Name of ______________________________ section ________________________

ID_________________________ department ________________________

1. Define anthropology and describe its basic concerns and subject matter?

Anthropology is a broad field that encompasses the study of human beings, their ancestors, and
related primates. The main subject matter of anthropology includes the following key areas:

a. Cultural Anthropology: This branch of anthropology focuses on the study of contemporary

human cultures and societies. Cultural anthropologists examine various aspects of human
culture such as beliefs, customs, social organization, language, and art.
b. Archaeology: Archaeology involves the study of past human societies through the analysis
of material remains such as artifacts, structures, and Eco facts. Archaeologists seek to
reconstruct past life ways and understand human behavior and cultural development over
time.
c. Biological/Physical Anthropology: This subfield of anthropology explores human
biological diversity, evolution, and adaptation. Biological anthropologists study topics such
as human genetics, primatology, human evolution, and forensic anthropology.
d. Linguistic Anthropology: Linguistic anthropology focuses on the study of human language,
including its structure, evolution, and social and cultural contexts. Linguistic anthropologists
examine how language shapes and reflects culture, identity, and social interactions.
e. Applied Anthropology: Applied anthropology involves the application of anthropological
theories, methods, and insights to address practical problems and challenges in various
contexts. Applied anthropologists work in areas such as public health, development,
education, and environmental conservation.

Overall, anthropology seeks to understand the diversity of human cultures, behaviors, and
experiences across time and space. It provides valuable insights into what it means to be human
and how human societies have evolved and adapted in different environments.

2. What are the contribution and application of anthropology in personal and professional
lives?

Anthropology plays a significant role in both personal and professional contexts. Let’s explore
how:

a. Broadening Cultural Understanding:

 Anthropology fosters a deep understanding of diverse cultures, helping individuals appreciate

different worldviews and practices.

 This cultural awareness enhances personal interactions and enriches professional relationships,
especially in globalized workplaces.

b. Transferable Skills:

 Studying anthropology develops essential skills applicable across various careers and life paths.

 These skills include observation and analysis, critical thinking, clear communication, and applied
problem-solving.

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 They empower individuals to navigate complex situations, whether at work or in personal life.

c. Professional Applications:

 Anthropologists contribute to government, business, and non-profit sectors.

 They apply their knowledge to understand people and address societal challenges.

Examples include historic preservation, public health, and user experience research.

d. Understanding Human Dimensions:

 Anthropology informs our understanding of why humans separate into different groups.

 It sheds light on the anthropology of war and helps us comprehend the dynamics of conflict and
cooperation.

 Additionally, anthropological insights contribute to addressing climate change by considering

human behavior and cultural factors3.

3. Describe the meaning, characteristics and functions of culture.

Culture is a multifaceted concept that shapes human behavior, beliefs, and interactions. Culture
encompasses knowledge, beliefs, customs, art, morals, and habits acquired by humans as
members of society. It includes material objects, language, rituals, and ceremony

Characteristics of Culture:

 Learned: Culture is acquired through socialization, not inherited biologically.

 Shared: It is common among a group of people.

 Based on Symbols: Language, art, and rituals convey cultural meanings.

 Integrated: Different cultural elements are interconnected.

 Dynamic: Culture evolves over time

Functions of Culture:

o Identity and Belonging: Culture provides a sense of identity and belonging to a group.

o Social Cohesion: It unites people with shared values and norms.

o Adaptation: Culture helps societies adapt to their environment.

o Communication: Cultural symbols enable communication.

o Preservation of Knowledge: It passes down knowledge and traditions.

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 4. What are the values of accepting and respecting cultural differences

Accepting and respecting cultural differences is essential for fostering understanding, empathy,
and harmonious interactions among people from diverse backgrounds

5. Define and identify forms of marginalization targeting different social groups.

Marginalization refers to the exclusion of certain social groups from mainstream social,
economic, and cultural life. It occurs when individuals or communities are relegated to the
sidelines due to various factors. Let’s explore some forms of marginalization:

a. Economic Marginalization:

o Description: Barriers to employment, fair wages, and economic opportunities.

o Examples: Poverty, limited access to basic necessities, lack of upward mobility.

b. Political Marginalization:

o Description: Exclusion from political processes and decision-making.

o Examples: Denial of political rights, limited participation in decision-making, and lack of

political representation.

c. Social Marginalization:

o Description: Exclusion from social networks, cultural events, and community life.

o Examples: Discrimination based on race, religion, gender, or other characteristics.

d. Cultural Marginalization:

o Description: Disregard for cultural practices, traditions, and beliefs.

o Examples: Suppression of indigenous cultures, erasure of minority languages.

e. Gender-Based Marginalization:

o Description: Unequal treatment based on gender.

o Examples: Gender pay gap, limited leadership opportunities for women3.

f. Racial Marginalization:

o Description: Discrimination based on race or ethnicity.

o Examples: Systemic racism, racial profiling4.

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 6. Discuss the notion of inclusiveness and the human rights approach to protect
vulnerable and minority groups.

a. Inclusiveness: Inclusiveness involves dismantling discrimination and ensuring equal

participation and opportunities for all members of society.

Key Principles:

 Non-Discrimination: Treat everyone fairly, regardless of his or her background, identity, or

characteristics.

 Equality: Guarantee equal rights and access to resources for all individuals.

 Diversity: Recognize and celebrate the richness of different perspectives, cultures, and
experiences.

Role in Development: Inclusive societies build policies around diversity, enabling everyone to
participate fully.

b. Human Rights Approach to Protect Vulnerable and Minority Groups:

 Focus on Disadvantaged Groups: A human rights-based approach emphasizes special

attention to those who face structural discrimination.

 Guarantee Non-Discriminatory Treatment: Ensure equal rights and opportunities for

marginalized individuals.

 Proactive Measures: Adopt affirmative action and other steps to counter discrimination,
stigmas, and prejudices.

 Specific Contexts:

Gender: Address gender disparities in social protection programs, considering factors

like intermittent workforce participation and unequal wages.

Children: Protect children’s rights within minority communities.

Disabilities: Enable equal access and participation for persons with disabilities.

Indigenous Peoples: Safeguard their rights and cultural heritage.

Migrants and Displaced Persons: Address their unique challenges.

7. Identify customary systems of governance and conflict resolution institutions of the

various peoples of Ethiopia

Ethiopia has a rich tradition of customary dispute resolution mechanisms that play a vital role in
maintaining peace and stability within communities. Although these systems are not officially
recognized by law, they are often more influential and applicable than the formal criminal justice

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 system in many regions of the country. Here are some key aspects of Ethiopian customary
dispute resolution:

a. Elders and Rituals: Customary dispute resolution mechanisms are typically run by elders. They
involve reconciling conflicting parties and their families using various customary rituals. These
rituals emphasize restitution for victims and reintegration of offenders, aiming to restore peaceful
relationships within the community and prevent revenge practices.

b. Restorative Justice: Despite not being formally institutionalized, Ethiopian customary

mechanisms align well with the principles of restorative justice. They focus on repairing harm,
restoring relationships, and avoiding punitive measures. If properly recognized and
institutionalized, they could serve as a basis for developing restorative justice programs.

c. Regional Variations: Different ethnic groups in Ethiopia have their own customary systems. For
instance:

o The Gurage people follow the “Yejoka Qicha” system.

o The Oromo practice the “Gadaa” system.

o The Gedeo community has the “Baalle” system.

o The Gamo people use the “Dere Woga” system.

o Women also play significant roles in conflict resolution and peacemaking within these systems.

d. Strengths and Limitations: Customary justice systems have strengths, such as community
involvement and cultural relevance. However, limitations include lack of legal recognition and
consistency across regions. In summary, Ethiopian customary institutions serve as important
platforms for conflict prevention, resolution, and societal bonding, even though they operate
outside the formal legal framework

8. Write the strengths and limitations of indigenous institutions conflict resolution

Indigenous conflict resolution mechanisms have both strengths and limitations. Let’s explore
them:

1. Strengths of Indigenous Institutions for Conflict Resolution:

o Cost-Effective: Indigenous methods are generally less expensive than formal court litigation.
They do not involve legal fees or lengthy processes.

o Speed: These mechanisms are often quicker than formal legal proceedings, allowing for timely
resolution.

o Accessibility: Indigenous institutions are more accessible to local communities, especially in

rural areas.

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o Cultural Relevance: They consider cultural norms, traditions, and values, making the resolution
process more acceptable to the parties involved.

o Responsiveness to Community Concerns: Indigenous mechanisms prioritize community needs

and concerns, fostering community ownership of the resolution process.

2. Limitations of Indigenous Conflict Resolution:

o Weakening Over Time: The effectiveness of indigenous institutions is diminishing as

modernization and external influences affect traditional practices.

o Lack of Formal Legal Enforcement: Decisions made by indigenous bodies may not have legal
enforcement, leading to challenges in implementation.

o Gender Bias: Some indigenous systems may be biased against certain groups, particularly
women, in terms of decision-making and representation.

o Limited Scope: Indigenous mechanisms may struggle with complex or large-scale conflicts that
require broader intervention.

o Inadequate Documentation: Lack of formal records can hinder transparency and accountability

9. Describe the significance of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous Knowledge, also known as Traditional Knowledge or Traditional Ecological

Knowledge, holds immense importance. Here is why:

a. Ancestral Wisdom and Connection: Indigenous Knowledge serves as a living link to our
ancestral past. It embodies the experiences, wisdom, and traditions of indigenous communities
that have thrived for millennia.

b. Holistic Understanding: By understanding and valuing this knowledge, we honor our ancestors
and gain insights into sustainable living and coexistence with nature. Indigenous Knowledge
provides a holistic and comprehensive understanding of the world, going beyond Western
scientific evidence alone.

c. Preserving Cultural Values: It is vital for sustaining or retrieving social and cultural values in
the face of non-indigenous pressures. Indigenous Knowledge helps maintain cohesion within
communities and preserves cultural heritage.

d. Informed Decision-Making: When Indigenous Knowledge is respectfully included in policy-

making at all levels within the Federal government, decisions become more informed and
considerate of diverse perspectives. This contributes to better environmental and social
outcomes. In summary, Indigenous Knowledge offers unique insights, cultural continuity, and a
deeper connection to the natural world, making it essential for our collective well-being and
sustainable future

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 10. State the challenges facing indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge faces several challenges that threaten its preservation and continuity. Here
are some key issues:

a. Loss of Traditional Knowledge: Climate change, deforestation, pollution, and development

pose serious threats to indigenous peoples who rely on their environment and natural
resources. These changes can lead to the loss of traditional knowledge and practices.

b. Undermining and Undervaluing: Global histories of colonialism, exploitation, and

dispossession continue to undermine and undervalue indigenous knowledge. Traditional
knowledge, transmitted through stories, songs, dances, carvings, paintings, and performances, is
often marginalized.

c. Language Erosion: In many countries, indigenous children and youth are not taught in their
native languages. This lack of language education contributes to the erosion of traditional
knowledge and cultural practices.

d. Bio-piracy Threats: Indigenous knowledge is vulnerable to exploitation through bio-

piracy. Strategies are needed to protect indigenous knowledge from unauthorized use and
appropriation

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 Name of ______________________________ section ________________________
ID_________________________ department ________________________

1. List and discuss the five basic themes of geography?

The five fundamental themes of geography are:
a. Location: This theme focuses on where places are situated. It can be described in two ways:
o Absolute location: Provides precise coordinates using latitude and longitude, street addresses, or
other reference systems.
o Relative location: Describes a place in relation to its surroundings or other places.
b. Place: Place encompasses both physical and human characteristics of a location:
o Physical characteristics: These include features like mountains, rivers, climate, and plant life.
o Human characteristics: These refer to cultural aspects such as architecture, language, religion,
and livelihoods.
c. Human-Environment Interaction: This theme explores how humans adapt to and modify their
environment. Our actions shape the landscape, with both positive and negative effects.
d. Movement: Movement examines the flow of people, goods, ideas, and information between
places. It considers migration, trade, communication, and transportation.
e. Region: Regions are areas with common characteristics, whether physical (like a desert) or
cultural (such as a language group). They help us understand patterns and connections.
2. Distinguish between astronomical and relative location
a. Astronomical Location (Absolute Location):
o Definition: Astronomical location, also known as absolute or mathematical location, refers to
specifying a place on Earth’s surface using specific geographic coordinates, such as latitude and
longitude.
o Precision: It provides precise and unchanging information.
o Example: The absolute location of St. Louis, Missouri, is approximately 38°43’ North latitude
and 90°14’ West longitude.
b. Relative Location:
o Definition: Relative location describes a place’s position in relation to other landmarks or known
places. It’s more subjective and context-dependent.
o Contextual: Relative location considers the surroundings and can change based on the reference
point.
o Example: St. Louis is southwest of Springfield, Illinois, along the Mississippi River. This
illustrates relative location.
In summary, astronomical location provides precise coordinates, while relative location is more
about context and relationships with other places.

3. Identify the major sedimentary rocks of Mesozoic era. And indicate the major
geological process responsible for their formation
During the Mesozoic Era, which spanned from approximately 252.2 million years ago to 66
million years ago, several major sedimentary rocks formed. Let’s explore them:

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 a. Shale: Shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock composed mainly of clay minerals. It often
forms in quiet marine environments, such as shallow seas or lake bottoms. The accumulation
of fine clay particles over time results in shale formation.
b. Limestone: Limestone is a common sedimentary rock composed primarily of calcium
carbonate (CaCO₃). It forms in various settings, including shallow marine environments,
coral reefs, and lagoons. The accumulation of marine organisms (such as corals, mollusks,
and algae) contributes to limestone deposition.
c. Sandstone: Sandstone consists of sand-sized grains (usually quartz) cemented together. It
forms in environments with abundant sand, such as beaches, riverbeds, and deserts. The
process involves the compaction and cementation of sand grains.
d. Conglomerate: Conglomerate is a coarse-grained rock composed of rounded pebbles or
cobbles embedded in a matrix. It typically forms in river channels, alluvial fans, or near
shorelines. The transportation and deposition of larger clasts lead to conglomerate formation.
e. Evaporites: Evaporites include rocks like rock salt (halite) and gypsum. They form when
saline water evaporates, leaving behind mineral deposits. Evaporite rocks are common in arid
or restricted marine basins.
Geological Processes Responsible for Their Formation:
 Transgression and Regression: During the Mesozoic, sea levels fluctuated due to tectonic
movements and climate changes. Transgressions (rising sea levels) led to the deposition of
marine sediments, while regressions (falling sea levels) exposed previously deposited rocks.
 Tectonics and Orogenesis: Mountain-building events (orogenies) influenced sedimentary
deposition. For example, the Sevier and Laramide orogenies in western North America
during the Cretaceous created the Rocky Mountains1.
 Climate Variability: Changes in climate affected sediment supply, erosion rates, and
sediment transport. Warm climates favored carbonate deposition (e.g., limestone), while arid
conditions led to evaporite formation.
 Eustatic Sea-Level Changes: Global sea-level fluctuations influenced sedimentary
environments. Rising sea levels flooded continental interiors, allowing marine sediments to
accumulate. In summary, Mesozoic sedimentary rocks reflect a dynamic interplay of
geological processes, climate, and tectonics. They provide valuable insights into Earth’s
history during this fascinating era
4. List down the major physiographic features/land forms that were created due to the
formation of great rift valley system
The Great Rift Valley System is an extensive geological feature that stretches from Jordan in
southwestern Asia to Mozambique in eastern Africa. Here are the major physiographic features
and landforms associated with it:
A. Eastern Rift Valley (Great Rift Valley):
o Extends along the entire length of the system.
o Occupied by the Jordan River, the Dead Sea, and the Gulf of Aqaba in the north.
o Continues southward along the Red Sea and into the Ethiopian Denakil Plain.

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o Includes Lakes Rudolf (Turkana), Naivasha, and Magadi in Kenya.
o Less obvious through Tanzania but continues southward through the Shire River valley to the
coast of the Indian Ocean near Beira, Mozambique.
B. Western Rift Valley:
o Extends northward from the northern end of Lake Nyasa (Lake Malawi).
o Includes Lakes Rukwa, Tanganyika, Kivu, Edward, and Albert.
o Most lakes in the rift system are deep and fjord-like.
C. Volcanic Mountains:
o Extensive volcanism along parts of the rift system.
o Massifs such as Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya formed due to volcanic activity.
D. Fault Scarps and Elongated Valleys:
o The rift valley itself is characterized by elongated valleys and fault scarps.
o Plateaus adjacent to the rift slope upward toward the valley, providing significant drops to the
valley floor.
E. Geological Activity:
o The Great Rift Valley is geologically active, with frequent earthquakes, hot springs, and geysers.
5. Compare and contrast the highlands and lowlands of Ethiopia
A. Ethiopian Highlands (Abyssinian Highlands):
o Location: The Ethiopian Highlands, also known as the Abyssinian Highlands, are a rugged
mass of mountains in northeast Africa. They form the largest continuous elevated
area on the continent.
o Elevation: Most of the surface of the highlands lies above 1,500 meters (4,900 feet), with
summits reaching heights of up to 4,550 meters (14,930 feet). The highest peak is Ras
Dashen.
o Geological Significance: The Ethiopian Highlands are sometimes called the “Roof of
Africa” due to their height and extensive coverage. They are bisected diagonally by
the Great East African Rift System.
o Countries: While most of the highlands are in central and northern Ethiopia, the
northernmost portion extends into Eritrea.
o Notable Features: Lake Tana, the source of the Blue Nile, lies within the northwestern
portion of the Ethiopian Highlands.
B. Lowlands:
o Southeastern Lowlands (Harar Massif): Bounded by the Great Rift Valley to the west,
the Ogaden Lowlands to the east, and the Elkerie and Borena Lowlands to the south.
The Bale Mountains are part of this region, nearly as high as the Semien Mountains.
o Northwestern Lowlands: These lowlands are associated with the Main Ethiopian Rift and
contain several salt lakes.
In summary, the Ethiopian Highlands are characterized by rugged mountains, high elevations,
and their role as the source of the Blue Nile. The lowlands include both southeastern and
northwestern regions, each with unique features and geological significance

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 6. What are the impacts of relief on the socioeconomic condition of Ethiopia?
A. Poverty and Income: Relief measures have aimed to mitigate the impact of economic
shocks on vulnerable populations. However, growth and income poverty remain challenges
B. Social Protection and Safety Nets: Relief programs have addressed gaps and risks by
providing safety nets to those in need.
C. Enterprises and Employment: Small and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) have been at
risk, affecting employment structures in the economy1.
D. Economic Sectors: Agriculture, construction, manufacturing, and services (such as tourism
and retail) have all been impacted.
E. Long-Term Consequences: The economic consequences of the pandemic may reverse gains
made in poverty reduction over recent years
7. Describe the three major rivers systems of Ethiopia
a. Western Drainage System:
o This system includes the watersheds of the Blue Nile (known as the Abay in Ethiopia),
the Tekeze, and the Baro rivers.
o All three rivers flow westward, eventually joining the White Nile in South Sudan and Sudan.
b. Blue Nile (Abay):
o The Blue Nile originates from Lake Tana in Ethiopia.
o It flows westward, forming the famous Blue Nile Falls near Tis-Abay Town.
o The Blue Nile contributes almost 59% of the Nile’s stream flow and supports communities
along its banks.
c. Awash River:
o The Awash River’s course lies entirely within Ethiopia.
o It arises from Mount Warqe, flows around Mount Zuqualla, and passes through Awash
National Park.
o The river covers a distance of 746 miles and empties into a chain of interconnected lakes.
o Notable tributaries include Logiya, Mille, Kabenna, Hawadi, and Durkham Rivers
8. Explain the general characteristics of Ethiopian rivers
Ethiopian rivers have some distinctive features:
a. Origins and Altitude:
o Almost all major rivers in Ethiopia originate from highlands that are more than 1,500 meters
above sea level.
o These high-altitude sources contribute to the seasonal flow patterns of the rivers.
b. Seasonality and Fluctuations:
o Ethiopian rivers experience extreme seasonal fluctuations due to marked variations in rainfall.
o Heavy rains can lead to flooding, especially along rivers like the Awash River and in the lower
Baro-Akobo and Wabe-Shebelle river basins1.
c. Trans-Boundary Rivers:
o Many Ethiopian rivers are trans-boundary, flowing across borders into neighboring countries.

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o The Nile River, for example, originates in Ethiopia and is shared by eleven countries, including
Egypt and Sudan2.
d. Diverse Flow Directions:
o Rivers originating from the central and western highlands flow westward into the Nile River
basin system, covering about 39% of Ethiopia’s landmass and 70% of its surface water.
o Rivers from the eastern highlands mainly flow eastward3.
In summary, Ethiopian rivers play a crucial role in the country’s landscape, ecology, and
livelihoods, despite their seasonal nature and fluctuations
9. Explain the main factors controlling the distribution of climate conditions in Ethiopia
Ethiopia’s climate is influenced by several factors, resulting in diverse conditions across the
country. Here are the main factors controlling climate distribution in Ethiopia:
a. Geographical Location: Ethiopia’s position near the equator affects its climate. The country lies
within the tropics, leading to warm temperatures and distinct wet and dry seasons.
b. Topography: Ethiopia’s complex topography significantly influences climate patterns. The
highlands, plateaus, and valleys create variations in temperature, precipitation, and wind patterns.
c. Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ): The ITCZ, a band of low pressure near the equator,
migrates north and south seasonally. Its movement affects rainfall distribution in Ethiopia,
resulting in distinct wet and dry seasons.
d. Rainfall Zones: Ethiopia exhibits five homogeneous rainfall zones based on long-term seasonal
patterns. These zones experience varying amounts of rainfall and contribute to the country’s
diverse climate conditions.
e. Temperature Trends: Over the past 120 years, Ethiopia has seen a significant spatiotemporal
increase in mean temperature. Some regions, particularly in the western and northwest parts,
have warmed more than others.
f. Climate Change: Ethiopia’s vulnerability to climate change includes environmental degradation
(e.g., deforestation), chronic food security issues, and recurring natural droughts. These factors
shape the effects of climate change in the country.
In summary, Ethiopia’s climate results from a combination of geographical features, seasonal
weather systems, and long-term temperature trends
10. Mention areas in Ethiopia that classified under the following regions
I. Summer rainfall
II. All year round rainfall
III. Autumn and spring rainfall region
IV. Winter rainfall region
a. Summer Rainfall Region:
 Southern and southwestern parts: These areas receive heavy rainfall during the summer
months (June, July, and August). They include equatorial rainforests with high humidity.
b. II. All Year Round Rainfall Region:
 Afro-Alpine summits: The Semien and Bale Mountains fall into this category. These regions
experience relatively consistent rainfall throughout the year.

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 c. Autumn and Spring Rainfall Region:
 Southern part: This area has two distinct rainy seasons. The short rainy season occurs from
September to November (spring), and the long rainy season is from March to May (autumn).
d. Winter Rainfall Region:
 Northeast, east, and southeast lowlands: These regions have a dry season during the winter
months (December, January, and February)

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Name of ______________________________ section ________________________
ID_________________________ department ________________________

1. Write the scientific definition of psychology

Psychology is the scientific discipline that studies mental states, processes, and behavior in
humans and other animals. It encompasses a wide range of topics including perception,
cognition, emotion, personality, behavior, and interpersonal relationships. Psychologists use
various research methods to investigate these areas, such as experiments, surveys,
observations, and clinical studies. The field of psychology aims to understand how
individuals think, feel, and behave in different situations and contexts.
2. Write the process of memory
The process of memory are :
a. Encoding: Encoding is the initial process of memory where information is learned and
absorbed. It involves perceiving new information and connecting it to existing knowledge.
There are different methods of encoding, including visual encoding (how something looks),
acoustic encoding (how something sounds), semantic encoding (what something means), and
tactile encoding (how something feels). Effective encoding techniques include relating new
information to existing knowledge, creating mental images, and forming associations
between pieces of information.
b. Storage: Storage is the phase where encoded information is maintained over time. Once
information is successfully encoded, it needs to be stored for future retrieval. The brain stores
information in different ways, such as short-term memory and long-term memory. Short-term
memory holds information temporarily, while long-term memory stores information for an
extended period. Repetition, rehearsal, and meaningful connections aid in transferring
information from short-term to long-term memory.
c. Retrieval: Retrieval is the process of accessing stored information when needed. It involves
recalling or remembering previously encoded and stored data. Successful retrieval depends
on effective cues that trigger memory recall. Techniques such as using mnemonic devices,
context-dependent cues, and retrieval practice can enhance the ability to retrieve information
accurately. In summary, memory involves encoding new information through various
sensory modalities, storing it for future use through repetition and meaningful connections,
and retrieving it when required by utilizing effective cues and strategies.
3. Briefly, explain how the old schools of psychology differ from the modern schools in
terms of their objects of study, their goal and methods of analysis.
Old Schools of Psychology vs. Modern Schools
 Objects of Study: The old schools of psychology, such as structuralism and functionalism,
focused on understanding the structure of consciousness and the functions of mental
processes. Structuralism aimed to break down mental experiences into their basic
components, while functionalism emphasized the adaptive functions of behavior. In contrast,
modern schools of psychology, like cognitive psychology and neuroscience, have expanded
the scope of study to include a broader range of topics. Cognitive psychology examines
mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem solving, while neuroscience
investigates the biological underpinnings of behavior and mental processes.

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 Goal: The goal of the old schools of psychology was primarily to describe and understand
the elements that make up conscious experience and behavior. Structuralists sought to
identify the basic building blocks of consciousness, while functionalists aimed to explain
how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment. Modern schools of
psychology have shifted towards a more integrative approach, aiming not only to describe
but also to explain and predict behavior. The goal is not just to understand mental processes
but also to apply this knowledge in practical settings such as therapy, education, and
organizational behavior.
 Methods of Analysis: The methods used by old schools of psychology were often
introspective in nature. Structuralists relied on introspection to analyze conscious experiences
into their elemental parts, while functionalists used observation and experimentation to study
how mental processes contribute to adaptive behavior. Modern schools of psychology
employ a wider array of research methods, including experimental studies, neuroimaging
techniques, computational modeling, and large-scale data analysis. These methods allow
researchers to investigate complex phenomena such as brain-behavior relationships,
cognitive processes, and social interactions with greater precision and depth.
4. Briefly explain at least five reasons that make educational psychology is relevant for a
teacher
Relevance of Educational Psychology for Teachers:
a. Understanding Student Behavior: Educational psychology helps teachers understand the
cognitive, emotional, and social development of students. By knowing how students learn
and behave, teachers can create effective teaching strategies tailored to individual needs.
b. Effective Classroom Management: Knowledge of educational psychology equips teachers
with techniques to manage classroom behavior and create a positive learning environment.
Understanding concepts like reinforcement, motivation, and discipline can help teachers
maintain order and encourage student engagement.
c. Individualized Instruction: Educational psychology emphasizes the importance of
recognizing and accommodating diverse learning styles and abilities. Teachers can use this
knowledge to differentiate instruction, providing personalized learning experiences that cater
to each student’s strengths and weaknesses.
d. Assessment and Evaluation: Educational psychology provides insights into designing
assessments that accurately measure student progress and understanding. Teachers can use
assessment tools effectively to evaluate learning outcomes, identify areas for improvement,
and adjust their teaching methods accordingly.
e. Collaboration with Parents and Colleagues: Understanding educational psychology enables
teachers to collaborate effectively with parents, colleagues, and other professionals involved
in the education process. By communicating insights about student development and
behavior, teachers can work together to support the holistic growth of each student.

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5. What types of research method is appropriate to assess the effects of one variable on the
other.
Experimental research methods are the most appropriate for assessing the effects of one
variable on another. This type of research involves manipulating one variable (independent
variable) to observe its effect on another variable (dependent variable). By controlling other
factors and randomizing participants into different groups, researchers can establish a cause-
and-effect relationship between variables.
6. Write and explain at least five that affect learning.
Factors that Affect Learning:
a. The Impact of Culture: Culture plays a significant role in shaping how individuals learn and
perceive intelligence. Different cultures have varying approaches to learning, with some
emphasizing observation-based learning while others focus on structured instruction.
Understanding cultural influences is crucial for effective teaching as students thrive best in
environments that value education and encourage questioning and critical thinking.
b. Learning Is Dynamic: The brain continues to evolve throughout life, showing plasticity and
adaptability based on experiences. Different activities stimulate different areas of the brain,
leading to physical changes in brain structure. This highlights the importance of lifelong
learning and the need for varied experiences to promote cognitive development.
c. Mental Models and Learning Strategies: Mental models are essential for knowledge
acquisition and application. Educators should not only focus on information retention but
also teach students how to apply knowledge in real-world scenarios. Encouraging students to
summarize, explain, and apply information in diverse contexts enhances their understanding
and problem-solving skills.
d. Motivation to Learn: Motivation is a key factor in successful learning outcomes. Students
must be motivated to learn, and educators can foster motivation by setting collaborative
goals, creating engaging learning experiences, providing autonomy, offering feedback, and
ensuring a safe learning environment.
e. The Role of Technology: Technology has revolutionized education by providing interactive
tools that enhance learning experiences. From digital libraries to virtual reality simulations,
technology offers diverse ways to engage students and provide feedback for skill refinement.
Careful integration of technology into classrooms can improve academic performance and
facilitate effective learning.
By considering these factors - culture, the dynamic nature of learning, mental models,
motivation, and technology - educators can create tailored learning programs that cater to
individual needs and optimize student outcomes.
7. Explain the five principles of classical conditioning.
a. Acquisition Principle: - In classical conditioning, the acquisition principle refers to the
initial stage of learning where a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with a
stimulus that naturally elicits a response. During acquisition, the neutral stimulus gradually
gains the ability to evoke the response on its own. This process involves repeated pairings of

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 the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus until the association is established. An
example of this is Pavlov’s experiment where dogs learned to associate the sound of a tone
with food, leading to salivation in response to the tone alone.
b. Extinction Principle:-Extinction in classical conditioning is the gradual disappearance of a
learned response. It occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without
being followed by the unconditioned stimulus. Through extinction, new associations are
formed between the conditioned stimulus and the absence of the unconditioned stimulus,
leading to the suppression of the conditioned response. This process is essential in changing
or eliminating undesired behaviors and responses.
c. Spontaneous Recovery: - Spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning refers to the
unexpected reappearance of a previously extinguished response after a period of rest or time
without reinforcement. After extinction, where the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly
presented without the unconditioned stimulus, there can be a temporary reemergence of the
response when reintroducing the conditioned stimulus. This highlights how learned
associations can persist even after apparent extinction.
d. Stimulus Generalization:-Stimulus generalization in classical conditioning is when a
learned response occurs in the presence of stimuli similar to the original conditioned
stimulus. The degree of similarity between stimuli determines the strength of this generalized
response. For instance, if an organism has learned to respond to a specific tone, it may also
respond similarly to tones that share common features.
e. Stimulus Discrimination:-Stimulus discrimination in classical conditioning involves
differentiating between a specific conditioned stimulus and other similar stimuli and
responding selectively to only that specific CS. It allows for selective responding and helps
individuals respond specifically to relevant stimuli while disregarding others that do not
produce the same outcome.
8. Briefly explain the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment with
practical examples.
a. Negative Reinforcement: Negative reinforcement involves the removal of an unpleasant
stimulus to increase the likelihood of a desired behavior recurring in the future. It aims to
strengthen a behavior by taking away something undesirable when the desired behavior is
performed.
Example of Negative Reinforcement: An example of negative reinforcement is a student who
completes their homework promptly to avoid their teacher’s scolding. In this scenario, the
removal of the scolding (unpleasant stimulus) reinforces the behavior of completing
homework on time.
b. Punishment: Punishment, on the other hand, involves applying an aversive stimulus to
decrease the likelihood of an unwanted behavior occurring again in the future. It aims to
weaken a behavior by introducing an undesirable consequence when the undesired behavior
is displayed.

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 Example of Punishment: A common example of punishment is a child being reprimanded for
misbehaving by being sent to timeout. The introduction of timeout (undesirable consequence)
serves as punishment for the misbehavior, decreasing its likelihood in the future.
In summary, while negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus to
encourage a desired behavior, punishment entails applying an aversive stimulus to discourage
an unwanted behavior.
9. Among continuous and intermittent schedules of reinforcement, which do you think is
preferred to apply in the teaching and learning process? Why?
 An intermittent schedule may be preferred in the teaching and learning process due to its
ability to promote sustained motivation, persistence in behavior, and independence from
constant external rewards.
10. List down at least five lessons you have learnt from operant conditioning to be applied
in the classroom.
a. Positive Reinforcement
b. Negative Reinforcement
c. Punishment
d. Shaping and Fading
e. Extinction and Time-Out
11. Give one example for each of the three forms of reinforcement identified by Albert
Bandura to encourage observational learning.
a. Positive Reinforcement: An example of positive reinforcement to encourage observational
learning is when a child observes their classmate receiving praise and a reward for
completing their homework on time. The child witnessing this positive reinforcement may be
more likely to imitate the behavior of completing homework promptly in hopes of receiving
similar praise and rewards.
b. Negative Reinforcement: In the context of observational learning, negative reinforcement
can be exemplified by a scenario where an employee observes a coworker being relieved
from a tedious task after consistently meeting deadlines. Witnessing this, the employee might
strive to emulate the punctuality and efficiency displayed by their coworker to avoid similar
tedious tasks in the future.
c. Punishment: A demonstration of punishment in observational learning could involve a
student observing another student being reprimanded for disruptive behavior in class.
Witnessing the consequences faced by their peer, the observing student may refrain from
engaging in similar disruptive actions to avoid facing the same punishment.
12. A type of Memory which serves as a work space to process new information is called
Working Memory
13. Write and explain the three processes of memory
a. Encoding:- The first stage of memory is encoding, where information is initially processed
and absorbed. Encoding can occur at different levels, depending on the depth of processing.
For example, shallow encoding may involve only processing the physical characteristics of a

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 stimulus, such as recognizing the font of a word but not its meaning. On the other hand, deep
encoding involves processing the meaning or context of the information, which leads to
stronger memory formation.
b. Storage: - The second stage of memory is storage, where information is maintained over
time. There are different types of memory storage, including sensory memory, short-term
memory (also known as working memory), and long-term memory. Sensory memory holds
incoming sensory information for a very brief period (approximately 200-500 milliseconds),
while short-term memory can hold information for approximately 15-30 seconds without
rehearsal. Long-term memory has a much larger capacity and can store information for
extended periods
c. Retrieval:-The third stage of memory is retrieval, where stored information is accessed and
used. This process can be influenced by factors such as the context in which the information
was learned and the passage of time. There are two primary types of retrieval: recall and
recognition. Recall involves retrieving information from memory without external cues,
while recognition involves identifying previously learned information in the presence of cues
14. List and explain at least three factors, which affect memory.
Factors Affecting Memory:
a. Emotional State: One significant factor that affects memory is the emotional state of an
individual at the time of encoding or retrieval. Emotional events tend to be better
remembered than neutral ones. This phenomenon, known as emotional memory
enhancement, occurs because emotions can enhance the consolidation of memories in the
brain’s hippocampus and amygdala. For example, a person is more likely to remember a
traumatic event or a joyful occasion compared to mundane daily activities.
b. Stress: Stress can have a profound impact on memory function. Acute stress can lead to
enhanced memory formation due to the release of stress hormones like cortisol and
adrenaline, which can temporarily improve cognitive function. However, chronic stress or
prolonged exposure to high levels of stress hormones can impair memory and cognitive
abilities over time. Chronic stress has been linked to structural changes in the brain,
particularly in areas responsible for memory and learning, such as the hippocampus.
c. Sleep: Sleep plays a crucial role in memory consolidation. During sleep, especially during
the deep stages of non-REM sleep, memories are processed and transferred from short-term
storage to long-term storage in the brain. Lack of adequate sleep or disrupted sleep patterns
can interfere with this consolidation process, leading to difficulties in forming new memories
or retaining previously learned information. Research has shown that individuals who get
sufficient quality sleep tend to have better memory performance compared to those who are
sleep-deprived. In addition to these factors, other variables such as age, health conditions,
medication use, and lifestyle choices can also affect memory function.
15. What do you advise your students to improve their memory.
Several strategies can be recommended to students to improve their memory

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a. Give directions in multiple formats: - Students benefit from being given directions in both
visual and verbal formats. Encourage students to repeat the directions given and explain the
meaning of these directions. Examples of what needs to be done are also helpful for
enhancing memory of directions.
b. Teach students to over-learn material: - Students should be taught the necessity of “over-
learning” new information. Several error-free repetitions are needed to solidify the
information in their long-term memory.
c. Teach students to use visual images and other memory strategies :-Another memory
strategy that makes use of a cue is one called word substitution. The substitute word system
can be used for information that is hard to visualize, for example, for complex vocabulary
words. Students can convert these words into words that sound familiar and can be
visualized, which helps them remember the definition more effectively.
d. Give teacher-prepared handouts prior to class lectures or discussions:-Class lectures and
series of oral directions should be reinforced by teacher-prepared handouts, which can help
students follow along and better understand the material being presented. Additionally,
providing written materials before class lectures allows students to connect new information
with their prior knowledge and store it in their long-term memory more effectively.
16. List and explain the kinds of interference that influence forgetting.
17. Write the two types of motivation and explain their difference.
There are two types of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic.
a. Intrinsic motivation comes from inside you, like when you enjoy doing something.
b. Extrinsic motivation comes from outside, like when you do something to earn rewards or
avoid punishment.
The main difference is that intrinsic motivation comes from within, while extrinsic motivation
comes from outside sources.
18. What is the cause of motivation according to Abraham Maslow’s humanistic
approaches to motivation?
Cause of Motivation According to Abraham Maslow’s Humanistic Approaches to Motivation is
self-actualization. I.e. According to Abraham Maslow's humanistic approach to motivation, the
cause of motivation is the desire to fulfill basic needs and reach our full potential. It is like a
ladder of needs, starting with basic things like food, shelter, and safety, and moving up to higher
needs like love, belonging, esteem, and self-actualization.
19. Write the definition of motivation.
Motivation is an internal state that propels individuals to engage in goal-directed behavior. It is
often understood as a force that explains why people or animals initiate, continue, or terminate a
certain behavior at a particular time.
20. Write the difference between interpersonal skills vs. intrapersonal skills.
Difference between Intrapersonal Skills and Interpersonal Skills:
a. Intrapersonal Skills: Intrapersonal skills focus on self-awareness, self-management, and
personal development. They involve understanding one’s thoughts, emotions, values, and

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 motivations. Self-awareness is key to recognizing strengths, weaknesses, and behavioral
patterns. Self-management includes regulating emotions, exercising self-control, setting
goals, managing time efficiently, and maintaining a positive mindset.
b. Interpersonal Skills: Interpersonal skills are about interaction and communication with
others. They include active listening to understand perspectives, effective verbal and
nonverbal communication to convey messages accurately, and empathy to foster
understanding in relationships.
21. Explain how can you develop the interpersonal skills of your students?
To develop the interpersonal skills of students, I can implement various strategies:
a. Encourage their Communication: Create an environment where students feel comfortable
sharing their thoughts and opinions. Reward them for speaking up to boost their confidence
in expressing themselves.
b. Promote students Teamwork: Encourage collaborative activities that require students to
work together. This fosters skills such as collaboration, sharing, and active listening.

c. Empower their Decision-Making: Provide opportunities for students to make decisions

autonomously. This helps them develop a sense of responsibility and ownership in their
education.

d. Showcase Student Work: Organize exhibitions, showcases, competitions, and other events
where students can display their talents and hard work. This builds confidence and offers
practice in public speaking.

e. Foster a Growth Mindset: Encourage the belief that effort and hard work lead to success.
This mindset promotes resilience and problem-solving skills when faced with challenges.

f. Model Positive Traits: Educators should exemplify positivity, kindness, honesty, and
respect to serve as role models for students. By embodying these traits, educators set
aspirational goals for students to follow.

22. Define what emotional intelligence is?

Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, interpret, demonstrate, control, evaluate, and use
emotions to communicate with and relate to others effectively and constructively.