PROCESS OF BLASTING OF ROCKS

The drilling and blasting technique consist of the drilling of boreholes in the rock, the
placing of explosives and blasting to properly fragment the work section.
The typical cycle of excavation by blasting is performed in the following steps:
1.Drilling
As the word suggest, this step involves drilling blast holes and loading them with
explosives. During this step, jumbo machines are used to drill the holes where the
explosives will be charged.
Jumbo machines have three drilling arms and an operator rower. These tools run by
electric cable; a hose brings water to pneumatic drills allowing for the drill bits both
hammer and rotate. These drill holes can be between 2.4-3.6 metres long.
2.Explosive charging
The boreholes are filled with explosives, detonators are attached to the explosive
devices and the individual explosive devices are connected to one another. Some of
the explosive device commonly used include: dynamites, hydro-gels, emulsions and
ANFO (Ammonium Nitrate Fuel Oil).
The process of charging equipment is typically mechanized for safety purposes.
Charging explosives this way ensures that explosives are safely charged into the
boreholes.
In terms of safety, civil and structural engineers can now monitor hazardous areas
remotely thanks to remote sensing technology.
3.Blasting
The boreholes are blasted in a proper sequence, from the centre outward, one after
the other.
The process of blasting is typically triggered sequentially to ensure optimal
fragmentation of the rock is achieved and also to ensure that vibrations produce do
not affect the integrity of its surroundings.
4.Ventilation
Explosions create clouds of dust that then mix with the combustion gases, which
make ventilation a vital step.
Ventilation can be accomplished by using air-ducting systems, long steel or plastic
pipes, often are attached to the roof of the tunnel and blow fresh air onto the
working face. These allow for localized excess pressure to ventilate.
5.Mucking &scaling
It is important for rubble to be removed and for the tunnel’s surface to be reinforced.
Removal of the blasted rocks (mucking) entails the following steps: Loading and
hauling of the muck, and final transport out of the worksite. Special machinery
designed for this process (dump trucks and shovels) are used to complete this
process.
During this step crown and walls are scaled down to remove loosed pieces of rocks.
6.Installing initial ground support.
As a tunnel progresses its ceiling and side walls need to be supported in order to
prevent rock from falling into the excavation. Methods to accomplish rock support
may vary but typical rock support systema include:
 Rock bolts or rock dowels.
 Shotcrete.
 Ribs or mining arches and lagging.
 Cable bots.
 In-situ concrete.
Depending on the site’s characteristics, the tunnel support can be either light or
heavy-duty, and combines shotcrete alongside bolts and steel mesh.

SETTING OUT
Setting out if the field work required for making on the ground, the posi3tions of
some engineering work which is proposed to be carried out and positioning of which
has been drawn upon the survey plan, which was previously prepared.
A road would require its centre line to be, marked on the ground with great
accuracy, by pegs driven into the ground every 20m, each of these stations being
marked with a peg, and the chainage is carried on continuously along the straight and
round curves.
Setting out is performed with the use of theodolite and chain or steel tape and
pegs are fixed in every chain length. When a change in direction of the straight
occurs, a peg must be fixed to mark the intersection of the straight. At this point of
Intersection, a curve has to be introduced to ease the running at the intersection
angle. The operation involves a party of level men, starting from the beginning and
proceeds to take levels of each chain point and the tangent points of the curves.
 SETTING OUT OF CULVERTS AND BRIDGES
A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles without closing the way
underneath such as body of water, valley, or road for the purpose of providing
passage over the obstacle.
There are many different designs that serve a particular purpose and apply to
different situations. Designs of bridges vary depending on the function of the bridge,
the nature of the terrain where the bridge is constructed and anchored, the material
used to make it, and the funds available to build it.
SETTING OUT OF BRIDGES
Setting out of structures like culverts is quite simple, because there is only one span
and also the flow of water is less. Even if the flow of water is much it can be easily
diverted. Also, the bridge may be very long having more than one spans. Therefore,
the setting out of bridge involves:
1. Determination of length of the centre line.
2. Determination of location of piers.
DETERMINATION OF LENGTH OF CENTRE LINE
 The length of the centre line of a short bridge maybe measured directly with
the standard steel tape. But in case of a long bridge the length is determined
by triangulation.
 Let A and B be the end points on centre line on ether of the river and if it is
required to determine the length AB.
Method -1: The steps involved are:
 Set out a line perpendicular to AB and measure AD accurately.
 With the theodolite at point D using the method of repetition, measure of
angle ADB = Ꝋ.
 Then, tanꝊ=AB/AD.
 AB=AD tanꝊ.
 To check the length AB, set out a line BC perpendicular to AB at point B.
 Measure the length BC and angle BCA=α.
 Then, tan α =AB/BC.
 AB = BC tan α.
 If two distance are almost equal the mean of the two is taken as the centre
line, otherwise the procedure is repeated.
DETERMINATION OF LOCATION OF PIERS
Method 1:
 After accurately measuring the length of the centre line AB’ base lines are laid
out on each bank perpendicular to AB. Let it be required to fix the positions of
piers P1 and P2.
 Compute the angles ADP1, ADP2, BCP1, BCP2 from the known length of the
base lines and angle BAD & CBA.
 Direct the transit at A to B, and set the angle ADP1 with the transit at D. The
intersection of these two lines of sight gives us the position of the central
point P1. Sly. Locate the second point P2.
 The location of P1 and P2 maybe checked by setting two transits at B and C.
 PROCEDURES FOR SETTING OUT TANGENT AND CURVES
Curves are normally provided to change the direction in gradient way when two
straight alignments meet at an intersection in horizontal or vertical plane. The change
in alignment is necessitated for the following reasons:
A. Topography of the country.
B. To provide access to a particular locality.
C. To avoid a certain land or structure not acquirable such as religious and
monumental places.
D. Preservation of existing amenities.
To break the monotony and mental strain of a driver when a long stretch of road is to
be provided and also to stop drivers from speeding.
There are two main kinds of curves: horizontal and vertical curves. The horizontal
curve allow change in direction of the pavement or road. It is a curve in a plain
provided to direction of the pavement of the centre line of the pavement. Vertical
curve is provided when there is a change in grade i.e., where two contrary gradient
meets, the alignment is connected by a curve to smoothen out the vertical profile.
SETTING OUT SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE
 Deflection angle Ꝋ is measured using a theodolite.
 Radius of the curve R is also given.
 Point of commencement PC, the start point of the curve is marked.
 Join PC and PI to give the back tangent.
 Since the deflection angle is known, mark the forward tangent.
 Calculate the length of the tangent using T=R tanꝊ/2.
 Point of tangency PT, the end point of the curve is marked.
 Calculate the long cord LC =2sin Ꝋ/2.
There are two methods of setting out simple circular curve;
1. By taking offset from the long chord.
2. By deflection angle method.
BY TAKING OFFSET FROM THE LONG CHORD
 Mark the centre of the long chord by LC/2.
 Now, to find the offset of the middle of the long chord, the formula is given:
Oₒ=M=R[1-cosꝊ/2].
 To mark another offset on the curve from x distance from the middle of the
chord.
 Offset at x distance = Oₓ = √R2-√X2-(R-Oₒ).
BY DEFLECTION ANGLE METHOD
 Deflection angles are horizontal angles and are, measured using instrument,
take a theodolite.
 Place the theodolite at point PC, the start points.
 To find the deflection angle Ᵹ = 90 l₁/ π R, where l₁ = peg interval.
NOTE peg interval depending on the value of the length of the curve, calculate
using: L = π RꝊ/180.
 After finding the deflection angle using theodolite from point PC, depending
on the chosen value of peg interval, mark the points on the curves.
 Ᵹ₂=90 l₂/ π R.
PROCEDURE FOR CARRYING OUT EARTHWORKS SUCH AS CUTTING AND FILLING OF
SUB-GRADE
The execution of the new highway construction, involves earthworks. Earthwork
mainly consist of the preparing of sub grade to bring in a suitable grade and comber
by compacting it adequately to withstand the subsequent loas, the sub grade may be
either excavation or embankment, depending on the topography and finalised
alignment of the road.
Excavation (cut) refers to cutting down of formation level for the new highway, this
excavated materials then being carted adjacent areas where the formation is to be
above natural ground and where “fill” is required to form an embankment up to the
necessary formation level. Embankment therefore is when the grade line of a
highway is required to be raised above the existing ground level.
Procedure to fill out embankment
The filling operation for embankment involves the use of stakes and string profile by
fixing them on certain distances across the road stake profile consist of vertical
bamboo poles fixed vertically at the two ends of the formation width of the road. The
slope or gradient having been established, the string is then tied to the bamboos and
the slope pegs. The height of the horizontal string shows the height of embankment,
while sloping string represent the side slopes. The earth is then filed between the
strings and rolled by roller machine to maximize air void.

The sub grade is compacted in the layers of the lift of 150mm by rolling with a read
roller or compacting machine weight not less than 540kg. Water should be applied at
slightly above the O.M.C uniformly to the sub grade, a day prior to the rolling amount
as directed. AASHO recommended minimum density required for embankment
compaction as 95%. Granular soil should be compacted as 95%-100% modified.
AASHO density. Fine grained soil processing low degree of plasticity should be
compacted to approximately 100% of standard AASHO at moisture content near
laboratory optimum. DOT specified layer of thickness and number of passes of
compaction to be used with each type of material and equipment, 4-5 passes
maximum thickness 300mm. Good compaction increase bearing capacity and slop
stability, reduces settlement and undesirable volume changes.
Procedure for cutting (excavation)
This method is the same for embankment but the position level makes the operation
to be reverse of the embankment.

Dept of cutting = d the side slopes been decited say 1,1/2. A very common slope
used, but depending upon the nature of the material to be excavated. The surface
along the section of the cutting is level. Stakes are fixed with the slope stakes and
steps taken ass for embankment.

REFRENCESS
Drilling and blasting method-
http://www.railssystem.net/drill-and-blast-method/
Setting out-
UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL & VOCATIONAL EDUCATION REVILATALISATION
PROJECT-PHASE II, CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTUCTION III.
Setting out of culverts and bridges-
2024 slide share from scribd, setting out of bridges prepared by, Prof.S.M.Gupta.
Procedures for setting out tangents and curves-
CIVIL Solved- https://youtu.be/am3MYbQApz8?si=otfyZAd67mmGEUd6
Procedures for carring out earthworks on site such as cutting and filling-
UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL & VOCATIONAL EDUCATION REVILATALISATION
PROJECT-PHASE II, CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTUCTION III.