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 Brief Contents
Part ONE The Foundations of Public Speaking   1

1 Finding Your Voice   1

2 Managing Your Fear of Speaking   21
3 Your First Speech: An Overview of Speech Preparation   37
4 Becoming a Better Listener   59
Part TWO Preparation for Public Speaking 79

5 Adapting to Your Audience and Situation   79

6 Finding Your Topic   104
7 Building Responsible Knowledge   122
8 Supporting Your Ideas   147
9 Structuring and Outlining Your Speech   167
PArt THREE Developing Presentation Skills  199

10 Presentation Aids   199

11 Putting Words to Work   229
12 Presenting Your Speech   255
Part FOUR Types of Public Speaking  283

13 Informative Speaking  283
14 Persuasive Speaking  306
15 Persuasion in Controversy  337
16 Ceremonial Speaking on Special Occasions  362
Appendix A Communicating in Small Groups  385

Appendix B Speeches for Analysis  400

vii
 Contents
Preface  xiv
Instructor and Student Resources  xxiii
Acknowledgments  xxiv

Part ONE    The Foundations of Public Speaking  1

1 3
 Your First Speech: An
Finding Your Voice  1 Overview of Speech
Preparation  37
What Public Speaking Has to Offer You  3 Preparing and Presenting Your First Speech   38
Personal Benefits  3 Step 1: Find and Focus Your Topic   39
Social Benefits  4 Step 2: Gather Supporting Material   40
Cultural Benefits  5 Step 3: Organize the Body of Your Speech   43
Step 4: Add an Introduction, Transitions, and a
Introduction to Communication   7 Conclusion  46
Historical Roots of Public Speaking   7 Step 5: Prepare a Formal Outline   46
Communication: Interactive and Dynamic   8 Step 6: Practice, Practice, Practice!   47
What Public Speaking Asks of You  14 Step 7: Present Your Speech   49
Respect for the Integrity of Ideas and Information   15 Managing the Impressions You Make   49
A Genuine Concern for Consequences   18 Competence  49
Integrity  50
Final reflections A Quest that Deserves
Goodwill  50
Commitment  19 Dynamism  51
Speeches of Introduction   51

2  Managing Your Fear

of Speaking   21
Final reflections Taking The First Steps   55

Understanding Communication Anxiety  24

An Unfamiliar Situation   24
The Importance of the Occasion  24
4  Becoming a Better
Listener  59
The Power of Negative Thinking   24
The Benefits of Effective Listening   60
Managing Your Communication Anxiety  25
Listening in the Classroom   61
Reality Testing   26 Listening at Work   62
Cognitive Restructuring   28
Selective Relaxation   28 Understanding Listening  63
Attitude Adjustments   29 Comprehensive Listening   63
Visualization  30 Critical Listening   63
Putting It All Together   31 Empathic Listening   64
How You Can Help Your Classmates   33
Overcoming Barriers to Effective Listening  64
Final reflections  Climbing Fear Mountain  33 Noise  65

viii
 Contents ix

Inattention  65 Your Ethical Responsibilities as a Listener   71

Bad Listening Habits   66
Emotional Reactions   67 Evaluating Speeches   72
Biases  67 General Considerations   72
Evaluating Substance   74
Becoming a Critical Listener   68 Evaluating Structure   74
Do Speakers Support Their Claims?   68 Evaluating Presentation Skills   74
Do Speakers Cite Credible Sources?   69
Do Speakers Use Words to Clarify or Obscure?   69 Final reflections The Golden Rule
of Listening   76
Becoming an Empathic Listener   71

Part TWO   Preparation for Public Speaking  79

5 Adapting to Your Audience

and Situation   79
6 Finding Your Topic   104

Understanding Audience Demographics   81 What Is a Good Topic?   105

Age  82 A Good Topic Involves You   105
Gender  83 A Good Topic Involves Your Listeners   106
Education  84 A Good Topic Is One You Can Manage   106
Sociocultural Background   84
Group Affiliations   85 Discovering Your Topic Area   107
Some Words of Caution   87 Brainstorming  107
Interest Charts   107
Understanding Audience Dynamics   88
Media and Internet Prompts   109
Beliefs  88
Attitudes  88 Exploring Your Topic Area   109
Values  89 Mind Mapping   110
Motives  90 Topic Analysis   111
Gathering Information About Audience
Dynamics  93 Refining Your Topic   113
General Purpose   113
Rewards and Challenges Specific Purpose   113
of Audience Diversity   94 Thesis Statement   116
Become Familiar with Audience Cultures   94
Use Supporting Materials Skillfully   95 An Overview of the Topic Selection
Speak from Shared Values   95 Process  117
Choose Your Words Carefully   96
Final reflections The Great Chain
Avoid Rhetorical Land Mines   96
of Communication   118
Adjusting to the Speaking Situation   98
The Occasion   98
The Physical Setting   98
The Psychological Setting   99

Final reflections Looking Beyond the Self   101

x Contents
7
Building Responsible
 Knowledge  122
The Quest for Responsible Knowledge   124
Preparing for Research   124
Planning Your Time   124
Developing the Right Research Attitude   124
Setting Your Research Priorities   125
Recording What You Discover   125
Avoiding Chance Plagiarism   127
Your Quest for General Knowledge   127
Drawing on Personal Experience   128
Certain Sites on the Internet   128
Certain Places in the Library   129
Exploring the Social Media   129
Seeking In-Depth Knowledge   129
Going Deeper on the Internet   130
Going Deeper in the Library   132
Conducting Personal Interviews   134
Evaluating What You Discover   137
Information from the Internet   137
Information from the Library   141
Information from Personal Interviews   142
Final reflections  Empowering Your Voice   143
8 Supporting Your
 Ideas  147
Facts and Statistics   148
Constructing Facts and Figures   149
Testing Facts and Figures   150
Testimony  152
Using Expert Testimony   152
Developing Lay Testimony   153
Constructing Prestige Testimony   154
Designing Testimony: Other Considerations   154
Examples  156
Types of Examples   156
Fashioning Powerful Examples   158
Testing Your Examples   159
Narratives  160
Types of Narratives   160
Building Narratives   161
Testing Your Story   162
Selecting and Combining Supporting
Materials  164
Final reflections  Developing a
Well-Supported Voice   165
9 Structuring and Outlining
 Your Speech   167
Principles of a Well-Structured Speech   168
Simplicity  168
Order  170
Balance  170
Structuring the Body of Your Speech   171
Selecting Your Main Points   172
Arranging Your Main Points   172
Developing Your Main Points   175
Developing a Working Outline   176
Adding Transitions   178
Introducing and Concluding Your Speech   181
Introducing Your Speech   181
Concluding Your Speech   185
Selecting and Using Introductory and Concluding
Techniques  188
Preparing Your Formal Outline   189
Heading  189
Introduction  191
Body  191
Conclusion  192
Works Cited or Consulted   192
Formal Outlines: A Caution   193
Final reflections  Deep Roots of Structuring
and Outlining   193

Part Three   Developing Presentation Skills  199
10  Presentation
Aids  199
The Advantages and Disadvantages
of Presentation Aids   201
Advantages of Presentation Aids   201
Disadvantages of Presentation Aids   203
Types of Presentation Aids   204
People  204
Objects and Models   205
Graphics  206
Pictures  209
Presentation Media   210
Traditional Media   210
PowerPoint, Prezi, iPad Apps, and More   213
Preparing Presentation Aids   219
Principles of Design   219
Principles of Color   221
Using Presentation Aids  223
Ethical Considerations for Using
Presentation Aids   224
Final reflections Amplifying Your Voice   226
11  Putting Words
to Work   229
What Words Can Do   230
What Makes Oral Language Special   231
Shaping Perceptions   232
Arousing Feelings   233
Bringing Listeners Together   235
Moving Listeners to Action   235
Celebrating Shared Values   236
The Six C’S of Language Use   237
Clarity  237
Color  239
Concreteness  239
Contents xi
Correctness  240
Conciseness  242
Cultural Sensitivity   242
How Language Techniques Can
Magnify Your Voice   243
Using Figurative Language   243
Changing the Order of Words   248
Using the Sounds of Words to Reinforce Their
Meaning  249
Final reflections Give Me the Right Word   251
12 Presenting Your
 Speech  255
The Power of Presentation   256
Developing Your Physical Voice   257
Pitch  258
Rate  260
Volume  262
Variety  264
Vocal Problems   264
Developing Your Body Language   266
Facial Expression and Eye Contact   266
Movement and Gestures   267
Personal Appearance   269
Developing Versatility in Presentation   270
Impromptu Speaking   270
Extemporaneous Speaking   272
Reading from a Manuscript   273
Memorized Text Presentation   275
Practicing for Presentation   275
Developing Flexibility in Special Situations   278
Handling Questions and Answers   278
Moderator  279
Making Mediated Presentations   280
Final reflections Holding Court   281
xii Contents

Part FOUR   Types of Public Speaking  283

Agreement  316

13  Informative
Speaking  283
Enactment  317
Integration  317
The Challenges of Persuasive Speaking   318
Informative Speaking: An Overview   285 Convincing a Reluctant Audience to Listen   319
Removing Barriers to Commitment   324
Forms of Informative Speaking   286 Moving from Attitude to Action   325
Speeches of Description   286 The Challenge of Ethical Persuasion   327
Speeches of Demonstration   286
Designs for Persuasive Speeches   328
Speeches of Explanation   287
Problem–Solution Design   329
Helping Listeners Learn   288 Motivated Sequence Design   330
Motivating Audiences to Listen   288
Final reflections The Case for Persuasion   332
Maintaining Audience Attention   289
Promoting Audience Retention   291

15
Speech Designs   292 Persuasion in
Categorical Design   292  Controversy  337
Comparative Design   293
Spatial Design   294
Sequential Design   296 Reasoned Persuasion Versus Manipulative
Chronological Design   297 Persuasion  339
Causation Design   298 Forming Evidence   339
Developing Proofs   341
Rising to the Challenge of the Informative
Speech  299 The Master Proof   345
Defining Major Issues   345
Briefings: An Application   300 Deductive Reasoning   346
Inductive Reasoning   347
Final reflections Bringing Fire to Your
Analogical Reasoning   348
Listeners  302
Refutative Design   350
Design Combinations   351
Avoiding Defective Persuasion   352

14  Persuasive
Speaking  306
The Gallery of Fallacies   352

Final reflections Persuasion That

Has Legs  357
The Nature of Persuasive Speaking   308
The Types of Persuasive Speaking   310
Speeches That Focus on Facts   310
Speeches That Emphasize Attitudes and Values   312
Speeches That Advocate Action and Policy   313
16 Ceremonial Speaking
 on Special
Occasions  362
The Persuasive Process   314
Techniques of Ceremonial Speaking   364
Awareness  315
Understanding  315 Identification  364
Magnification  366
 Contents xiii

Types of Ceremonial Speeches   368 Appendix A Communicating in Small Groups   385

Speeches of Tribute   368
Appendix B Speeches for Analysis   400
Acceptance Speeches   373
Speeches of Introduction   373 Glossary  423
Speeches of Inspiration   375
After-Dinner Speeches   376 Notes  431
Acting as a Master of Ceremonies   378
Photo Credits 440
Narrative Design   379
Index  441
Prologue  380
Plot  380
Epilogue  381

Final reflections “And in Conclusion

Let Us Say”   381
 Preface
CHAPTeR 1 Finding Your Voice 19

FinAl
reflections A Quest that Deserves Commitment

P What’s New in This Edition?

aleontologists tell us that a dramatic moment in the story of human evolution
occurred several hundred thousand years ago when our early ancestors devel-
oped the capacity for speech. It is interesting to consider that each of us—as we
discover our voices through preparation, practice, Each newsuccess
and ultimate edition offers the chance to improve our book, and the tenth edition
in presenta-
tion—replicates in miniature the experience of our takes
speciesfull advantage
as humans discoveredof this opportunity. Those familiar with previous editions will
their voices and the incredible power of communication.
recognize at least
In some of us, this experience can be quite dramatic. In his biography of seven major changes:
President Lyndon Johnson, Robert Caro tells the story of Johnson’s mother, who
taught communication skills to isolated Hill Country children, and of Johnson’s
cousin, Ava, who studied public speaking with her. ■ WhenNew Mrs. Coauthor.
Johnson began as-We are proud to welcome a dedicated teacher, distinguished
signing speech topics, Ava recalls,
scholar, and officer of the National Communication Association to our writing
team. Professor Kathleen J. Turner of Davidson College has assumed respon-
I said “I just can’t do it, Aunt Rebekah.” And she said, “Oh, yes, you can. There’s
nothing impossible if you put the mind to it. I know you have the ability to
sibility for updating, revising, and refreshing the chapter on the use of presen-
deliver a speech.” And I cried, and I said, “I just can’t do it!” Aunt Rebekah
tation aids (Chapter 10) and the chapter on presenting (Chapter 12), which
said, “Oh, yes, you can.” And she never let up, never let up. Never. Boosting
me along, telling me I could do it. She taught me speaking and elocution, and
gives greater emphasis to impromptu and extemporaneous presentations. The
I went to the state championships with it, and I won a medal, a gold medal, in
successful results of her work are self-evident in these significantly revised
competitions involving the whole state. I owe her a debt that I can never repay.
She made me know that I could do what I never thought I could do.21
chapters.
Our hope for you is that you win your own gold medal, whatever form it may take,
as you find your voice as a public speaker.
■ New
Features. We have developed a self-test,
After Reading This Chapter, You Should Be Able “After Reading This Chapter…,” at the end
To Answer These Questions of each chapter to review and reinforce the
1 What are the three levels of meaning involved in “finding your voice”?
major concepts introduced and developed. ChaPTER 4 Becoming a Better Listener
2 What is ethnocentrism?
3 What are the three major forms of public speaking and the three main kinds
These reviews measure Learning Outcomes that
of appeals named by Aristotle? after Reading
relate to theThis Chapter,
Learning You Should
Objectives providedBe able at
4 What seven elements are central to the nature of public speaking as an Tothe
answer Theseof
beginning Questions:
each chapter. In addition, “For
interactive process?
Discussion
1 how can becomingand Further
a more Exploration”
effective listener benefit you? questions
5 How are identification and community related?
and projects at the end of 2each
6 How can a speaker meet the challenge of responsible knowledge?
chapter
What are the majorencourage
types of listeningthe
usedextension
when listeningand applica-
to speeches?

7 What is plagiarism, and why should it be avoided?tion of chapter content. In3 addition, the book
how you can overcome common offers new
barriers material
to effective on presen-
listening?
tation media and cutting-edge
4 Whattechnologies, such
are the most important skills as presentation
needed programs
for critical listening?
For Discussion And Further exploration for tablets, as well as discussion of you
5 What must research resources
do to become an ethical from
listener?the library to the
1 What personal and social benefits may be lost to societies that do not encourage
Internet to social media. 6 how should you evaluate the speeches you hear?
the free and open exchange of ideas? To prepare for this discussion, read online
John Stuart Mills’ classic treatise, On Liberty. See especially his Chapter II: “Of the 7 how can you provide a helpful yet supportive critique of a speech?
Liberty of Thought and Discussion.”

For Discussion and Further Exploration

1 Complete the listening problems checklist in Figure 4.1. Working in small
groups, discuss your listening problems with your classmates. Develop a listen-
ing improvement plan for the three most common listening problems in your
group. Report your findings to the rest of the class.
2 Review your class notes from one of your lecture courses. Were your notes co-
herent? Were you able to identify the main points, or did you try to write down
M01_OSBO1095_CH01_p001-020.indd 19 everything that was11:41
17/09/13 said?
PM Was the material easy to follow and understand? How
might you change your note-taking behavior?
3 One way to improve your concentration is to keep a listening log in one of your
other classes. As you take class notes, put an X in the margin each time you no-
tice your attention wandering. By each X, jot down a few words pinpointing the
cause: for example, “used men as generic signifier.” After class, count the number
of times your mind drifted, and note the causes. Can you identify a pattern of
reactions? This exercise will help you identify the conditions that bring on in-
attention and will make you more aware of your tendency to daydream. Once
you realize how often and why you are drifting away, you can more easily guard
against this.
4 Think of a time when not listening effectively put you in a difficult situation.
What problems did this cause you? What could you have done differently? Share
your insights with a classmate, and discuss the similarities and differences in
your experiences.
5 Think of a person you like to listen to (speaker, teacher, etc.). List all the adjec-
tives you can that describe this person. Think of another person you do not like
to listen to. List the adjectives that describe this person. Compare the two lists,
and share your conclusions with your classmates.
6 Evaluate a contemporary political speaker on ethical grounds using the ques-
tions on page 73. Be sure to differentiate between the ethical uses of speech
techniques and the moral consequences of the message. Be prepared to defend
your judgments in class.

xiv
 Fortunately, realizing that we must compete for the agreement and commit-
ment of our listeners can lead us in a more positive, constructive direction. The path
to this better option was mapped long ago by communication theorists in ancient
Greece. It is the path of reasoned persuasion.

Preface xv
Reasoned Persuasion Versus
Manipulative Persuasion
Reasoned persuasion concentrates on building a case that will justify taking some ■ Clearer Approach to Persuasion. Development of a
action or adopting some point of view with regard to a public controversy. The case
rests upon arguments carefully constructed out of evidence and patterns of reason-
clearer conceptual approach to persuasion: Chapter
ing that make good sense when carefully examined. Reasoned persuasion invites 14 covers the nature of persuasion, and Chapter
rather than avoids careful inspection. It appeals to our judgment rather than to our
impulses. It aims for long-range commitments that will endure in the face of coun- 15 focuses on the social role of persuasion in the
terattacks. It honors civilized deliberation over verbal mudslinging.
Yet reasoned persuasion does not turn us into robotic thinking machines. It ad-
resolution of controversy. New material emphasizes
dresses us in our full humanity as thinking as well as feeling beings. Reason without that reasoned persuasion is the ethical, enlightened
feeling can seem cold and heartless, but feeling without reason is shallow and fleet-
ing. It is the blend of passion and reason that can help you find your voice. alternative to manipulative persuasion.
Chapter 16 Ceremonial Speaking on Special Occasions 375
The rest of this chapter will help you meet the challenge and enjoy the conse-
quences of reasoned persuasion. We show how to develop compelling evidence and
■ Expanded Horizons. Expansion of the book’s horizons reflects the reach of
proofs, build patterns of effective reasoning, and avoid defects ofSpeeches of Inspiration
evidence, proof,
and reasoning.
public speaking beyond the classroom. Apursue new case study of speaking and
A speech of inspiration helps an audience appreciate, commit to, and
a goal or set of values or beliefs. These speeches may be religious,
persuasive
Forming evidence practices related to the nationally honored
commercial, political, orWellness
social. When a Program of
sales manager introduces
product to marketing representatives, pointing up its competitive advan-
a new

Nabholz Construction Services company has

tages and been
its
Supporting materials are transformed in the heat of controversy into evidence, the stellaradded
market to Chapters
potential, the speech is 14
both and 16.
inspirational and
foundation of reasoned persuasion. persuasive. The marketing reps should feel inspired to push that product
Numerous new examples from the workplace, including motivational speakers
with great zeal and enthusiasm. Speeches at political conventions, such
as keynote addresses that praise the principles of the party, are inspira-
such as Biz
Facts and Stone,
Figures. the founder
In controversy, facts and of Twitter,
figures andSothe
loom important.
tional. late
They help
also is that Steve Jobs,
great American appear
institution, the through-
commencement
answer a crucial question: Which of the contending sides has the better graspAs reality?2 as these speech occasions may seem, they have im-
of different
out. Examples from the courtroom have
Be sure you supply enough facts to answer that question in your been
address.
added
favor.
portant pointsMoreo- to
in common.
Chapters 10 and 12.
ver, Americans have always been practical people who have a special
First,respect
speechesfor
of inspiration are enthusiastic. Inspirational speakers set
■ More
numbers.Compact
Recent researchand
in persuasion.3
Student
confirms the ongoing Friendly.
importance ofFor many
statistical
an example students,
evidence
through this
their personal has become
commitment and energy.the
speaker and the speech must be active and forceful. Speakers offer a
Both the

Age of Multi-Tasking, a time in which many model demands

for their audiences are being
through their made simultane-
behavior both on and off the
examples. Examples put a human face on situations. They bring speaking
it intoplatform.
focus forThey must practice what they preach.
ously
us. At theon theiroftime.
beginning Partly
his speech toofhelp
at the end suchAustin
this chapter, students,
Second,
Wright uses andan ofpartly
speeches inspiration (we
draw onadmit!)
past successes because
or frustrations to
future accomplishment. In a commencement speech at Stanford
shorter is usually better, we have sought encourage to tighten
University, the latethe
Steve writing,
Jobs, co-founderand streamline
of Apple, told the story of how
and condense certain sections without sacrificing the quality many have come to
he had been fired when he was 30 years old and the company was worth
two billion
reasoned persuasion Persuasion evidence Supporting materials used dollars. “It was devastating,” he said.
associate
that builds a casewith
to justify our book. Examples
its recommen- of this
in persuasive speeches, greater
including facts accessibility are the revised dis-
dations. and figures, examples, narratives,Then
and it turned out that getting fired from Apple was the best thing that
cussion of the “Historicaltestimony. Roots of Public Speaking” in Chapter
could have ever happened 1 andofthe
to me. The heaviness expla-was
being successful
replaced by the lightness of being a beginner again, less sure about eve-
nation of persuasion in Chapters 14 and 15. rything. It freed me to enter one of the most creative periods of my life. Steve Jobs, speaking
During the next five years, I started a company named NeXT, an- at Stanford graduation
other company named Pixar, and fell in love with an amazing woman who ceremonies, gave an in-
■ Social Media Connections. Connections between public speaking and social would become my wife. Pixar went on to create the world’s first computer ani- spiring commencement
address that described
media have been added in the “Finding Your Voice” boxes and end-of-chapter
M15_OSBO1095_CH15_p337-361.indd 339
mated feature film, Toy Story, and is now the most successful animation studio
11/10/13 5:00 PM
in the world. In a remarkable turn of events, Apple bought NeXT, I returned to how past career frustra-
activities, as well as thought-provoking questions and examples throughout. Apple, and the technology we developed at NeXT is at the heart of Apple’s cur-
rent renaissance. And Laurene and I have a wonderful family together.16
tions ultimately led to his
current successes.
Students will find these applications particularly relevant to their daily lives and
The implication was clear: Out of apparent failure can arise spectacular success.
interactions. Third, speeches of inspiration revitalize our appreciation for values or beliefs. In the
later years of his life, after his athletic prowess had faded, Jesse Owens became
■ Development of “Finding Your Voice” known Theme. as a great inspirational speaker. According to a an obituary reported in the
Cogressional The“The
Record, ninth edition
Jesse Owens of Public
best remembered by many Americans was
Speaking introduced a subtitle. “Finding speeches]
Your Voice” focused on a theme that
a public speaker with the ringing, inspirational delivery of an evangelist. . . . [His
praised the virtues of patriotism, clean living and fair play.”17
had been implicit from the first edition: from
that developing
The following as
excerpts, taken a speaker
from can also
a statement protesting America’s withdrawal
the 1980 Summer Olympic Games, illustrate his inspirational style. Jesse
help one develop a sense of purpose andOwens mission.
was unableFinding
to deliver this your voice in
message personally. He the pub-
prepared it shortly before
his death from cancer.
lic speaking class means developing on at least three levels. On the first and most Owens’s introduction sug-
basic level of competence, the student learnsWhat how to analyze audiences, find good
the Berlin games proved . . . was that Hitler’s “supermen” could be
beaten. Ironically, it was one of his blond, blue-eyed, Aryan athletes who
gests the larger meaning of his
victories and sets the stage for
topics, conduct research, design messages, word helped them
do the beating.for maximum effect, and identification.

present them so that they achieve the desired communication goals. The second
level of finding your voice involves self-discovery: helping
speech of inspiration students gain confi-
A ceremonial
speech directed at awakening or reawak-
dence so that they can communicate successfully
ening an audience
set of values.
and
to a goal, find those causes that most
purpose, or

deserve their personal commitment. The third level begins the process of finding
your place in society, helping students develop a sense of the communication roles
that they might play in their communities or in the global workplace.
M16_OSBO1095_CH16_p362-384.indd 375 17/10/13 3:42 PM

318 PaRt FOuR Types of Public Speaking

FinDinG YOuR

voice Persuasion in the Raw

The “Letters to the Editor” section of the Sunday newspaper is often a rich source for
the study of persuasive material. Using a recent Sunday paper, analyze the persuasion
attempted in these letters. You might also check blogs with which you’re familiar or that
discuss a topic of interest to you. Do you find the ideas expressed in these persuasive?
Why or why not? Do you evaluate these comments differently from letters to the editor or
from other media sources? Which do you think are most and least effective, and why? How
might these help you find your voice on a topic? Report your findings in class discussion.

the Challenges of Persuasive Speaking

The challenges that persuaders face range from confronting a reluctant audience
to satisfying strong ethical requirements. As you plan a persuasive speech, you
 epilogue
The epilogue of a narrative reflects on the meaning of the action and offers final
comments on the character of those who participated in it. It is the counterpart of
xvi Preface
the conclusion in other speech designs. When used in ceremonial speeches, the
epilogue often conveys a moral. In the Owens example, we see the nobility of Luz
Long reaffirmed in the final scene of the story:
230 PARt tHRee Developing Presentation Skills

‘‘
The new edition develops, integrates, and
A
Luz Long
legislator was was
askedkilled
how heinfeltWorld War II He
about whiskey. and, although
replied, “If, whenI don’t cry often,
Give me the I wept
you when you
say whiskey, I received
mean thehis lastbrew,
Devil’s letter—I knew
the poison it was
scourge, thehis refines this idea throughout the book. Each
last. In it he asked
right word and bloodyme to someday
that defilesfind his son, Karl, reason,
and tocreates
tell him “of how we fought
monster innocence, dethrones misery
well together, and of the good times, and that any two men can become chapter begins with stories and examples that
the right accent,
and I will move
‘‘ and poverty—yes, literally takes the bread from the mouths of little children; if
brothers.”
you mean the drink that topples Christian man and woman from the pinnacle
of righteous, gracious living into the bottomless pit of degradation, despair,
illustrate finding your voice and concludes
with an expanded “Final Reflections” section
the world. shameWhat Owens doesn’t quiteI am
tellagainst
us, but weallcan infer it from what he says, is that
—JoSePH ConRAD
and helplessness, then certainly it with my power.
Long and Owens had become good friends, that they corresponded often, that
and places
that in context the importance of what
Long
“But knew
if, when youthat his endyou
say whiskey, was near.
mean These
the oil inferences
of conversation, philo-strengthen the you
theonly have learned. As each chapter develops,
underlying
lessonwine,
sophic forthe
thealeaudience Owens
that is consumed addressed
when in 1980:
good fellows get together,
that puts a song in their hearts and the warm glow of contentment in their
the “Finding Your Voice” feature offers short
eyes; ifThat
you mean Christmas
is what cheer; if you
the Olympics aremean the stimulating
all about. The roaddrink
tothat
the Olympics does exercises,
not questions, and applications that
lead
puts the to Moscow.
spring It leads tostep
in an old gentleman’s noon city, no country.
a frosty morning; ifItyou
goes
mean challenge students to think about and apply
far beyond Lake Placid
or Moscow,
that drink, the sale ofancient Greece
which pours or treasury
into our Nazi Germany. Theofroad
untold millions to the Olympics leads,
dollars
which in
arethe end,
used to thetender
to provide best within us. crippled children, our blind,
care for our
what they are learning, providing opportu-
our deaf, our dumb, pitiful, aged and infirm, to build highways, hospitals, nities for class discussion and a stimulus to
Just asthen
and schools, the Olympic
certainly I am in spirit
favor of could
it. learning.
thrive in the bigoted atmosphere of Nazi
Germany in 1936, so also could it blossom in the Cold War atmosphere of Moscow
“That is my stand, and I will not compromise.”1
in 1980. Owens’s speech became an argument criticizing America’s 1980 boycott of
the Olympic Games. A video showing this dramatic encounter may be found in the
Public Broadcasting System’s archive of American Experience.
The “Whiskey Speech,” a legend in southern politics, was originally presented some
years ago by N. S. Sweat, Jr., during a heated campaign to legalize the sale of liquor-
by-the-drink in Mississippi. Because about half of his constituents favored the
initiative and the other half were opposed, Representative “Soggy” Sweat decided
to handle the issue with humor. In the process he provided an illustration of how
words can extend or transform meaning.

FinaL
In this chapter, we discuss how to make language work for you. We explain six

reflections
standards for the effective and ethical use of language in your speeches. We end by
exploring special techniques you can use to magnify the power of your voice.

“and in Conclusion Let Us Say”

What Words Can Do
Consider Joseph Conrad’s eloquent statement about the power of language at the

W
beginning of this chapter. Until speakers find the right words, they will not find
e began our book by encouraging your quest to find your voice. We hope
their voice. Before speakers can move the world, or anyone in it, they must first dis-
cover whatthat
theyyour
believequest
and thehas been of
importance successful and
their subjects. It is that
wordsyou have benefited, are benefit-
that form,
frame,
ing, and
andexpress
willthese understandings.
continue to benefit from it. We end our book with our own speech
Words can reveal the world in many ways. They can arouse or dull our feelings.
of tribute,
They thisthat
can be magnets time totogether
draw us you. or Public
drive us speaking
apart. They can may not
goad us intohave
ac- always been easy for
you.
tion. But
They makeit up
isthe
our hope
rituals that you
that celebrate have
who we grown
are and what we asbelieve.
a person
Clearly, as you have grown as a
words are vital not just in finding our voice but also in helping us express ourselves.
speaker. Our special wishes, expressed in terms of the underlying vision of our
book, are

■ that you have learned to climb the barriers that people sometimes erect to
382 PARt FOuR Types of Public Speaking
separate themselves from each other and that too often prevent meaningful
communication.
■ that you have learned to weave words and evidence into eloquent thoughts
M11_OSBO1095_CH11_p229-254.indd 230 and persuasive ideas. 05/11/13 2:08 PM

epilogue
■ that youThe finallearned
have part of ato
narrative
build and present speeches that enlighten others in
that reflects upon itsand
responsible meaning.
ethical ways.
■ above all, that you have found subjects and causes worthy of your voice.

And so we propose a toast: May you use your new speaking skills to improve the lives
and lift the spirits of those who may listen to you.

M16_OSBO1095_CH16_p362-384.indd 381 19/11/13 12:14 PM

After Reading this Chapter, You Should Be Able
to Answer these Questions Some Things Don’t Change; They Just
Study and
Review at
MyCommunicationLab
Get Better
1 What are the values and uses of ceremonial speaking?
2 how can you develop a sense of identification between yourself and
listeners?
3 What purpose So
doesitmagnification
is, we think, with
serve, ourcan
and how book. Foritall
you make the
work? changes from one edition to another,
4 core values remain. With each edition, we try
What are the different kinds of ceremonial speeches, and how should you to state them a little more clearly, a
prepare for them?
little more powerfully. Among these values are the following:
5 What skills are required to be a master of ceremonies?
6 how can you use narrative design to tell an effective story?
■ From ancient times, educators have recognized that the study and practice of pub-
lic speaking belongs at the foundation of a liberal education. What other discipline
For Discussion requires students
and Further to think clearly, be attuned to the needs of listeners, organize
exploration
1 Watch the commencement speech “How to Live and
their thoughts, select Beforecombine wordsatartfully and judiciously, and express
You Die,” offered
Stanford University by the late Steve Jobs. (The speech can be found under
“Inspirational Speeches” on TED.) Look for the processes of identification and
magnification at work in the speech. Do they work effectively?
2 Develop a speech of tribute to yourself as you would like to be remembered.
What do you hope to accomplish? What do you stand for? What values give
meaning to your life?
3 Prepare a speech of tribute in which you honor a person or group that has con-
tributed to the cause advanced in your persuasive speech.
4 For and against magnification: Some might argue that magnification is distor-
tion, that when you select a person’s achievements and accomplishments to
praise in speeches of tribute, you are ignoring less desirable features and short-
 Preface xvii
CHAPTeR 1 Finding Your Voice 9
themselves with power and conviction,
all while under the direct scrutiny of an Figure 1.1
audience? The challenge to teach such a Ten Timeless
lessons from the
complex range of abilities has always been Ancient World
difficult, but it also suggests the potential
value of the course to many students. This Old wisdom is sometimes the best wisdom, especially when it has been
tested repeatedly and confirmed time and again in human experience.
book represents our best effort to help Here are ten gold nuggets of advice for the public speaker, mined from
ancient writings:
teachers and students rise to this challenge. 1. If you want to convince listeners that you have a good message for
them, you must first convince them that you are a good person.
2. If you want strong commitment from an audience, you must engage
■ Another core objective of our book is strong feelings.
3. If you want commitment to last, you must be able to show that your
to illuminate the role of public speaking arguments are based on sound, logical interpretations of reality.

in a diverse society. Adjusting to a diverse 4. When speaking on matters of guilt or innocence, you must empha-
size the morality of past actions.

audience is a challenge ancient writers 5. When speaking on matters of future policy, you must stress the
practical advantages of proposed plans of action.
could not have anticipated. The increas- 6. When celebrating great achievements, you must emphasize the
values that make them great.
ing cultural diversity of our society adds to the importance7. Yourofspeech
public
should bespeaking
based on a thorough investigation of a topic,
so that you have the widest possible range of choices as you select
as a force that can express the richness of a diverse society,ideas
asandwell asforcounter
materials emphasis.
8. You should follow an order of ideas that leads listeners to greater
the growing division and incivility that are the disease eating away
illumination at diversity.
and stronger conviction as you speak.

Our renewed emphasis on identification as the antidote 9.toThe division, on the

right words will make your points come to life in images that
your audience will easily remember.

importance of shared stories that express universal values, and on the ethical
10. The more you can speak in a direct, conversational way from a
pattern of ideas imprinted in your mind, rather than by reading a
importance of reasoned discourse as a preferred mode of public deliberation,
prepared text or reciting a memorized script, the better the quality
of communication you will achieve.
all respond to the vital importance of diversity in our society. Thus, cultural
diversity is a theme that remains constant in our book.
■ We continue to believe that a major goal of the public speaking course is to
make students more sensitive to the ethical impact of speaking on the lives of others.
We discuss ethical considerations throughout the book.
interests Forthey
and goals, example,
will be more we
likelydirect
to accept the message. We discuss estab-
the attention of students to ethical concerns as we lishingconsider listening,
your credibility as a speaker inaudience
Chapter 3.

analysis and adaptation, cultural variations, topic selection,

Message. A speakerresearch,
must have a clearways
idea ofofwhat a speech is to accomplish—this
is called its message. You should be able to state your specific purpose in one clear,
structuring speeches, presentation aids, uses of language, andsimpler,
simple sentence—the the consequences
the better. To promote a message, your speech should
of informing and persuading others. Often we use followaa “Finding Your
design and strategy Ethical
appropriate to the subject and to the needs of listeners.
To make the message clear and attractive, your speech must use words artfully and
Voice” feature to highlight these concerns. often may use presentation aids such as graphs, charts, or photographs projected on
a large screen. To make the message credible, your speech should offer convincing
■ We continue to believe that a college course in public speaking should offer both
evidence drawn from reputable sources and sound reasoning. To make your message

practical advice and an understanding of why such advice works. We emphasize

both the how and the why of public speaking—how pathosso Appeals
thatbased
beginners
on feelings. can speaker Initiates the communication message What the speaker wishes to
ethos Appeals based on the charac- process by framing an oral message for accomplish.
achieve success as quickly as possible, and why so that they can manage
ter, competence, and personality of the their
the consideration of others.
new skills wisely. Our approach is eclectic: we draw
speaker.
from the past and present
and from the social sciences and humanities to help students understand and
manage their public speaking experiences.
M01_OSBO1095_CH01_p001-020.indd 9
■ The Roman educator Quintilian held forth the ideal of “the good person
speaking well” as a goal of education. Two thousand years later, we join him
in stressing the value of speech training in the development of the whole person. In
addition, understanding the principles of public communication can make students
more resistant to unethical speakers and more critical of the mass-mediated commu-
nication to which they are exposed. The class should help students become both
better consumers and better producers of public communication.

In addition to these core values, we continue to offer features that have remained
constant and distinctive across the many editions of our book.

■ Responsible knowledge as a standard for public speaking. In order to develop a

standard for the quality and depth of information that should be reflected
 xviii Preface

Chapter 15 Persuasion in Controversy 341

in all speeches, we offer the concept of responsible knowledge. This concept is
Gather more evidence than you think you will need so that
you have a wide range of material to choose from. Be sure
developed in detail in Chapter 7, in which we discuss the foundation of re-
you have facts, figures, or expert testimony for each of yoursearch that should support speeches and provide an updated account of current
major points. Use multiple sources and types of evidence to
strengthen your case. research resources available to speakers, as well as a new system for recording
information as the student conducts research and personal interviews to find
Developing proofs
supporting materials.
As persuaders representing different interests and agendas strug-
gle to win in the competition of ideas, four questions loom as
vital to their success or failure:
■ How to cope with communication anxiety. A separate chapter early in the book
■ Which speaker can we most trust?
addresses communication anxiety and how to control it. Many students come
■ Which speech best arouses emotions favorable to its cause?
to our public speaking classes with anxiety that amounts sometimes to terror.
■ Which advocated action best fits with our society’s values, Our book helps them to confront their feelings and to convert their fear into
dreams, and aspirations? positive energy.
■ Which position offers the best grasp and understanding of
reality? ■ Special preparation for the first speech. As teachers, we realize the importance of
In order to answer these questions, persuaders must de- the first speaking experience to a student’s ultimate success in the course. Yet
velop what the ancient writers called proofs, which manage the
persuasive resources available in each particular situation. Out much useful advice must be delayed until later chapters as the subject of public
of these proofs, you will weave your arguments into a case that speaking develops systematically over a semester. Having experienced this frus-
justifies your position. Much of the rest of this chapter will focus
on how you can develop proofs successfully. tration ourselves while teaching the course, we include an overview of practi-
Developing ethos. What the ancient writers called ethos iscal advice early in the book that previews later chapters and prepares students
212 on
based our thRee
PARt perception of a speaker’s
Developing competence,
Presentation Skills character,more effectively for their first speeches. This overview is provided in Chapter 3.
goodwill, and dynamism. If listeners believe that you know what reasoned persuasion
The
you are talking about and that you are trustworthy, they will listen step-by-step
respectfully to approach
often to preparing the first speech offered in this chapter
depends on expert
When you arrange slides in a carousel, be sure theytestimony.
are in the proper order and
what you have to say. Therefore, you should work ethos-building material into the
introduction of your speech whenever you can. You should explain,hasfor
that none of them is upside down been
and/or strengthenedpersonal
backwards.
example,
Today, most andcomput-
restructured.
ers are packaged with software that allows you to prepare and present slides without a
your personal connection with the topic or what special things you have done to
carousel projector. We discuss this in greater detail in our section on new media.

Video and Audio Resources. Such video resources as DVDs and videotapes
Your
ethical voiCe
and such audio resources as MP3 or computer recordings and audiotapes can add ■ Situational approach to communication
variety to your presentation. Make sure in advance that the place where you will be
making your presentation Guidelines for the
has the proper ethicaltouse
equipment work ofwith
evidence
your materials. ethics. We have always discussed ethi-
Video resources are useful for transporting the audience to distant, danger-
To use evidence ethically follow these guidelines:
ous, or otherwise unavailable locations. Although you could verbally describe the
cal issues as they arise in the context
beauty of the Montana Rockies, your word-pictures can become more powerful if
1. Provide evidence from credible sources. 6. Do not withhold important evidence. of topics. The “Finding Your Ethical
reinforced with actual scenes projected electronically.
2. Identify your sources of evidence. Using video poses some 7. Use expert
special testimony
problems fortospeakers.
establish facts,
Movingprestige
images attract Voice” feature helps highlight these
testimony
spoken toword,
enhance credibility, and lay testimony
3. Use evidence that can stand up moreunder critical scrutiny.
attention than does the
to create
so they
identification.
can easily upstage you. In a concerns as they develop chapter by
4. Be sure evidence has not beenshort speech,
tainted keep the focus on the speaker by limiting clips to thirty seconds or
by self-interest.
less. A videotape segment must
5. Acknowledge disagreements among experts.
8. Quote or paraphrase
be edited so that testimony accurately.
splices blend cleanly. Such editing chapter.
takes special skill and equipment. A simpler means is to transfer this material onto
a CD, which can be done on most personal computers with a DVD/CD burner. For
certain topics, carefully prepared videos can be more effective than any other type
of presentation aid. A student at Northwest Mississippi Community College who
was a firefighter used videotape in an informative speech on fire hazards in the
home. By customizing the video to fit the precise needs of his speech, he was able
proof An arrangement of the re- to show ethos A form
of of proof
■ thatandrelies onzoom in on various hazards.12 He prepared
sources of persuasion so that it satisfies a
long shots a room The importance of narrative in public speaking. We discuss narrative as an impor-
then
the audience’s perceptions of a speaker’s
the video without sound so that his speech provided the commentary needed to
basic requirement for success and drives
thoughtful listeners toward a conclusion.interpret andgoodwill,
acter, explainandthedynamism.tant form of supporting material and as a previously neglected design option.
leadership qualities of competence, char-
pictures. Using this technique, he made his subject much
more meaningful for listeners.
This material is initially presented in Chapter 3. We also identify appeals to
Audio resources may also be useful as presentation aids. Sabrina Karic started
traditions, heroic symbols, cultural identity, and legends—all built upon
her self-introductory speech on growing up in war-torn Bosnia and Herzegovina
with a recording of a loud explosion and gunfire, during which she ducked beneath
narrative—as an important, emerging form of proof in persuasive speaking.
the table as the audience jumped (see “A Little Chocolate” at the end of Chapter 3).
When in doubt about the wisdom or practicality of using such aids, consult your 11/10/13 5:52 PM

instructor.

■ Speaker’s Notes as a major pedagogical tool.

SPeAKeR’S
notes Deciding What Presentation Media to use
When our first edition appeared some
twenty-five years ago we introduced to
Let the following suggestions guide your selection of presentation media.
the field a feature we called “Speaker’s
When you need to . . . try using . . . Notes.” This feature serves as an internal
■ adapt to audience feedback ■ flip charts or chalk or marker boards summary that helps highlight and bring
display maps, charts, graphs, or textual graphics posters or computerized programs
■

■ present complex information or statistical data

■

■ display graphics or photos to a large audience
■ authenticate a point
make your presentation appear more professional
■ ■
■ handouts
into focus important concepts as the
■ slides or transparencies student reads the text. In the new edition,
■ audio and video resources this traditional feature works in col-
computerized programs
laboration with the new “Finding Your
Voice” and “Finding Your Ethical Voice”
features to encourage learning and enrich
the student’s reading experience.

M10_OSBO1095_CH10_p199-228.indd 212 04/11/13 10:42 AM

 Preface xix

■ Improving language skills. We introduce students to the power of language, help

them apply standards so that this power is not diminished, and demonstrate
special techniques that can magnify this power at important moments in
speeches. Among the standards is learning how to avoid grammatical errors
that make listeners cringe.
■ Enhanced understanding of ceremonial speaking. We provide coherence and re-
spect for the study of ceremonial speaking by pointing out the importance
of such speaking in society, and by indicating how two powerful concepts,
one offered by Aristotle and the other by Kenneth Burke, can combine to
generate successful ceremonial speeches, especially speeches of tribute and
inspiration.

Plan of the Book

Public Speaking: Finding Your Voice is designed to help beginning students build
cumulative knowledge and skills. Positive initial speaking experiences are especially
important. For this reason, Chapter 2 helps apprehensive students manage commu-
nication anxiety as they stand to speak for the first time. Chapter 3 offers an over-
view of advice to help students design and present successful first speeches.
In the chapters that follow, students learn how to listen critically and empa-
thetically; analyze their audiences; select, refine, and research speech topics; de-
velop supporting materials; arrange these materials in appropriate structures; and
create effective presentation aids. They also learn how to use language effectively
and present their messages well. Students become acquainted with the nature of
information and how to present it, the process of persuasion and how to engage
it, and the importance of ceremonial speaking in its various forms. Appendix A,
“Communicating in Small Groups,” describes how to use public communication
skills to participate effectively in small group interactions.
Teachers may adapt the sequence of chapters to any course plan, because each
chapter covers a topic thoroughly and completely.

Detailed Plan of the Book

Part One, “The Foundations of Public Speaking,” provides basic information that
students need for their first speaking and listening experiences. Chapter 1 defines
public speaking and the significance of “finding your voice,” highlights the per-
sonal, social, and cultural benefits of being able to speak effectively in public, and
emphasizes the ethical responsibilities of speakers. Chapter 2 helps students come
to terms with communication anxiety, so that they can control this problem early
in the course. Chapter 3 offers practical advice for organizing, practicing, and pre-
senting first speeches. Chapter 4 identifies common listening problems and ways to
overcome them, helps students sharpen critical listening skills, and presents criteria
for the constructive evaluation of speeches.
Part Two, “Preparation for Public Speaking,” introduces the basic skills needed
to develop effective speeches. Chapter 5 emphasizes the importance of the audi-
ence, indicating how to adapt a message and how to adjust to factors in the speak-
ing situation. Chapter 6 provides a systematic way to discover, evaluate, and refine
speech topics. Chapter 7 shows how to research these topics, emphasizing the im-
portance of acquiring responsible knowledge. Chapter 8 identifies the major types of
xx Preface

supporting materials fashioned from such research, includ-

ing facts and statistics, examples, testimony, and narratives.
Objectives
Chapter 9 shows how to develop simple, balanced, and or-
this chapter will help you
1 understand how
derly speech designs, select and shape main points, use tran-
persuasive speaking
differs from informative
speaking.
sitions, prepare effective introductions and conclusions, and
2 Master the types of
persuasive speaking
3 Grasp how the develop outlines.
persuasive process
works
Part Three, “Developing Presentation Skills,” brings the
4 Soften the opposition of
reluctant listeners
speaker to the point of presentation. Chapter 10 explains the
5 Remove barriers that
block commitment

types, media, and preparation of presentation aids. Chapter 11

6 turn agreement into
action
7 Select appropriate
designs for your provides an understanding of the role of language in com-
persuasive speeches

munication and offers practical suggestions for using words

Outline
effectively. Chapter 12 offers concepts and exercises for the
improvement of voice and body language to help students
the nature of Persuasive
Speaking

develop an extemporaneous style that is adaptable to most

the types of Persuasive
Speaking

speaking situations.
the Persuasive Process

the Challenges of Persuasive

Speaking

Designs for Persuasive

Part Four, “Types of Public Speaking,” discusses informa-
Speeches
tive, persuasive, and ceremonial speaking. Chapter 13 cov-
Final Reflections The Case for
Persuasion
ers speeches designed to share information and increase un-
derstanding. The chapter discusses the types of informative

14
speeches and presents the major designs that can structure
Persuasive them. Chapter 14 describes the persuasive process, focusing
Speaking Listen to on how to meet the many challenges of persuasive situa-
Chapter 14 at
tions. Chapter 15 examines the work of persuasion in contro-
MyCommunicationLab

306
versy. The chapter encourages reasoned persuasion, helping
students develop strong arguments to support their positions.
M14_OSBO1095_CH14_p306-336.indd 306
The chapter also identifies the major forms of fallacies so that
06/11/13 12:09 PM

student speakers can avoid them and detect them in the messages of others. Chapter
16 explains how to prepare effective ceremonial presentations, including speeches of
tribute and inspiration, speeches introducing others, eulogies, after-dinner speeches,
and speeches presenting and accepting awards. The chapter shows how to use narra-
tives and narrative design, often found in ceremonial speeches.
Appendix A, “Communicating in Small Groups,” introduces students to the
problem-solving process and to the responsibilities of both group leaders and
group participants. This appendix also provides guidelines for managing meet-
ings, including virtual meetings, and explains the basic concepts of parliamentary
procedure. Appendix B provides a number of student and professional speeches for
additional analysis.

Learning Tools
To help students master the material, we offer a number of special learning tools.

■ We open each chapter with a chapter outline and learning objectives that pre-
pare students for productive reading.
■ The epigrams and vignettes that start each chapter help point out the topic’s
significance and motivate readers to learn more.
■ We conclude each chapter with a “Final Reflections” summary, a self-test to
­review key concepts and assess how the learning objectives were met, and
questions and activities to explore chapter content in greater detail.
 Christie, governor of New Jersey, used this technique when
he described how one child responded to Hurricane Sandy
in his 2013 State of the State Address:

I met nine-year-old Ginjer. Having a 9-year-old girl my-

self, her height and manner of speaking was immediately
familiar and evocative. Having confronted so many cry-
Chris Christie, governor
of new Jersey.
Preface xxi
ing adults at that point I felt ready to deal with anything.
Then Ginjer looked at me, began to cry and told me she was scared. She told
me she had lost everything; she had lost her home and her belongings. She
■ We use contemporary artwork and photographs to illustrate ideas, engage stu-
asked me to help her.
As my eyes filled with tears, I took a deep breath and thought about what
dent interest, and add to the visual appeal of the book.
I would say to my Bridget if she said the same thing to me. If she had the same
look on her face. If she had the same tears in her eyes. I asked her where her
mom was and she pointed right behind her. I asked her if her dad was okay.
■ Examples illustrate the content in a clear, lively, and often entertaining way.
She told me he was. So I told Ginjer, you haven’t lost your home; you’ve just CHAPteR 15 Persuasion in Controversy 355
lost a house. A house we can replace, your home is with your mom and dad.
■ Special embedded features help stu-
I hugged her and told her not to cry—that the adults are in charge now and
there was nothing to be afraid of anymore. Ginjer is here today—we’ve kept in
dents read productively. “Speaker’s
touch—and I want to thank her for giving voice to New Jersey’s children dur- FinDinG YOuR

voice
ing Sandy and helping to create a memory of humanity in a sea of despair.10
Notes” offer guidelines to help stu-
A factual example is based on an actual event or the experiences of a real person. Find the Fallacies
dents focusprovide
Factual examples on the strongessentials; “Finding
support for your ideas because they actually did
happen: They authenticate the point you are trying to make. Joseph Jimenez, CEO Look for examples of fallacies in the “Letters to the Editor” section of your local
Your Voice”
of Novartis, used the offers exercises
following factual example to and ap-
support a more positive view of newspaper or in opinions expressed in blogs. Consider how these fallacies affect the

plications that stimulate the learning

his pharmaceutical company: credibility or character of the people who commit them. Did you ever commit such
an error? Do you think this damaged your credibility? Might personal fallacies be an
process;
We believeand. . . it is“Finding
our obligation to Your Ethical
offer low-cost generics to lower health- obstacle to finding your voice?
care costs around the world.
Voice”Here’s heightens
just one example.ethical
We introducedsensitivity.
generic enoxaparin in this country
last year. This is a medicine that helps prevent blood clots. It matters because clots
can break free, and cause a deadly blockage in the lung. When we introduced a
generic version, it saved the U.S. government $700 million. That’s a big deal.11

A hypothetical example is not offered as “real” so much as representative of actual Begging the Question. The begging the question fallacy occurs when
people, situations, or events. This kind of example can be useful when factual exam- speakers neglect their responsibilities to prove their points. Instead, they make
ples are not available or when their use would not be appropriate. While generally claims and barge ahead as though ■ A Glossary runs through the book at
the claims didn’t need to be proven. This fal-
not as authoritative as their factual counterparts, hypothetical examples can still be lacy often relies on colorful language to disguise the lack of proof. The words used
very effective. They can be the fiction that reveals reality. Consider the following the bottom of each page, helping
seem to justify the conclusion. Sometimes this fallacy occurs when speakers rely
solely on mythos to support an argument. A conclusion such as “Be patriotic!
hypothetical example, which illustrates the growing problem of childhood obesity:
students focus on key terms as they
Support our American way of life. Vote against gun control” begs the question
are introduced. In addition, all the
because the speaker has not demonstrated that being against gun control is a form
of patriotism.
extended example A more detailed
example that speakers use to illustrate or
factual example An example based
on something that actually happened or
hypothetical example An example
offered not as real but as representative
key terms and their definitions are
Straw Man. Theofstraw man fallacy occurs when the persuader creates a like-
develop a point. really exists. actual people, situations, or events. gathered
ness of the opposition’s position that makes in aextreme,
it seem trivial, completeor easy toGlossary at
refute. Referring to health care reform as “socialized medicine” and to banking
regulations as “a government takeover”the endexamples
are recent of the book.
of such fallacies. As
an ethical persuasive speaker, you should represent opposing positions fairly and
fully. The straw man fallacy is an implicit admission of weakness or desperation
on the part of its user.
M08_OSBO1095_CH08_p147-166.indd 157 21/09/13 1:38 PM

■ Sample classroom speeches found at the end of many chapters

Faulty Premise. illustrate im-fallacy occurs when the major premise
The faulty premise
of an argument is not sound. If the major premise is faulty, the entire argument may
portant concepts. The annotated speech texts show how crumble.the concepts
We once apply
heard a student begin in
a line of argument with the following
statement of principle: “College athletes are not really here to learn.” She was in-
actual speaking situations. Appendix B contains additional speeches
stantly in trouble. thatwas
When her speech offer
over, the class assailed her with questions:
an interesting array of topics, contexts, and speakers.How did she define athletes? Was she talking about intercollegiate or intramural
athletes? How about the tennis team? How did she define learning? Was she aware
of the negative stereotype at the center of her premise? Wasn’t she being unfair,
not to mention
ChAPteR 16 Ceremonial arrogant?
Speaking It’s safe
on Special to say that
Occasions 383the speaker did not persuade many
people that day.
To learn more about the fascinating subject of fallacies, go to Fallacy Files,
an online site containing an extensive collection of fallacies and bad arguments.
SAMPle CeReMOniAl SPeeCh Developed by Gary N. Curtis, the site offers definitions and examples and is well or-
ganized and entertaining. See especially “Stalking the Wild Fallacy,” offered under
Simone Mullinax presented this speech of tribute to her grandmother in a the “Examples” feature on the menu.
public speaking class at the University of Arkansas. The speech develops a
master narrative based on an extended metaphor and paints an endearing
portrait of a complex person who–like key lime pie—combines the qualities
of sweetness and tartness.
begging the question fal- straw man fallacy Understating, faulty premise fallacy A reasoning
lacy Assuming that an argument has distorting, or otherwise misrepresenting error that occurs when an argument is
been proved without actually presenting the the position of opponents for ease based on a flawed major premise.
Baked-in traditions evidence. of refutation.

SimONE mULLiNAx

Have you ever baked a pie? No, I don’t mean one you get from the freezer this brief opening does a
section at the grocery store—I’m talking about one you bake from scratch. I great deal of work. Simone
M15_OSBO1095_CH15_p337-361.indd 355
learned to bake a pie at an early age. And what I learned, early on, is that there opens with a rhetorical
are three things you have to master: the crust, the filler, and the topping. You question and a defini-
can’t have a pie if you lack any of these. tion and establishes her
So where do you start? You start of course in the kitchen, which is where I personal ethos. She then
meet my grandmother every time we get together. I would like to tell you she’s hints of a clever categori-
that sweet, picturesque, grandmotherly grandmother you see on television, but cal design that will follow
she’s not. Rather, she’s that opinionated, bold, “her-way-or-the-highway” type the three main ingredients
that scares some people off. Her salvation is that she’s also insanely funny and of a pie.
you fall in love with her stories, her cooking, and her opinions, even when you
don’t agree with all of them. Just when you’re ready to pack up and move on,
she does or says something that makes you want to hang around. this paragraph completes
She’s the woman who marches to the front of the line when her “ba- the sketch that introduces
bies” don’t get what they need. She’s the woman who sends us care packages Simone’s grandmother.
made up of “goodies” from Dollar General. She’s the woman who offers her Simone paints this portrait
opinions to everyone on any occasion, whether they want them or not. She’s by offering a few glimpses
also the woman who gathered all the family recipes together—some of them of her grandmother in ac-
unique and over a hundred years old—and gave them to me for a Christmas tion, small slices of life that
present. She’s my grandmother and my best friend. depict character.
But back to baking pies. My signature pie is a key lime pie. It really isn’t
my signature at all because I frequently forge my grandmother’s. People often As she tells us more about
think of it as a hot weather treat, but every time we are together, even if it’s pies, Simone also reveals
23 degrees outside, we make that key lime pie. Last year before I competed more about herself. We
in the Miss Oklahoma pageant, a reporter called and asked what I was most learn that she has been a
looking forward to eating after the competition, and I said, “A key lime pie. A beauty pageant contestant
whole key lime pie.” It was in bold headlines the next day: “Miss Tulsa looking who has a particular fond-
forward to eating a pie.” For weeks afterwards people asked me, “So did you ness for key lime pies.
get your key lime pie?” And I was able to answer, “Sure did.” Because after the this begins an elabora-
pageant my grandmother had two pies sitting on the counter, one for now, and tion of the pie as extended
one for later. metaphor in order to reveal
Grammy taught me you can’t have the pie without the crust. Everything the value and values of her
in her life is built on a firm foundation, from the love of her family to the grandmother. Family con-
strength of her husband and the companionship of her friends. She stands nectedness is an underly-
behind her word, her love, and her family. She is the crust that keeps us all ing theme.
www.mycommunicationlab.com
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xxii
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xxiii
 Acknowledgments
Many people have helped our book evolve and succeed over its twenty-five years
of existence. Margaret Seawell and George Hoffman, communication editors at
Houghton Mifflin, and Nader Dareshori, president of the company, were warm and
helpful friends who enjoyed early good fortune with us.
More recently, for special assistance in the preparation of the tenth edition, we
especially thank the following:

■ Anne Osborn Tomasso, who offered creative, dedicated, and extended help in
revising our chapter on research.
■ Jayme Mayo, Chris Goldsby, and all the gang at Nabholz for their patience and
enthusiasm in supporting our case study of persuasion at work in their work-
place.
■ David Horan, who helped us at the last minute enhance some photographs we
really wanted to use in the book.
■ Pat Baker, who constantly energizes her colleagues with her innovation and
passion.
■ And (most especially) Hilary Jackson, our brilliant development editor, who
guided us, encouraged us, inspired us, and occasionally goaded us to complete
this revision. Revising a book is not quite like going on the Lewis and Clark
expedition, but to the extent that it is, Hilary has been our Sacagawea!
■ We also thank our colleagues over all the years who have reviewed our book
and helped us to make it better.

For the tenth edition, we are grateful to those listed below whose critical readings
have inspired improvements:

Richard Armstrong, Wichita State University

Haley Draper, Odessa College
Sheryl Hurner, CSU Stanislaus
Nick Linardopoulos, Rutgers University
Mark May, Clayton State University
Crystal Rolison, Cisco College
David Testone, University of Bridgeport

xxiv
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 CHAPTER LIV.
THE EGYPTIAN TURTLE.

Cum ventre humano tibi negotium est, qui nec ratione mitigatur, nec prece ullâ
flectitur.—Livy.

It is hard lines for an Egyptian turtle when he once gets turned on

his back in Aboukir Bay. After that, for the remaining term of his
natural life, it is all Ramadan with him, after sunset as well as after
sunrise. He is carried to Alexandria, and sold there, if a fine well-
grown reptile, for half a sovereign: the smaller reptiles go for less. He
is put on board a P. and O. boat, and carried to Southampton, all the
way on his back, for another half sovereign. Add to this whatever
one may have to pay for his railway journey, and you may take him
home with you, and two or three more with him for your friends, at no
great cost. Though perhaps it would be hardly worth while to give a
turtle to one who knows no other way of having him cooked than
converting him into soup.
Something ought to be done, and might be done to mitigate their
long fast from Aboukir Bay to London. At sea, gourmandizing is the
order of the day; but the turtle on board are famishing all the while. It
might not be ill done, if those, whose only occupation is eating, and
then eating again, were to give a thought to the difference in this
matter between themselves and those of their fellow-travellers who
are getting nothing at all to eat. It makes the matter worse that we
inflict starvation on the very creature we are contemplating as a feast
for ourselves. It is no justification to say, learnedly, that Chelonians
can dispense with food for long periods. It is bad for all concerned. It
is morally hardening to those who inflict unnecessary suffering, and
to those—the passengers on the P. and O. boats—who witness its
effects, progressing regularly from day to day. As the poor wretches
lie on their backs—there were about fifty on board the boat I came
home by—you see that the plastron, that is the name the belly shell
goes by, is changing its shape. At first it is convex. It gradually, as
the fasting is prolonged, loses its convexity, and becomes flat. This
must be bad, but there is worse yet to come. Times goes on, and
what had become flat, begins to sink, and becomes concave. The
fifty owners of these shrinking and subsiding stomachs must have
found the process very pinching: and the more so as they had
nothing else in particular to think about while lying all this time on
their backs. The alterations of shape they have been passing
through measured their sufferings. They had never themselves done
anything so bad to what they had fed on. How could they without
reason?
 CHAPTER LV.
INSECT PLAGUES.

Who can war with thousands wage?—Percy’s Reliques of Ancient Poetry.

As to the insect plagues of Egypt, I found the mosquitoes alone

annoying. Had I been in the country in the summer or autumn, my
experience would, I have no doubt, have been different. And as to
the mosquitoes, I found them seriously annoying only at Alexandria.
At one time I had my face, hands, and ankles very badly bitten. My
own carelessness, however, was the cause of this, for I was at that
time in the habit of reading and writing at night with open windows.
This was giving my bloodthirsty assailants, who had been attracted
by the candle, every facility. They had free ingress, and found their
victim off his guard and exposed to their attacks. At Zech’s hotel at
Cairo, I found no mosquitoes. In going up the river I had a chasse
every night, before I turned in, to clear off the few that might be in my
berth. I generally found one or two. Herodotus mentions the use by
the Egyptians of the mosquito net.
In a Belgravian hotel I have been badly bitten, and by a larger,
blacker, and more venomous kind of mosquito than those that forced
themselves on my notice in Egypt. On the same occasion I saw
ladies who were suffering so much from their attacks that they were
obliged to have recourse to medical treatment. This ferocious
species is supposed to have been imported to Thames-side in some
one or other of the earlier stages of insect existence, through the
medium of the water-tanks of our West African palm-oil traders.
It is curious that fleas, which so abound in Egypt, are not found in
Nubia. Many insects are very local: but one is surprised at finding
such a cosmopolite as the flea conspicuously absent in a country,
which might have been supposed especially adapted to his manners
and customs. In Egypt, as has been the case elsewhere, I often felt
industrious fleas at work upon me; but I am not aware that a flea
ever yet succeeded in biting me. Others I heard complaining much of
them.
The boat in which I went up the river had just been painted, and so
I saw nothing in it of the Egyptian bug; but I heard that they
abounded in other boats. I found the Hotel d’Europe, at Alexandria,
and Zech’s, at Cairo, quite free from them.
The domestic fly is about as troublesome in Egypt in winter as it is
in this country in autumn.
 CHAPTER LVI.
THE SHADOOF.

He shall pour the water out of his buckets.—Book of Numbers.

In Egypt, where mythology, manners and customs, writing, and all

the arts appear never to have had a period of infancy, or of
adolescence, but to have come into being all in a perfected state and
all together, it is hard to say what is older than other things. It is so
with everything Egyptian; and so, of course, with the shadoof, the
machine used in raising water, by human labour, for irrigating the
land. It is the oldest machine with which we are historically
acquainted: though, of course, it implies the use of the plough,
which, as well as the hoe, must have been brought into the valley of
the Nile by the immigrant ancestors of the Egyptians.
Mechanically, the shadoof is an application of the lever. In no
machine which the wit of man, aided by the accumulations of
science, has since invented, is the result produced so great in
proportion to the degree of power employed. The lever of the
shadoof is a long stout pole poised on a prop. The pole is at right
angles to the river. A large lump of clay from the spot is appended to
the inland end. To the river end is suspended a goat-skin bucket.
This is the whole apparatus. The man who is working it stands on
the edge of the river. Before him is a hole full of water, fed from the
passing stream. When working the machine, he takes hold of the
cord by which the empty bucket is suspended, and, bending down,
by the mere weight of his shoulders dips it in the water. He then
rises, with his hand still on the cord. His effort to rise gives the
bucket full of water an upward cant, which, with the aid of the
equipoising lump of clay at the other end of the pole, lifts it to a
trough into which, as it tilts on one side, it empties its contents. The
man continues bending down and rising up again in this manner for
hours together, apparently without more effort than that involved in
these movements of his body. What he has done has raised the
water six or seven feet above the level of the river. But if the river
has subsided twelve or fourteen feet, it will require another shadoof
to be worked in the trough into which the water of the first has been
brought. If the river has sunk still more, a third will be required before
it can be lifted to the top of the bank, so as to enable it to flow off to
the fields that require irrigation. I sometimes saw as many as twenty
series of shadoofs at work, two or three in each series, within a
range of half a mile. The poor fellows who work them are, except for
the barest decency, completely divested of every article of clothing:
an almost invisible loin cloth, and a tight-fitting cotton skull-cap, are
the whole of their apparel. They work all day in the wet, and in the
sun. As the materials for the shadoof—the pole, the prop, the skin,
and the clay—are all to be had on the spot, the poor fellah is able, in
a few minutes, to set up a machine that is of great service to him, at
little or no cost.
The other machine used in Egypt for raising water is called the
sakia. This is the Persian water-wheel. It is a large wheel with a
continuous row of jars arranged on its tire, something like the
buckets of a dredging-machine. These jars dip up the water as the
wheel revolves, and empty it, as the further revolution of the wheel
brings their mouths downwards, into a trough. It is worked by
bullocks, or buffaloes. A few years back there were many more of
these at work than there are at present. A murrain, or rinderpest,
having destroyed the cattle, the fellahs were obliged to take their
place, and revert to the old shadoof of the early Pharaohnic times.
 CHAPTER LVII.
ALEXANDRIA.

Wide will wear. Narrow will tear.

Ancient Alexandria left its mark on the world. Its history, however,
appears to connect it rather with great names than with great events.
Fancy is pleased with the picture of the greatest of the Greeks,
Philip’s godlike son, Aristotle’s pupil, who carried about with him his
Homer in a golden casket, the Conquistador of Asia, and the heir of
the Pharaohs, tracing, with the contents of a flour-bag, the outlines of
the nascent city, which was to bear his name of might, and to
sepulchre his remains.
The trade of Phœnicia revived in its harbours, and on its quays. It
became the Heliopolis, as well as the Thebes, of Hellenic Egypt.
Even the Hebrew part of the population caught the infection of the
place, and showed some capacity for philosophy and letters. Here it
was that their sacred Scriptures were, in the Septuagint translation,
first given to the educated world. And Plato, too, was soon more
studied in the schools of Alexandria than in his native Greece.
Here fell the Great Pompey. And here, in pursuit of him, came the
Cæsar, who bestrode the world like a Colossus; to be followed in our
own time by the only modern leader of men, whose name, if he had
possessed the generous magnanimity of the two captains of Greece
and Rome, history might have bracketed with theirs.
Here ‘the unparalleled lass,’ rather, perhaps, of the greatest of
poets than of history, having beguiled to his ruin the soft triumvir,
preferred death to the brutalities of a Roman triumph.
Matters, however, of this kind—and they might be multiplied—are
only bubbles on the surface. They interest the fancy, but have no
effect on the great current of events. We, at this day, are neither the
better nor the worse for them. But of the theology of Alexandria we
must speak differently. It is through that that it affected, and still
affects, the whole of Christendom. Sixteen hundred years have
passed, and Alexandrian thought still holds its ground amongst us.
It would help us to a right understanding of what this thought was,
and how it came to be what it was, if we knew something about the
city, the times, the country, and the mental condition of its
inhabitants. Alexandria, like Calcutta and New Orleans, having been
called into existence by the requirements of commerce, had been
obliged, for the sake of a harbour, to accept a singularly monotonous
and uninteresting site. This alone must have had much influence on
the cast of thought of its inhabitants. All who visit it will, I think, feel
this. One cannot imagine a healthy and vigorous literature springing
up in a place where Nature has neither grandeur nor beauty. Being
mainly a commercial city, its inhabitants—as must be the case in all
large commercial cities in the East—were composed of many
nationalities. They had brought with them their respective religions
and literatures, as well as manners and customs. It also contained
the most brilliant Greek Court in the world, in which we might be
certain that Greek inquisitiveness, and mental activity, would not be
extinguished. This will account for the libraries and the schools of
Alexandria.
We must understand why it never could become anything in the
world of action. It was not because the Egypt of the Ptolemies was
inferior to the Egypt of the Pharaohs. It might have been its superior
in every particular of power and greatness, and yet have been
unable to do anything in the outer world. What kept it quiet was a
consciousness of moral and intellectual inferiority to the people time
had at last educated and organized on the northern shores of the
Mediterranean.
The mental activity of the Alexandrians was all connected with
their libraries and schools. The work they did belongs to a condition
of mind which can use libraries and schools, but which really
originates nothing. It was all work upon other people’s work. They
never produced anything of their own. They never could have had an
Æschylus, or an Aristophanes; a Thucydides, or an Aristotle. The
genius that can originate implies vigour, freedom, individuality,
irrepressible impulse—in two words, expansive humanity. Nothing of
this kind could have been the growth of Alexandria. The possession
it was of these qualities which made the Greeks original, and great in
everything they undertook: in art, in war, in government, in
colonization, in philosophy, in poetry, in history. The genius which
showed itself in their literature was only the same genius which
showed itself in other forms and directions, as needs required: which
showed itself in everything Greek. Alexandria could not have
produced a Pericles, or a Phidias, or an Alexander, any more than a
great writer. It would have taken the same mental stuff to make one
of these, as to make a poet, an historian, or a philosopher. They all
work with the same motive power. The main conditions, too, are the
same in all. It is the object only to which the work is directed that
varies. The Greeks were, emphatically, men. It was this that made
them creative. Humanity was the soul of everything they created; the
stamp upon everything they did; and this it is that gives to their work
its eternal value.
The mind of Alexandria was a parasitical plant. It fastened itself on
the work of others; and endeavoured to extract from it what they had
already assimilated, and which its own limited capacities disqualified
it from extracting, first hand, for itself from the rich store-house of
Nature. It could live upon their work, and turn it to its own narrowly-
bounded purposes. For instance, the Greek language had been
perfected by the long series of generations who had used it, and who
had known nothing of grammars and dictionaries: but at Alexandria it
was studied for the sake of the grammar and of the dictionary.
Homer had been loved in the Greek world, because he spoke, as a
man, to men’s hearts and imaginations. He was valued at
Alexandria, not for his poetry—the men and women he had created
—but because he supplied a text to comment on. So with the divine
dreams of Plato: their use, at Alexandria, was that they supplied
some materials for the construction of systems.
It was exactly in this spirit that the Gospel was laid on the
dissecting tables of Alexandria. The object proposed was to set up a
skeleton to be called Christian Theology; and to inject and arrange
certain preparations, to be called Christian doctrines. Here was a
strange perversion. Never were the uses to which a thing had been
ingeniously turned so thoroughly alien to its real nature and design.
The objects of the Gospel were moral and religious. Its appeals were
addressed to the ordinary conscience, and to the ordinary
understanding: in them its philosophy is to be found. But the
systematizers of Alexandria had no taste for dealing with such
materials. The Christian religion, as presented to us in their theology,
has not one particle of the Gospel in it: no heart, no soul; no human
duties, no human motives—nothing human, nothing divine. It is
something as hard, and as dry, as a mummy; and would be as dead,
were it not for its savage, truculent spirit. It is an attempt to construct
a material god, mechanically, of body, parts, and passions—the
Egyptian passions of the day; such as burnt, volcanically, in the
hearts of the crocodile haters, and crocodile worshippers, of Ombos
and Tentyra, and impelled them to eat each other’s still quivering
flesh, and drink each other’s blood hot. The watch-word, the source,
the main-spring, of Christ’s religion, the one word that fulfils it, is
absent from this travesty of it.
This anatomical Christianity, in which there is no Gospel, this
systematic divinity, in which there is nothing divine, this mechanical
theology, which contradicts the idea of God, Alexandria had the chief
hand in inflicting on the world, and a grievous infliction they were.
Christendom is still suffering from it. It is the anatomy of a body from
which the heart, the blood, the flesh, the muscles, all that rendered it
a living power, and made it beautiful and beneficent, have been
removed. It is the systematization of a Hortus Siccus. It is a theology
that kills religion, in order that it may examine it. The religion that is
fixed and formulated; a matter of definitions, and quantitive
proportions; that can be handled, and measured, and weighed; that
can be taken to pieces, and put together again by a monk in his cell,
just as if it were a Chinese puzzle; cannot be the living growth of
minds whose knowledge is ever being extended, and of consciences
that are ever becoming more sensitive. It cannot indeed, as far as
these things go, be a religion at all. A religion, though burdened with
them, and perpetually dragged by them into the sphere of formalism,
controversy, and passion, may, and will, live on in spite of them; for
nothing can kill religion: still the two are antagonistic and
incompatible.
The Alexandrian theologians interpreted Christianity in accordance
with the criticism, the knowledge, the ignorance, the mind, and the
conscience of their day. They could hardly have done otherwise.
They came from caves in the desert, and from old tombs, and they
returned to them for fresh inspiration. They had a right to interpret
things according to the light that was in them. So have we. Our light,
however, is somewhat different from theirs. ‘The New
Commandment’ was not one that at all commended itself to their
sepulchral, troglodytic minds. It finds no place in their creeds. We,
however, give it the first place in ours. The perfect law of liberty was
unintelligible to them: their only thought about it was to make it
impossible: to us it is as necessary as the air we breathe. They held
that man is for the creed: we that the creed is for man. Which is right
makes much difference.

For the traveller who is desirous of seeing the present in

connexion with the past, Alexandria has many other reminiscences.
Homer mentions the Isle of Pharos, which formed the harbour. On
this classic rock Ptolemy Philadelphus built a magnificent lighthouse
of white marble. This was reckoned one of the seven wonders of the
world. Its name, which was borrowed from the rock on which it had
been placed, has passed into most of the languages of Europe, as
the appellative of these useful structures. We, however, who employ
them more largely than any other people, and who have in our
Eddystone the finest and most interesting structure of this kind in the
world, built under widely different conditions from those of the
tideless middle sea, very properly give to them a name of our own.
The causeway, three-quarters of a mile in length, which was
formed for the purpose of connecting Ptolemy’s Pharos with the
mainland, having been enormously expanded, in the course of two
thousand years, by the same process, which, in the same period,
has raised the present to more than twenty feet above the original
level of Rome, is now the Frank quarter of the city. The whole of this
space must, therefore, in the time of Homer, and down to the time of
Alexander, have been under water.
The city, having become the capital of Egypt, grew rapidly in
population, wealth, and splendour. The Ptolemies disposed of the
revenue of Egypt, which had now become the chief entrepôt of the
commerce of the world; and they spent it with no niggard hand in
embellishing their capital. Few great cities have had so large a
proportion of their space occupied by magnificent public buildings.
Nothing, however, need be said here of its palaces, theatres, and
temples, except that they were worthy of the city which filled the first
place in the cities of the Greek world, and in the universal empire of
the Cæsars was second only to Rome.
Pompey’s Pillar, as the inscription upon it informs us, was erected
in honour of Diocletian.
Cleopatra’s Needle had originally stood at Heliopolis, where it had
been set up by Thuthmosis III., and afterwards seen by Joseph and
Moses. It was transplanted from Heliopolis to Alexandria by one of
the Roman Emperors, after the time of Cleopatra. It had been cut
from the granite quarries of Syené. It has, therefore, travelled from
the John o’Groat’s House to the Land’s End of Egypt.
Its deservedly world-famous library recurs to every one who thinks
about Old Alexandria. No other library had ever such a history. It was
founded two hundred and eighty-three years before the Christian
era; that is to say, before Rome had entered on her Punic wars.
While those wars were raging the Alexandrians must, within the walls
of this library, have canvassed the news of the day with much the
same feelings with which we were ourselves, but just now, talking
over the last intelligence from Sedan and Metz, from the Loire and
the Seine. In the Greek world a public library had never before been
heard of. It was connected with a great mass of buildings called the
Museum, which was a kind of institution for the promotion of study,
discussion, and learning. Eventually it contained 700,000 volumes.
Of these 400,000 were at the Museum; the remainder were in a
building connected with the great Temple of Serapis. With the
Ptolemies the enrichment of this library was always a great concern.
They dispersed their collectors wherever books were to be obtained;
and were ready to pay the highest price for them. It was the boast of
the city that the library contained a copy of every known book. At last
it was overtaken by the fate which awaits all the works of man. In
Cæsar’s attack on the city the great library of the Museum was
accidentally burnt. The library, therefore, which is supposed to have
been destroyed by the command of the Caliph Omar, could only
have contained the books, that might have remained to his time, of
the inferior library of the Serapeum. This we know had been very
much dilapidated by neglect, and in other ways, during the
intervening seven centuries of occasional violence, and of constant
decay. One, however, is hardly disposed to acquiesce in the opinion
on this subject of the historian of the Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire; for, among so large a collection of books, there must, one
would suppose, have been some precious works of antiquity, which
we should now value highly, but which were then lost to us
irreparably.
While we regard with reverence this great library, both for the
antiquity of the date of its establishment, and for the useful and noble
purposes it was intended to serve, those of perpetuating, and of
extending, knowledge, we should be guilty of an injustice if we were
to forget that it was not the first institution of its kind. The idea of
establishing a public library, which the Ptolemies deserve much
credit for carrying out liberally and thoroughly, had nothing original in
it in one country, at all events, of the world, and that one was Egypt.
Eleven centuries before their time, as we have already seen, the
Great Rameses, in his temple-palace at Thebes, had erected a
public library. The walls of it are still standing. We need not repeat
what we have said elsewhere about the sculptures on its walls, the
inscription over its doors, the manuscripts dated from it still in
existence, and the tombs of its librarians. This was done more than
three thousand years ago. Perhaps, then, other ideas and practices,
we may be in the habit of regarding as modern, were also familiar to
the Egyptians of that remote day. Those times, indeed, may, in some
not unimportant matters, be virtually nearer to us than the times of
our Edwards and Henries.
 CHAPTER LVIII.
CAIRO.

Mores hominum multorum, et urbes.—Horace.

Just as the interest of Alexandria belongs to what we call antiquity,

so does Cairo derive the whole of its interest from existing sources. I
say what we call antiquity, for by that word we mean the classical
period of Greece and Rome; but this classical period is, in reality,
only the connecting link between our modern world and the old
primæval world of Egypt; it is thus the true middle ages of universal
history; while true antiquity is the domain of Pharaohnic Egypt. But
as to Cairo: El Islam is of the things that now are, and Cairo was
never anything but a Mahomedan city. Its most interesting memories
are of the mighty Saladin, who fortified it, and preferred it to all other
cities. It is the true capital of Arabdom. Not its holy city, but its Paris.
Its history is all of Caliphs and Khedivés.
But the first thing to understand about any famous city is how it
came to be where it is. Cairo is where it is, because Memphis was
where it was. Its site is the natural centre of Egypt. It occupies, by
the dispensation of Nature, the place in Egypt which the heart does
in the human body. Being situated at the apex of the Delta, it
commands the axis of communication throughout the whole of the
upper country, and all the divergent lines of communication which
traverse the Delta. He who establishes himself here has cut the
country in two; and can concentrate all its resources, or assail any
point, at his will. It is the vital centre. Just so was it with Memphis
under the old Monarchy, and the Hyksos, and during the subsequent
history. No sooner had an invader got a firm footing here than the
rest of the country was prostrate, and helpless. The master of Cairo
is the master of Egypt.
 The city is situated on the right bank of the river, at the foot of a
spur of the Mokattam, or Arabian, range of hills. In order to get
drinkable water it was necessary that it should be placed so low as
that the water of the river might be brought into it. The reader is now
aware that there are no springs in Egypt, and that the water of the
wells, from the nature of the soil, is brackish and undrinkable. There
is, however, in the citadel of Cairo a well of sweet water; the well is
sunk through the limestone, of course to somewhat below the depth
of the height on which the citadel stands; and so it came to suggest
to me the thought that, if borings were made of sufficient depth to
pass completely through the nitrous alluvium of the valley, and to
perforate the subjacent strata, it might be possible to find water fit for
drinking anywhere, and everywhere. It might not often be worth while
to go to this expense, because in most places it would still be
cheaper to get water from the river; but it would be interesting to
ascertain whether or no good water could be obtained in this way. If
so, there would then be one small matter, at all events, which had
escaped the sagacity of the old Egyptians.
But to return to the site of Cairo: the level ground, on which it
stands, beginning at Boulak, its harbour on the river, reaches back
about a mile, where it is met by the high ground, which enters the
city at the south-east angle. On this point stands the citadel
commanding the city. The hills of the range which throws out this
spur are seen rising, to a considerable height, on the east of Cairo.
They are utterly devoid of vegetation; and being of about the colour
of the sand of the desert (they are of limestone), they glare in the
sun, and are very striking and conspicuous objects in the scenery of
the place. Wherever you leave the city, except at its north-west
angle, and in the direction of the river, you enter at once on the
absolute desert.
There is no view in Egypt to be compared with that from the
Citadel of Cairo. The city, with all its oriental picturesqueness, is at
your feet. Domes and minarets are everywhere. You look over it, and
your eyes rest sometimes on the green culture, sometimes on the
drab desert of Egypt. Beyond, stretching away till it is lost in the haze
of distance, is the Valley of Egypt. Through it winds old Nile. It is
closed on either side by the irregular ranges of the Libyan and
Arabian hills. You know that these pass on through Egypt into Nubia,
as the boundaries of the valley. Beyond the river, at the distance of
eight or nine miles, on the lower stage of the Libyan range, stand the
Great Pyramids of Gizeh. Further off, at about double the distance
from you, stand the older Pyramids of Abouseir. Seen from no other
point are the Pyramids so impressive. There they stand, at the
entrance of the valley, and have stood for more than five thousand
years, to tell all who might come down into Egypt of its greatness
and glory. They have none of the forms, or features, of architecture.
They are mountains, escarped for monuments, by Titan’s hands.
And a little further on are the mounds of Memphis. There lived the
men—one would give something to see a day of the life of that old
world—who imagined, and made these mountains. You remember
that all you saw of them at Memphis was a colossal statue prostrate
on the ground. As you look now on the Pyramids you understand
that Colossus. These Titan builders felt themselves more than men.
You think how pleasant it would be to sit here, on the parapet of
the citadel, inhaling the calumet of memory and imagination; your
dear friend, however, who is with you, and who is the most patient
and best fellow living, has had enough of it; and he summons back
your thoughts from their flight into the far-off tracts of antique time,
by a proposal to take another look at the Khan Khaleel Bazaar. As
you move away you tell him, to be revenged, ‘that history, like
religion, has no power over those who have no imagination; or an
imagination furnished only with the images of their own sight-and-
self-bounded world.’ ‘Nonsense,’ he replies; and you find yourself
again jostling your way through the narrow, crowded, irregular
streets of Cairo, upon an ass, with a little swarthy urchin running
before you to clear your path. And though everybody seems to
submit to him, and to attend readily to his shouts of ‘Right,’ ‘Left,’
‘Mind your legs,’ you will always have to keep a sharp look-out
yourself. You will often be brought to a standstill. There are no
trottoirs. The people on foot, the camels, and donkeys, are all
jumbled up together. The projecting loads on the camels’ sides seem
almost arranged for giving you a lick on the head, and knocking you
off your ass.
At last you emerge from the side streets into the Mouské. This is
the main artery of the city, and here is the full tide of Cairene life. It is
now between four and five o’clock, and the tide is at the top of the
flood. The street is straight, and, for a Cairene street, wide enough;
the crowd is great; but here everybody, as a matter of course,
endeavours to make way for everybody. What you first notice is the
abundance of colour. The red tarboosh is perhaps the commonest
covering for the head. The turbans vary much; some are of white
muslin; some of coloured shawls. The variety of dress is great.
Nineteen-twentieths of the passers-by are clad in some form or other
of Oriental costume. Their complexions vary as much as their dress.
There is every shade, from the glossy black of the Nubian to the
dead white of the Turk. The predominant colours are the different
shades of yellowish brown which have resulted from the varying
degrees of intermixture of Arabs and Copts. Here, at home, the men
being at work during the day, it often happens that there are as many
women in the street as men. In Cairo the former are often entirely
wanting in the street scene, and are never seen in a large proportion.
In stature the men are almost always above what we call the middle
height, well proportioned, and never fat or pursy, like our beef-eating
and beer-drinking people. Their features are regular and pleasing.
Their bearing staid and dignified.
There are in the crowd men with water-skins and water-jars. For
some insignificant coin—there are four hundred paras in a shilling—
they sell drinks to thirsty souls. There are hawkers of bread, of fish,
of vegetables, of dates, of oranges, and of a multitude of other
matters. These articles are generally cried, if not in the name of the
Prophet, still with some pious, or, if not so, then with some poetical,
formula. Perhaps a carriage of the Viceroy passes containing some
of the ladies of the hareem. They will be escorted by two black
guardians of the hareem on horseback, one on each side of the
carriage, and preceded by two runners carrying long wands, and
dressed in spotless white, with the exception of their red fezes and
gaily-coloured shawls. The latter they use as sashes. Each will have
cost them fifteen pounds, or more.
When you have become accustomed to the people in the streets,
you look at the people in the shops; of course not the Frank, but the
native shops. These are merely recesses in the walls of the houses,
which form the street. The merchant, or shopkeeper, seldom lives in
the house, in the ground floor of which his shop is situated, but
generally somewhere at a distance. He has no shopmen, or
assistants. The recess, in which he carries on his business, if large,
is about in space a cube of ten or twelve feet. It has no door or
windows, but is closed with shutters, which the shopkeeper takes
down when he comes to do business. He puts them up whenever he
wants to go to Mosk, or elsewhere. When his shop is open for
business he will be seen seated, cross-legged, on the floor in front of
his goods. Every shop being a dark hole, and having its owner
seated in front of it, reminded me of a prairie-dog village, where
every hole has a prairie-dog seated in front of it, much in the same
way; and, too, on the look out. These traders appear to have no Arab
blood in them, but to be Greeks, Jews, Turks, Syrians, anybody and
everybody except the people of the country. Many of them have an
unhealthy appearance. Few of them are good-looking.
As to the houses, what most frequently attracts the eye is the
carved wood lattice of the windows. The first floor is frequently
advanced beyond the ground-floor. The archway of the door is, in the
better class of houses, often ornamented with carved stone-work;
and the door itself decorated with a holy text—reverently; perhaps,
also, with some lurking idea of excluding evil influences.
But this style of building is now becoming obsolete; and the new
houses in and around the Esbekeyeh, and between the Esbekeyeh
and Boulak, are being built in the Frank style. The Viceroy has here,
for the space of about a square mile, laid out broad macadamized
streets, with broad trottoirs on each side, as if he were contemplating
an European city. Not much, however, with the exception of these
roadways, has yet been done towards carrying out his grand
designs, except around the Esbekeyeh. This is the grand place, or
square, of Cairo. It now contains a public garden, that would be an
ornament worthy of any great European city. It is well lighted with
gas made from English coal. As you go to the opera—for there is an
opera, too, in Cairo—and return after it is over to your hotel, you are
glad of the light; but you are, at the same time, conscious of a little
sentimental jar. You did not go to Egypt to find coal gas, and London
gas-lamp-posts in the city of Saladin, and of the Caliphs, and in the
land of the Pharaohs. You are no longer surprised that the new
houses are built in the Frank style.
The Mosks of Cairo may be counted by the hundred. Some have
great historical interest; some great artistic merit; some are the great
schools of the country.
The old Mosks of Cairo throw much light on the history of the
pointed arch, particularly the oldest of them all, that of Ahmed Ebn e’
Tooloon; which, however, is in so ruinous a condition that it is no
longer in use. Its date, as recorded in two Cufic inscriptions on the
walls, is 879 a.d.—that is to say, three hundred years before the
pointed arch was adopted in this country. It is very improbable that
this Mosk of Tooloon was the first building in which it was used,
because it is not introduced here hesitatingly, as would have been
done had it been struggling for recognition, but is boldly and firmly
carried out in every part of the structure, and even with some
combination of the horseshoe shape, as if it were a form with which
the architect had become so familiar that he had even begun to
modify it. So great a change in construction, and in the effects
produced by form, must have had to fight for some time against
previously-established forms. We may, therefore, safely decide that
its introduction reaches further back than the date just given. This is
saying that the world is indebted for it to Saracenic thought, and
taste. This need not surprise us, because at that time there was no
other people whose thought was so prolific; and theirs was prolific
because it had been aroused to effort by their great achievements.
Just as we learn to walk by walking, and to talk by talking, so do men
learn how to do great things by doing great things. Other Cairene
Mosks continue this history of the pointed arch.
The Mosk of Sultan Hassam has features that are worth noticing.
Few buildings exhibit greater freedom of design, which comes, I
suppose, of that depth of feeling, which is able to break the fetters of
thought. Such a structure could have been the product only of a time
when mind was deeply moved, and had become conscious of its
power. Men knew then what they wanted, and believed in
themselves, that they could satisfy their want. In such times servile
imitations, and reproductions are impossible. They do not express
what all feel. They do not supply what all are asking for. In this Mosk
the porch, the inner court, the astonishing height of the outer wall,
springing from the declivity of the hill-side, all the details, and the
whole general effect, show that those who built it were conscious of
real, deep aspirations, and were not acting under factitious ones;
and that they were conscious also of possessing within themselves
the power of giving form to their aspirations. It interprets to us the
mind of its builders. They were full of vigour, and self-reliance. They
yearned to give expression, in forms of beauty, and grandeur, to
what was stirring within them.
As I was thus communing, historically, with the intense
Mahomedan feeling, which had given a voice to every stone in the
building, I was interrupted by another voice, but it was one of a kind,
which, we may presume, will never have a thought of clothing itself
in forms of beauty, and grandeur. ‘Look,’ it said to me, ‘up there at
those crosses.’ ‘No,’ I replied. ‘It is impossible. There can be no
crosses here.’ The objects I was invited to look at crown the cornice
of the central, hypæthral court. They bear some kind of resemblance
to fleurs de lis. ‘Yes,’ the voice continued. ‘Any one can see now just
how it all is. These are the old places from which those ritualists get
their mediæval crosses, and all that kind of thing.’
The great Mosk of El Azar is the university of Egypt, and of the
surrounding countries. The foreign students are divided according to
nations. Those of Egypt according to the provinces they come from.
The cycle of religion, law, science, and polite learning, as these
words are understood in the East, is here taught. Some come merely
to qualify themselves for professions, or occupations, in which what
they may acquire here will be needed. Others come with the
intention, as was contemplated in our own universities, of life-long
study.