while to colonise new habitats, so the survival of species is harder to ensure.

 Requires two parents which can be difficult to achieve when there is a disparity in the

number of males and females of the species in the area.

 In the same way a negative mutation may not be passed on to the next generation

because the parent couldn’t mate/ the gamete containing the bad gene wasn’t fertilised,

positive or favourable genes may not be passed on.

 It produces fewer offspring than asexual reproduction (this point ties in with the point

about the colonisation of new habitats taking a while).

1. Identify and draw, using a hand lens if necessary, the sepals, petals, stamens,

filaments and anthers, carpels, style, stigma, ovary and ovules, of an insect-

pollinated flower

Here’s a diagram of a typical dicot, insect-pollinated flower:

Just so that you get a better idea of how these parts actually look in real life (which would

probably be a good idea if you’re writing the practical exam) it’s a good idea to pluck an actual

dicotyledonous flower and compare its parts to the ones given on the diagram. Cut it up and

dissect it, if it’ll help you identify all the parts.

If you’re confused as to whether the flower is insect-pollinated or not, if it has petals, it’s

probably insect pollinated. If you don’t know whether it’s dicot or monocot, the leaves on

dicotyledonous plants tend to be veiny, and the veins branch out towards the edges of the leaf.

2. Use a hand lens to identify and describe the anthers and stigmas of a wind-pollinated

flower

Wind-pollinated flowers are different in structure because they do not have to attract insects

to them but do need to be exposed to the wind.

3. The sepals are a hard layer that protect the flower while it is a bud.State the functions

of the sepals, petals, anthers, stigmas and ovaries

Petals come in different, often vibrant, colours to attract insects for pollination.

Anthers contain pollen sacs. This is where pollen grains are formed. Pollen grains contain the

male gametes (sex cells) required for fertilisation.

The stigma is a sticky surface that catches the pollen during pollination.

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The ovaries contain ovules. These develop into seeds when they are fertilised.

4. Distinguish between the pollen grains of insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated

flowers

Pollen grains from insect-pollinated flowers are larger and heavier than grains from wind-

pollinated flowers.

Insect-pollinated flowers have pollen grains that are usually either sticky or spiky – this helps

the pollen get stuck to insects, assisting the pollen in getting carried to another flower.

Wind-pollinated flowers have smooth and light pollen grains so that the wind can carry the

pollen to other flowers without the pollen clumping together.

Wind-pollinated flowers also produce higher numbers of pollen grains than insect-pollinated

flowers.

5. Define pollination as the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma

6. Name the agents of pollination

Animals, including insects; the wind; water.

7. State that fertilisation occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with a nucleus in an ovule

Fertilisation occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with a nucleus in an ovule.

8. Describe the structural adaptations of insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers

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9. Investigate and state the environmental conditions that affect germination of seeds,

limited to the requirement for water, oxygen and a suitable temperature

Before telling you the required environmental conditions, it’ll be useful for you to know the

basic structure of the seed.

The tough outer coat is called the testa. The cotyledon serves as a food store. The radicle grows

to become a root, and the plumule grows to become a shoot. According to Cambridge, the

radicle, plumule, and cotyledons are all part of the embryo.

Seeds mostly require three environmental conditions for germination: oxygen, water and

growth.

Oxygen is required for respiration, which provides the seed with the energy necessary for

germination.

Water is required to make the food in the food stores of the seed soluble so that they can be

transported to the seed embryo and used in respiration. It is also required for the seed to swell

and burst so that the root and shoot can emerge.

Most seeds require warmth to germinate, which is why most plants only grow in spring and

summer.

Investigating these conditions:

First, I’ll describe the investigation of temperature:

Take five or more transparent containers. Stuff them with kitchen tissue and spray adequate

water in each (so that the tissue in each container is damp, but not a soggy a mess). Put the

same number of seeds in each container (e.g. four seeds in each), making sure that each of the

seeds are visible from outside the container. Make sure the containers are open to the air, so

plenty of oxygen reaches each seed.

Place each of the containers in different incubators at different temperatures, for three weeks.

Maintain the dampness of the tissue in each container for the duration of the experiment. Take

pictures of the containers (so that we can view all the seeds) at the same time each day, every

day for three weeks. Note which seeds sprout the fastest, and which temperature they

germinate at. You will notice that the seeds at warmer temperatures sprout faster, but if the

temperature is too high or low, they end up not sprouting.

To investigate water:

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Use two transparent containers stuffed with tissue, and place the same number of seeds in

each. Make sure that there are enough air spaces for each seed to receive plenty of oxygen.

Spray one of the containers with water, and leave the other one dry.

Place the two containers in two different incubators for three weeks, at the same temperature

(25oC). Take pictures every day, at the same time of day, throughout the experiment and note

which seeds germinate.

Investigating oxygen:

Use two transparent containers. Fill one with wet sand (this will reduce the air supply to the

seeds in this container greatly), and set up the other with damp tissue. Place seeds in each so

that they are visible from outside the container. Incubate both containers at the same

temperature for three weeks, taking pictures every day at the same time of each day. Note

which seeds germinate first.

1. Identify and name on diagrams of the male reproductive system: the testes, scrotum,

sperm ducts, prostate gland, urethra and penis

The vas deferens is the sperm duct. Also, testis is singular, while testes is plural.

2. State the function of the parts of the male reproductive system limited to:

 Testes – production of male gametes (sperm)

The testes are the glands in which sperm are produced. Sperm are male sex gametes.

 Scrotum – sac that holds the testes outside the body

The scrotum is the sac that holds the testes outside the body. It protects the testes, and by

holding them outside the body, allows the testes to be kept several degrees cooler than the

normal body temperature. This is important to produce sperm.

 Sperm ducts – transfer sperm to the urethra

Sperm ducts are the ducts through which the sperm pass in order to move from the testes to

the urethra.

 Prostate gland – secrete fluids for sperm to swim in forming semen

The prostate gland secretes prostate fluid for sperm to swim in. The mixture of prostate fluid

and sperm is called semen.

 Urethra – carries urine and semen to vagina during sexual intercourse

The urethra carries urine to the outside of the body during urination.

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It also carries semen to the vagina during sexual intercourse.

 Penis – transfers semen to vagina during sexual intercourse

The penis transfers semen to the vagina during sexual intercourse, mostly through ejaculation.

Ejaculation is when semen is ejected from the body.

The penis is the primary male sex organ. When a male is aroused, the blood vessels in the penis

expand, allowing more blood to flow into the penis. Blood flow out of the penis is restricted,

and thus the penis becomes hard. This is important for sexual intercourse to happen, or else

the penis cannot penetrate the vaginal opening.

3. Identify and name on diagrams of the female reproductive system: the ovaries,

oviducts, uterus, cervix and vagina

4. State the function of the parts of the female reproductive system limited to:

 Ovaries – release of female gametes (eggs)

Oocytes (undeveloped ovums/ eggs) are produced in the ovaries. Once a month, about half-

way through the female menstrual cycle, one egg is released from one of the ovaries into the

connecting oviduct. This process is called ovulation.

 Oviducts – transfers egg to uterus and the site of fertilisation

Oviducts (also known as fallopian, uterine or ovarian tubes) allow the transmission of the

ovulated oocyte from an ovary to the uterus. Oviducts are also the site of fertilisation and

maturation of the oocyte into an ovum.

 Uterus – where the fetus develops

The uterus nurtures the fertilised ovum that develops into a foetus and holds the baby until it

is mature enough for birth. The fertilized ovum is implanted into the endometrium and it

receives nourishment from the blood vessels developed for this purpose.

 Cervix – ring of muscle at the opening of the uterus

The cervix is a ring of muscle at the opening of the uterus. It allows the flow of menstrual blood

from uterus into the vagina, and directs the sperm into the uterus during sexual intercourse.

The opening of the cervix is usually very narrow but widens to about 10 cm during labour. A

loose cervical opening can often lead to miscarriages.

 Vagina – receives penis during sexual intercourse

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The vagina receives the penis during sexual intercourse, allowing ejaculated semen to travel

from the vagina, through the cervix and into the uterus, where sperm have the opportunity to

swim towards the oviducts to fertilise an egg.

5. Describe fertilisation as the fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete (sperm) and a

female gamete (egg cell/ ovum)

Fertilisation is the fusion of nuclei from a male gamete (sperm) and a female gamete (egg cell/

ovum)

During sexual intercourse, an erect penis is inserted into the vagina.

Semen is then ejaculated, and millions of sperm are released into the neck of the vagina. Out

of these millions, numerous sperm will find the egg – as shown in the animated picture above

the sperm vs. ovum table – but only one will penetrate.

A fertilisation membrane is secreted around the egg once one sperm penetrates, preventing

the penetration of numerous sperm.

Finally, the sperm nucleus and egg nucleus fuse to form a zygote. This is fertilisation.

6. Compare male and female gametes in terms of size, structure, motility and numbers

7. State the adaptive features of sperm, limited to flagellum and the presence of

enzymes

Sperm cells possess a flagellum – this is the tail of the sperm. The flagellum makes a whipping

motion, propelling the sperm forwards, helping it swim. This helps the sperm swim towards

and fertilise an egg.

Egg cells possess a jelly coat called the zona pellucida. They are also surrounded by cushioning

cells which make up the corona radiata. To help the sperm make its way through these layers,

it possesses digestive enzymes in a sac in its head. The sac is called the ‘acrosome’. When the

sperm comes into contact with its layers, the acrosome releases its enzymes, helping the sperm

digest its way through these layers.

8. State the adaptive features of egg cells, limited to energy stores and a jelly coating

that changes after fertilisation

Egg cells contain large energy stores – these provide nutrients for the embryo during early

development.

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Egg cells are also surrounded by a jelly coating called the zona pellucida. After one sperm

manages to penetrate the zona pellucida, its changes to become impenetrable to more sperm.

This stops polyspermy – where more than one sperm nucleus interacts with an ovum nucleus.

9. Describe the menstrual cycle in terms of changes in the uterus and ovaries

(knowledge of sex hormones are not required)

The menstrual cycle is a hormone regulated cycle. On average, it lasts 28 – 35 days.

It should also be noted that each ovary contains numerous follicles.

A follicle is a fluid filled sac that contains an oocyte (an immature egg).

There are two main phases in each menstrual cycle: The follicular phase – which lasts

approximately 2 weeks, and the luteal phase, which lasts another two weeks.

Menstruation marks the beginning of each cycle, and thus, the first part of the follicular phase.

This is when the endometrium lining sheds. If you’re a girl who’s hit puberty, you’ll know that

this is the messiest part.

Washing out blood stains is absolute torture, and don’t even get me started on the cramps.

You don’t need to know this, but those cramps are caused by muscle contractions – similar to

the ones you experience during labour, but usually much less intense.

How long the menstrual phase lasts varies from girl to girl – it spans 3 to 9 days, depending on

the person.

During menstruation, follicles start to develop, and along with them, the oocytes they carry.

The Endometrium lining starts getting repaired. The dominant follicle – i.e. the one that will

release the egg in ovulation, will only finish developing after the end of menstruation.

Next is Ovulation. This marks the transition from the follicular phase to the luteal phase. In

ovulation, the dominant follicle bursts and turns into a corpus luteum, and the oocyte is

released into the oviduct. The luteal phase has begun.

The hormones produced by the corpus luteum ensure that the thickness of the endometrium

is maintained.

The egg is moved slowly down the oviduct by fluids and the muscles in the oviduct walls.

If the egg is fertilised while in the oviduct, it will form a zygote, which then forms an embryo, a

foetus, and finally, a baby. The uterus wall (endometrium) thickness will be maintained until

birth.

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If the egg is not fertilised, it will die in the fallopian tube and dissolve. The hormones

maintaining the endometrium stop being produced and the endometrium starts to break

down.

This causes menstruation and marks the start of the next cycle.

10. State that in early development, the zygote forms an embryo which is a ball of cells

that implants into the wall of the uterus

In early development, the zygote forms an embryo. An embryo is a ball of cells that implants

into the wall of the uterus.

11. State the functions of the umbilical cord, placenta, amniotic sac and amniotic fluid

The umbilical takes blood from the foetus to the placenta, through the umbilical artery. Foetal

blood returns from the placenta returns to the foetus through the umbilical vein through the

umbilical cord.

The placenta (which carries the mother’s blood) and the foetal blood vessels that branch out

into capillaries close to the villi walls bring the foetal blood and maternal blood very close, but

don’t allow them to mix.

This is very important because the foetus may have a different blood group to the mother, and

mixing blood groups will cause blood clotting. Also, the mother’s blood pressure is much

higher, and this could damage the foetal organs.

The proximity of the maternal and foetal blood allow substances from one’s blood to diffuse

across into the other’s blood.

This is a picture of the amniotic sac and fluid. The amniotic

sac is the thin membrane (which is formed from cells of the

embryo). You can also see the foetus, almost developed into

a baby.

The white cord extending from approximately the baby’s

belly button is the umbilical cord. The fluid that the foetus is

suspended in is called the amniotic fluid.

Just to give you guys an idea of the positioning of the

amniotic sac, I’ve included this diagram. Note that in normal

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pregnancy, foetus’ and babies will change position several times but should always be upside

down for the last stages and during birth.

The function of the amniotic sac is enclosing the amniotic fluid and preventing the entry of

bacteria.

The function of amniotic fluid is supporting the foetus and protecting it from physical damage.

It also absorbs excretory materials (urine) release by the foetus.

12. Describe the function of the placenta and umbilical cord in relation to exchange of

dissolved nutrients, gases and excretory products and providing a barrier to toxins

(structural details are not required)

The umbilical cord brings foetal blood to and from the placenta, in the umbilical artery and

vein. The placenta provides a surface in which the mother’s blood and foetus’s blood can be

brought very close together without mixing. This allows nutrients and gases such as oxygen to

diffuse across the placenta to the foetus, and for waste products like carbon dioxide and

excretory products to diffuse to the mother. The placenta provides a barrier to most toxins,

protecting the foetus from most things that the mother may be exposed to.

13. State that human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection may lead to acquired

immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)

HIV may lead to AIDs.

Note: HIV is the name of the virus. It attacks cells of your immune system and weakens your

defence against everyday infections.

AIDs is the name used to describe a number of potentially life-threatening infections and

illnesses that happen when your immune system has been severely damaged by HIV.

14. Describe the methods of transmission of HIV

HIV is primarily spread through the transfer of body fluids.

It can be transmitted in the following ways:

 From infected mother to foetus across placenta

 Feeding a baby milk from an infected mother

 Unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person

 Transfusion with unscreened blood

 Use of unsterilized surgical instruments

 Sharing hypodermic needles when taking drugs

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15. Explain how the spread of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) is controlled

There are many ways to minimise the risk of contracting an STI. The following is taken from the

mayo clinic website:

 Abstinence: abstaining from sex will prevent the transmission of STIs

 Having only one sexual partner: if you and your partner are uninfected, and have sex

with no one else, the chances of you contracting an STI are extremely low. If your partner

has an STI, you have a relatively high risk of contracting the infection if your partner is

not treated. However, maintaining only one sexual partner means the infection will not

be spread to other people.

 Wait and test: avoid vaginal and anal intercourse with new partners until you both have

been tested for STIs. Oral sex is less risky, but use a latex condom or dental dam to

prevent direct skin-to-skin contact between the oral and genital mucous membranes.

 Get vaccinated: getting vaccinated early, before sexual exposure, is effective in

preventing certain types of STIs. Vaccines are available for HPV (human papillomavirus),

hepatitis A and hepatitis B.

 Use condoms and dental dams consistently and correctly: use a new latex condom or

dental dam for each sex act. Never use an oil-based lubricant, such as petroleum jelly,

with a latex condom or dental dam.

 Avoid drinking alcohol excessively or using drugs: if you’re not sober, you’re more likely

to take sexual risks.

 Communicate: before any serious sexual contact, communicate with your partner about

practising safe sex. Be sure you specifically agree on what activities will and won’t be OK.

I’m not sure you’ll need to know the following point for your exams, but I’ll put it here just in

case:

 Consider male circumcision: There’s evidence that male circumcision can help reduce a

man’s risk of contracting HIV from an infected woman by as much as 60%. Male

circumcision may also prevent the transmission of genital HPV and genital herpes.

1. Define inheritance as the transmission of genetic information from generation to

generation

Inheritance is the transmission of genetic information from generation to generation.

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2. Define chromosome as a thread-like structure of DNA, carrying genetic information in

the form of genes

A chromosome is a thread-like structure of DNA, carrying genetic information in the form of

genes.

3. Define gene as a length of DNA that codes for a protein

A gene is a length of DNA that codes for a protein.

4. Define allele as a version of a gene

An allele is a version of a gene.

5. Describe the inheritance of sex in humans with reference to XX and XY chromosomes

Sex gametes in humans (i.e. the sperm and egg) are formed through meiosis – a type of cell

division in which a diploid parent cell divides into haploid daughter cells. (Cell division is

covered in the next section).

This means each sex gamete has only one set of chromosomes.

There are two types of sex chromosomes in humans – the X chromosome and the Y

chromosome.

Also, females have two X chromosomes in each diploid cell, so they are XX and males have one

X and one Y chromosome, so they are XY.

This means that when eggs (the female gamete) are formed, the only sex chromosome they

can have is X, so all eggs have the X chromosome.

When sperm are formed, however, they have a 50/50 chance of getting either the X

chromosome or the Y chromosome.

In other words, half of the produced sperm will have an X chromosome and the other half will

have a Y chromosome.

This means that it is equally likely that a sperm with an X chromosome and a sperm with a Y

chromosome will fertilise the egg, so the chances of the zygote being male or female are equal.

6. Define a haploid nucleus as a nucleus containing a single set of unpaired

chromosomes e.g. in gametes

This is a pretty self-explanatory point! Simply learn the definition

7. Define a diploid nucleus as a nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes, e.g. in body

cells

Once again, all you have to do is learn the definition!

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8. State that in a diploid cell, chromosomes are arranged in pairs and in a human diploid

cell there are 23 pairs

Another self-explanatory point – in a diploid cell, chromosomes are arranged in pairs and in a

human diploid cell there are 23 pairs.

1. Define mitosis as the nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells (details

of stages are not required)

Learn the definition!

2. State that the exact duplication of chromosomes occurs before mitosis

Before mitosis occurs, all the chromosomes in the cells are exactly duplicated. This is because,

in mitosis, all the nuclei divide into 2 separate nuclei, taking half the chromosomes each.

Having duplicates means that each daughter nucleus will possess the full set of chromosomes

(in humans, each daughter nucleus will possess the full 23 chromosomes).

3. State the role of mitosis in growth, repair of damaged tissues, replacement of cells

and asexual reproduction

Since mitosis gives rise to genetically identical daughter cells, mitosis is useful when we need

more of the same type of cells for example:

In growth, body cells divide to form more of the same type of body cells e.g. hair cells divide to

produce more hair cells, etc.

This is also important when repairing damaged tissue. For example, imagine you cut yourself.

You have damaged your skin tissue, so now you need more skin cells to patch up the wound,

and thus, mitosis is useful.

Mitosis is useful in replacement of worn-out cells for obvious reasons too.

Asexual reproduction relies on mitosis too, because this type of reproduction does not rely on

the fusion of gamete nuclei, so mitosis ensures that the chromosome number is maintained.

4. Define mitosis as reduction division in which the chromosome number is halved from

diploid to haploid resulting in genetically different cells (details of stages are not

required)

Note: Meiosis results in genetic variation so the cells produced are not all genetically identical.

Let me explain.

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We already know that each diploid cell has two sets of chromosomes, right? So each

corresponding chromosome has the same genes in the same order, but the alleles of each

gene might be different. This means that when meiosis occurs, and the chromosomes are split

between the daughter cells, some daughter cells will get one of the alleles and the other

daughter cells will get the other allele. Therefore, the daughter cells are not genetically identical

and there is genetic variation.

5. State that meiosis is involved in the production of gametes

Gametes are a result of meiosis – meiosis means that the diploid parent cells can give rise to

haploid gametes.

1. Define genotype as the genetic make-up of an organism in terms of the alleles present

This learning objective is just a definition you need to memorise!

2. Define phenotype as the observable features of an organism

This is another definition

3. Define homozygous as having two identical alleles of a particular gene

And yet another definition!

4. State that two identical homozygous individuals that breed together will be pure-

breeding

Pure-breeding is when a group of identical individuals produce offspring with the same

phenotype.

As homozygous organisms all have the same alleles, their offspring must have the same alleles.

E.g. two individuals with genotypes AA and AA will definitely produce offspring with the

genotype AA.

That means two identical homozygous individuals that breed together will be pure-breeding.

Note: in the above example, ‘A’ is shorthand for the dominant version of a particular allele. The

recessive version would generally be written as ‘a’. This means an individual with the genotype

‘AA’ has two dominant alleles of the same gene.

5. Define heterozygous as having two different alleles of a particular gene

Heterozygous individuals have two different alleles of a particular gene.

6. State that a heterozygous individual will not be pure-breeding

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A heterozygous individual will not be pure-breeding. This is because heterozygous individuals

possess different alleles of a gene, so their offspring may not be identical.

e.g. If two heterozygous individuals with genotypes Aa and Aa were crossed, their offspring

could have genotypes AA, Aa or aa.

7. Define dominant as an allele that is expressed if it is present

A dominant allele is an allele that is expressed if it is present.

8. Define recessive as an allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant allele

of the gene present

A recessive allele is an allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant allele of the gene

present.

9. Use genetic diagrams to predict the results of monohybrid crosses and calculate

phenotypic ratios, limited to 1:1 and 3:1 ratios

10. Use Punnett squares in crosses which result in more than one genotype to work out

and show the possible different genotypes

Monohybrid inheritance involves the study of how a single gene is passed from parent to child.

It should be noted that for each gene, the dominant allele is usually denoted using a capital

letter, e.g. T, and the recessive allele is usually denoted using a small letter, e.g. t.

You should also know that in some diagrams, they use the terms F1 and F2.

F1 is the first generation of offspring acquired when you cross a homozygous dominant

organism and a homozygous recessive organism. This means that all F1 organisms are

heterozygous. (I’ll show you how that works in a moment). Sometimes, people use the term

F1 to describe the generation of offspring resulting from a cross, although this is technically

incorrect.

F2 is the generation resulting from a cross between two F1 organisms. As F1 organisms are

heterozygous, F2 organisms can be homozygous dominant, heterozygous or homozygous

recessive.

Before I get to the monohybrid cross diagrams, let me show you what a Punnett grid is:

We use these to help us calculate all the possible offspring genotypes and the likelihood of

each genotype being born.

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Note that in diploid organisms, one set of chromosomes contain one of the alleles for a

particular trait, and the other set of chromosomes will get the other allele.

This is why gametes will have one allele each.

Here’s a cross resulting in F1 organisms:

AA and aa are the parent genotypes.

As a result, all the offspring genotypes are Aa (heterozygous).

Since A is the dominant allele, all offspring will display the phenotype resulting from A.

To help you understand, here’s an example:

The allele A codes for normal and the allele a codes for albinism (a condition in which the body

cannot produce the pigment melanin – which is what gives skin its brownish colour. Asians and

Africans tend to have a higher density of melanin in their skin than Whites. Albinism results in

white patches are completely white skin, and sometimes pale blue or pale pink irises.)

A is dominant, so wherever A is present, the organism will be normal.

This means one of the parents is normal and the other an albino, and all the offspring are

normal.

Here’s a cross between two F1 organisms. Note that this cross results in a 3 : 1 phenotypic ratio:

Both parents are heterozygous (they are normal).

When you cross them, the results are one homozygous dominant offspring (normal), two

heterozygous offspring (also normal) and one homozygous recessive organism (albino).

This means the ratio of phenotypes normal : albino is 3 : 1.

So, there is a ¾ chance of the cross resulting in a normal offspring if only one child is born, and

a ¼ chance of an albino offspring if one child is born.

The last cross we should look at is a cross involving a 1 : 1 ratio:

Note that this happens when one of the parents are heterozygous and the other parent

homozygous recessive.

11. Interpret pedigree diagrams for the inheritance of a given characteristic

A pedigree chart or diagram is a diagram that shows the occurrence and appearance of

phenotypes of a particular gene from one generation to the next.

Here’s an example:

Looking at this diagram, and using your knowledge of monohybrid crosses and phenotypic

ratios, you can guess the genotypes of the individuals involved. The rest of this notes page is

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going to be an in-depth explanation of how you would go about working out the genotypes of

each member of this pedigree diagram.

Say that the gene we are looking at is the gene for albinism. A is the dominant allele and a is

recessive. It is ‘a’ that codes for albinism, making albinism a recessive disorder.

At the top of the chart, in the first generation, both male and female are unaffected, so they

could be AA or Aa.

When we look at the next generation, we can see that there are both affected and unaffected

offspring. This means both parents can not be AA – at least one of them is Aa.

In the second generation, since the affected : unaffected ratio is 1 : 1, it is most likely that one

parent is AA and the other is Aa. However, both being Aa is possible.

In the second generation, we know all the black squares are affected males. Their genotypes

are aa.

The other offspring are white, and so unaffected. So we know that their genotype is either AA

or Aa.

Now let’s look at the third generation.

First, let’s look at the first family from the left. There are three offspring. One is affected and

the other two are unaffected.

We know that the father has the genotype ‘aa’. So the mother could be ‘Aa’ or ‘AA’. If the mother

was AA, we know that all the children would be Aa – so there would be no affected children.

However, there is one affected child so the mother can not be AA. Therefore, we know the

mother is Aa.

The affected child is aa, and since the mother is Aa and the father aa, we know the unaffected

children must be Aa.

Now let’s look at the second family from the left.

The mother and father are unaffected, so are either Aa or AA. They have both unaffected and

affected children, so at least one of them must carry the ‘a’ allele. If one of them was AA, and

the other Aa, the children would either be AA or Aa, so none of them would be affected.

However, this family has one affected child. This means both parents must be Aa. The affected

child is aa and the unaffected child can either be Aa or AA.

Next is the third family from the left.

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The father is affected, so he has genotype aa. The mother is unaffected, so she could be AA or

Aa. The child is also unaffected so she could be AA or Aa. However, the child has a father that

is homozygous recessive, so she must have inherited at least one ‘a’ allele from her father,

meaning that we can deduct that the child’s genotype is Aa. We cannot, however, deduce the

mother’s genotype from the given information.

In a similar fashion, we can work out the genotypes for the final family.

1. Define variation as differences between individuals of the same species

Variation is the differences between individuals of the same species.

2. Distinguish between phenotypic variation and genetic variation

Genetic differences or variation can lead to differences in an individual’s phenotype.

For example, imagine the allele T coded for tall plants and t coded for dwarf plants. There is

genetic variation between Tt and TT, but no phenotypic variation. However, there would be

both genetic and phenotypic variation between TT and tt or between Tt and tt.

An individual’s phenotype can be influenced by both their genotype on their environment, e.g.

height in humans, whereas genotype is only influenced by mutation and inheritance.

3. State that phenotypic variation is caused by both genetic and environmental factors

Phenotypic variation is caused by both genetic and environmental factors. For example,

imagine T coded for tall plants and t coded for dwarf plants.

A plant with genotypes TT or Tt would be taller than a plant with genotype tt given the same

conditions for growth. However, factors like available nutrients, water, sunlight, temperature,

etc. can also affect the growth of the plant, meaning plants with the same genotype can have

different heights because of environmental factors.

4. State that continuous variation results in a range of phenotypes between two

extremes, e.g. height in humans

Continuous variation results in a range of phenotypes between two extremes, e.g. height in

humans. The variation is continuous because there is an unlimited number of phenotypes

between two extremes.

5. State that discontinuous variation is mostly caused by genes alone, e.g. A, B, AB and

O blood groups in humans

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Discontinuous variation is mostly caused by genes alone, e.g. A, B, AB and O blood groups in

humans. The variation is discontinuous because there are a limited number of discrete

phenotypes.

6. State that discontinuous variation results in a limited number of phenotypes with no

intermediates, e.g. tongue rolling

Discontinuous variation results in a limited number of phenotypes with no intermediates, e.g.

tongue rolling – you can either roll the sides of your tongue up, or you can’t. There are no in-

betweens.

7. Record and present the results of investigations into continuous and discontinuous

variation

One possible investigation of continuous variation would be to measure and record the

heights of all of your classmates.

Usually, in continuous variation, when you plot a graph of frequency on the y axis and

phenotype on the x axis, you get a smooth bell curve:

The bigger your sample size (the more people you measure), the smoother the curve.

Discontinuous variation, however, gives a step-like shape.

For example, if you recorded the frequency of different blood groups in your class and

plotted a graph, it may look something like this:

Similarly, you can investigate many different types of continuous and discontinuous variation

– e.g. people who can roll their tongues vs people who can’t, eye colour, gender, whether ear

lobes are free (lobed) or fixed (lobeless), weight, etc.

8. Define mutation as a change in a gene or chromosome

A mutation is a change in a gene or chromosome.

9. State that ionising radiation and some chemicals increase the rate of mutation

Ionising radiation and some chemicals increase the rate of mutation.

Mutations can occur randomly and spontaneously, however, ionising radiation can interact

with DNA particles, causing electrons to become knocked off and the atoms that make up DNA

to become ionised. This can cause unwanted chemical reactions in DNA, often changing the

base sequence of the DNA. Chemicals may also interact with the DNA, causing unwanted

reactions and resulting in a change in the base sequence of the DNA. This is mutation.

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It should be noted that mutations happen all the time in people, but in most cases, your body

can fix the faulty genes before any serious consequences arise.

10. Describe natural selection with reference to:

 Variation within populations

 Production of many offspring

 Competition for resources

 Struggle for survival

 Reproduction by individuals better adapted to the environment than others

 Passing on of their alleles to the next generation

In a given population of a species, there will be variation.

Most species produce many offspring – more than is needed to maintain the size of the

population. Often, there are only limited resources available to the population, e.g. food,

mates, territory, etc.

This means that members of the population must compete for these resources – this results in

a struggle for survival.

Due to variation, some individuals will possess certain characteristics that make them better

adapted to their environment than others. Examples could include longer necks in giraffes,

greater speed in cheetahs, strength in stags, etc. Individuals that are better adapted to survive

are more likely to survive – this is called ‘survival of the fittest’. It is these individuals that will

live long enough to find a mate and reproduce.

As a result, the alleles of the individuals that are better adapted to survive will be passed on to

the next generation. In this way, advantageous alleles are ‘selected’.

This whole process, in which organisms that are better adapted to their environment tend to

survive and produce more offspring, is known as natural selection.

11. Describe evolution as the change in adaptive features of a population over time as

the result of natural selection

Evolution is the change in adaptive features of a population over time as a result of natural

selection.

Natural selection means that advantageous adaptive features are selected with each passing

generation, increasing the frequency of these features over time. As the newer generations

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change to adapt to their environments (remember, environments can change over time as

well), the species as a whole can change. This is evolution.

12. Define the process of adaptation as the process, resulting from natural selection, by

which populations become more suited to their environment over many generations

Adaptation is the process, resulting from natural selection, by which populations become more

suited to their environment over many generations.

13. Describe the development of strains of antibiotic resistant bacteria as an example of

evolution by natural selection

Due to mutation, one or two bacteria in a population of bacteria may have developed genes

that grant them immunity against a certain antibiotic, or sometimes, against multiple

antibiotics. Therefore, if an antibiotic they are resistant to is used to wipe out their population,

these resistant bacteria will survive, and will be able to reproduce asexually to pass on their

genes to the next generation. Bacteria multiply very quickly, so entire colonies of antibiotic

resistant bacteria can form in a couple of hours. In this fashion, new strains of resistant bacteria

can evolve as a result of natural selection.

This is why it’s important to always complete the antibiotic course you’re on – whether you feel

better before it’s over or not. Completing the course will ensure the death of all the bacteria,

reducing the chance that some will survive and mutate to gain the resistance gene (Mutations

in bacteria usually occur during reproduction). It is also a good idea to take a combination of

antibiotics instead of relying on just one, in case you have bacteria that are resistant to one of

them. However, you should never take antibiotics without consulting a doctor first.

Medicines are, after all, drugs, and if not administered properly, can be seriously harmful.

14. Describe selective breeding with reference to:

 Selection by humans of individuals with desirable features

 Crossing these individuals to produce the next generation

 Selection of offspring showing the desirable features

Similar to natural selection, humans can bring about changes in living organisms by selecting

certain individuals for breeding.

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We can choose individuals with characteristics that we find desirable, and cross these

individuals to produce the next generation. Often we do not allow the other individuals to

breed.

The offspring that arise will tend to show a higher frequency of the desirable feature.

Example of features that we artificially select include:

 Docility (so they are easier to control), faster growth rates and higher milk yields in

domesticated cattle.

 Friendlier, more sociable pets such as domestic cats and dogs.

 Breeds of animals that are bred for their beauty, e.g. Persian cats

 Higher yield and faster growth rates in crops

 Crops have been bred for resistance to different diseases, e.g. resistance to a fungal

infection called head blight

15. State the differences between natural and artificial selection

Natural selection is the process through which organisms better adapted to their environment

tend to survive and produce more offspring.

Artificial selection is the process by which animals and plants are chosen by the breeder to

produce desirable and inheritable characteristics in successive generations.

Some differences include:

16. Outline how selective breeding by artificial selection is carried out over many

generations to improve crop plants and domesticated animals

1. State that the Sun is the principal source of energy input to biological systems

The Sun is the principal source of energy input to biological systems.

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If you’re having trouble understanding why, visualise a food web. Carnivores gain their energy

from consuming other animals, herbivores gain their energy from consuming plants, and

plants gain their energy from the Sun.

Therefore, the Sun is the ultimate source of energy in all biological systems.

2. Define the terms:

 Food chain as showing the transfer of energy from one organism to the next, beginning

with a producer

 Food web as a network of interconnected food chains

 Producer as an organism that makes its own organic nutrients, usually using energy from

sunlight, through photosynthesis

 Consumer as an organism that gets its energy by feeding on other organisms

 Herbivore as an animal that gets its energy by eating plants

 Carnivore as an animal that gets its energy by eating other animals

 Decomposer as an organism that gets its energy from dead or waste organic matter

3. Define the terms:

 Ecosystem as a unit containing all of the organisms and their environment,

interacting together, in a given area, e.g. a lake

 Trophic level as the position of an organism in a food chain or food web

Learn these definitions too!

4. Describe how energy is transferred between trophic levels

Energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next when a consumer eats another

organism and gains the energy-rich molecules from its body.

5. Explain why food chains usually have fewer than five trophic levels

In any self-respecting food chain, the first item is the Sun. Then comes the producer (the first

trophic level), then the primary consumer (the second trophic level), the secondary consumer

(third trophic level), sometimes there’s a tertiary consumer (fourth trophic level), and even

more rarely, there’s a quaternary consumer (the fifth trophic level).

We all know that the Sun has an amazing amount of energy.

The proportion of that energy that arrives at Earth is tiny.

Of all the energy that does reach Earth, slightly less than 34% is reflected back to space by

clouds.

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The Earth itself reflects another 66% back to space.

Less than one percent of the total energy that reaches Earth is used by plants for photosynthesis.

From here on, around 10% or less is passed to the next trophic level.

The rest is lost as heat, sound, in metabolism, used for movement, in faeces, etc.

So why do food chains usually have less than five trophic levels?

As explained earlier, a lot of energy is lost between trophic levels.

The most energy is available for producers, so there are a large number of them. Less energy

is available for primary consumers, so there are fewer primary consumers, and even fewer

secondary consumers, etc.

Due to the loss in energy along the food chain, it makes it very difficult for a fifth consumer (the

sixth trophic level) to exist.

6. Construct simple food chains

This is pretty simple. All you have to do is apply what you’ve learned so far about food chains

and make one!

e.g. grass -> rabbit -> fox

cabbage -> cabbage worms -> spiders -> birds

7. Interpret food chains and food webs in terms of identifying producers and consumers

As a general rule, producers are the organisms that don’t consume anything else – they create

their own organic nutrients. Consumers eat other organisms.

8. State that consumers may be classed as primary, secondary and tertiary according to

their position in a food chain

Consumers may be classed as primary, secondary and tertiary according to their position in a

food chain.

Primary consumers eat producers, secondary consumers eat primary consumers, and tertiary

consumers eat secondary consumes.

9. Identify the producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary

consumers and quaternary consumers as the trophic levels in food webs and food

chains.

Producers are the organisms that don’t consume anything else. Primary consumers consume

producers, secondary consumers consume primary consumers, tertiary consumers consume

secondary consumers, and quaternary consumers consume tertiary consumers.

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Conservation

 Sustainable resource: one which is produced as rapidly as it is removed from the

environment so that it does not run out

 Sustainable development: development providing for the needs of an increasing

human population without harming the environment

 Sustainable development requires:

o Management of conflicting demands

o Planning and co-operation at local, national and international levels

 Some resources can be maintained, limited to forests and fish stocks.

 They can be sustained using:

o Education

o Legal quotas

o Re-stocking

Natural resources:

 Water: used to grow food, keep clean, provide power, control fires and to drink. We get

water constantly through rainfall but we are using up planet’s fresh water faster than it

can be replenished.

 Fossil fuels: need to be conserved as they will soon run out, they should be therefore

replaced with green forms of energy.

Recycling:

 Water: water from sewage can be returned to environment for human use by sanitation

and sewage treatment

 Paper: sent to special centres where it is pulped to make raw materials for industry

 Plastic: fossil fuels, bottles \rightarrow→ fleece clothing

 Metal: mining takes a lot of energy so recycling saves energy

Species and habitats: need to be conserved because:

 Organisms have value in themselves (ethical value)

 Value to medicine (new molecules from exotic plants = new drugs)

 Genetic resources are useful to humans as well and are lost when species disappear

(DNA for genetic engineering)

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  Each species has its role in its ecosystem; if it is removed, then the whole ecosystem

could collapse

Endangered species:

 How they become endangered: climate change, habitat destruction, hunting, pollution

and introduced species

 If the population size drops, variation decreases

 Endangered species can be conserved by: monitoring and protecting species and

habitats, education, captive breeding programmes and seed banks

 Conservation programmes include:

o reducing extinction

o protecting vulnerable environments

o maintaining ecosystem functions, by nutrient cycling and resource provision, e.g.

food, drugs, fuel and genes

Human Influences on Ecosystems

Food Supply

Food production has increased because:

 Improved machinery means less labour is needed

 Fertilizers help crops to grow better

 Insecticides: a type of pesticide that kills insects

 Herbicides: a type of pesticide that kills weeds

 Artificial selection and genetic modification means that yields are improved: cows

produce more milk, cows are more muscular giving more meat, plant crops can resist

insects and cold weather

World Food Supplies

 Not enough food available in a country to feed its people because:

o Fast increase in population

o Increasing use of crops for fuel

o Decrease of farming = Climate change/Urbanization

 Famine: Wide spread scarcity of food

 The main causes of famine:

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 o The rapid rate of population increase

o Long term climatic change

o Soil erosion and desertification

o Economic pressure

o Unequal distribution of food

o Drought

o Flood

 Monoculture is the continuous production of one type of crop that is often genetically

uniform.

 Negative Impacts of Monoculture

o If a natural disaster were to occur, the whole crop could be wiped out.

o If pests & disease attacked crop, it could harm it easily

o Using large fields and pesticides reduces the variety of species. This hinders

biodiversity.

 Negative Impacts of Intensive Livestock Production

o Welfare issues for the livestock

o Diseases can spread easily among them

o Waste can pollute land and waterways nearby

Pollution

Water and air pollution:

 Chemical waste and sewage in rivers results in water not being drinkable and

eutrophication can occur

 Sulphur dioxide dissolves in rain, causing acid rain which increases acidity of lakes and

leaches aluminium out of the soil causing:

o The fishes’ gills are damaged, eventually killing them. This is fixed by adding

calcium hydroxide (slaked lime)

o Destroys top of trees and aluminium damages tree roots = dead tree, important

nutrients leached away

o SO2 poses health hazards for humans (asthma sufferers)

o Damages limestone buildings and sculptures

o Fewer crops can be grown on an acidic field (fixed by adding lime)

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Pollution due to pesticides:

 Insecticides (kill insects): meant to kill insects which eat crops, but can kill other, useful

insects such as bees which are pollinators, or by bioaccumulation (the increase in dose

of toxin from one level of the food chain to the next)

 Herbicides (kill weeds): can be harmful to animals which eat the plants

Nuclear fall-out:

 Radioactive particles are sprayed into the atmosphere in a nuclear accident or bombing;

 These particle “rain” back to earth from clouds, sometimes far from the accident site;

 The radioactivity damages DNA and causes cancer and radiation illness at every level of

the food chain.

Non-biodegradable plastics:

 Choke birds, fish and other animals

 Fill up the animals’ stomachs so that they can’t eat food

 Collect in rivers, and get in the way of fish

Acid rain:

 Caused by sulphur dioxide (burning fossil fuels) and nitrogen oxides (nitrogen reacting

hot engines), as they dissolve and cause acid rain

 Damages trees and plants, and kills fish and other river life

 Prevention: catalytic converters, in factories slaked lime neutralizes these acidic oxides

and use of flue-gas desulfurization

Global Warming:

 Increase in average temperature of the Earth

 Started at the same time as humans began burning fossil fuels

 Scientists believe fossil fuels are causing this – not proven yet

 Increase in carbon dioxide and methane concentrations in the atmosphere cause an

enhanced greenhouse effect the leads to climate change

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  Negative impact of female contraceptive hormones in water courses:

 Reduced sperm count in men and feminisation of aquatic organisms

Eutrophication: when water plants receive too many nutrients.

 Fertilisers put in soil by farmers

 Fertilisers with nitrates / detergents with phosphates leach into rivers and lakes after

rain

 Water plants grow more than usual

 They block sunlight and kill plants underneath

 They die and sink to bottom

 Bacteria/fungi decompose remains using the O2 and decreasing the O2 concentration

 Fish and other creatures die from oxygen starvation

Habitat Destruction

 Reason for habitat destruction

o Increased area for food crop growth, livestock production and housing

o Extraction of natural resources

o Marine pollution

 Through altering food webs, and food chains, humans can have a negative impact on

habitats

 Effects of deforestation

o Reduced biodiversity/destroys habitats/extinction

o Loss of CO2 fixation, thus increase in CO2, thus global warming

o Soil erosion: tree roots cannot retain soil, goes into rivers making the water dirty

& causes blockages, soil becomes less fertile

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 o Flooding: usually 75% of water is absorbed by foliage, root systems or evaporates.

After deforestation water, accumulates in valleys

1. Describe the carbon cycle, limited to photosynthesis, respiration, feeding,

decomposition, fossilisation and combustion

For this learning objective, all you really have to do is study the diagram, but for your sake, I’m

writing down all the important points:

Carbon moves into and out of the atmosphere, mainly in the form of Carbon dioxide.

Plants take carbon dioxide out of the air by photosynthesis, and convert it into organic

materials (carbohydrates, fats and proteins).

Herbivores eat plants, obtaining carbon compounds in the process.

Carnivores gain carbon compounds by eating other animals.

Animals and plants release carbon back into the air, in the form of carbon dioxide, through

respiration.

When organisms die, they usually decompose. Decomposers breakdown the organic molecules

through the process of respiration to gain energy, releasing carbon dioxide back into the

atmosphere.

If a dead organism does not decompose, the carbon is trapped in its body. It becomes a fossil

fuel over time.

Combustion of fossil fuels release carbon dioxide back into the air.

2. Discuss the effects of the combustion of fossil fuels and the cutting down of forests

on the oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere

Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. This means it absorbs heat.

The greenhouse effect is natural, and good, but in excess, can have disastrous effects such as

the melting of ice bergs (destroying ecosystems near the poles), the rise of sea levels (causing

the flooding of many coastal areas), heat strokes which can lead to death in many countries in

the tropics, etc. So when there is an excess of CO2 in the atmosphere, global warming

accelerates, which, to put it lightly, is bad.

Photosynthesis takes CO2 out of the air and replaces it with O2. Respiration takes O2 out of the

air and replaces it with CO2. Therefore, photosynthesis and respiration mostly cancel each

other out, so they have little effect on the balance of CO2 in the air.

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When fossil fuels are burnt, the carbon in the fuels combine with the oxygen in the air, and

forms carbon dioxide. This process is called combustion. This is thought to increase the carbon

dioxide levels in the atmosphere.

Cutting down trees reduces the amount of photosynthesis taking place, so less CO2 is being

taken out of the air. This means atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rise and atmospheric

oxygen levels fall.

Therefore, the combustion of fossil fuels and the cutting down of trees have a negative effect

on the atmosphere.

3. List the undesirable effects of deforestation as an example of habitat destruction, to

include extinction, loss of soil, flooding and increase of carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere

Deforestation is the act of clearing a wide area of trees. It involves cutting down many trees,

and therefore destroying the habitats of many forms of life.

The negative effects of deforestation include species extinction, loss of soil, flooding, and the

increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

4. Explain the undesirable effects of deforestation on the environment

 Extinction through habitat loss – the destruction of habitats and/ or food sources for

animals results in fewer resources for animals and plants to survive. It should also be

noted that the destruction of forest habitats also reduces the diversity of plants and

animals, thus disrupting several food chains. The combined effect is the reduction in

population size of many forms of life, sometimes leading to extinction.

 Loss of soil – Less trees and flora in general mean that there are less roots to hold the soil.

This means that each time it rains, a thin layer of soil is washed away. This causes soil

erosion and the leaching of minerals (leaching is when a soluble chemical or mineral is

washed away from the soil by rainwater). The eventual result is that the land becomes a

desert.

 Flooding – soil erosion is washed into rivers, causing them to fill up or become blocked.

This causes flooding. The loss of flora also means that there are no plant roots to take up

rainwater, which means more rainwater washes into nearby streams and rivers. This

makes flooding easier.

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  Carbon dioxide build-up – Forests have high rates of photosynthesis, which means a great

deal of carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by the flora in forests. Therefore,

deforestation means that a lot less carbon dioxide will be removed from the atmosphere,

causing an increase in the CO2 levels in the atmosphere.

5. State the sources and effects of pollution of water (rivers, lakes and the sea) by

chemical waste, discarded rubbish, untreated sewage and fertilisers

As the population increases, the volume of waste and pollution increases too.

Chemical waste dumped into water bodies, like rivers or the sea, can make living conditions

toxic to the local aquatic life. This could result in a huge amount of death, and/ or the migration

of local aquatic species to elsewhere. This would negatively impact the biodiversity of the area.

Discarded rubbish in water bodies presents a major hazard to the local aquatic life. Aquatic

animals can accidently ingest rubbish, get rubbish trapped in their airways and choke on it, get

trapped in rubbish, become strangled by rubbish, etc. A lot of rubbish can come from

companies and businesses dumping their waste into water bodies. It also comes from

individuals, like you and me, littering. Whether or not we leave rubbish in the water itself, heavy

rains can wash it into nearby water bodies.

Untreated sewage entering water provides a source of food for decomposing bacteria. As a

result, the population of these bacteria rapidly increase, and they use up the dissolved oxygen

in the water by aerobic respiration. This leaves much less dissolved oxygen in the water, making

it very difficult for other aquatic organisms, like fish and insects, to survive. When sewage is

treated before entering water bodies, lots of oxygen is provided by stirring the waste or

injecting jets of compressed air. This allows microorganism to completely break down the

waste before it enters any body of water.

When farmers use too much fertiliser, especially chemical fertilisers, they create an

environmental hazard for nearby water bodies. During heavy rains, this fertiliser can be

washed off the ground and towards nearby water, like a pond. When lots of fertiliser reaches

the pond, eutrophication occurs. The fertiliser results in excess growth of plants. When they

die, there is lots of decomposition by decomposers, the decomposers use up the oxygen in the

pond, causing other aquatic life to suffocate.

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6. Explain the process of eutrophication of water in terms of:

 Increased availability of nitrate and other ions

 Increased growth of producers

 Increased decomposition after death of producers

 Increased aerobic respiration by decomposers

 Reduction in dissolved oxygen

 Death of organisms requiring dissolved oxygen in water

This has already been explained, however, I’ll do it again here:

Heavy rains can wash excess chemical fertilisers out off the ground and into nearby bodies of

water. This process is called leaching.

When fertilisers are washed into a water body (e.g. a pond), there are a lot more ions available

for plant growth, e.g. nitrate ions.

This causes an increased growth in producers, like aquatic plants and algae.

Eventually, these producers will die. This leaves a large amount of food for decomposers, so

the decomposer population increases and there is increased decomposition. This means the

decomposers increase the amount of aerobic respiration happening in the pond, and use up

the dissolved oxygen.

This causes the death of organisms that require dissolved oxygen in the water, like fish and

insects.

Note: the above explanation is what your syllabus wants you to know, however, some papers

may require the following knowledge:

the excessive fertiliser also causes algal bloom (lots and lots of algae grow on the surface of

the water, forming a sheet of algae). This can prevent sunlight from reaching plants at the

bottom of the water, causing those plants to die. This provides more food for decomposers.

The large population of algae may also use up oxygen in respiration.

Good Luck

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