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 Final PDF to printer

Environmental

GEOLOGY
Fourth Edition

James S. Reichard
Georgia Southern University

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 Final PDF to printer

viii Contents

Permafrost 337 Heavy Metals and Acid Drainage 405

Summary Points 338 Processing of Ores 407
Key Words 339 Collapse and Subsidence 409
Applications 339 Abandoned Mine Hazards 410
Summary Points 410
Key Words 410
Chapter 11 Applications 411

Water Resources
Introduction 342
341
Earth’s Hydrologic Cycle
Where Freshwater Is Found 343
Human Use of Freshwater 344
Traditional Sources of Freshwater
Surface Water Resources
CASE STUDY 11.1 Off-Stream Water Usage and the Aral Sea
Disaster 348
Groundwater Resources
CASE STUDY 11.2 Groundwater Mining in the Breadbasket of
the United States 360
Selecting a Water-Supply Source
Alternative Sources of Freshwater
Desalination 365
Reclaimed or Recycled Wastewater 367
Aquifer Storage and Recovery 368
Rainwater Harvesting 369
Conservation 369
Summary Points 372
Key Words 373
Applications 373
Chapter 12
Chapter 13
342
Source: Tim McCabe, USDA Conventional Fossil Fuel
Natural Resources Conservation
Service Resources 413
346 Introduction 414
Malcolm Fife/age fotostock
347 Human Use of Energy 415
Energy Conversions 416
Renewable versus Nonrenewable Energy 417
350 Historical Energy Usage 418
Coal 420
Environmental Impacts of Mining Coal 422
364 Environmental Impacts of Using Coal 423
365 Petroleum 425
Origin of Petroleum 425
Petroleum Deposits 426
Exploration and Production Wells 428
Petroleum Refining 430
Environmental Impacts of Petroleum 432
Current Energy Supply and Demand 434
Economic Development and Energy Demand 434
Types of Energy We Consume 435
CASE STUDY 13.1 Controversy Over Hydraulic Fracturing and
Tight Oil and Gas Development 436
Where Fossil Fuels Are Located
The Future Oil Crisis 440
438

Peak Oil Theory 441

Mineral and Rock Projected Supply and Demand 443
Resources 375 The Clean Energy Transition 446
Introduction 376 FHR/Getty Images Replacements for Conventional Oil 447
Minerals and People 377 Increasing Supply by Reducing Demand 448
Economic Mineral Deposits 379 Extending Our Oil Reserves 449
Resources and Reserves 380 Summary Points 450
Geology of Mineral Resources 380 Key Words 450
Igneous Processes 380 Applications 450
Metamorphic Processes 384
Sedimentary Processes 385
CASE STUDY 12.1 Asbestos: A Miracle Fiber Turned Deadly 388
Mining and Processing of Minerals 394
Chapter 14
Mining Techniques 395
Alternative Energy
Mineral Processing 399
Distribution and Supply of Mineral Resources 401
Resources 453
George Hammerstein/­Corbis/
Meeting Future Demand for Minerals 402 Introduction 454 Glow Images
Recycling and Reuse 403 Nonconventional Fossil Fuels 455
Environmental Impacts and Mitigation 404

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Contents ix

Synthetic Fuels from Coal 455 CASE STUDY 15.2 Long-Term Storage of Nuclear Waste in
Heavy Oils and Oil Sands 456 the United States 521
Oil Shale 458 Air Pollutants and Fallout 522
Gas Hydrates 460 Acid Rain 523
Carbon-Free and Renewable Fuels 461 Mercury Fallout 525
Biofuels 461 Radon Gas 528
Hydroelectric Power 462 Summary Points 529
Nuclear Power 463
Key Words 529
CASE STUDY 14.1 Older Technology for a New Generation of Applications 529
Nuclear Reactors 466
Solar Power 469
Wind Power 474
Geothermal Power 477 Chapter 16
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion 480
Tidal Power 481 Global Climate Change 533
Conservation 483 Introduction 534
Clean Energy Transition 484 Earth’s Climate System 536
Transportation Systems 485 Solar Energy 537 James Jordan Photography/
Generating Electricity in the Future 486 The Greenhouse Effect 538 Getty Images

Summary Points 490 Variations in Earth’s Orbit 540

Key Words 491 Feedback Mechanisms 541
Applications 491 Earth’s Past and Future Climate 547
Climate Models 548
Ways of Studying Earth’s Past Climate 549
PART FOUR Lessons from the Past 551
The Health of Our Environment Future of Our Climate System 553
Consequences of Climate Change 555
Chapter 15 Changing Weather Patterns and Biomes
Melting Ice and Permafrost 559
555

Acidification of Oceans 563

Pollution and Waste CASE STUDY 16.1 Miami and South Florida: On a Collision
Disposal 493 Course with Sea-Level Rise 564
Introduction 494 Mitigation of Climate Change 566
Historical Waste Disposal 494 Strategy for Reducing Emissions 568
Ingram Publishing/SuperStock
U.S. Environmental Laws 495 The Future 572
Pollution and Contamination 498 Summary Points 572
Movement of Pollutants in Water 501 Key Words 573
Solid Waste Disposal 502 Applications 573
Municipal and Industrial Solid Wastes 502
Solid Hazardous Waste 505 Glossary G-1
CASE STUDY 15.1 Living with the Consequences of the Index I-1
Plastic Miracle 506
Scrap Tires 509
Liquid Waste Disposal 509
Liquid Hazardous Waste 510
Human Waste 512
Agricultural and Urban Activities 515
Agricultural Chemicals 515
Animal Wastes 516
Sediment Pollution 517
Highway De-Icing Salt 518
Radioactive Waste Disposal 518
Radiation Hazard 518
The Disposal Problem 520

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Preface

Environmental Geology, 4e focuses on the fascinating interaction between

humans and the geologic processes that shape Earth’s environment. Because this
text emphasizes how human survival is highly dependent on the natural environ-
ment, students should find the topics to be quite relevant to their own lives and,
therefore, more interesting. One of the key themes of this textbook is that humans
are an integral part of a complex and interactive system scientists call the Earth
system. Throughout the text the author explains how the Earth system responds
to human activity and how our actions affect the very environment in which we
live. A key point is that our activity often produces unintended and undesirable
consequences. A good example from the text is how engineers have built dams and
artificial levees to control flooding on the Mississippi River. But this has caused
unintended changes in the geologic environment. For thousands of years, the rate
at which the river deposited sediment in the Mississippi Delta was approximately
equal to the rate that the sediment compacted under its own weight. Because the two
rates were similar, the land surface remained above sea level. However, by using
dams and artificial levees to confine the Mississippi River to its channel, humans
disrupted the delicate balance between sediment deposition and compaction. Today
large sections of the Louisiana coast, including New Orleans, are sinking below sea
level, and at the same time sea level is rising due to global warming and climate
change. This has not only caused severe coastal erosion, but greatly increased the
chance that New Orleans will again be inundated during a major hurricane.
Another major theme in the fourth edition of Environmental Geology centers
on a serious challenge facing modern society, namely, the need to continue obtain-
ing large quantities of energy, and at the same time, making the transition from
fossil fuels to carbon-free sources of energy that do not impact the climate system.
Environmental Geology provides extensive coverage of the problems associated
with our conventional fossil fuel supplies (Chapter 13), and an equally in-depth dis-
cussion of alternative energy sources (Chapter 14). The two chapters on energy are
intimately linked to a comprehensive overview of global climate change (Chapter
16), which is arguably civilization’s most critical environmental challenge.
Environmental Geology also includes a sufficient
amount of background material on physical geology
“ My overall impression after reading Chapter 16 “Global
for students who have never taken a geology course.
Climate Change” was that of an excellent coverage of a still
The author believes this additional coverage is criti-
very controversial topic. Reichard has managed to cover the
cal. Without a basic understanding of physical geol-
most fundamental societal and scientific issues related to
Steve Cole/Getty Images ogy, students would not be able to fully appreciate the
global climate change in a format accessible to undergraduate
interrelationships between humans and the geologic
students with or without strong science background. Reichard
environment. To meet the needs of courses with a
provides an unbiased representation of facts and does not
physical geology prerequisite, this textbook was orga-
shy away from a critical discussion of opposing arguments
nized so that instructors could easily omit the few
resulting from the interpretation of the facts.” chapters that contain mostly background material.
—Thomas Boving, University of Rhode Island In addition, Environmental Geology does more than
provide a physical description of water, mineral, and
energy resources; it explores the difficult problems associated with extracting the
enormous quantities of resources we need to sustain modern societies. With respect
to geologic hazards (e.g., earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and floods), the text-
book goes beyond the physical science and examines the societal impacts as well
as the ways humans can minimize the risks. The author also highlights the fact that
x

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as population continues to grow, the problems related to resource depletion, hazards, and
climate change will become progressively more severe.
Finally, this textbook includes learning tools designed
to make it easier for students to utilize information found in “
. . . I give the author credit for excelling in a very up-to-date assessment
the text. For example, it is unreasonable to expect students to of alternative technologies, with some delightful examples of innovative
remember everything they read. For this reason, the text often systems
cross references topics between chapters as a reminder that the
additional information can be found in other parts of the book. the
It is hoped that cross-referencing will encourage students to
make better use of the index for locating additional information.
New for the Fourth Edition
Readers familiar with Environmental Geology should find that the
changes to the fourth edition have significantly improved the already
outstanding pedagogy and photo and art program of the previous edi-
tions. Perhaps the most significant improvement is the addition of five
new case studies, bringing the total to 24. Increasing the number of
case studies was a priority for the fourth edition because instructors
commonly have students use case studies to explore chapter concepts
in more detail. In addition to the new case studies, the chapter narra-
tives have been thoroughly revised to include recent geologic events
and scientific advances. Likewise, care was taken to ensure that all of
the graphs and tables include the most recently available data at the
time the text was revised. Several new photos were added to enhance
the pedagogy and increase student interest. Finally, a considerable
number of the existing graphics were modified to improve student
comprehension.
Although changes in the fourth edition are too numerous to be listed
individually, some of the more significant improvements are described
below. Note that the chapters with the most revisions are those on con-
ventional energy resources (Chapters 13) and pollution and waste dis-
posal (Chapter 15).
Chapter 1—The opening photo was replaced with an aerial view of the
skyline of Hong Kong, China, illustrating how humans have built com-
plex societies by growing large amounts of food and extracting vast quan-
tities of energy and water from the Earth system. In addition to the chapter
opening, two photos were replaced (Figures 1.7 and 1.21) with ones that
should help improve student comprehension. The most significant change
to this chapter has been the addition of a new case study on how human
modifications to the Earth system can lead to undesirable consequences
for society. In this example, the author describes how draining the exten-
sive swamps of Northwest Ohio and subsequent widespread use of agri-
cultural fertilizers has led to increased algae blooms and water-quality
problems on Lake Erie, which is the primary water supply for the region.
Chapter 2—In addition to minor text changes, the discussion on
NASA’s Near Earth Object program was updated to include the most
recent results. Also, a discussion was added on NASA’s new telescopes
that are designed to continue the search for life on exoplanets. With
respect to the graphics, minor modifications were made to the line art
in Figures 2.7 and 2.36 to help improve accuracy and student com-
prehension. Lastly, the existing satellite images in Figure 2.25 depict-
ing the ozone hole over Antarctica were replaced with higher quality
images, including a more recent image from 2017.
Chapter 3—The section on igneous rocks has been moved so that it
precedes sedimentary rocks rather than weathering processes. This
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Preface xi
that should interest the student reader. The author recognizes
importance of portraying the subject within the modern world that
student lives”in.
—Lee Slater, Rutgers University–Newark
was done in order to keep the three rock types together and to create a
more logical sequence, which now goes from rock-forming minerals to
weathering to the three rock types. Also in this chapter, more visually
meaningful photos were found for Figures 3.13, 3.14, 3.19, 3.21, 3.24,
and 3.32.
Chapter 4—A new photo (Figure 4.1) has been added showing an
outcrop of strongly deformed sedimentary rocks, thereby providing
a visual example of tectonic forces that operate in Earth’s interior.
Also, the photo in Figure 4.26 was replaced with a satellite image
of the Appalachian Mountains so as to provide a better example of
a suture zone at a convergent plate boundary. Lastly, Case Study 4.1
was renamed The Wallace Line: An Example of Evolution and Plate
Tectonics.
Chapter 5—The opening photo was replaced with an image of an
office building that collapsed during the 2018 earthquake in Hualien,
Taiwan. The most significant change in this chapter has been the addi-
tion of a new case study on the earthquake hazards facing Anchorage,
Alaska. Here the author demonstrates how the geologic setting puts
the city at increased risk of structural failure, liquefaction, landslides,
and tsunamis. In addition, new photos were used in Figures 5.1 and
5.20B and the line art in Figure 5.3 was re-labeled for improved clar-
ity. Finally, a new laser image (Figure 5.40) was added, showing the
trace of the San Andreas Fault through the urban area of Berkeley,
California.
Chapter 6—The discussion on the 1883 Krakatau eruption under
Explosive Blast hazards was completely rewritten to reflect the results
from more recent research. This updated section also includes a new
2018 satellite image (Figure 6.16) showing Anak Krakatau emerging
from the center of the original collapsed caldera. Similarly, the discus-
sion on using geologic history and topographic changes to predict vol-
canic eruptions and hazards was largely rewritten and updated. Here a
new map of Lassen Peak was added (Figure 6.30) to help illustrate how
volcanic deposits can be used to assess volcanic hazards. Lastly, new
and better photos were found and used to replace the existing photos in
Figures 6.6B, 6.9A, 6.10, and 6.14.
Chapter 7—The opening photo was replaced with a new, dramatic
image of one of the numerous landslides that occurred across north-
ern Japan during an earthquake in 2018. Perhaps the most important
change was that the section on Slope Stability and Triggering Mech-
anisms was rewritten to more accurately describe the relationship
between shear force (weight) and shear resistance (internal friction and
cohesive forces)—the discussion was previously too simplified and
general. Likewise, the graphics in Figures 7.4 and 7.9 were modified to
11/19/19 12:42 PM

xii Preface
reflect the updated discussion on stress relationships. A new figure was
added (Figure 7.10), consisting of two oblique aerial images to help
illustrate the role climate and vegetation play in slope stability. Also,
the section on Climate and Vegetation was rewritten and expanded
to more accurately reflect the relationship between root systems and
infiltrating water and how this affects slope stability. The mass wast-
ing classification table in Figure 7.11 was modified and now includes
slump movement as a separate category. In addition, the graphics in
Figures 7.6, 7.7, 7.13, 7.22, and B7.4 were all modified for improved
accuracy and clarity. Finally, the sinkhole photo in Figure 7.21 was
replaced with a more meaningful example.
Chapter 8—In this chapter, the opening photo was replaced with a dra-
matic image showing rescue efforts in Houston, Texas, during the 2017
flooding associated with Hurricane Harvey. This historic flooding event
is also the subject of new case study that focuses on Houston’s chronic
flooding problems and how they have been exacerbated by land-use
changes, population growth, and climate change. The graphics in Fig-
ures 8.5, 8.14, 8.15, 8.18, and B8.5 underwent modifications to improve
accuracy and clarity. Table 8.2 and the plot in Figure 8.20, which shows
the relationship between discharge and recurrence interval, were updated
based on the most recent stream data for the Tar River in North Carolina.
A new pair of satellite photos was added to Figure 8.21 to help illustrate
the severity of the historic Midwestern floods of 2019. Lastly, a new
figure (Figure 8.22) was added that includes a set of photos showing
overland flow actively taking place during a heavy rain event.
Chapter 9—This chapter opens with a new photo showing a beach
house sitting in the surf zone during a passing storm. This photo illus-
trates how humans have put valuable infrastructure in harms way,
which is now at increasing risk due to accelerated sea level rise. The
chapter also has a new case study about the unusual string of powerful
hurricanes that made landfall in the United States in 2017 and 2018.
Here the author explores the question of whether this string of hur-
ricanes, which includes 3 of the 6 costliest hurricanes in U.S. history,
can be attributed to global warming and climate change. As part of the
updated section on hurricanes, a new table (Table 9.2) lists the ten most
costly hurricanes in U.S. history. The map in Figure 9.20 showing hur-
ricane recurrence intervals in the U.S. was completely revised based
on more current data. There were also a number of small, but signifi-
cant improvements in the chapter content, such as a more detailed dis-
cussion on how tides result from the physical movement of the Earth,
Moon, and Sun. Likewise, Figure 9.4 has been modified to reflect the
more accurate explanation of the tides. A new photo was added to Fig-
ure 9.6 to help illustrate the physical changes that occur when waves
approach shore and begin interacting with the seafloor. Similarly, a
new photo was added (Figure 9.29) illustrating how buildings fall into
the sea when storm waves undercut the bottom of the slope. Finally, the
photos in Figures 9.12, 9.13, 9.23, and B9.2A were all replaced with
more meaningful examples, and the graphics in Figures 9.10, 9.11, and
9.26A underwent modifications to improve accuracy and clarity.
Chapter 10—For this chapter, the opening photo was replaced with a
new image that reinforces the chapter theme, namely, how our human
food supply is inextricably linked to soils. Also, a new graphic (Figure
10.16) was added that helps illustrate the difference in permeability
and drainage characteristics of clay-rich and sand-rich soils. Another
new graphic (Figure 10.28) was added showing how removing natu-
ral vegetation from the landscape leads to increased overland flow and
rei68270_fm_i-xxii.indd xii
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soil erosion. Lastly, the graphic in Figure 10.15 was modified to help
improve clarity and student comprehension.
Chapter 11—A key graphic showing the hydrologic cycle
(Figure 11.1) was modified and now includes the relative size of Earth’s
major water reservoirs in terms of volume percentages. Under the sec-
tion on Human Use of Freshwater, a discussion was added on the need
to prioritize water usage because of limited supplies and population
growth. With respect to new graphics and photos, Figure 11.25 was
added to show how freshwater can be produced from saline water using
desalination techniques. Also new is Figure 11.27, which illustrates how
municipalities can use treated wastewater for a variety of non-drinking
purposes, thereby conserving drinking water supplies for human con-
sumption. Related to this figure, the section on Municipal Wastewater
Recycling was expanded and now includes a discussion on the direct and
indirect reuse of treated wastewater. A new graphic was added in Figure
11.28 to help illustrate the process of aquifer storage and recovery, where
surplus surface water is stored underground and then later removed dur-
ing periods of high water demand. With respect to images, a new photo
showing a hand-dug well was added to Figure 11.17, whereas the photos
in Figures B11.3A and 11.31B were replaced with new, more meaning-
ful examples. Finally, the plot of U.S. water withdrawals in Figure 11.4
was updated using the most recently available data.
Chapter 12—The opening chapter photo was replaced with a better
example of a spinning bucket excavator in a surface mine. The section
on Rare Earth Elements was rewritten to better reflect their impor-
tant applications in modern society. This section was also expanded
to include a discussion on lithium due to its major role in the produc-
tion of rechargeable batteries. A new figure (Figure 12.17) was also
included with examples of modern applications of rare earth elements
and lithium that students should easily recognize. Three data tables
(Tables 12.1, 12.4, and 12.5) were updated based on recently released
USGS mineral reports. Similarly, new data from the USGS were used
to update the plots showing U.S. mineral imports (Figure 12.25) and
yearly mineral consumption (Figure 12.26).
Chapter 13—A photo of a drilling platform at sunset has replaced the
opening photo to emphasize that fossil fuels, which our modern way of
life has been based on, represent stored sunlight that accumulated as
organic matter. With respect to the chapter content, much of the nar-
rative and several section headings have been revised to reflect new
developments in the supply and demand for fossil fuels. More specifi-
cally, the boom in U.S. tight oil and gas production has increased world
supply, thereby keeping prices low. This has led to natural gas replac-
ing coal as the primary means of producing electricity in the United
States. Moreover, to minimize the impacts of climate change, the world
is transitioning to clean sources of energy, which when combined with
the low price of natural gas has led to a sharp decline in the use of coal.
Also significant is that despite the recent boom in production, oil and
gas are still finite resources, which means production will eventually
decline. Therefore, even though the outlook for energy supplies has
improved while economies around the world are transitioning to low-
carbon sources of energy, there is still the potential that crude oil pro-
duction will not be able to meet future demand. Due to the undesirable
economic impacts associated with oil shortages, namely, price spikes
and market volatility, the author explains why it is only prudent for
society to make use of conservation and renewable energy sources to
ensure that oil supplies continue to meet demand. In regards to specific
11/19/19 12:42 PM

changes, Figure 13.1 was added with a set of photos that reinforces
the concept that fossil fuels still form the basis for modern societies.
Also, a new plot in Figure 13.32 shows how the daily world demand for
crude oil is projected to keep increasing to at least 2025. Figure 13.33
contains a new plot, which shows historical U.S. crude production and
how production is expected to reach a plateau around 2030. Finally,
the graphics in Figures 13.12 and 13.29 were modified for improved
comprehension, and the graphs and charts in Figures 13.4, 13.23
through 13.27, 13.35, and 13.36 were updated using the most recently
available data.
Chapter 14—The chapter narrative was revised to better reflect the
current efforts of developed nations to try and minimize the impact of
climate change by transitioning from fossil fuels to clean and renew-
able sources of energy. In addition to the overall chapter narrative, the
section on Photovoltaic Cells was rewritten and now incorporates the
significant improvements in battery technology and storage that have
occurred in recent years. Similarly, the discussion on bird and bat fatal-
ities under the Wind Power section was updated and expanded along
with the sections on Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion and Tidal
Power. Finally, the photo in Figure 14.12 was relabeled for improved
clarity, and Table 14.1 and Figures 14.7, 14.13, 14.32, and 14.36 were
updated with the most recent data.
Chapter 15—A new opening photo showing municipal solid waste
being compacted in a landfill illustrates the enormous amount of waste
generated in modern societies. Related to this topic, a new case study
on plastic pollution was added, describing the history behind plastics
and the proliferation of plastic consumer products. Because plastics are
so cheap to produce, we now have huge volumes of single-use plas-
tics entering the municipal solid waste stream. Unfortunately, a signifi-
cant portion of this waste ends up littering the landscape and then gets
washed off into rivers and oceans. This plastic pollution is being broken
down into smaller particles and is entering various food webs, which is
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Preface xiii
a concern as the consequences to human health is not yet well under-
stood. In addition, the section on Municipal and Industrial Solid Waste
was expanded with a discussion on plastic recycling. A new section,
called Highway De-Icing Salt, was added that describes how using rock
salt to keep roads free of dangerous ice during the winter has contami-
nated streams and subsurface aquifers with high levels of chloride. The
section Radiation Hazard also has an expanded discussion where the
author puts various radiation risks in perspective by comparing expo-
sure levels to natural background radiation. Finally, Table 15.1 and
the graphics in Figures 15.14 and 15.42 were modified for improved
comprehension, photos in Figures 15.1 and 15.36 were replaced with
new examples, and the graphics and plots in Figures 15.3, 15.9, 15.13,
15.15, 15.16, 15.39, and 15.41 were updated using the most recently
available data.
Chapter 16—The distinction between global warming and climate
change was more clearly defined in the introduction, and greater care
was taken throughout the chapter to use these terms in the appropri-
ate manner. In addition to numerous minor updates that made the text
more current, the latest temperature and sea-level rise projections by
international scientists were used throughout the text. The section on
Strategy for Reducing Emissions was expanded and now includes the
decisions by the Trump Administration to withdraw from the Paris Cli-
mate Agreement and to replace the EPA’s Clean Power Plan for reduc-
ing CO2 emissions. With respect to changes in the art and photos, a new
NASA graphic was used in Figure 16.5 that shows how Earth’s global
average temperature has been rising sharply since 1960, whereas solar
output from the Sun has remained fairly steady. Also new is a photo
of a wildfire in Figure 16.28 and a new ocean acidification graphic in
Figure 16.38, which shows atmospheric CO2 concentrations over time
plotted along with dissolved ocean CO2 and pH. Lastly, Table 16.1 and
Figures 16.2, 16.13, 16.14, 16.25, 16.26, 16.37, 16.39, and 16.40 were
all updated using the most recently available data.
11/19/19 12:42 PM
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xiv Preface

Key Features
As with all college textbooks, there are differences among the various environmental geology books currently being offered. These are some of the
more significant and noticeable differences you will find in Environmental Geology:
Confirming Pages

∙ Learning Outcomes. Each chapter is introduced with a list that provides valuable student
guidance by stating key chapter concepts. This encourages students to be “active” learners
Conventional Fossil Fuel as they complete the tasks and activities that require them to use critical thinking skills.
Resources ∙ Chapter 2 Is Unique. “Earth from a Larger Perspective” describes Earth’s relationship
to the solar system and universe, which helps to give students the broadest possible
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Introduction
Human Use of Energy

perspective on our environment. Here students learn how the Earth system is part of
Energy Conversions
Renewable versus Nonrenewable Energy
Historical Energy Usage
Coal
Environmental Impacts of Mining Coal
Environmental Impacts of Using Coal
Petroleum
even larger systems before moving on to the remaining chapters that focus on our planet.
Chapter 2 also gives instructors the opportunity to discuss some of the external forces
Origin of Petroleum
Petroleum Deposits
Exploration and Production Wells
Petroleum Refining
Environmental Impacts of Petroleum
Current Energy Supply and Demand
Economic Development and Energy Demand
that influence Earth’s environment, such as solar radiation, asteroid impacts, and the
effect of the Moon on our tides and climate. In addition, this chapter helps explain why
Types of Energy We Consume
Where Fossil Fuels Are Located
The Future Oil Crisis
Peak Oil Theory

Earth supports a diverse array of complex life, and why humans are so dependent on its
Projected Supply and Demand
The Clean Energy Transition
Replacements for Conventional Oil

unique and fragile environment. This sets the stage for a theme that is woven throughout
Increasing Supply by Reducing Demand
Extending Our Oil Reserves

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
⊲ List the basic forms of energy, and describe some of the
common transformations between different energy forms.
the entire text—that human survival is intimately linked to the environment. Students can
⊲

Our modern way of life is highly dependent on a finite supply of fossil
fuels, which represent stored sunlight that accumulated as organic
matter over millions of years. Shown here is an offshore drilling platform
in the North Sea oil fields of Great Britain and Norway.
⊲
Describe why petroleum was favored over coal and how
it eventually became the dominant resource it is today.
Characterize how organic matter accumulates
then see how being better stewards of the Earth is in our own best interest.
geologically and is transformed into coal or petroleum. First Pages First Pages
⊲ Discuss the basic process by which petroleum migrates
from a source rock and accumulates in a reservoir rock.
⊲ Identify the locations of major fossil fuel reserves, and
discuss the impact on energy security.
⊲ Explain the peak oil theory, and describe how it may
affect the world economy.
⊲ Discuss why it will take years to scale up production of
nonconventional oil resources to make up for declining
supplies of conventional oil.
⊲ Explain why conservation and efficiency must play key
roles in limiting the impact of future shortages.
413

Chapter Earth from a Larger Perspective

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CHAPTER OUTLINE
Introduction
Our Solar System
The Sun
The Planets
Comets and Asteroids
The Moon
Origin of the Solar System
The Nebular Hypothesis
How Reliable Is the Nebular Hypothesis?
Other Stars in the Universe
Does Life Exist Beyond Earth?
Life on Earth
Habitable Zones
Possible Intelligent Life
Solar System Hazards
Electromagnetic Radiation
Asteroid and Comet Impacts

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
⊲ Understand how the nebular hypothesis explains the
formation of the solar system and how it accounts for
the orbital characteristics of the planets and moons.
⊲ Describe our solar system and the size of the Earth
relative to the size of the solar system as well as to the
size of our galaxy and the universe.
⊲ Explain how extremophile bacteria are related to
the origin of life on Earth and how they relate to the
extraterrestrial search for life.
⊲ Understand the concept of habitable zones and why
complex animal life that may exist elsewhere will likely
be restricted to such zones.
⊲ Explain what mass extinctions are and be able to name
some of their possible triggering mechanisms.
In modern times humans have sent machines into space in order
to study the Earth as well as the solar system and universe. This
⊲ Understand how scientists came to appreciate the
knowledge helps us to better understand the Earth system and gives us serious nature of comet and asteroid impacts, and
a larger perspective from which to view environmental problems. The describe the steps being taken to reduce the risk.
image shown here is centered over Mexico in North America and was
taken by NASA’s polar-orbiting satellite called VIIRS.

Norman Kuring/NASA/NOAA/GSFC/Suomi NPP/VIIRS

36 37

First Pages First Pages

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∙ Case Studies. Every chapter includes at least

one case study that is designed to give students CASE STUDY

7.1 Recurrent Mass Wasting at La Conchita, California many thousands of years. In terms of human development, historical impossible to predict, with any degree of certainty, exactly where and

a more in-depth look at an environmental issue.

records as far back as 1865 note that a wagon trail along this section when movement will take place and whether it will be rapid or slow. The
of the coast was plagued by masses of earth falling down from the reason such predictions are difficult is because individual mass wasting

O n January 10, 2005, a debris flow crashed into the small resi-
dential community of La Conchita, California, taking the lives
in a known hazard zone, it is helpful to examine the geology of the
site and its historical human development.
bluffs. Later a railroad was built along the coastal strip, and it too expe-
rienced problems when earth movements buried the tracks in 1887
events are somewhat unique, often depending upon complex subsur-
face conditions that are hard to determine in advance. Further compli-

A good example is Chapter 7, where the case

of 10 people and completely destroying 23 homes and damaging La Conchita lies on a narrow strip of land located between the and 1889. In 1909 another event destroyed a work train, prompting the cating any prediction is the knowledge that future movement could be
13 others. This disaster drew national news coverage in the United Pacific Ocean and a steep hillside (Figure B7.1). These bluffs consist of railroad company to try to reduce the hazard by removing part of the triggered by an earthquake, which unlike periods of heavy rainfall pro-
States, and then took on an added dimension when reporters learned poorly consolidated layers of marine sediment that have recently been hillside using bulldozers. The idea was to create a relatively flat area vides absolutely no warning that movement may be imminent. What is
that a similar event occurred at the same site 10 years earlier in 1995. uplifted by tectonic activity. Modern geologic studies have shown that would collect earth material moving down from the bluffs, thereby known is that future mass wasting activity near La Conchita is almost

study examines the recurring mass wasting

Questions naturally arose as to why people would continue to live at
the base of a hillside with a history of mass wasting. Other questions
centered on why the local government allowed people to build there
in the first place. Television interviews revealed that many of the local
that mass wasting has been taking place along these same bluffs for
FIGURE B7.1 Aerial photo of the town of La Conchita, California,
minimizing the chance of any material reaching the railroad tracks. certain to occur and that people will likely find themselves in harm’s way.
However, this operation also created level ground that attracted the
attention of real-estate developers, who eventually purchased the Daily rainfall
200
property in 1924. A housing development soon emerged, with 330 lots

problems at La Conchita, California. Here

residents felt that living in a pleasant seaside community with easy
access to the beach and wonderful ocean views was simply worth the
risk. To understand why the local government allowed people to live
taken shortly after the 2005 debris flow that killed ten residents. with easy access to the ocean and an additional 47 lots located along 180
Notice the remnants of the combined slump and earth flow that took the base of the bluffs themselves (Figure B7.1). La Conchita was thus
place ten years earlier in 1995. Unfortunately, this scenic town along 160
born, but it was only a matter of time before earth materials would March 4, 1995
the Pacific Ocean sits at the base of bluffs consisting of uplifted
again start moving downslope, posing a threat to this new community. 140 landslide
marine sediments, which are weak and prone to mass wasting after

students are asked to consider why some people

Rainfall (millimeters)

periods of heavy rain. Small-scale earth movements took place along the bluffs above
La Conchita in 1988, 1991, and 1994; fortunately none were large 120
Source: R.L. Schuster/U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
enough to reach the town below. Then on March 4, 1995, a large sec- 100
tion of the bluff moved several tens of meters downslope in a mat-

willingly live in a hazardous area, even when the

ter of minutes, taking the form of a combined slump and earth flow 80
Scarp from pre 1995 movement (Figure B7.1). Although this relatively slow-moving mass damaged or 60
destroyed a total of nine homes, no one was injured. Geologic stud-
ies later determined that the event was triggered by unusually heavy 40

risk is well understood. In Chapter 13, the case

rain that winter. For example, in the six-month period leading up to the
20
event, this coastal region received nearly 30 inches (761 mm) of rain,
which was nearly double the normal average of 15.4 inches (390 mm). 0
Also significant is the fact that 24.5 inches (623 mm) of rain fell in Janu-
10/1/94
10/11/94
10/21/94
10/31/94
11/10/94
11/20/94
11/30/94
12/10/94
12/20/94
12/30/94
1/9/95
1/19/95
1/29/95
2/8/95
2/18/95
2/28/95
3/10/95
3/20/95
3/30/95

study explores the controversy over hydraulic

ary alone, a month where only 4.3 inches (108 mm) normally falls. In
the end, scientists concluded that the primary triggering mechanism of
the large slump and earth flow was a rise in pore pressure associated
with the infiltrating water during the exceptionally heavy January rains. Daily rainfall
Remnants from 1995 2005 debris flow 100

fracturing and the development of tight oil and

slump and earth flow A mere 10 years later a smaller event took place on January 10, January 10, 2005 landslide
2005, claiming the lives of 10 people. Unusually heavy winter rains 90
again served as the primary triggering mechanism, but in this case
the movement took on different and more deadly characteristics. In 80

gas. Students are given an objective overview of

2005 the movement occurred at a much shallower depth and had 70
Rainfall (millimeters)

the form of a fairly rapid debris flow, leaving residents no time to flee.
Scientists later concluded that the differences in speed and volume 60
between the 1995 and 2005 events were related to the depth that 50

both the science and policy sides of the issue, and

water had been able to infiltrate into the slope. From the graphs in
Figure B7.2 one can see that the 2005 debris flow occurred right at 40
the end of a 15-day period of heavy rain, whereas the 1995 event
30
took place nearly a month after an extended period of heavy rain.

are then expected to draw their own conclusion

This timing implies that water did not infiltrate as deep in 2005 before 20
rising pore pressure reduced the shear resistance within the slope
10
materials to the point of failure; it also explains why the 2005 failure
occurred at a much shallower depth and involved a smaller volume of 0

as to which side of the policy debate they would

material. Finally, the fact that water accumulated closer to the surface
10/1/04

10/11/04

10/21/04

10/31/04

11/10/04

11/20/04

11/30/04

12/10/04

12/20/04

12/30/04

1/9/05

1/19/05

helps account for the 2005 debris flow being more fluid-like, giving it
greater speed and less time for people to get out of the way.
Based on the geologic history and the scientific studies of mass FIGURE B7.2 Graphs showing the different rainfall accumulation

support.
wasting near La Conchita, one can expect that future earth move- patterns that led up to the 1995 and 2005 mass wasting events at La
ments will be triggered by periods of heavy rainfall. However, it is nearly Conchita.

210 211

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rei68270_fm_i-xxii.indd xiv 11/19/19 12:42 PM

 Path of
294 PART TWO Hazardous Earth Processes 0 miles 100 200 300 hurricane

many of the engineering structures were simply overwhelmed by the sheer size Final PDF to printer
of the tsunami. Most notable was the failure of the breakwaters at the Fukushima A
nuclear power plant. Engineers had designed the breakwaters for a worst-case track (Figure 9.16). In contrast, the surge height is much less on the left side of the
scenario of a tsunami 18.7 feet (5.7 m) high. However, the 2011 tsunami was esti- track since the winds are blowing offshore.
mated to be 46 feet (14 m) at the plant, which easily overtopped the breakwaters In addition to affecting the height of the storm surge, wind is also directly
and flooded the plant. For more details on the Fukushima disaster, see Chapter 14. responsible for the heavy surf that accompanies the surge as it moves onto land.
Confirming Pages These large breaking waves are what makes a storm surge particularly danger-
ous and destructive. In fact, more people die from storm surges than any other
hurricane hazard. For example, from Figure 9.17A one can see how buildings
Rip Currents constructed above the high tide line are not only inundated by storm surge, but
are also exposed to tremendous forces associated with large breaking waves. Most Mean sea level
S

A serious risk for people on beaches is getting caught in a strong current that flows
away from shore, called a rip current, sometimes inappropriately referred to as a
buildings that take the full impact of such waves are simply demolished, leaving
Preface
their occupants with little chance for survival. Note in the photos in Figure 9.17B  xv
CHAPTER 457 the extensive beach erosion and number of homes that were destroyed by the
rip tide. Recall from earlier in this chapter that when 14 waves Alternative
break onto Energy Resources
shore, the storm surge from Hurricane Sandy, a strong category 1 storm that struck the New
B
resulting backwash flows down the beach toward the sea. Once at the water’s edge Jersey coast in 2012.
the process is repeated. A more elaborate andthis efficient
backwashmethod involves using
will generally flow parallel to shore until it can escape through a
FIGURE 9.27 Rip currentswells
separate (A) form when backwash
for injection from that break
and extraction operatein continuously.
a submerged sand With bar.
either ∙ Photos and Illustrations. It is well established in the field of education
As illustrated in Figure 9.27, the water can then
When it comes to a major hurricane, one of the worst places to ride out the
storm is on a barrier island. This is due in part to the fact that these islands are
the surf zone funnels through a break in underwater sand where a hurricane first makes landfall; hence they are exposed to the strongest
bars. Photo (B) showing
method, once the oil is extracted, it eventually cools
a rip current
to transport to a flowing
refinery.back
To outmaketo sea
funneldown
the heavytoward
and this
through
oil transportable,
becomes
deeper waters
breaktoo
its where
andthick
viscosity is
it eventually
that most people are predominantly visual learners. Therefore, the
create a narrow, but powerful current that flows
spreads out and dissipates. Rip currents
winds. Moreover, since barrier islands
Confirming are essentially ribbons of sand only a few
Pages
through the surf zone along the California coast.lighter
Note that feet above sea level, they can be completely overwashed by the storm surge. Rid-
the rip current can be
reduced by mixing
recognized
lighter crude be
it with
byavailable
how it disrupts
crude. However,
nearby.breaking
this requires
are particularly that ahence
strong, supplymost
author integrated very relevant photos and illustrations within the
of dangerous, when the surf becomes higher as
this creates greater volumes of backwash that must exit the beach via rip cur-
ing out the surge and its breaking waves, even in an elevated building, is a high-
risk and often fatal gamble. For those who decide not to evacuate, there is no
waves within the surf zone.
(B) Elena Arrigo/Shutterstock
A different form of heavy oil is sometimes found
rents.
are called tar pits—a famous example is the La Brea Tar Pitsyear
It isnear the surface
estimated that ininthe
what
in California,
narrative so that abstract and complex concepts are easier to understand.
United States alone, over 100 people drown each escape once the leading edge of the storm surge floods the road to the main-
land. Prior to modern communications and satellites, the only warning people
by getting caught in rip currents. In fact, officials believe
A
where prehistoric animal remains are preserved.
Water trying to tar
The
Rip current
hydrocarbon
flowpits are in a form called bitumen, from which the lighter and more volatile
substances
the actual number The integrated use of visual examples within a narrative writing style
in is far higher, because many deaths are listed had that a major hurricane
CHAPTER 9was approaching
Coastal Hazards was the large waves that commonly
281
arrived ahead of the storm. Since many of the people living on barrier islands
simply as drowning and are not reported as being caused by rip
away from the beach Surf zone Incoming waves
hydrocarbon molecules have been lost, leaving behind a highlycurrents. viscousWhatever
fluid should not only help increase student comprehension, but it should also
the true number, even 100 deaths a year is
back then were not familiar with
FIGURE
flee before a hurricane arrived.
forms
this warning
They
9.16 Storm
simply
in part
sign, surge
had of
because
they never had the chance to
nothe
choice but to go to the top
May 21, 2009

that
Beachis more like asphalt than normal crude oil. Bitumen is alsomuch foundgreater
in sand
deposits close to the surface, which geologists call oil sands or tar United encourage students to read more of the text.
than the number of people killed by sharks in the
Thesewhich averages about one per year. Although
sands.States, Highest
Atmospheric
air pressure
Eye
floor of a building or climb decrease
Outer bands
case in 1900
(Lowest pressure) forpressure)
(Highest
a sturdy tree,
the eye of
the 35,000 residents
in air then hopetoward
pressure
of aGalveston,
for the best. Such was the
hurricane. Texas,
This when the barrier island
sea level allows the
they were living on was completely sea surfaceduring
overwashed to rise,a category 4 hurricane.
deposits are generally believed to have formed when crude oil from petroleum
the media focus a great deal of attention on shark attacks, creating a dome of water that of the city, creating a
The storm surge progressively destroyed block after block
reservoirs migrated upward and then collected in sand layers near the surface.
swimmers clearly face a much higher risk from rip currents. Onshore
follows the storm inland. Even
Here the crude oil was broken down over time by bacteria, leaving behind bitu- are dangerous because of the Low winds higher storm surge is generated
Rip currents air way they carry on the right side of the eye due
pressure
men. Two of the largest oil sand deposits in the world are locatedswimmers in Canada into and deeper water. Even strong swimmers often Dome of
water FIGURE 9.17 Storm surge to the storm’s counterclockwise
(A) not only inundates areas normally above high tide,
Venezuela, whose reserves together areWater exiting the
estimated to contain enough
drown bitumen
after becoming exhausted in a futile attempt to swim Sea level rotation and intense winds.
surf zone through a but also brings breaking waves that demolish structures. Photo (B) of Mantoloking,
to produce the equivalent of 400 billion barrels
break of conventionalback
in a submerged crude oil. For
to shore FIGURE
against these 14.3 currents.
powerful Synthetic Ripcrude
currentsoilPath
iscan
currently
of being New Jersey, showing the effects of storm surge and waves associated with
comparison, the total world reserves ofsand conventional
bar crude are estimated
even take the to belives of produced0 miles from
nonswimmers 100 whooil
200 sandare deposits
300 simply wading (A) hurricane
in Alberta,
in Canada. Hurricane Sandy in 2012. Arrows mark the same house that appears in both images.
1,700 billion (1.7 trillion) barrels. shallow water, but getThe hydrocarbons
knocked down byare in theand
a wave formthen of bitumen,
car- a highly Notice the destroyed houses and roads and extensive beach erosion. Also note the
large volume of sand that was deposited on the back side of the island.
Presently most of the oil sands production occurs in Alberta, ried intoCanada viscous substance that
deep water by the current. Should you ever find your- is separated from the sand using November 5, 2012
(B) (both) Source: USGS
B (Figure 14.3). The problem is that extracting the highly viscous bitumen steam. Photo (B) shows a bitumen
is out to sea in a rip current, the best approach is sample whose viscosity
self being swept A
has been lowered by heating. Approximately 45% of
much more costly than extraction of conventional crude. For example, to stay calm of theand swimCanadian
parallel to
track (Figure shore. Once
9.16). Ininvolvesyou get
contrast, strip beyond
the surge height(C);
is much less on the left side of the
production mining the remainder
the narrow zone where thetrack
current
is produced sinceby issteam
the operating,
winds injection it then
are blowing and ispumping
easy wells.
offshore.
to swim back to shore.(B)ItSyncrude
should In Canada
addition
be pointed to (C)
Ltd; affecting
out thatthe
Blackfox height of the
researchers
Images/Alamy storm
Stock surge, wind is also directly
Photo.
responsible for the heavy surf that accompanies the surge as it moves onto land.
have found that some rip currents actually recirculate, hence, a
These large breaking waves are what makes a storm surge particularly danger- rei68270_ch09_266-303.indd 281
swimmer could eventuallyous beand
brought backIntofact,
destructive. shore morebypeople
simply die from storm surges than any other
Rip current floating. Either way, for people who are not
Wood Buffalo hurricane hazard. For strong
example,swimmers,
from Figure 9.17A one can see how buildings
ALBERTA
National it is best to stay out of the water
constructed during
aboveperiods
the high of tideheavy
line are surf.
not only inundated by storm surge, but Storm surge
Park As shown in the photo in Figure are also exposed
9.27, the to tremendous
location offorces a ripassociated
cur- with large breaking waves. Most Mean sea level
buildings that take the full impact of such waves are simply demolished, leaving
rent can often be recognized by the way the surf is disrupted
their occupants with little chance for survival. Note in the photos in Figure 9.17B
R.
and by the absence of foam thefloating
extensiveon top erosion
beach of the and water. number of homes that were destroyed by the
e
Peac

B
Note that rip currentsstorm are sometimes confused
surge from Hurricane withaunder-
Sandy, strong category 1 storm that struck the New
tows, which are outward-flowing Jersey coastcurrents
in 2012. that move down-
Fort McMurray When it comes to a major hurricane, one of the worst places to ride out the
Peace River ward along the sea floor as opposed to along the surface of the
storm is on a barrier island. This is due in part to the fact that these islands are
Oil Sands
Athabasca
water. Undertows are morewhere common alongfirst
a hurricane beaches
makes with a rela-
landfall; hence they are exposed to the strongest
Area tively steep slope and where winds.underwater
Moreover, since sandbars
barrierare lacking.
islands are essentially ribbons of sand only a few
Oil Sands
Confirming Pages
Area Here the backwash is able feetto flow
above seaalong the can
level, they seafloor ratheroverwashed by the storm surge. Rid-
be completely
Grande Prairie than being forced to flowing out the a
through surge and its
breach inbreaking
a sandbar waves,as even
in in an elevated building, is a high-
Cold Lake risk and often fatal gamble. For those who decide not to evacuate, there is no
Oil Sands
the case
B of a rip current. Because the current in an undertow is
escape once the leading edge of the storm surge floods the road to the main-
Area less concentrated or focused, land.undertows
Prior to modern are far less302dangerous
communications andTWO
PART satellites, the Processes
Hazardous Earth only warning people
to swimmers than rip currents. had that a major hurricane was approaching was the large waves that commonly
Edmonton FIGURE 9.37 Aerial view showing the Cape Hatteras
. arrived ahead of the storm. Since many of the people living on barrier islands Lighthouse on the Outer Banks of North Carolina shortly
an R after it was moved in 1999. The historic lighthouse was
ew back then were not familiar with this warning sign, they never had the chance to May 21,moved
2009inland to a safer location as shoreline retreat
katch

flee before a hurricane arrived. They simply had no choice but to go to the top had progressed to where the structure was at the edge
of the active beach. Note the groin that had previously
Jasper floor of a building or climb a sturdy tree, then hope for the best. Such was the
Sas

been installed to widen the beach in front of where the

National Park N.
case in 1900 for the 35,000 residents of Galveston, Texas, when the barrier island lighthouse once stood.
Source: Elizbeth Pendleton/Woods Hole Science Center, USGS
they were living on was completely overwashed during a category 4 hurricane.
The storm surge progressively destroyed block after block of the city, creating a
rei68270_ch09_266-303.indd 294 Banff 10/24/19 06:18 PM
National Park Calgary For undeveloped coastlines, particularly those on
barrier islands, some people propose restricting devel-
opment of overnight accommodations and other facili-
ties, forcing most visitors to return to the mainland in
FIGURE 9.17 Storm surge (A) not only inundates areas normally above high tide, the evening. In addition to saving money on expensive
but also brings breaking waves that demolish structures. Photo (B) of Mantoloking, erosion control and beach nourishment projects, the
New Jersey, showing the effects of storm surge and waves associated with combination of natural retreat and limited development
Lethbridge Hurricane Sandy in 2012. Arrows mark the same house that appears in both images. allows people to enjoy the beach and adjacent wooded
0 km 100 200 areas in a more natural setting. Clearly this is not a
Notice the destroyed houses and roads and extensive beach erosion. Also note the desirable option for those who like the convenience of
large volume of sand that was deposited on the back side of the island. November
beachfront hotels or condominiums, nor would it be
5, 2012
(B) (both) Source: USGS popular among investors who wish to continue developing our coastlines. How-
ever, as government budgets become tighter, property owners can no longer rely
A C Athabasca oil sands, Alberta, Canada on receiving federal tax dollars for erosion control and beach nourishment proj-
ects. In many areas such projects are now being funded by local property and
user taxes. As sea level continues to rise, society will ultimately have to decide Confirming Pages
where to spend its limited financial resources on stopping shoreline retreat, and
leave the rest to retreat naturally.

rei68270_ch09_266-303.indd 281 10/24/19 06:18 PM

SUMMARY POINTS

∙ Summary Points. Each chapter concludes with a list of

CHAPTER 4 Earth’s Structure and Plate Tectonics 121
1. Shorelines are unique in that they are where Earth’s two most fundamen- reduced the number of fatalities, but increased coastal development has
rei68270_ch14_452-491.indd 457 tal environments meet: the 10/30/19 07:10and
terrestrial (land) AM marine (ocean), forming caused property losses to escalate.
a desirable habitat for humans. Because population growth is much higher 7. Tsunamis most commonly form during subduction zone earthquakes as

Summary Points to provide students with a list of important SUMMARY POINTS

in coastal zones compared to inland areas, more people are exposed to water is displaced by movement of the seafloor. When a tsunami reaches
coastal erosion and hazards such as hurricanes and tsunamis. shallow water, the tremendous wave energy translates into tall waves that
2. Ocean tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun on break far beyond the normal surf zone, causing death and destruction

concepts that should be reviewed in preparation for exams.

1. Rocks
Earth’s oceans, whereas deformmove
ocean currents elastically
in response when theydiffer-
to winds, are subjected along to tension,
developed compres-
coastlines. 6. The rising and sinking motion of convection cells explains how Earth obtained
ences in water density, sion,
and wave action along coastlines.
or shear forces. If they deform beyond their elastic 8. Rip currents pose either
limit, they a serious risk to swimmers
its layered as structure
water fromandthethe
surf
movement of lithospheric plates. Spreading cen-
3. Wave energy travels horizontally and causes water molecules to move funnels back out to sea through breaks in shallow sand bars. People are
fail by fracturing (i.e., are brittle) or flow plastically (i.e., are ductile). ters develop along rising parts of convection cells, whereas subduction zones
vertically in circular paths. As a wave enters shallow water, the moving unable to swim back to shore against the strong currents, but can get out
water molecules begin With
2. to dragincreasing
on the bottom,depth,
causing rocks are exposed
the wave to deceler-to greater of levels of temperature
the current correspond to areas where cells descend down into the mantle.
by swimming parallel to shore.
ate. This causes the wave andto pressure,
increase in making
height andthem moremore
to become ductile
asym- and prone9. toThe
plastic deformation.
interaction between waves and7. Seafloorcan
a landmass andcause
seismic studies have
a shoreline to confirmed that new oceanic crust forms at mid-
3. Earth’s
metric, eventually falling over tointernal structure
form a breaking wave. is known through the study of how
naturally earthquake
retreat oceanic ridges
landward. The slow migration and is eventually
of a shoreline can also destroyed along subduction zones to form conti-
4. When waves crash onto(seismic)
shore at an waves
angle, water
refractis pushed parallel to
and reflect at shore
boundaries betweenoccur when there iswith
materials a global rise in sea level
nental or when
crust. This the land itself
explains why ocean crust is younger than continental crust.
in a longshore current. Grains of sand in the surf zone move in a zigzagging becomes lower due to subsidence. Accelerated shoreline retreat is occur-
different properties. The planet has a layered structure consisting of the 8. The three basic types of plate boundaries are defined by the dominant

∙ Key Words. The study of geologic processes can be daunting

pattern in the direction of the longshore current in the process of beach drift. ring in many areas due to human activity, increasing the hazards associ-
5. Irregular shorelines withcrust, mantle,beaches
more isolated outer arecore, and inner
commonly foundcore.
in tec-Density of ated
these layers
with oceanincreases
storms. forces that exist along boundaries: divergent (tension), convergent (com-
tonically active areas andgoing downward,
in places reflecting
where sea level an increase
is rising relative in iron content.
to the land 10. Humans attempt to protect their property pression), and shoreline
and reduce transform (shear).
retreat
surface. Erosion and4. Oceanic
deposition fromcrust
wave is relatively
action thin shorelines
slowly causes and composed to of basalt,
through whereas
engineering techniques such9.as Major
conti- surface
seawalls, groins, features
and beachdevelop
nour- along plate boundaries and include ocean

due to the proliferation of unfamiliar terms. Each chapter evolve into ones with longer and wider
nental crustbeaches.
is thickerAt the
and same time, weathering
composed
and erosion of the landscape tend to produce more low-lying terrain.
of granitic rock.ishment.
mantle act as a single rigid layer and together are called
6. Hurricanes are a serious coastal hazard as they generate powerful winds,
Jetties
The crust andareupper
used to keep navigational
ridges,channels free of sediment,
ocean trenches,
and breakwaters provide quiet areas by keeping waves from impacting
the lithosphere.
rift valleys, island arcs, volcanic arcs, and complex
mountain belts. The majority of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions also
on the shoreline. Some of these techniques result in beach starvation and
storm surge, and heavy Therains.lithosphere
Satellite earlyiswarning
broken up intohaverigid plates that accelerated
move overretreat in down-drift areas. occur along plate boundaries.
the weak,

includes a list of important terms with page references, so that

systems greatly
semimolten layer called the asthenosphere. 10. In addition to geologic processes, plate tectonics plays a central role in the
5. Decay of radioactive elements within the Earth generates heat and helps Earth system by affecting the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
create a large temperature difference between the core and the crust. This For humans, plate tectonics is important because it creates hazards (earth-

terms can be viewed within the context of their use. Complete sets in motion large convection cells that transport both heat and plastic
mantle material toward the surface.
quakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides), regulates our climate, distributes
natural resources, and was important in the development of life.

definitions are also provided in the Glossary at the back of the text. KEY WORDS
rei68270_ch09_266-303.indd 302 10/24/19 06:18 PM

asthenosphere 100 elastic limit 97 mid-oceanic ridges 103 tectonic plates 100
compression 97 fault 98 ocean trenches 103 tension 97
continental arc 114 geothermal gradient 101 outer core 99 theory of plate tectonics 96
convection cells 101 inner core 99 rift valley 111 transform boundary 108
convergent boundary 108 island arc 113 seafloor spreading 104
crust 100 lithosphere 100 shear 97
divergent boundary 108 mantle 99 subduction 105

APPLICATIONS
Student Activity Go to the website of a major news organization, such as the New York Times, theWall Street Journal, or the
BBC, and make a list of all the stories you can find that are in some way related to plate tectonics. Then, briefly
state how the topic relates to plate tectonics. For example, earthquakes and volcanoes are easy to relate, but if
you think about it, mineral, energy, and water resources and even climate change can be linked to plate tectonics.
Critical Thinking Questions 1. Rocks that are brittle will deform by fracturing when they exceed their elastic limit, but if they become
ductile, they will deform by flowing plastically. Can you think of an everyday material that can go
from being brittle to being ductile, and thus go from fracturing to flowing plastically when deformed?
2. Large-scale convection cells develop in the mantle due to differences in density caused by Earth’s
internal heat. Can you think of an example of density-driven convection circulation that takes place in
Earth’s surface environment?
3. Some disaster movies have shown lava erupting in downtown Los Angeles, California. Given the fact that
Los Angeles is situated along a transform plate boundary, is a volcanic eruption there very likely? Explain.

Your Environment: YOU Decide In this chapter you learned how the theory of plate tectonics was finally developed in the 1960s, based on
data gathered from numerous geologic studies over many years. These data include maps of the seafloor,
magnetic studies, earthquake locations, and similar rock and fossil sequences on the continents.
Describe the piece of evidence you found to be most convincing in showing that tectonic plates are indeed
moving on top of the asthenosphere. Be sure to explain why.

NOAA National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC)

Design Elements: Stone texture: Shutterstock/optimarc; Earth model: janrysavy/Getty Images; Sandstone texture: Shutter Ryder/Shutterstock;
Stone on beach: Herring Images/Shutterstock

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 Final PDF to printer

xvi Preface

∙ Applications. At the end of each chapter, sections called Student Activity and Critical Thinking Questions and Your Environment: YOU
Decide encourage students to think about how their own lifestyles may be playing a role in environmental issues. For example, in Chapter 12
(“Mineral and Rock Resources”) they are asked to think about the social implications of buying a diamond that comes from a part of the
world where illegal proceeds support violent uprisings and civil war. In Chapter 15 (“Pollution andConfirming
Waste PagesDisposal”) students are asked to

contact their local government to determine the location of the landfill where their trash is being sent. They are then asked to investigate Confirming Pages

whether the landfill has any reported pollution problems, and if so, to describe
530 PART FOUR what impacts the landfill might be having on local residents.
The Health of Our Environment
573 CHAPTER 16 Global Climate Change

∙ Laboratory Manual. Twelve comprehensive laboratory exercises are

time enter the name of your city and “recycling” in the search engine. Do you recycle at home or do
you throw everything in the trash? Explain why. KEY WORDS
3. Contact your landlord or local government and find out whether the wastewater in your house or apart-
ment goes through a private septic system or a municipal sewage treatment plant. After it is treated,
albedo 542
does your wastewater seep into the ground, or is it discharged into a nearby stream or lake? Describe
the potential problems your treated wastewater can cause. Can any of the wastewater by recycled? cap-and-trade system 569
available on the text website. These include a list of materials needed,
climate threshold 554
El Niño 547
La Niña 547
Milankovitch cycles 540

Critical Thinking Questions

Explain.

1. You read in the local news that someone in a neighboring county was caught illegally dumping
carbon capture and storage 570
carbon cycle 543 questions for students to complete, and corresponding answer keys on the
general circulation models (GCMs)
glacial surge 560
548 ocean acidification 563
paleoclimatology 549
carbon sequestration 543 global climate change 534 stabilization triangle 568
hazardous waste near a stream. Describe how the contaminants from this illegal dumping could move
through the hydrologic cycle and eventually affect you personally.
2. U.S. government policy has played a major role in shaping the country’s air and water quality and
carbon tax 569
climate 536
instructor resource website.
global warming 534
greenhouse effect 538
thermohaline circulation 545
weather 536
the ways in which we use and dispose of hazardous materials. Describe some examples of successful climate feedbacks 541 heat balance 538
regulations that have improved the quality of our environment. What are some areas where the policy
has had unintended consequences or remains ineffective?
3. The text states that consumers are responsible for the environmental impacts related to industrial
wastes and agricultural practices. Do you agree with this? List and describe some products you person-
ally use that are connected to environmental impacts that take place far from your home.

Your Environment: YOU Decide
Much of the municipal and hazardous wastes in the United States are sent to landfills located far from
APPLICATIONS
the populated areas where most of the waste is being generated. Even well-designed landfills cannot be
expected to safely contain the waste forever, and pollution of aquifers and nearby streams is almost inevi- Student Activity Scientists have predicted that there will be undesirable consequences associated with climate change. Make
table. Moreover, the landfills are generally located in rural areas where people have little political power
a list of those most likely to affect your community. Has anything happened recently in the local news that is
to prevent such a facility from being built. Is it fair that society forces these people to accept the waste and
potential pollution problems, despite the fact they create very little of the waste themselves? What actions consistent with the predicted changes? Include these events in your list. Are any local efforts being made to
would improve the situation? mitigate the effects of climate change? If so, add those to your list also. Describe the actions you personally
could take to limit your contribution to greenhouse gas emissions.

Critical Thinking Questions 1. Solar energy is the primary energy source that drives Earth’s climate system and the hydrologic
Ingram Publishing/SuperStock cycle. Why then do scientists believe that changes in solar output are not responsible for the current
global warming trend?
2. Carbon dioxide makes up only about 0.04% of the gases in Earth’s atmosphere. How does it play such
a large role in global warming?
3. Along with atmospheric temperatures, carbon dioxide and methane concentrations have fluctuated
during glacial cycles over the past 3 million years. Why then are scientists concerned about the release
of these gases by human activity?

Your Environment: YOU Decide Explain whether or not you think it is urgent for the world to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions. Should
the emission reduction targets be binding or voluntary? Would you be willing to pay more for electricity
that is made by non-carbon-based energy sources? Explain?

James Jordan Photography/Getty Images

Design Elements: Stone texture: Shutterstock/optimarc; Earth model: janrysavy/Getty Images; Sandstone texture: Shutter Ryder/Shutterstock;
Stone on beach: Herring Images/Shutterstock

rei68270_ch15_492-531.indd 530 11/04/19 11:13 AM

Organization Design Elements: Stone texture: Shutterstock/optimarc; Earth model: janrysavy/Getty Images; Sandstone texture: Shutter Ryder/Shutterstock;
Stone on beach: Herring Images/Shutterstock

In most environmental geology courses the list of topics includes some combination of geologic hazards and resources along with waste disposal
and pollution. Consequently, this book is conveniently organized so instructors can pick and choose the chapters that coincide with their particular rei68270_ch16_532-574.indd 573 11/04/19 09:28 AM

course objectives. The chapters are organized as follows:

Part One Fundamentals of Environmental Geology Part Three Earth Resources
Chapter 1 Humans and the Geologic Environment Chapter 10 Soil Resources
Chapter 2 Earth from a Larger Perspective Chapter 11 Water Resources
Chapter 3 Earth Materials Chapter 12 Mineral and Rock Resources
Chapter 4 Earth’s Structure and Plate Tectonics Chapter 13 Conventional Fossil Fuel Resources
Chapter 14 Alternative Energy Resources
Part Two Hazardous Earth Processes
Chapter 5 Earthquakes and Related Hazards Part Four The Health of Our Environment
Chapter 6 Volcanoes and Related Hazards Chapter 15 Pollution and Waste Disposal
Chapter 7 Mass Wasting and Related Hazards Chapter 16 Global Climate Change
Chapter 8 Streams and Flooding
Chapter 9 Coastal Hazards
“I found the chapter [16] to overall be very well written, very interesting, and
logically organized. I am especially impressed by the thorough summary the
author provides on the Earth’s climate system.”
—John C. White, Eastern Kentucky University

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 Final PDF to printer

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FOR STUDENTS

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Connect helps you be more productive with your study time and get better grades using tools like
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rei68270_fm_i-xxii.indd xviii 11/19/19 12:42 PM


Acknowledgments
The fourth edition of Environmental Geology allowed me to improve
upon the outstanding features of the original text. This required the
help of many different people. In particular, I would like to thank the
McGraw-Hill team that worked on this project, including Jodi Rhom-
berg (Senior Product Developer), Melissa Leick (Senior Content Proj-
ect Manager), Beth Blech (designer), Abbey Jones (Content Licensing
Specialist), Kelly Brown (Marketing Manager), Michael Ivanov Ph.D.
(Brand Manager), and Thomas Timp (Managing Director). In addition
to the publishing team, a special thanks goes to my wife, Linda. The
demands placed on me by publishing deadlines, teaching schedules,
and research commitments were at times overwhelming. Linda not
only took on nearly all of the family responsibilities, giving me the
time I needed, but her unwavering support and encouragement helped
me get through it all. I can never thank her enough.
I would also like to thank the many individuals, companies, and
government agencies who generously supplied the noncommercial
photos. In many cases, this involved people taking time from their busy
schedules to search photo archives and retrieve the high-resolution
photos that I wanted to use. Because far too many people contributed
to this effort for me to acknowledge here, their contributions are listed
in the photo credits within the book. However, I do want to recognize
the following individuals for producing special photos and graphics for
this textbook:
James Bunn National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Eleanor Camann Red Rocks Community College
Chris Daly Oregon State University
Carolyn Donlin U.S. Geological Survey
Lundy Gammon IntraSearch
Robert Gilliom U.S. Geological Survey
Bob Larson University of Illinois
Jake Crouch National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Naomi Nakagaki U.S. Geological Survey
Matt Sares Colorado Geological Survey
Christie St. Clair U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cindy Starr National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Trent Schindler National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Jeremy Weiss University of Arizona
I would also like to acknowledge different government agencies
for supporting programs that address important environmental issues
around the globe. This textbook made use of publically available
reports, data, and photographs from the following agencies:
Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organization
Environment Canada
Geological Survey of Canada, Natural Resources Canada
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
U.S. Government
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),
U.S. Department of Commerce
Natural Resources Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture
United States Department of Energy
United States Environmental Protection Agency
United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the Interior
United States Geological Survey, Department of the Interior
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Preface xix
I would also like to thank Trent McDowell and Gina Szablewski,
who wrote and reviewed learning goal oriented content for LearnSmart.
Finally, I would like to thank all those who reviewed various parts
of the manuscript during the course of this project. Their insightful
comments, suggestions, and criticisms were of immense value.
Mary I. Abercrombie Florida Gulf Coast University
Lewis Abrams University of North Carolina–Wilmington
Christine N. Aide Southeast Missouri State University
Michael T. Aide Southeast Missouri State University
Diana M. Alexander Youngstown State University
Erin P. Argyilan Indiana University Northwest
Richard W. Aurisano Wharton County Junior College
Dirk Baron California State University—Bakersfield
Jessica Barone Monroe Community College
Mark Baskaran Wayne State University
Robert E. Behling West Virginia University
Ray Beiersdorfer Youngstown State University
Prajukti Bhattacharyya University of Wisconsin–Whitewater
Thomas Boving University of Rhode Island
David A. Braaten University of Kansas
Eric C. Brevik Dickinson State University
Charles Brown George Washington University
Patrick Burkhart Slippery Rock University of Pennsylvania
Ernest H. Carlson Kent State University
James R. Carr University of Nevada–Reno
Patricia H. Cashman University of Nevada–Reno
Elizabeth Catlos Oklahoma State University
Karrie Champneys Wood Glendale Community College, Arizona
Robert Cicerone Bridgewater State College
Gary Cwick Southeast Missouri State University
Katherine Folk Clancy University of Maryland
Jim Constantopoulos Eastern New Mexico University
Geoffrey W. Cook University of Rhode Island
Heather M. Cook University of Rhode Island
Raymond Coveney University of Missouri–Kansas City
Ellen A. Cowan Appalachian State University
Anna M. Cruse Oklahoma State University
Gary J. Cwick Southeast Missouri State University
George E. Davis California State University–Northridge
Jennifer L. Demchak Mansfield University
Hailang Dong Miami University of Ohio
Joseph Donoghue University of Central Florida
Timothy W. Duex The University of Louisiana–Lafayette
Yoram Eckstein Kent State University
Dori J. Farthing SUNY–Geneseo
Larry A. Fegel Grand Valley State University
James R. Fleming Colby College
Christine A. M. France University of Maryland–College Park
Tony Foyle Penn State Erie, The Behrend College
Alan Fryar University of Kentucky
Heather L. Gallacher Cleveland State University
Alexander E. Gates Rutgers University–Newark
David H. Griffing Hartwick College
John R. Griffin University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Syed E. Hasan University of Missouri–Kansas City
Chad Heinzel Minot State University
11/19/19 12:42 PM

xx Preface
Donald L. Hoff Valley City State University
Brad Johnson Davidson College
Neil E. Johnson Appalachian State University
Steven Kadel Glendale Community College
Chris R. Kelson University of Georgia
John Keyantash California State University–Dominguez Hills
Karin Kirk Carleton College
Christopher Kofp Mansfield University
Gerald H. Krockover Purdue University
Glenn C. Kroeger Trinity University
Michael A. Krol Bridgewater State College
Jennifer Latimer Indiana State University
Liliana Lefticariu Southern Illinois University
Adrianne A. Leinbach Wake Technical Community College
Gene W. Lené St. Mary’s University of San Antonio
Nathaniel Lorentz California State University–Northridge
Marek Matyjasik Weber State University
James B. Maynard University of Cincinnati
Richard V. McGehee Austin Community College
Gretchen L. Miller Wake Technical Community College
Barry E. Muller ERG Consult, LLC
Klaus Neumann Ball State University
Barry E. Muller ERG Consult, LLC
Suzanne O’Brien Stonehill College
Duke Ophori Montclair State University
David L. Ozsvath University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point
Evangelos K. Paleologos University of South Carolina–Columbia
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Alyson Ponomarenko San Diego City College
Libby Prueher University of Northern Colorado
Fredrick J. Rich Georgia Southern University
Paul Robbins University of Arizona
Michael Roden University of Georgia
Thomas J. Rossbach Indiana University-Purdue University
Indianapolis
Lee D. Slater Rutgers University–Newark
Edgar W. Spencer Washington and Lee University
Michelle Stoklosa Boise State University
Eric C. Straffin Edinboro University of Pennsylvania
Christiane Stidham Stony Brook University
Benjamin Surpless Trinity University
Sam Swanson University of Georgia
Gina Seegers Szablewski University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee
James V. Taranik University of Nevada–Reno
J. Robert Thompson Glendale Community College
Jody Tinsley Clemson University
Daniel L. Vaughn Southern Illinois University
Adil M. Wadia University of Akron, Wayne College
Miriam Weber California State University–Monterey Bay
David B. Wenner University of Georgia
John C. White Eastern Kentucky University
David Wilkins Boise State University
Crystal Wilson Appalachian State University
Neena Williams-Strange State Fair Community College, Sedalia, MO
Ken Windom Iowa State University
11/19/19 12:42 PM

Meet the Author
James Reichard James Reichard is a Professor and Depart-
ment Chair in the Department of Geology and Geography at Geor-
gia Southern University. He obtained his Ph.D. in Geology (1995)
from Purdue University, specializing in hydrogeology, and his M.S.
(1984) and B.S. (1981) degrees from the University of Toledo, where
he focused on structural and petroleum geology. Prior to earning his
Ph.D., he worked as an environmental consultant in Cleveland, Ohio,
and as a photogeologist in Denver, Colorado.
James (Jim) grew up in the flat glacial terrain of northwestern
Ohio. Each summer, he went on a three-week road trip with his fam-
ily and traveled the American West. It was during this time that Jim
was exposed to a variety of scenic landscapes. Although he had no idea
how the landscapes formed, he was fascinated nonetheless. It was not
until college, when Jim had to satisfy a science requirement, that he
finally came across the field of geology. Here, he discovered a science
that could explain how different landscapes actually form. From that
Jim Reichard
rei68270_fm_i-xxii.indd xxi
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moment on, he was hooked on geology. This eventually led Jim to a
graduate degree in geology, after which he was able to fulfill his dream
of living and working in Colorado. Then, due to one of life’s many unex-
pected turns, he accepted a position with an environmental firm back in
Ohio. This ultimately led to a Ph.D. from Purdue and a faculty position
at Georgia Southern University, where he currently enjoys teaching and
doing research in environmental geology and hydrogeology. His per-
sonal interests include hiking, camping, and sightseeing.
It is through this textbook that Professor Reichard hopes to excite
students about how geology shapes the environment in which we live,
similar to the way he became excited about geology in his youth. To
help meet this goal, he has tried to write this book with the student’s
perspective in mind in order keep it more interesting and relevant.
Hopefully, students who read the text will begin to share some of Pro-
fessor Reichard’s fascination with how geology plays an integral role
in our everyday lives.
Crater Lake National Park, Oregon
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Environmental

GEOLOGY

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 Final PDF to printer

PART ONE Fundamentals of Environmental Geology

Chapter

George Hammerstein/Corbis/Glow Images

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Humans and the

Geologic Environment
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Introduction
What Is Geology?
Scientific Inquiry
How Science Operates
Science and Society
Environmental Geology
Environmental Problems and Time Scales
Geologic Time
Environmental Risk and Human Reaction
Earth as a System
The Earth and Human Population
Population Growth
Limits to Growth
Sustainability
Ecological Footprint
Environmentalism

Aerial view showing the skyline of Hong Kong, China. Modern humans
have been able to thrive due to our ability to grow large amounts of
food and extract vast quantities of energy and water from the Earth.
However, population growth is threatening to outstrip Earth’s ability
to provide the resources needed to sustain our population. Humans
therefore must find a way to stabilize population growth and limit our
consumption of resources.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
⊲ Describe the major focus of the discipline called
environmental geology.
⊲ Characterize how scientists develop hypotheses and
theories as a means of understanding the natural
world.
⊲ Describe the concept of geologic time and how the
geologic time scale was constructed.
⊲ Explain how geologic time and the rate at which
natural processes operate affect how humans respond
to environmental issues.
⊲ Describe how Earth operates as a system and why
humans are an integral part of the system.
⊲ Explain the concept of exponential population growth
and how it relates to geologic hazards and resource
depletion.
⊲ Define the concept of sustainability in terms of the
living standard of developed nations and also in terms
of the human impact on the biosphere.

rei68270_ch01_001-035.indd 3 10/03/19 01:26 PM

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 All these are Rodents, and you may know them by their four long
chisel-like front teeth (see B, Fig. 55), which have a large gap on each
side, between them and the grinding teeth behind. These chisel teeth
have not bony roots like the teeth of most animals, but rest in a deep
socket, and continue growing during the whole of the animal’s life; and
they have a hard coat of enamel in front, so that as the tooth wears
away behind, this enamel stands out and forms a sharp cutting edge,
and there is perhaps no tool more efficient for gnawing a root, a
nutshell, or the solid wood of a tree, than the tooth of a beaver or rat.

Fig. 55.

A, Skull of an insect-eating animal (Insectivore),

showing the numerous pointed teeth. B, Skull of a
gnawing animal (Rodent) showing the large chisel teeth in
front, and the gap between these and the hind teeth.

But these animals have another and quite a different set of

companions, as you will learn if you are lucky enough, by looking
carefully along the hedge, to startle a little shrew in its quest for worms,
or to catch a hedgehog shuffling along at a sharp trot after his nightly
meal of beetles, slugs, and snails; nay, you may even, if it be early
summer, come across a mole, or find two fighting fiercely together for
possession of the only thing they come to the upper world to fetch—a
wife.
These creatures have not the long front chisels of the hare or the
shrew; on the contrary, their mouth is small, and crowded with a
number of fine pointed teeth (see A, Fig. 55), of which even the back
ones have sharp cusps or points, well fitted for crushing insects. For
these are Insectivora or insect-eaters; and while the rodents are
gnawing at roots and leaves and nuts, these devourers of small fry
mingle with them very amicably; while both groups only ask that the
night-owl may not see them in their evening wanderings, nor the
weasel and his bloodthirsty tribe attack them in their homes.
For, ever since they began the race of life, long long ago, these
two very different orders of animals have been trying to feed without
risk, and to keep out of the way of flesh-eating birds and larger
creatures. And so it has come to pass that, though the rodents are
mostly plant-eaters, while their associates are insect-eaters, yet, as
both are trying to conceal themselves, and get their food by stealth,
they have acquired curiously similar external forms, weapons, and
habits of life, with the one exception of their teeth and the manner of
eating their food.
Even in our English meadows a casual observer might easily
mistake the little insect-eating shrew, with its soft velvety coat and bare
paws (Fig. 56), for a near relation of the gnawing Harvest-mouse
nibbling the grass tips just above its head (Fig. 57); though a nearer
inspection of the shrew’s long snout, small ears, and sharp teeth,
would show the difference. And as to their way of life, the Field-shrew
and the larger Field-mouse live like two brothers of the same race.
They both make burrows in the banks, though the field-mouse digs the
deeper hole, and they both line their home with dry grass to bring up
their little ones. And when the winter comes they both retreat into their
homes; the shrew to sleep away the dark days, and the mouse to
wake from time to time to feed upon his store. Only their food is quite
different, and when they come out in the twilight of the summer’s
evening, the mouse is on the look out for acorns, nuts, grains, and
roots, which it gnaws off with its sharp chisels, while the shrew is
chasing worms and insects, or cracking tiny snails with its pointed
teeth.
Then if you lie and watch quietly by the bank of a river, there you
may see the Water-rat or Vole (not the land-rat which sometimes hunts
for prey in the water) diving under with a splash to gnaw the roots of
the duckweed or the stems of the green flags, and coming up to sit on
the bank, and hold them in his paws as he eats them; while not far off
a pretty little Water-shrew, this time too small and different to be
mistaken for his companion, is swimming along with his hind feet, the
air bubbles covering his velvety back with silvery lustre as he chases
water-shrimps, or feeds on fish-spawn or young frogs. Both these
animals live in streams and rivers, and bring up their young in holes in
the bank, where they can jump into the water if the weasel attacks
them, or the common snake pokes his head too near their home.
These are perhaps the chief examples we shall find in England of
insect-eaters and gnawers living near together and following the same
kind of life; but if we look over the world it is most curious how many
parallels we can draw between them, showing how the same dangers
have led to the same defences.

Fig. 56.

A group of Insect-eaters.
Common Shrew, Hedgehog, Mole, Bat.
 Look among the insect-eaters at our Hedgehog (Fig. 56), so weak
and shuffling in his movements that he would have been cleared out of
the world long ago but for the sharp elastic spines which grow upon his
back in the place of hair. There he goes trotting along under the
hedges in the twilight, cracking the horny skins of beetles, or sucking
eggs, or devouring worms, slugs and mice when he can get them,
without a thought of fear. For he can roll himself up in an instant if
danger be near, and his sharp spines will keep off even dogs and
foxes, unless they can catch him unawares, and bite him underneath
in his soft throat. Nay, he can actually master a poisonous snake, and
use it for food, not suffering even from the adder’s fangs when they
pierce his tender nose.

Fig. 57.

A group of Rodents.
Harvest-mouse, Porcupine, Mole-rat.
 It is curious to see how quickly he can roll himself up by drawing
together the strong band of muscle which passes along the sides of his
body from head to tail, sending out bands of muscle to feet, head, and
legs. When he contracts this band his limbs are all drawn in, and the
spiny back forms a kind of prickly bag all round them, even his tender
snout being safely hidden. Nor are his spines merely sharp—they are
as elastic as the hair of which they are modifications; and the
hedgehog can drop safely from a height when he is in his ball-shape,
falling on the spines, which bend and straighten again as though made
of whalebone. So he lives under hedges and in ditches till the winter
comes, when he settles down in a nest of moss and leaves in a
hedgebank or a hollow tree, and sleeps the cold weather away. And
when the spring comes he takes a wife, who brings up her little ones in
the nest of moss and leaves under the hedgerow, watching over them
as long as their spines are soft.
And now where shall we look among the rodents for a creature to
match the hedgehog among insect-eaters? Surely to the “fretful
Porcupines,” which feed on all kinds of vegetable food in Southern
Europe, Africa, Asia, and America, protecting themselves by the
formidable array of spines which they can raise at will. Even the
European porcupine, which is about two feet long and the weakest of
his tribe, is better protected than is generally believed. It is true that his
long black and white ringed spines only cover the hinder part of his
body, but the hair of his head and neck hides a number of short spines
which can give very sharp pricks; and though he is a timid night-loving
animal, hiding by day in burrows and holes of the rocks, yet when
attacked he jerks himself up against his enemy, so that the long spines
wound very severely. And when we come to the Tree-porcupines,
which hang by their tails from the palm trees in Mexico and Brazil, we
find that their short stout spines are a very efficient defence both
against birds of prey and the deadly coils of the boa constrictor and
other large snakes; while the Western porcupine and the almost
tailless Canada porcupine, which climb trees and strip off their bark
and buds, have a clothing of such dangerous weapons that pumas and
wolves have been known to die of inflammation from the wounds.
The porcupine among the rodents, then, like the hedgehog among
insect-eaters, has adopted prickles as a defence. But there are many
soft-haired creatures living upon the ground in both families which
have no protection but concealment, and we find them both gaining it
by burrowing into the ground. Among the insect-eaters the Mole is the
most successful digger, and as he works his tortuous way through the
ground in search of worms and grubs, it is scarcely possible to imagine
a miner more usefully equipped for his work. His skeleton, it is true, is,
on the whole, more primitive and roughly finished than that of higher
animals, his ear is almost closed, and his eye though bright is deeply
hidden; but the parts specially necessary to him are most wonderfully
fitted for the work they have to do.
His broad shovel-like front paws (see Fig. 56), with their five strong
claws, set each in a long groove at the tip of the last finger-joint, are
powerful tools for shovelling away the earth, as he turns them
outwards and pushes with them as if he were swimming; and they are
carried on strong, short, and broad front legs, fixed to collar-bones and
a shoulder blade of unusual strength, while the breastbone is so
formed as to throw the legs forward and bring them on a level with his
nose when he is burrowing. This nose, too, has its part to play, for it is
long and slender, with a small bone at the tip, which helps him in
pushing his way forwards while his hind feet are planted flat and firm
on the ground behind, while it also serves to pick out the grubs,
worms, and beetles from their narrow holes.
Here, then, we have the very best of miners, who has secured food
and safety far from the busy world above, and spends his time hunting
for grubs and earth-worms in the dark earth below. He is a most
voracious animal, and makes the ground above him heave and swell
as he toils through it eager for prey, pushing up every now and then
with his nose the loose earth he has excavated, thus marking the line
of his route by molehills.
But when he builds his home and fortress where he takes his long
winter’s sleep, and hides from weasels and pole-cats, he takes care to
throw no loose rubbish above; on the contrary, he presses the earth
together so as to make the walls of his chamber firm and hard, and
carries out from it a number of passages, by any of which he can reach
his home in safety when he is pursued too closely.
 Thus by his cleverness in burrowing, and the useful tools which he
carries upon his body, the mole has managed to find safe feeding-
ground and shelter, when no doubt many of his relations living above
ground have been killed off. Even underground he has his enemies, for
the Weasel, the Stoat, and the Badger find him good eating, while if he
meets one of his own brothers in a narrow passage they will fight till
one is killed and eaten; yet though fierce he is also tender-hearted, for
mole-catchers say that when a mother-mole is caught in a trap the
father may sometimes be found dead by her side.
And now if we turn to the rodents for rivals to the mole, we are
almost confounded by the multitude of creatures which have found
safety in burrowing. Not only have we the rabbit-warrens, by which the
sandy soil of our commons is riddled in every direction with holes,
leading to burrows where the mother lies snugly hidden with her five or
six naked little ones in a bed of her own fur; but we have the extensive
burrows of the little, long-legged, leaping, gnawing Jerboas of Africa,
which are so like the Jumping Shrews among insect-eaters. Then
again there are the underground cities of the South American
Viscachas and Chinchillas, and the extensive subterranean
settlements of the Lemmings,—those curious rodents, which from time
to time start off in vast swarms across Norway, over mountain and
valley, through flood and fen, over rivers and plains, preyed upon by
eagles and hawks, foxes and weasels, on their way, but never
stopping or swerving in their course till they reach the sea, into which
they plunge and drown themselves. Again, every inhabitant of
Switzerland knows the Marmot and the burrows he forms, scratching
up the earth with his hind feet and patting it together with his front
paws and his broad nose; while every American child has heard of the
138
hillocks thrown up by the “Prairie Dogs,” which undermine whole
plains in the far west with their underground cities, where the
burrowing owl shares their home with them, and the rattlesnake steals
their young.
 Fig. 58.

The Pyrenean Desman,141 an insect-eating water

animal.

But all these come out upon the land and use their burrows chiefly
for homes and nurseries. We can match the mole better than this
among rodents, for in Eastern Europe, India, and Africa, there are blind
139
creatures called Mole-rats (see Fig. 57), with broad flat heads,
small eyes hidden in their fur, short tails, and feet with sharp claws,
which live almost entirely underground, burrowing subterranean
galleries in the sandy plains in search of roots, as the mole does for
140
worms; while the Pouched Rats of North America also live in
burrows, throwing up hills just like mole-hills, and gnawing roots and
buried seeds, which they carry in their large cheek-pouches, to store
up in their underground chamber for winter food.
Nevertheless, the rodents can scarcely compete with the mole as
burrowers, and it is not till we come to the water-animals that they
begin to have the best of it. True, the insect-eaters have the Water-
143
shrew and the curious West African Shrew, with its broad tail; while
144
the Desman of Russia and the Pyrenees (see Fig. 58), with his
dense furry coat, his broad tail, and his webbed feet, is quite a match
for the gnawing Musk-rat or Musquash of North America, for they both
live in fortresses on the river-banks, to which hidden passages are well
contrived to elude pursuit; and while the desman, with his curious
movable snout, pokes about in the Russian or Pyrenean streams after
leeches, water-snails and insects, the musquash in America gnaws off
the roots and stems of water-plants.

Fig. 59.

The Beaver,142 a gnawing water-animal.

But the insect-eaters have no water-animal to match the Beaver in

sagacity, judgment, or engineering. For here we have a creature not
much larger than a good-sized cat, cutting down trees, dragging logs
six feet long to the water’s edge, and building with them the most
elaborate log-houses and water-dams. With hind feet webbed up to the
claws, and his broad tail as a rudder, the beaver has so much
swimming power that his fore legs are free to carry and place the
wood, while his broad orange-coloured teeth, as sharp as chisels,
which grow as fast as he wears them away, are his cutting
instruments. With them he gnaws a deep notch in the trunk of a larch
or pine or willow, as deep as he dares without fear of its falling, and
then going round to the other side, begins work there till the trunk is
severed and falls heavily on the side of the deep notch, and therefore
away from himself. Then, after stripping off the bark and gnawing the
trunk into pieces about six feet long, he uses his fore-paws and his
teeth to drag them into position to build his dam. The lighter branches
he uses to make his oven-shaped lodge, laying them down in basket-
work shape, plastering them with mud, grass, and moss, and lining the
chambers with wood-fibre, and dry grass; and the logs he piles up to
form dams, lest at any time the stream should flow away and leave the
entrances to his home dry. These dams are very skilfully and cunningly
formed. He always makes the deep notch in the trunk on the side near
the water, so that the tree in falling comes as near as possible to the
stream; then he does not always clear away all the branches, but he
and his companions place the logs with these lying down the stream,
so that they act as supports to resist the current and prevent the dam
being washed away. Thus they make a broad foundation, sometimes
as much as six feet wide, and upon this they pile logs and stones and
mud till they have made a barrier often ten feet high and more than a
hundred feet long.
In this way they clear the woods just round their stream, as if a
whole gang of wood-cutters had been there at work; and as the dams
check back the water and form broad meres, there are soon swamps
on all sides, where peat moss grows and “beaver-meadows” are
formed.
Here the beavers live in companies, each in his own chamber with
his wife and family, though underground passages often lead from one
to the other, and when water-plants and soft bark are scarce, they will
often travel some way inland to feed on fruits and grain. But if among
the community any are lazy or will not take partners, they are driven
out, to find a refuge in holes of the river-banks, where they sulk alone.
In Western Europe, indeed, where they have been so much
persecuted, most of the beavers live alone in holes, though
communities are still left in parts of Germany, Scandinavia, and
Siberia. But in North America they still carry on their true communal
life, and those who visit their wonderful settlements will not be
surprised to learn that they possess the largest brain for their size of
any of the gnawing animals.
Indeed, they would have no rival among rodents if it were not for
the clever sagacious rats, and these have probably sharpened their
wits by living so long in contact with man, for they are burrowers chiefly
in human dwellings, granaries, stables, mines, ships, and every
available dwelling-place where they can rob and plunder, and outwit
even man himself by working their way into his stores, and acting
together in carrying away his goods.
So the insect-eaters and rodents hold their own both by land and
water, penetrating, in the forms of bats and mice even to Australia,
though the rodents are most widely spread, for except two very rare
145
animals in the West Indian Islands, there are no Insectivora except
bats in South America. The bats, however, remind us that both these
groups have also found homes above the ground and in the trees.
There the rodents have the lovely little Squirrels, which, with their
brown red backs, white waistcoats, and graceful bushy tails, scamper
up the trees of our English woods. It is very tempting to dwell upon the
squirrel, with his little wife, to whom he remains faithful all his life, his
beautiful round nest, in which his young are so carefully reared, and
his pretty ways as he sits upright gnawing beechnuts or acorns,
holding them in his tiny hands. He has made good use of his
opportunities, being almost as widely spread as the rat, for there are
squirrels of some kind all over the world, wherever there are forests,
except in Australia. Several of them in the East and North America
have folds of skin at the side of the body, which, when tightly stretched,
by extending the four limbs, enable them to take flying leaps from tree
to tree (see Fig. 60). Even without flying, however, the squirrel is so
nimble that he manages well to escape his enemies, except some of
the birds of prey and the fierce tree-marten and wild cat; and as in cold
countries he sleeps soundly in snug holes of a tree till the leaves grow
again to give him shelter, he is not often detected even by these.
 Fig. 60.

On the tree, the Taguan146 or flying squirrel, a rodent;

Flying below, the Colugo,147 an insectivorous animal.

Nevertheless, in tree-life and in the air it is the turn of the insect-

eaters to claim the advantage. It is true that the insect-eating
148
Bangsrings, which scamper up the trees in Sumatra and South-
East Asia, and were long mistaken for squirrels, are a small family and
not of much importance; but what shall we say to the Bats, the only
true flying milk-givers? Or what, again, to that curious animal the
Colugo or Flying Lemur of the Malay Islands, which belongs to the
insect-eaters, and yet has some points like marsupials, some like fruit-
bats, and some like the true lemurs? This strange creature, which
seems like the remnant of some branch-line from very ancient times,
climbs the tree like a squirrel by means of its claws, and then
spreading out its limbs displays a broad membrane (see Fig. 60)
stretching not only along its sides but across its tail, and from the front
of the arms to the neck as in bats, and so sails down from one tree to
another. The mother, which Mr. Wallace examined, nurses the little one
on her breast just as the lemurs do, while large folds of her skin
protects the small, bald, naked little creature, something after the
manner of an imperfect pouch. Lastly, while they sometimes feed on
insects, the chief diet of these colugos is fruit, like the lemurs, to which
group they were once supposed to belong.

* * * * *
But of all modified insect-eaters the most extraordinary are the
Bats, which are so different from all the others that they have been
149
placed in a distinct order of their own. Imagine a little creature about
three inches long, with a body something like a shrew, large ears, a
protruding snout, and plenty of sharp teeth (see Figs. 61 and 62). Let it
have a breast bone projecting more than in most milk-givers, and
covered with a large mass of muscle as in birds, fitted to move the
wings, but having nipples to suckle its young. Let it have large
shoulder-blades and collar-bones, a strong upper arm, a very long
lower arm (fa, Fig. 61), and four immensely long fingers to its hand
(ha), and a short clawed thumb (t). Let its hind legs be short and weak,
with a long spur behind the heel (h) of its five-toed feet, and finally let
the skin of its body grow on over the arms and long fingers, filling in
the space between the elbows and the neck in front, and stretching
away behind, over the legs down to the ankle, and on behind the legs,
so as to enclose the tail. This skin growing from the back above, and
the under part of the body below, will enclose the bones of the arms,
hands, and legs, like a kite with calico stretched on both sides (see
Fig. 56, p. 220), and when the long fingers are outspread and the legs
opened, no limbs will be seen, but only a small body and head, with an
immense expanse of skinny wing, from which the short clawed thumbs
and the four toes of the feet stick out before and behind.
 Fig. 61.

Skeleton of a Bat.
(Lettered to compare with bird’s skeleton, p. 126).
fa, fore arm; w, wrist; t, thumb; ha, hand; h, heel; f, foot.

Now this creature is no longer like the flying squirrels or the colugo,
which can only take floating leaps; for though like them it has only a
membrane stretching out from its body, yet this has become a long
flexible wing, formed on a widely outstretched arm and abnormally
long hand, and moved by powerful muscles like the wings of birds or
insects. It is essentially fitted for flitting through the air in search of
prey, while it makes but little use of the running power which it
possesses in common with all other insect-eaters. If you see a bat
moving along the ground, you will acknowledge at once that it is a true
quadruped, yet, by its awkward gait as it shuffles along on its clawed
thumb and toes, you will judge that it is not an earth-loving animal.
Watch it at night on the wing and it is quite another creature; then it will
flit about in and out of cracks and crevices, under the eaves, round the
haystacks, or among the trees, and never once strike its wings against
anything, though it has been proved that it does not trust chiefly to its
bead-like eyes to guide it.
Bats have been blinded, their ears stopped with wool, and their
noses with sponge dipped in camphor; and yet, without sight, hearing,
or smell, they steered quite successfully between outstretched threads
or tree-branches, or found their way into a hole in the roof. In truth, as
they have become fitted to navigate the air, they seem also to have
become sensitive to its currents. Their wings are abundantly supplied
with nerves and blood-vessels, and have little rough points all over the
surface; their ears have generally a second ear-lobe or leaf within the
outer one, and those which have not this have leaves of skin or
membrane round their nose. With all these they seem to feel the
slightest difference in the air, so as to detect at once whether they are
in the open, or whether any resisting object is near them.

Fig. 62.

A Bat walking.

Now it is clear that a creature of this kind, able to chase insects in

the air, even in the darkest night, can secure much food that the
running insect-eaters can never reach. When the little common English
bat, the Pipistrelle, awakes from his day’s sleep, which he has been
taking, head downwards, hanging by his feet in some old tree or under
the roof of a barn, he finds the gnats and flies abroad, and begins his
chase in the twilight—up and down, from side to side he flits, and his
wide-open mouth takes in insects at every turn. And by-and-by, as the
dark nights come on, the Long-eared Bats begin gradually to stir from
their clusters in the barns and old buildings, and, unfolding their wings
so as to display their ears as long as their bodies, commit sad havoc
among the night-moths. All night long their shrill squeak may be heard,
but before day dawns they are away again, and may be found hanging
in dense masses by their hind legs to the timbers of some old church
belfry, or in caves, or even under the roofs of houses, where they find
an entrance by some hole, and go in by hundreds to hang from the
rafters.
Many accounts are given in American writers of the thousands of
bats collected in the caverns which abound in the Western States,
while in the Egyptian catacombs they hang in myriads. For of all things
a bat dreads the light when beasts of prey are abroad, and next to that
he fears any position near the ground where weasels, wild cats, or
other flesh-eating animals may seize him in his sleep. Nay, the smaller
bats live in constant fear of the larger ones, for they feed upon one
another with evident relish.
Yet in spite of dangers the bat family, aided by its power of flight,
has spread all over the world, from the Arctic Circle to the Equator,
east, west, north, and south. In cold countries they hang by their feet in
the winter, or sometimes by their clawed thumbs, and sleep in dark
recesses, scarcely breathing till the warm weather and the insects
return; but in warm countries they are active all the year, sleeping by
day and feeding by night.
In England and North America they are content chiefly with insect
food, but in South America the Vampires, among the leaf-nosed bats,
fasten on to large animals and suck their blood. Mr. Darwin had his
servant’s horse bitten and disabled for two days by a vampire in Chili;
while Mr. Wallace, when on the Amazon River, was himself twice
bitten, once upon the great toe, and once on the tip of his nose while
asleep! A bat is a grotesque-looking animal at best; but some of these
leaf-nosed bats are simply hideous, with their wide-open mouth, sharp
teeth, and the skinny leaves sticking up round their nose.
 How different are the gentle-looking fruit-eating bats of the Tropics,
which seem to belong to quite a different branch of the family. Their
fox-like and intelligent faces are a pleasure to look at, reminding one of
the lemurs, and harmonising beautifully with their quiet peaceful life
among the fig-trees, guavas, mango-trees, and plantains of the East.
There they hang in dense masses from the tall silk-cotton trees till
night comes on, and then take wing as soon as the sun is set, and
hooking themselves by one thumb to the fruit-trees, hold the fruit in the
other as they feed.

Fig. 63.

Fruit-bats150 hanging from the ledges of a cave in the

Mauritius.
 Thus we have a wide range of habits in bats, from the insect-
eaters to the blood-sucking vampires on one hand, and the gentle fruit-
bats on the other.
But one virtue the most bloodthirsty and the most gentle have in
common, and that is maternal love. As soon as the little ones are born
they cling to their mother’s breast, and she often folds over them the
skin which covers her tail, so as to form a kind of pouch, so that
wherever she flies they go with her, and are carefully tended and
suckled by her till they can take up the chase for themselves.
And now we have followed out the Rodents and Insectivora in their
various lines. Both lowly groups, of simple structure and with
comparatively feeble brains, they have chiefly escaped destruction
from higher forms by means of their nocturnal and burrowing habits or
arboreal lives, and the marvellous rapidity with which they breed,
combined with their power of sleeping without food during the winter in
all cold countries. Nevertheless, though they are often strangely alike
in outward form, they differ in many remarkable respects. The insect-
eaters now existing are chiefly a few straggling forms of a once widely-
spread group; while the rodents, on the contrary, are still a very
numerous and varied family, spread all over the earth, and boasting of
such intelligent forms as the squirrel, the beaver, and the rat. But here
their advantages appear to end, while the insectivora point onwards
not only to the bats, the only flying milk-givers, but also through the
colugo to the lemurs, and thus onwards to the monkeys. It may be, and
indeed probably is true, that the colugo started off from some very
early type, more nearly related to the pouch-bearers than the present
insect-eaters are; while the monkeys, again, branched off long ago on
another line quite separate from the modern lemurs. But if the tiny
shrew wished, like many little people, to boast of distinguished
connections, he might with justice suggest that somewhere among his
primitive ancestors one would probably be found whose descendants
had risen far higher in the world than himself.

* * * * *
It may perhaps seem strange to many readers that instead of
leaving the apes and monkeys to the last, as standing at the head of
the animal kingdom, we should bring them in now, directly after such
lowly creatures as hedgehogs and mice, bats and beavers. It must,
however, be repeatedly borne in mind that we are not following a direct
line upwards, but a family tree, which branches in all directions; and
though the gap between monkeys and insectivora may be great, yet
they have many more points in common than the monkeys have with
any of the vegetable-feeders or carnivorous animals, and probably we
should find these links even more marked if it were not that we know
so very little of the early history of Monkeys. The reason of this
probably is that they live and die in woods, where any remains of their
bodies not eaten by other animals decay and crumble to dust, so that
we have only here and there a few skeletons to tell any tale of their
ancestors. And so it comes to pass that when we first meet with the
great army of milk-givers (see p. 209), lemurs, and soon after true
monkeys, existed, with thumbs on their hands and grasping great toes
on their feet.
In those times, when the climate of Europe and North America was
warm and genial, they spread far and wide with the other animals over
Germany, England, and the United States, where forests of palms, fig-
trees, and evergreens afforded them a congenial home. But as soon
as these began to fail and the climate of the northern countries
became cold and cheerless, we find the monkey-kingdom growing
narrower and narrower, till in our own day, while the flesh-feeders
range from the Arctic Circle to the Equator, and the vegetarians have
their reindeers travelling over ice and snow on the one hand, and their
hippopotamuses and giraffes wandering under the burning sun of
Africa on the other, the tender monkeys, which shiver in cold and damp
and are constant victims to consumption, have shrunk back into the
Tropics, where there is abundance of fruit and vegetation for their food.
151
It is true a few kinds still linger in Japan, and one on the sunny
Rock of Gibraltar, while one or two wander up the mountains of Tibet
into the regions of frost and snow; but, on the whole, monkeys are
essentially inhabitants of warm countries, where the trees are
perpetually covered with leaves and fruit, as in the luxuriant forests of
South Asia and Tropical Africa in the Old World, and Tropical America
in the New.
Though they have but a narrow kingdom, however, there can be no
doubt that they make the most of it, and have managed to develop
shrewdness and a sense of fun and frolic which would be quite
unaccountable if it were not for one peculiarity which they possess.
This peculiarity is the grasping power of their hands and feet, which
has caused them to become such active nimble creatures, swinging,
leaping, and running quickly along the boughs of the tangled forests in
which they live.
Yet the monkeys do not stand alone in this grasping power, for we
have seen that the opossums have hind-thumbs among the pouch-
bearers, while among the rodents the little dormouse has a nailless
grasping toe-thumb on his hind feet. So that here already we have
some clue to possible descendants of poor relations of the monkeys
down in the lower forms of life; and when we remember that the colugo
(see p. 232) is related on the one hand to marsupials and insect-
eaters, while on the other it leans towards the lemurs, and through
them to the monkeys, we begin to suspect that somewhere low down
in all these groups we might find ourselves among a family party from
which all the different branches have sprung; just as we found the
birds, reptiles, and milk-givers starting in past ages among the
amphibia.
It must, however, be very long ago since the monkeys scrambled
to the top of this family tree, for even the Lemurs,—which are not true
monkeys, but a lower type with an irregular number of teeth like the
insect-eaters, hairy hands and fox-like faces, without any change of
expression,—have well-developed thumbs and toe-thumbs, with nails
on hands and feet, and they have besides that free movement of the
arm and wrist which gives at once an advantage to the
152
Quadrumana or four-handed animals.
These lemurs are a gentle and loving race of creatures, which run
on all fours like cats, and have none of the mischievous half-reasoning
pranks of monkeys. They must have crept down long long ago from
the great battlefield of Europe and Asia, and taken refuge in the forests
of South Africa and India, and especially in the Island of Madagascar,
where they were sheltered from the attacks of larger and fiercer
animals. They are splendid climbers, with very sensitive tips to their
fingers, which are often of different lengths, and many of them have
eyes with pupils which expand and contract like those of a cat,