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Eng. Res. Express 5 (2023) 012007 https://doi.org/10.1088/2631-8695/acc3df
TOPICAL REVIEW
Improving the physical and mechanical properties of recycled

RECEIVED
4 December 2022
concrete aggregate: A state-of-the-art review
REVISED
2 March 2023
ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION
Amit Kumar and Gyani Jail Singh∗
13 March 2023 Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Patna, India
∗
PUBLISHED Author to whom any correspondence should be addressed.
22 March 2023
E-mail: amitk.phd19.ce@nitp.ac.in and gyani@nitp.ac.in
Keywords: durability, hybrid concrete, mechanical properties, optimization, physical properties, RAC, RCA
Abstract
The current state-of-the-art review indicates the need for future research to develop recycled concrete
aggregate (RCA) properties like natural aggregate (NA) as specified by Indian or international codes.
By improving the physical and mechanical properties of RCA, recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) may
achieve more similar performance to natural aggregate concrete (NAC). RCA’s physical and
mechanical properties are enhanced by mechanical treatments, chemical treatments, chemical-
mechanical treatments, thermal treatments, and thermomechanical treatments. Additionally, RCA is
coated with supplementary cementitious material (SCM) and nanomaterials to increase its properties.
RCA can be thermally treated to improve its properties while lowering its energy consumption by
adjusting the treatment duration. RCA properties are altered by mechanical treatment when charges
and revolutions are changed. It is possible to determine the set of charges and drum revolutions that
may produce the RCA with optimal physical and mechanical properties using decision-making
statistical techniques. A specific weight can be given to each physical or mechanical property of a
treated RCA when evaluating its performance. The same procedure can be used for chemical-
mechanical and thermomechanical treatments. It is possible to manufacture industrial RAC from the
RCA produced by this procedure. It may be anticipated that RAC composed of RCA with optimized
physical and mechanical properties will be more similar to NAC in terms of its physical, mechanical,
and durability properties. It is also possible to improve the material properties of the treated RCA by
coating them with SCMs or nanomaterials even more. The effect of SCM, nanomaterial, and fiber on
the physical, mechanical, and durability properties of RAC composed of treated RCA could be studied
in the future.
1. Introduction
Increasing construction aggregate demand and demolition waste have led researchers to recycle concrete waste
and produce recycled concrete aggregates (RCA), which can replace natural aggregates (NA) partially or fully
(Xiao et al 2012, Arezoumandi et al 2015, Bhasya and Bharatkumar 2018, Hu and Kundu 2020, Dos Reis et al
2021). Over 50 billion metric tons (BMT) of construction aggregate were expected to be consumed worldwide in
2017 (Hu and Kundu 2020). Construction and demolition waste (CDW) generation, and its recovery rate
worldwide are shown in figure 1 (Meyer 2009, Rao et al 2011, Yuan et al 2011, Yu et al 2013). Figure 2
demonstrates the country-wise awareness of recycling construction and demolition waste regarding the number
of recycling plants set up according to BMTPC (2018). Note that natural aggregate concrete (NAC) containing
some fraction of RCA refers to hybrid concrete (HBC) in the subsequent paragraphs or sections. Additionally,
the replacement of NA with RCA in the concrete is expressed as a percentage of hybridization or hybridization
ratio. RAC refers to concrete that contains one hundred percent RCA (hybridization ratio equal to one).
RCAs differ from NAs because their peripheral surfaces contain residue mortar (Martín-Morales et al 2011).
RCA’s mechanical and physical properties are affected by the mortar attached to the surface (Amer et al 2016)
© 2023 IOP Publishing Ltd

Eng. Res. Express 5 (2023) 012007 A Kumar and G J Singh
(a) (b)
Figure 1. (a) Worldwide CDW generation and (b) recovery rate in 2017 (Dos Reis et al (2021)).
Figure 2. Worldwide recycling plants for CDW in year 2017 (BMTPC 2018).
and the processing method (Pedro et al 2014, Lavado et al 2020). RCA properties are also influenced by the
source concrete and its constituent aggregates (parent aggregate) (Padmini et al 2009, Adams et al 2016, Verian
et al 2018). The removal of attached mortar from RCA, the use of different mixing processes, and the addition of
mineral admixtures have been suggested as methods of improving the mechanical and durability properties of
HBC/RAC (Duan and Poon 2014, Pan et al 2017). Nanomaterials are also capable of modifying the mechanical
and durability properties of HBC/RAC (Zhang et al 2016). Adding mineral admixtures is an expensive and time-
consuming process, and engineers avoid using complicated, uneconomic, and time-consuming methods (Mi
et al 2020). A lack of technical guidelines, standard test methods, mixed proportioning methods, and standard
code specifications hinders the use of RCA in the construction industry (Adams and Ideker 2020, Mi et al 2020).
It is possible to eliminate costly modifications to HBC by using a predictive design relationship based on
statistical analysis. According to Knaack and Kurama (2015), some specific acceptance criteria may be employed
to achieve and satisfy the target mix-proportion performance in the case of HBC or RAC.
The factors that affect the mechanical and durability properties of RAC/HBC are strength and water
absorption in the source concrete (Tavakoli and Soroushian 1996, Ferreira et al 2011). According to Kou et al
(2011b), if the source concrete has high strength and the same water-cement ratio, the target strength of RAC is
easily achieved. It is possible to increase RAC’s compressive strength and reduce porosity using proper mixing
methods, surface pre-treatment, and the water-cement ratio (Liang et al 2015). Workability and mechanical
properties of RAC are greatly influenced by the water absorption of RCA (Ajdukiewicz and Kliszczewicz 2002,
Tam et al 2008, Princigallo 2018). Thus, by using a water compensation method (WCM), HBC has equivalent
2
workability to the control mix with minimal strength loss (Poon et al 2004a, Fonseca et al 2011, De Brito and
Barra Bizinotto 2011, Amorim et al 2012). According to De Brito and Barra Bizinotto (2011), WCM can produce
a stronger RAC than pre-saturated RCA. Pre-saturated RCA pores are water-filled, preventing cement paste
from penetrating them, resulting in weaker formation of interfacial transition zones (ITZ). Surface saturated dry
(SSD) RCA in an HBC mix may release water during vibration, increasing the water-cement ratio, weakening the
aggregate-cement bond, and lowering concrete strength (Poon et al 2004a).
It is well documented that ITZs are weak links between aggregate and cement mortar matrix (Otsuki et al
2003, 2011a, Poon Chisun and Kou Shicong 2010, Kou et al 2007, Silva et al 2015a, Makul 2020). The mechanical
and durability properties of HBC are significantly affected by ITZ width, porosity, hardness, strength, and
calcium hydroxide (CH) content (Hu and Stroeven 2004, Scrivener et al 2004). In HBC, two types of ITZ
surround the RCA. First type ITZ occurs between mortar and aggregate (OITZ), and the second type occurs
between RCA and freshly mixed cement mortar matrix (NITZ) (Otsuki et al 2003, Zhang et al 2016, Mi et al
2021). It has been reported by Otsuki et al (2003) that mortar quality has a significant impact on ITZ. When the
water-binder ratio is high, the NITZ is weaker and the OITZ is stronger. According to Ryu (2002), RACs with a
low water-cement ratio tend to have strong NITZ. This is a case where OITZ determines the strength of RAC. By
lowering the water-binder ratio, the compressive strength of RAC is increased by increasing the strength of
NITZ up to the strength of OITZ.
Pores and cracks within the OITZ may provide the higher water content in NITZ and, thus, result in CH
crystals accumulating at the surface of the OITZ, reducing the mechanical and durability properties of concrete
(Kong et al 2010). According to Zhang et al (2019), adding pozzolanic material before mixing cement into RCA
and fine aggregate strengthens the porous structure of ITZ by filling cracks and pores. The addition of a
superplasticizer and supplementary cementitious material (SCM) provides a thin layer of cementitious materials
throughout the RCA. Additionally, the nano-fillers migrated towards the ITZ due to their particle size being
smaller than the binder particles (Wang et al 2020b). In this way, nano-fillers coated the surface of RCA and
hydration products, thereby inhibiting CH crystal growth and enhancing ITZ microstructure. Coating the RCA
with pozzolanic materials such as fly ash (FA), silica fume (SF) and ground granulated blast slag (GGBS) as a
stone-enveloping technique densifies the ITZ around it (Li et al 2009). RCA surface coating with nano-slurries
reduces crack width and increases elastic modulus for NITZ, but is ineffective for OITZ due to inadequate un-
hydrated cement particles (Zhang et al 2016). Mi et al (2021) discovered that the two-stage mixing method and
cement paste encapsulating the aggregate technique improved NITZ by filling the voids and cracks with cement
paste at the residual mortar surface.
Thus, RCA quality is a major factor that determines the physical, mechanical, and durability properties of
RAC/HBC. The following sections provide a comprehensive overview of the quality improvement techniques
for RCA reported in the literature. These methods are evaluated based on their performance. According to the
critical evaluation, the benefits and shortfalls of the methods are discussed by drawing on the literature. Based on
the improved properties of RCA, the structural performance of RAC/HBCs is also discussed.
2. Materials and methods
The RCA is processed by crushing the parent concrete, reducing landfill waste, and providing construction
aggregate, as shown in figure 3 according to BMTPC (2018). Several studies have been published to improve the
material properties of RCA while also examining the mechanical properties, durability properties, and structural
performance of RAC/HBC. As shown in figure 4, a flow chart illustrates the methodology for reviewing the
literature. There have been many treatments used to improve the physical properties, and mechanical properties
of RCA to achieve the optimum strength of RAC/HBC. The improved physical and mechanical properties
obtained by several scholars using mechanical treatment, thermal treatment, acid treatment, thermo-
mechanical treatment, acid treatment followed by mechanical treatment, and pozzolanic treatment are
summarised in table 1 (Prince and Singh 2014, Butler et al 2014, Purushothaman et al (2014), Pandurangan et al
2016, Bhasya and Bharatkumar 2018, Surya et al 2019, Dilbas et al 2019, Shaban et al 2021, Verma et al 2021).
The following sections discuss the process of improving RCA’s physical and mechanical properties and its
impact on the mechanical properties, durability properties, and structural performance of RAC/HBC.
2.1. Improving the quality of RCA

2.1.1. Mechanical treatments
By pulverizing mortar while peeling and colliding, mechanical treatment removes mortar from RCAs and
improves their material properties by reducing the adhered mortar. For this purpose, abrasion treatment (Los
Angeles) is commonly used. The mechanical treatment employed by Ahmad et al (2020) involves 12 charges and
500 drum revolutions without specifying any treatment criteria. A 40% substitution of RCA for NA in HBC
3
Figure 3. Processing methodology of recycling the concrete from CWD (BMTPC 2018).
Figure 4. Methodology incorporated in the present study.
without affecting its compressive strength or split tensile strength is reported in this study. Despite this, the
authors have not studied the physical and mechanical properties of treated RCA when the drum revolutions and
charges are altered during the Los Angeles treatment. Additionally, the authors suggest that removing the mortar
may damage the RCA because of the higher revolutions of the drum. However, another study conducted by
Purushothaman et al (2014), considers the abrasion value of RCA as a quality parameter. Researchers have tried
to reduce the abrasion values of RCA by mechanically treating it with 12 charges and 150 revolutions of the
drum. According to their study, only the abrasion and crushing values of processed RCA are closer to NA. The
compressive strength and modulus of elasticity (MOE) of RAC consisting of processed RCA are therefore lower
than those of NAC. Additionally, the water absorption of RAC is 1.46 times higher than NAC.
Additionally, the drum revolutions and charges are changed to 300 and 12 to treat the RCA mechanically by
Pandurangan et al (2016). Although the RAC has a compressive strength like NAC, its bond strength is
significantly lower as reported in this research. In another study, 150, 300, and 450 drum revolutions for eight
charges (60 mm dia.) are used in the mechanical treatment of RCA by Alqarni et al (2021). As a quality
4
Eng. Res. Express 5 (2023) 012007
Table 1. Physical and mechanical properties of NA, untreated RCA and treated RCA.
Water absorption (%) Specific gravity Bulk density (Kg m−3) Impact value (%) Crushing value (%) Abrasion value (%)
Publications TR
i ii iii i ii iii i ii iii i ii iii i ii iii i ii iii
Dilbas et al 2019 M 0.67 8.95 0.84 2.67 2 2.47 1350 1150 1270 — — 21 55 28
Verma et al (2021) CM 0.5 4.35 1.52 2.65 2.57 2.63 1620 1545 1588 15.48 29.68 16.1 27.62 38.4 27.4 16.97 34.92 16.92
Bhasya and Bharatkumar (2018) TM 0.69 4.67 1.59 2.77 2.41 2.52 1572 1430 1550 — 26.56 29.49 27.44 —
Purushothaman et al (2014) AC 0.3 1.56 0.92 2.79 2.38 2.44 1508 1239 1438 23 31 29 27 36 33 29 45 30
5
AS 0.81 2.57 1453 27 33 28

M 0.93 2.49 1462 29 31 30
TM 0.78 2.7 1483 26 30 29
Singh and Singh (2021) NT 0.6 3.84 — 2.64 2.42 — 1542 1371 — 9.3 10.71 — 17.14 16.6 — —
Shaban et al (2021) PT 0.5 7.26 3.21 2.89 2.35 2.53 — — 20.82 35.81 20.12 17.33 36.22 24.4
Pandurangan et al (2016) A 0.6 4.58 2.9 2.7 2.45 2.59 1630 1360 — 25.13 31.73 — 27 33.23 — 19 48.32 —
T 3.1 2.54
M 3.8 2.51
Butler et al (2014) R1 1.52 4.66 — 2.71 2.48 — 1744 1539 — — 18.2 23.1 — 11.9 15.1 —
R2 6.15 2.43 1458 26 22.1
R3 7.81 2.41 1395 28.5 25
Surya et al (2019) NT 0.42 2.76 — 2.67 2.5 — 1630 1340 — 21.77 16.04 — 27.12 28.87 — 26 29.27 —
Prince and Singh (2014) NT 0.98 6 — 2.67 2.5 — 1630 1385 — 17.29 22.15 — 21.24 21.73 — —
Note: - i: NA, ii: Untreated RCA, iii: Treated RCA, TR: Treatment, A: Acid, M: Mechanical treatment, T: Thermal treatment, AC: Acid Treatment with HCL, AS: Acid treatment with H2SO4, CM: Chemical and mechanical treatment, NT:
No treatment, PT: Pozzolanic treatment, TM: Thermal and mechanical treatment, R1, R2, R3: RCA from different sources.
A Kumar and G J Singh

Figure 5. ITZ in RCA (Mi et al 2021).
parameter, the treated RCA gradation is considered in this study in a different way. Grading of aggregate is
commonly used to improve concrete matrix packing. As a result, the authors are unable to achieve the target
strength of the concrete mixtures at a replacement level of over 33%. A quality improvement process has been
demonstrated by Dilbas et al (2019), Dilbas and Cakir (2021), and Cakir and Dilbas (2021) by fixing RCA’s water
absorption below 1%. Only 60% of the NA is replaced with treated RCA without degrading the properties
of HBC.
It is essential that the physical and mechanical properties of NA meet specific criteria set by national and
international standards to achieve the desired physical, mechanical, and durability properties of NAC
(ACI 2007, IS 2016). Water absorption by NA ranges from 0.5 to 4% according to the international standard
(ACI 2007). As a result, the arbitrary selection of some of the RCA’s physical or mechanical properties as a quality
parameter in the mechanical treatment leads to fewer properties falling under the prescribed limits set for NA.
Due to the inferior quality of RCA, RAC has mechanical and durability properties that are lower than those of
NAC. Nevertheless, several standards and guidelines specify water absorption as the most fundamental
parameter for RCA quality (Martin-Morales et al 2013). The workability, mechanical properties, and water-
cement ratio of RAC are highly dependent on the controlled water absorption of RCA (Princigallo 2018).
If RCA is mechanically treated to reduce its water absorption to 1% or less, its other properties, such as
crushing value and impact value, may be severely affected. Therefore, this criterion cannot be applied to all types
of RCA, especially those containing parent aggregates that are relatively weak in impact and crushing. By
lowering the mortar content in RCA, it is possible to bring water absorption below 1%. There is no doubt that
the process will reduce RCA’s productivity, which will increase production costs. However, it is not necessary to
reduce only the water absorption of RCA to much lower levels to improve the strength and durability properties
of RCA. In addition to water absorption, specific gravity, crushing values, impact values, abrasion values,
flakiness, and elongation must also be included in a quality improvement process (Kim 2022).
2.1.2. Thermal treatments and thermal-mechanical treatments

The thermal treatment removes mortar from RCA due to the difference in thermal expansion coefficients
between NA and cement mortar (Shaban et al 2019). According to Al-Bayati et al (2016), thermal treatment
reduces the length and width of OITZ (figure 5) until 350 °C. Furthermore, the length and width of OITZ
decrease slowly when temperatures exceed 350 °C. The pore size of the attached mortar also decreases up to a
temperature range of 350 °C. However, it increases dramatically above the 350 °C temperature range. According
to Bhasya and Bharatkumar (2018), heating and mechanical treatment together increase the bulk density and
specific gravity of RCA by more than 12.20% and 7%, respectively. The water absorption of TRCA is reduced by
66.25% compared to URCA. In De Juan and Gutiérrez (2009) and Pandurangan et al (2016), the RCA has been
dried at 500 °C for 2 h. After that, the sample is immersed in cold water. Stress and cracks in mortar are caused by
sudden heating and cooling. Mortar remains are removed by hitting the surface with a hammer or scratching it.
This study considers specific gravity, water absorption, and mortar adhered as quality parameters. The observed
specific gravity is, however, too low compared to the parent aggregate. There is still a significant amount of water
absorption, more than 3.8%. In addition, De Juan and Gutierrez (2009) have been produced RACs like NACs of
6
M25 grade. According to Pandurangan et al (2016), the compressive strength of concrete is 95% that of NAC for
M35 grade RAC. In terms of bond strength, this RAC falls short of NAC and is about 21% weaker.
According to Sui and Muller (2012), hardened cement paste can be removed at 250 °C–300 °C if mechanical
treatment is intensive enough. It is possible to produce coarse aggregates with apparent densities close to those of
virgin aggregates using this method. In addition, a thermal treatment at 500 °C can be followed by a short
mechanical treatment. Purushothaman et al (2014) treated concrete rubble thermally for 24 h by using a hot air
oven at a temperature of around 300 °C. Then, it was cooled and scrubbed for five minutes in the Los Angeles
abrasion machine. The researchers were able to increase RCA strength up to 96% of NAC strength through this
process. According to Pawluczuk et al (2019), the degree of aggregate cleaning is determined by the temperature
at which the concrete rubble is roasted. It is measured by the amount of cement mortar removed from the grain
surface. Granite grains are damaged by excessive temperatures (900 °C), resulting in significant deterioration of
aggregate properties, concrete mix consistency, and hardened concrete properties. With the fines being reused,
it is observed in this study that treatment temperatures at 600 °C are most effective.
Literature published on thermal treatment or thermal mechanical treatment produces RCA that have a
much lower specific gravity and a much higher water absorption than the parent aggregates. These studies have
been focused on removing mortar from the aggregate surface. However, there are some aggregates in RCA that
are only made of mortar. Hence, removing mortar content to a very low extent is not cost-effective. Even though
these studies can produce RAC up to M35 grade, only a few physical and mechanical properties are considered
when comparing it with NAC composed of parent aggregate. In order to eliminate the mortar content from RCA
to an optimum extent, it is necessary to use a method that involves the optimal temperature for heating and the
use of Los Angeles with charges. It is pertinent to consider the aggregate’s physical and mechanical properties
when determining treatment criteria. It may result in RAC having similar physical, mechanical, and durability
properties to concrete containing parent aggregate.
2.1.3. Chemical treatment and chemical-mechanical treatments

The pre-soaking of the RCA in acid solution (strong or weak) also effectively removes the mortar attached to the
RCA because of the reaction between the acid and the hydration product in the mortar (Tam et al 2007). Acid
treatment reduced the crack length, width, and pore size in the OITZ. According to Al-Bayati et al (2016) there is
an insignificant difference in outcomes between weak and strong acid treatments. However, strong acid reduces
the durability of RAC, requires large amount of water to wash the aggregate, and poses additional environmental
problems when disposing of treatment residuals, solution, and washing water (Al-Bayati et al 2016). According
to Wang et al (2017a), chemical-mechanical treatment can produce RCA with low water absorption and less
attached mortar. During soaking, acetic acid (weak acid) reacts with the mortar to form calcium carbonate, CH,
and hydrated calcium silicate. After soaking, these components weaken the mortar and make it easier to separate
by mechanical rubbing. RCA has a reduced water absorption of 24%, 37.82%, and 44.53% compared to
untreated RCA, and adhered mortars are removed by 2.9%, 6.4%, and 9.2% at 1%, 3% and 5% acetic acid
concentrations, respectively (Wang et al 2017a). However, the impact of this treatment on other mechanical
properties, such as crushing values and impact values, is not reported.
According to Ahmad et al (2020), mechanical treatment can increase the compressive strength of RAC by
16% after twenty-eight days. By combining acid and mechanical treatments, RAC’s compressive strength
increases by 18%. RCA can be mechanically treated to lower its water absorption by 4%, while combined
treatment can decrease it by 8%. After 90 days of sulphate attack, the compressive strength of untreated RAC
decreases by 20%. Mechanical treatment reduces loss in sulphate attack to 13%, while acid-mechanical
treatment reduces loss to 2%. The mechanical properties of RCA have been studied by Kazmi et al (2019) in the
context of acid-soaking (acetic acid) and mechanical rubbing. RAC with improved mechanical properties will
have increased flexural strength, tensile strength, and MOE. According to Verma et al (2021), mild acetic acid
pre-soaking followed by mechanical grinding improves the quality of RCA. NA can be replaced with RCA by
50% in some concretes with properties similar to parent aggregate concrete. In Bui et al (2018), in case of sodium
silicate treatment reduces chloride permeability by densifying ITZ after Los Angeles treatment.
Water absorption of RAC is improved by 10%, 11%, and 13% by treating it with HCL, HNO3, and H2SO4,
respectively (Saravanakumar et al 2016). The combination of acetic acid treatment with mechanical rubbing
reduces water absorption by 9.3%, 27.9%, and 38.7%, respectively, at 1%, 3%, and 5% acetic acid
concentrations (Wang et al 2017a). In studies, it has been shown that compressive strength increases by 25%
after acidic treatment (Saravanakumar et al 2016, Wang et al 2017a). Acid treatment followed by mechanical
treatment enhances RAC’s compressive strength even more. According to Bui et al (2018), immersion of RCA in
sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) solution after Los Angeles abrasion treatment removes the powder form of adhered
mortar. This treatment also seals the crack and densifies the residual mortar on the surface by reacting with the
CH present in the adhered mortar over RCA. Thus, a combination of acid and mechanical treatment produces
RAC that is more durable. It is therefore possible to improve the physical and mechanical properties of acid-
7
treated RCA closer to the parent aggregate by applying suitable mechanical treatment. As a result, RAC may have
properties closer to those of concrete made from parent aggregate.
2.2. Improving the quality of attached mortar

The quality of the adhered mortar is also improved by spraying a slurry of mineral admixtures on the RCA
surface or by soaking the RCA in the slurry. The pozzolanic materials react with the hydroxide in the mortar and
form C-S-H gel. Consequently, the porosity of the ITZ reduces significantly in this process, which results in
improved microstructural and mechanical properties of RCA (Katz 2004, Kou et al 2007, Kong et al 2010). The
silica containing material has a filler effect due to their high specific surface area and reacts with CH present in
the pores and on the surface of adhered mortar to produce newly hydrated C-S-H gel that strengthens the NITZ
(Tam and Tam 2008, Li et al 2009). According to Li et al (2009), SF (20%) adds more compressive strength to
RAC, around 5.04% compared to plain RAC. Additionally, Ali et al (2020) has described how the pozzolanic
reaction between SF and CH in adhered mortar improves an ITZ between the old and freshly applied mortar
and, therefore, improves RAC strength.
A significant effect of nano silica (NS) on compressive strength, MOE, water absorption, density, and
volume of voids of RAC with high f-value, and p-value less than 0.05, is reported by Mukharjee and Barai (2014).
By increasing the concentration of NS up to 3%, the compressive strength is improved by 14.95%, 14.88 and
27.15% for 3 days, 7 days and 28 days of curing periods. In addition, MOE and density are increased by 6.48%
and 6.25% and water absorption and volume of voids are reduced from 5.67% to 3.89% and 14.53% to 11.24%,
respectively. In another study by Younis and Mustafa (2018), the compressive strength of RAC is reported to be
enhanced by 5.96%, 13.24% and 16.22% and the split tensile strength of RAC is improved by 1.81%, 4.53% and
8.15% for 0.4%, 0.8% and 1.2% NS respectively as compared to RAC without NS. Similarly, according to Li et al
(2017a), the compressive strength of HBC (30%) for 1% and 2% NS is increased approximately by 15.78% and
23.68% compared to HBC without NS. The porosity of HBC is observed to be reduced from 12% to 9.06% and
8.82% with NS and nano lime respectively.
NS, nano-alumina, and nano-carbonate enhance the microstructure of the binder paste (Norhasri et al
2017). Since these nanoparticles are smaller and dispersed more evenly in the binder paste, they are excellent
fillers. A high surface reactivity of nanoparticles facilitates the secondary hydration of cement that leads to the
formation of C-S-H to fill the pores (Senff et al 2009, Li et al 2017a). Nanoparticles also reduce the porosity and
improve internal structure by producing C-S-H gel by reacting with CH crystals (Stefanidou and
Papayianni 2012). According to Zhang et al (2016), cement slurry containing NS is a cost-effective alternative to
nano slurries. Mixing the NS produces a compacted microstructure of HBC that improves compressive
strength, split tensile strength, and flexural strength (Mukharjee and Barai 2014, Li et al 2017a, Younis and
Mustafa 2018). However, more research is needed to determine the optimum dose of nanoparticles when using
different mixing approaches as discussed subsequently. A high concentration of nanoparticles produces an
agglomeration effect that results in voids and a less dense microstructure. Additionally, pozzolanic and
nanomaterials may be more effective in improving the properties of RCA if the adhered mortar is reduced to an
optimum extent.
The quality of mortar attached to RCA has also been improved by other treatments. A soluble polymer
material in water sodium silicate with 10% concentration and SF of 3%, 5% and 7% is used to treat RCA (Bui
et al 2018). In comparison to RAC composed of untreated RCA, the compressive strength is improved by 33%–
50%, the MOE is improved by 15.5%–42.5%, and the split tensile strength is improved by 33%–41%. The water
absorption of RCA is reduced by 17.39% after 3 days of immersion with 0.5 mol l−1 concentration of
diammonium hydrogen phosphate (DAP) (Wang et al 2019a, Zheng et al 2021). Increasing the days of
immersion with increasing concentrations of DAP solution does not influence the water absorption of RCA
significantly. Meanwhile, the compressive strength of RAC is enhanced by 4.46% and 9.06% for 0.5 Mol L−1 and
2 Mol l−1 concentrations of DAP. With increasing immersion days with concentration of hydrogen phosphate,
compressive strength increases because DAP can react with the calcium-rich hydration products to produce
hydroxyapatite (HAP) precipitate, which fills pores and seals cracks in the RCA, and significantly improve its
microstructure. Additionally, phosphate ions present in the treated coarse RCA can prevent corrosion of steel
embedded within the concrete.
Water-soluble polycarboxylate dispersants are also used for coating the RCA (Ryou and Lee 2014, Zheng et al
2021). It is reported that polycarboxylate with 1% of the RCA weight improves the compressive strength of RAC
by 49.19% and 21.56% respectively after 7 days and 28 days of curing compared to untreated RAC. In RAC, the
split tensile strength is improved by 31.57%, and the carbonation depth is reduced by 9.80% compared to
untreated RAC. A multicomponent binder material in both OPC and geopolymer mixture provides better
dense-packing effect (Rao and Rao 2015). Additionally, according to Öztürk (2022), RCA may also be
considered as a light-weight aggregate. Therefore, it can be used for geopolymer RAC and can be analyzed for
8
different packing densities. However, a low strength source is usually used to obtain light weight RCA. RCA
obtained from high strength sources, however, may not be lightweight. It is reasonable to consider geopolymer
concrete separately since the present review focuses on cement concrete.
Carbonation treatment is another method to improve the quality of RCA. In this treatment, the reaction
between CH and C-S-H available in the adhered mortar and CO2 forms solid calcium carbonate (Shi et al 2012,
Morandeau et al 2014). Calcium carbonate as a reaction product precipitates in the pore space and thus densify
the microstructure of RCA (Xuan et al 2016). According to Shi et al (2018), the water absorption of the RCA is
reduced by 26.41% and the apparent specific gravity is increased from 2.49 to 2.56 after the carbonation
treatment. In comparison to untreated RCA, 24 h CO2 treatment decreases water absorption by 19%-25% and
porosity by 18%-21% in the treated RCA (Zhan et al 2014). The mixture made with CO2 cured aggregate has
approximately 10%–15% lower drying shrinkage and 41%–46% higher resistance to chloride ion penetration
than the control sample (Kou et al 2014). According to Li et al (2017b), CO2 curing reduces the water absorption
and crushing value by 22.29% and 21.22% and increases the apparent specific gravity from 2.58 to 2.60. Thus,
the compressive strength of carbonated RAC is improved by 8.18%, 17.49% and 12.18% at 7, 28 and 91 days
respectively. MOE of carbonated RAC is increased by 12.19% at a strain rate of 0.0001/s.
According to Qidong et al (2022), graphene oxide enhances RAC strength and ITZ. The 28-day compressive
strength of RAC is improved from 7.8% to 20.6%, and the porosity of RAC samples decreases by 8.1% to 35.7%
when graphene oxide is added from 0.01 to 0.05 % by weight of cement. The addition of graphene oxide reduces
pore phase and unhydrated phase content in the matrix and increases the volume fraction of C–S–H phase,
especially high-density C–S–H phase. The width of the NITZ is reduced by 25%, but the OITZ remains
unchanged. As a result of the nucleation of graphene oxide and the filling effect of micro-aggregates, it
strengthens RAC strength and improves its pore structure and ITZ.
The performance of carbonation is highly dependent on the quality of the adhered mortar in terms of the
amount of available CH and C-S-H (Xuan et al 2016). A majority of RCA comes from CDW. The carbonation
treatment of RCA is not effective in improving its quality if it is obtained from an aged source. According to
Xuan et al (2016), the carbonation treatment increases the compressive strength of RAC made up of old RCA
(CDW) by 6.6%, while the compressive strength of the new RCA (batching plant) is 22.6%. In addition, MOE is
improved by 8.3% and 13.2%, and flexural strength by 0.9% and 28.7%, depending on the old RCA or the
new RCA.
2.3. Applications of mixing approaches

High-water absorption capacity of RCA compared to NA increases the water requirement for given workability,
lowers the hydration of cement, leads to several cracks, and pores remain unfilled in RAC, resulting in poor
mechanical properties of RAC (Troian et al 2011). Therefore, researchers have developed different mixing
approaches to mitigate the typical water absorption of RCA. The pre-mixed processing of RCA can fill cracks
and pores. These processes result in denser concrete, improved ITZ, and improved strength and durability than
the usual mixing approach (Tam et al 2005, 2006). The definitions of the mixing approaches proposed by
researchers to improve the quality of RAC are depicted in figure 6 (Tam et al 2005, Tam and Tam 2008, Kong
et al 2010).
According to Tam and co-workers, the normal mixing approach (NMA) generates more voids and cracks
between RCA and mortar than the two-stage mixing approach (TSMA) because the mortar at ITZ is not
sufficiently hydrated because of lack of water (Tam et al 2005, 2006). At curing ages of 7, 14, and 28 days, TSMA
improves the compressive strength of HBC with 30% hybridisation by 20.46%, 11% and 14%. For NAC, the
mixing approach has no effect on compressive strength. In a TSMA, coating the RCA with SF and SF-cement
creates a firmer interfacial layer around it, produces denser ITZ and more potent mortar than the standard, and
densifies the microstructure of HBC (Tam and Tam 2008). In comparison to blending with SF, the SF-cement
mixture performed better. As reported by Tam and Tam (2008), TSMA (coating of RCA with SF) increases the
compressive strength, flexural strength, and split tensile strength of HBC with 25% hybridisation at 28 days
curing age by 19.49%, 8.38%, and 12.84% respectively.
To pre-treat RCA during mixing, pozzolanic materials like FA, SF, and GGBS are used (Kong et al 2010). In
Kong et al (2010), the performance of the double mixing approach (DMA) and triple mixing approach (TMA) is
compared with that of the NMA. The compressive strength and RCPT of RAC with FA and GGBS produced
through NMA, DMA and TMA are evaluated in this study. In comparison with NMA, RAC with FA has 8.57%
and 28.57% higher compressive strength in DMA and TMA; and RAC with GGBS has 5% and 30% higher
compressive strength in DMA and TMA. Similarly, DMA and TMA reduce RCPT for RAC with FA by 5.88%
and 40%, respectively, and for RAC with GGBS by 7.14% and 42.85%. In other words, TMA has better
performance than both NMA and DMA. The concrete produced using these techniques has higher compressive
and flexural strengths, as well as being more workable. According to Li et al (2009), stone enveloped with
9
Figure 6. Different mixing approaches producing RAC.
pozzolanic powder (SEPP) improves the compressive strength of RAC by 45.39%, 33.94% and 30.14% for SF
(20%), FA (20%) and GGBS (20%) compared to stone enveloped with Portland cement (SEPC). Additionally,
SEPP improves flexural strength by 1.92%, 22.69%, and 27% for SF (20%), FA (20%) and GGBS (20%) and
increases slump. Li et al (2017a) have experimented with other mixing approaches using NS and nano lime.
Despite this, no significant differences are observed in the compressive strength of HBC at 7 and 28 days
regardless of the exact dosage of NS.
Furthermore, other mixing approaches are also available in the literature, such as encapsulating the RCA
with cement paste during mixing (Liu et al 2016). By using this method, the residual mortar and the
microstructure between old and freshly applied mortar are strengthened. The cement paste encapsulating
aggregate approach (CPEAA) and using a TSMA decrease the carbonation zone width and corrosion zone width
in RAC (Mi et al 2021). Compared to NMA, TSMA and CPEAA decrease the carbonation zone width in RAC by
19% and 28.6% at the existing and added mortar interfaces, according to Mi et al (2021). At the residual and
added mortar interfaces, the steel corrosion zone width is also reduced by 3% and 5.43%, respectively. However,
the compressive strength of RAC produced by TSMA and CPEAA is almost the same and is around 7.55% higher
than NMA. In optimized triple mixing approach (OTMA) which is induced by Zhang et al (2019), SCM is added
after mixing RCA and water (60%–80%) with a superplasticizer. The addition of SCM just after water (60%–
80%) is beneficial for its dispersion and the formation of thin layers around RCA. OTMA produces RAC
compressive strength that is 19% and 10.6% higher than DMA and TMA, respectively.
According to Kong et al (2010), finer admixtures produce a denser microstructure due to their ability to
produce more hydration products in ITZ. The GGBS is finer than FA and produces denser ITZ when mixed in
the RAC and produces compressive strength comparable to NAC. RCA and FA together achieve a RAC strength
of 96% of NAC. The impact of the mixing approach with or without mineral additives (FA, GGBS and SF) on the
mechanical and durability properties of RAC is reported by Faysal et al (2020). Compared to NMA, TSMA
produces 20.70% and 23.73% higher compressive strength, and 16.67% and 29.16% higher split tensile strength
with GGBS (20%) and SF (7%), respectively. Meanwhile, TSMA produces 12.5% higher split tensile strength of
RAC in comparison to NMA without mineral admixture. Compared to NMA, TSMA reduces water absorption
of RAC by 1.96%, 13.72%, and 7.84%, and RCPT by 8.75%, 18.88% and 59.08%, without mineral admixture,
with GGBS, and SF respectively.
The mechanical properties of RAC are significantly correlated with the order of RCA placement during
mixing. The order in which RCA is added to the mix is critical to achieving hydration and maintaining slump
retention. Additionally, it is critical to order the correct SCM application when coating RCA, since this will
strengthen the OITZ by sealing microcracks. The mechanical and durability performance of RAC is enhanced
when blended with SCM than when mixed without SCM.
10
2.4. Application of fibre

The addition of fibers to RAC enhances its performance effectively (Lei et al 2020). Reinforcement of
microcracks and retardation of their growth increases the cementitious matrix’s ductility (Aslani and
Kelin 2018, Nitesh et al 2019, Gao et al 2020, Chan et al 2020). According to Li et al (2018) and Ahmad et al 1991,
fibers with a low elastic modulus increase the concrete’s fracture toughness, while fibers with a high elastic
modulus enhance their strength and stiffness. According to various studies, hybrid fiber systems perform better
than individual fiber types (Afroughsabet and Ozbakkaloglu 2015, Teng et al 2018, Wang et al 2019b).
In addition, mineral admixtures and fibers in concrete reduce water absorption and improve workability
(Barbuta et al 2017). Due to the equalizing effect of mineral admixtures on fiber dispersion, high-performance
admixtures like SF and NS drastically enhance the strength of concrete (Wang et al 2017b). According to Xie et al
(2018), the synergistic use of SF and steel fibers in concrete can improve the bond strength, compressive
strength, and flexural strength of RAC. When steel fibers (1%) are mixed with SF (10%), RAC has 32.50% higher
strength than RAC without fibers. The compressive strength of RAC with fibers and SF is 4.84% superior to NAC
without fibers and SF. Steel fibers (1%) with SF (10%) increase the MOE of RAC by 5.37% in comparison to RAC
with fibers and without SF. MOE of RAC with fibers and SF (10%) is 0.84 times NAC and it is only 0.79 times
NAC without SF. The flexural strength of RAC with SF and fibers is 28.18% higher compared to NAC without
fibers and SF. Compared with NAC, the fracture toughness of RAC with steel-fibre and SF (10%) is increased by
60.3%. According to Ahmed et al (2020) the compressive strength and MOE of RAC are increased by 11.61%
and 5.96% in comparison to NAC without fibers. The flexural and split tensile strength of RAC is also reported
to be 0.96 and 0.90 fraction of NAC. Thus, the addition of fibers effectively achieves RAC performance similar to
NAC. Nevertheless, more research is needed to optimize the dosage, types, aspect ratio, and orientation of fibers
on the workability and strength of HBC (Liew and Akbar 2020).
The fibers in HBC control the expansion of shrinkage cracks, prevent microcrack propagation, and provide
resistance to spalling. As a result, it improves the mechanical and durability properties of HBC (Alfayez et al
2019, Meesala 2019, Yonggui et al 2020). Short-length fibers resist microcrack opening and improve pre-
cracking resistance, while long-length fibers bridge cracks and enhance post-crack strength (Kasagani and
Rao 2018). In an HBC with a high RCA ratio, fibre cannot bridge closed microcracks and decrease the
mechanical properties. A fiber content greater than 0.6 % in HBC adversely affects the MOE and compressive
strength (Ahmed et al 2020).
According to the reported studies, SF, and polypropylene fiber (PP) increase the replacement ratio of RCA
without sacrificing strength (Ahmed et al 2020). A basalt fiber (BF) with an increased proportion of NS reduces
slump due to the large surface area that needs more cement slurry to wrap. The dispersion of these fibers renders
the network structure less workable (Wang et al 2019c). The synergistic effect of fibers and SF improves the
density of the matrix and the bond strength of the fibers with the mortar matrix (Wu et al 2016). According to Ali
et al (2020), the synergistic effect of fibers and SF also increases the tensile capacity of RAC. According to their
study, the tensile strength of RAC is 29% superior to that of NAC. This is due to an increase in the bond strength
between the fibers and the concrete matrix. The coupling of fibers with SF enhances the flexural strength of RAC
by 46% compared with plain RAC. However, the water absorption capacity of RAC increases due to the
connectivity of pore volumes and sorption of water due to the bundling effect and inadequate dispersion of
fibers. Synergistic effects of SF and fiber significantly enhance the resistance to chloride ion penetration.
3. Strength, durability, bond behaviour and structural performance
3.1. Strength properties

According to Dhir and Paine (2004), the physical properties of RCA are strength determinants in HBC. Other
factors that influence the compressive strength of HBC are the properties of the original concrete, water-
reducing admixtures, and the water-cement ratio of the parent concrete and RAC. According to Mi et al (2020),
the strength of the source concrete has a significant impact on the compressive strength of the RAC. It has been
reported by various researchers that only a lowered target strength of RAC can be achieved by crushing higher
strength concrete to obtain RCA (Otsuki et al 2003, Nagataki et al 2004, Poon et al 2004b, Yang et al 2008). To
develop a correlation between source concrete strength and RAC strength few researchers have defined a
strength ratio (Mi et al 2020). According to these authors, the strength ratio is defined as the ratio of source
concrete compressive strength to RAC compressive strength. If the water cement ratio of RAC is higher than that
of source concrete, then RAC can produce a lower strength ratio. Additionally, when the water cement ratio
approaches the original concrete, RAC can be produced with a higher strength ratio. Durability properties are
also affected by the relative strength of the source concrete. According to the aforesaid authors, the carbonation
depth in the RAC is 11.3 mm with a strength ratio of 0.69 and 8.0 mm with a strength ratio of 1.13.
11
Figure 7. Comparison of compressive strength of NAC, untreated and treated RAC (Note: - C: Chemical treatment, M: Mechanical
treatment, T: Thermal treatment, AC: Acid Treatment with HCL, AS: Acid treatment with H2SO4, CM: Chemical and mechanical
treatment, NT: No treatment, TM: Thermal and mechanical treatment).
The compressive strength of HBC mainly depends on the hybridization percentage, RCA’s type, size, and
origin (Silva et al 2015a). Hybridization that exceeds 30% gradually reduces the compressive strength of HBC
(Dhir and Paine 2004, Etxeberria et al 2007b, Yang et al 2008, Akbarnezhad et al 2011). With increasing RCA
fraction in HBC, more internal defects occur as a result of the increased amount of old mortar attached (Wang
et al 2020a). Additionally, the various treatments described in the literature, such as mechanical treatment,
chemical treatment, chemical-mechanical treatment, thermal treatment, and thermal-mechanical treatment,
improve RCA’s quality. As a result, the mechanical properties of RAC/HBC are also improved. For example,
TRCA, TRCA with FA and TRCA with SF are higher in compressive strength than URAC by 12.06 %, 43.38%,
and 40.98%, according to Bhasya and Bharatkumar (2018). Furthermore, figure 7 summarises a comparative
study of the compressive strength of URAC, TRAC, and NAC reported by various scholars (Purushothaman et al
2014, Pandurangan et al 2016, Bhasya and Bharatkumar 2018, Dilbas et al 2019, Ahmed et al 2020, Dilbas and
Çakır 2021).
Increasing RCA replacement fraction increases HBC peak strain due to its lowered MOE (figure 8) (Xiao et al
2005). It has been determined by Xiao et al (2005) that HBC/RAC has a 20% higher peak strain than NAC.
Although RAC shows less plastic deformation than NAC, according to Xiao et al 2005, the theory of plasticity can
be applied to RAC for structural design. As per Xiao et al (2018), RAC has a lower MOE than NAC by 9.4%. Peak
strain for RAC varies between 0.0018 to 0.0023 and ultimate strains varied between 0.0028 to 0.0033. For NAC
the peak and ultimate strains are 0.0018 and 0.0030. Thus, an improved RCA elastic modulus is necessary to
control the peak stress, peak strain, MOE and brittleness of RAC. The stress-strain curve is depicted in figure 9
(Xiao et al 2005, Xiao et al 2018, Bhasya and Bharatkumar 2018). RCA replacement increases the interfaces
between aggregates and mortar, leading to the progressive development of microcracks. The strains increase
faster, and the stress-strain curvature of RAC is steeper than NAC which shows the reduced ductility of RAC in
comparison to NAC (figure 9). In a study conducted by Bhasya and Bharatkumar (2018), MOE of RAC is
reported 19% lower and peak strain is enhanced by 8% as compared to NAC. MOE becomes only 12.40% lower
and peak strain becomes comparable to NAC when RCA is thermomechanically treated. Additionally, the
synergistic application of treatments and SCM may improve the peak stress, peak strain, and MOE of RAC
(Bhasya and Bharatkumar 2018). RCA density is a determinant of MOE of RAC. Thus, a specific treatment is
necessary to improve the RCA specific gravity.
Nano slurry strengthens the mortar over RCA and reduces its crushing value by 9.61%, and water absorption
by 43.75% as reported by Zhang et al (2016). By improving the quality of the RCA, the compressive strength is
increased by 14.26 %, and the chloride ion penetration is lowered by 14.75 %. Compared with the untreated
RAC, the treated RAC has significantly improved workability and compressive strength, and has reduced NITZ
width (Li et al 2017). NS increases the formation of C-S-H gel by reacting with CH and NS. Figure 10 compares
12
Figure 8. Comparison of modulus of elasticity of NAC, untreated and treated RAC (Note: - C: Chemical treatment, M: Mechanical
treatment, T: Thermal treatment, AC: Acid Treatment with HCL, AS: Acid treatment with H2SO4, CM: Chemical and mechanical
treatment, NT: No treatment, TM: Thermal and mechanical treatment).
Figure 9. Stess-strain curve for NAC, URAC and TRAC.
water absorption by NAC and treated and untreated RAC/HBC reported by Purushothaman et al (2014),
Bhasya and Bharatkumar (2018), Dilbas et al (2019), Ahmad et al (2020); and Dilbas and Çakır 2021. Based on
SEM analysis, HBC with NS has a denser microstructure with fewer micro cracks (Mukharjee and Barai 2014).
Additionally, NS treatment reduces the water absorption of HBC by 4.52% and 3.62%, respectively. According
to Mukharjee and Barai (2014), NS also reduces voids in aggregates and cement mortars.
3.2. Tensile strength capacity

Improved mechanical properties of RCA enhance the tensile capacity of the RAC (Kazmi et al 2019, Verma et al
2021, Kim 2022). Mechanical treatment removes mortar from the RCA and improves its shape. It is easier to
remove mortar from the RCA after acid-soaking (acetic acid), and it may be reduced to much lowered extent
when followed by mechanical treatment. This process effectively improves the RCA quality. Accordingly,
Ahmad et al (2020) has achieved a 40% replacement level while Verma et al (2021) has obtained a 50 %
replacement level of RCA in HBC without loss of tensile capacity and like NAC. The tensile strength of HBC
decreases with increasing the hybridization ratio (Choi et al 2010). Poor ITZ and available microcracks on the
RCA surface reduce the tensile strength of RAC (Ignjatovic et al 2013). Thus, increasing the hybridization ratio
increases the amount of poor ITZ and micro-cracks in HBC which reduces its tensile strength capacity. By
improving the material properties of the RCA, the tensile strength of RAC or HBC is enhanced. According to
Bhasya and Bharatkumar (2018), TRAC, TRAC with FA, and TRAC with SF have tensile strength 8.30%,
13
Figure 10. Comparison of water absorption of NAC, untreated and treated RAC (Note: - M: Mechanical treatment, AC: Acid
Treatment with HCL, AS: Acid treatment with H2SO4, CM: Chemical and mechanical treatment, TM: Thermal and mechanical
treatment).
31.62%, and 33.99% higher than URAC. The improvements in the tensile strength of HBC/RAC as reported in
the literature considering the various treatment methods are summarized in table 2.
Tensile strength is a measure of the fracture toughness of concrete. The split tensile strength or fracture
toughness is significantly affected by the surface characteristics (mainly texture) and abrasion values (hardness)
of the coarse aggregate (Özturan and Çeçen 1997, Siregar et al 2019). Additionally, for high-strength concrete, an
aggregate’s crushing value (crushing strength) also becomes the determining parameter of tensile strength
(Butler et al 2011). Flexure and split (indirect tension) are also determined by OITZ strength (Kumar and
Dhinakaran 2012). The shape (angularity number) and texture of the aggregate influence both the flexural
strength and split strength of concrete (Kim 2022). Improving the elastic properties and rough surface textures
of the RCA results strengthen NITZ, and improves the flexural strength of HBC/RAC.
Additionally, the mixing approach combined with SCM improves the surface properties of RCA. As a result
of coating the RCA with SCM, microcracks are reduced and pores are filled, thus strengthening the NITZ (Tam
et al 2005, 2006). SCM also strengthens OITZ by facilitating hydration in it. In ITZ, finer admixtures produce
more hydration products, resulting in a denser microstructure (Kong et al 2010). In the NMA, there are more
voids and cracks between RCA and mortar than in the TSMA due to the lack of water in the mortar at ITZ (Tam
et al 2005, 2006). The coating of RCA with SF (TSMA) increases the flexural strength and split tensile strength of
HBC by 8.38% and 12.84%, respectively (Tam and Tam 2008). SEPP improves flexural strength by 1.92%,
22.69%, and 27%, respectively, for SF (20%), FA (20%) and GGBS (20%) (Li et al 2009). Compared to NMA,
TSMA produces 16.67% and 29.16% higher split tensile strength with GGBS (20%) and SF (7%), respectively
(Faysal et al 2020). Meanwhile, TSMA produces 12.5% higher split tensile strength of RAC in comparison to
NMA without mineral admixture.
The synergistic effect of fibers and SF also increases the tensile capacity of RAC (Xie et al 2018, Ali et al 2020).
The flexural strength of RAC with SF and fibers is 28.18% higher compared to NAC without fibers and SF.
Compared with NAC, the fracture toughness of RAC with steel-fibre and SF (10%) is increased by 60.3%. The
flexural and split tensile strength of RAC are also reported to be 0.96 and 0.90 fraction of NAC by Ahmed et al
(2020). In some studies, the tensile strength of RAC is 29% higher than that of NAC due to an increase in bond
strength between the fibers and the concrete matrix (Ali et al 2020). The coupling of fibers with SF enhances the
flexural strength of RAC by 46% compared with plain RAC. Added steel fiber to HBC increases the flexural
capacity and ductility (Reza et al 2018).
To increase the tensile strength of HBC/RCA, it is crucial to improve the quality of the RCA to avoid the
complicated production process for industrial concrete. The material properties such as surface characteristics,
abrasion values, and crushing values of RCA that determine the tensile strength of HBC/RAC. Flexure strength
14
Eng. Res. Express 5 (2023) 012007
Table 2. Variations in tensile strength of HBC/RAC as reported in the literature.
Literature HBC/RAC SCM/Fibers Split tensile strength (MPa) Flexural strength (MPa) Treatments/mixing methods
Bhasya and Bharatkumar (2018) 50 % URCA 2.59

100 % URCA 2.53 Thermomechanical
2.83
50 % TRCA 10% FA 2.68
5% SF 2.71
2.74
100 % TRCA 10% FA 3.33
5% SF 3.39
Dilbas et al 2019 20% URCA 2.89 5.68 Mechanical
40% URCA 2.14 4.53
60% URCA 1.9 4.17
20% TRCA 2.64 5.33
15
40% TRCA 2.45 4.44

60% TRCA 2.59 5.03
Dilbas and Cakir (2021) 60 % URCA 2.01 Mechanical
10% SF 2.52
60 % TRCA 2.17
10% SF 3.44
Cakir and Dilbas (2021) 100 % URCA 2
10% SF 2.5
0.5% BF 2.3
10% SF + 0.5%BF 1.9
100% TRCA 2.3 Mechanical
10% SF 3.4
0.5% BF 2.6
10% SF + 0.5%BF 2.6
Ahmad et al (2020) 40 % URCA 2.4
40 % TRCA 3.2 Mechanical
3.3 Mechanical + Chemical
Ahmed et al (2020) 50% URCA 2.67 4.37 Fiber reinforcement

0.6% PP 2.91 4.81
100% URCA 1.98 3.9
0.6% PP 2.44 4.34

Faysal et al (2020) 40 % URCA 2.4 NMA
Eng. Res. Express 5 (2023) 012007
Table 2. (Continued.)
Literature HBC/RAC SCM/Fibers Split tensile strength (MPa) Flexural strength (MPa) Treatments/mixing methods
2.7 TSMA
20% FA 2.4 NMA
2.6 TSMA
20% GGBS 2.6 NMA
2.8 TSMA
7% SF 2.7 NMA
3.1 TSMA
Li et al (2009) 100 % URCA 20% SF 5.84 SEPP
20% FA 5.73
20% GGBS 7.23
20% SF 5.73 SEPC
20% FA 4.67
20% GGBS 5.69
16
Younis and Mustafa (2018) 100 % URCA 3.31 Coating with nano silica
0.4% NS 3.37
0.8% NS 3.46
1.2% NS 3.58
Yonggui et al (2020) 100% URCA 1.69 Synergistic effect of fiber
BF (3 kg m−3) 1.72
and nano silica
6% NS 1.76
6% NS + BF(3 kg m−3) 1.82
Wang et al (2019b) 100% URCA 1.69 1.83 Synergistic effect of fiber
BF(2 kg m−3) 1.7 1.97

and nano silica
6% NS 1.76 1.71
6% NS + BF(3 kg m−3) 1.82 1.66
Tam and Tam (2008) 30% URCA 3.59 6.14 NMA
3.66 6.2 TSMA with SF

3.79 6.3 TSMA with SF and cement
and split tensile strength are also determined by OITZ strength. The shape and texture of the aggregate influence
both the flexural strength and split strength of the concrete (Kim 2022). Improved elastic properties and rough
surface textures of the RCA result in a higher strength NITZ that increases the flexural strength of HBC/RAC. A
process that may improve RCA’s physical properties, mechanical properties, and surface texture to resemble
with NA is therefore necessary.
3.3. Durability properties

Mineral admixtures such as FA, SF, metakaolin (MK), and GGBS are well-known fillers and increase the ion
penetration resistance of RAC/HBC (Moon et al 2002, Nagataki et al 2004, Andreu et al 2014, Matias et al 2014).
Additionally, water-reducing admixtures have a similar effect. In contrast, adhered mortar and weak ITZ
produce a higher carbonation depth in RAC than in NAC by about 1.3 to 2.5 times. The low water-cement ratio
of RAC/HBC with chemical admixture, on the other hand, may lower the carbonation depth (Tamura et al
2001, Rao et al 2007, Gomes and De Brito 2009, Matias et al 2014, Silva et al 2015b). According to Shayan and Xu
(2003), coating the RCA with SF effectively reduces corrosion risk. Additionally, the process produces
satisfactory results against sulphate attack and the alkali-silica reaction (ASR). In an acid-treated RAC, the effect
of FA on ASR has been investigated by Li and Gress (2006) and Shehata et al (2009). An addition of 25% FA
reduces the ASR by consuming CH during the pozzolanic reaction. CH is a critical component of the formation
of ASR gel. According to Adams and Ideker (2020), Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) with FA and MK reduces
the expansion caused by ASR by forming C-A-S-H in the presence of alumina in metakaolin.
According to Tittarelli and Moriconi (2002), corrosion resistance depends on the mechanical strength of the
concrete regardless of the cementitious matrix. In their study, Al-Yaqout et al (2020) indicates that a higher
replacement ratio of RCA reduced the durability properties of HBC. However, adding 25% GGBS improves
corrosion resistance. According to De Juan and Gutiérrez (2009), thermally treated RAC exhibits sulphate
resistance. There is evidence that RCA with a higher adhered mortar content has a higher sulphur content, but
treated RCA meets the limiting value (De Juan and Gutiérrez 2009). According to Hwang et al (2013), RAC with
30% pulverized fuel ash and 60% GGBS has moderate chloride ion penetration compared to RAC without
mineral admixtures. Similarly, RAC incorporating fuel ash and GGBS is more resistant to sulphate attack. By
combining acid and abrasion techniques, Ahmad et al (2020) has demonstrated that chloride ion penetration is
reduced from moderate to low. Without any treatment of RCA, strength loss due to sulphate attack is estimated
to be 20%. However, strength loss is only 2% when RCA is produced by acid-mechanical treatment.
The corrosion resistance of HBC is higher than that of NAC, according to Surya et al (2015). It has been
found that when concrete mixes contain 20 % FA, chloride penetration is decreased by 9.78%. The durability of
HBC with FA is significantly better than that of NAC. FA or GGBS with low water-cement ratio reduce the
adverse effects of RCA on sorptivity, abrasion resistance, and electrical resistance (Sadati and Khayat 2018).
According to Bhasya and Bharatkumar (2018), thermomechanically treated RCA with mineral admixtures
decreases water absorption, porosity, and permeable pore space in RAC. The water absorption for URAC,
TRAC, TRAC with FA, and TRCA with SF is 6.49%, 5.42%, 4.92% and 4.86 %, respectively. The porosity of
TRAC, TRAC with FA, and TRCA with SF is reduced by 8.62%, 20.47%, 21.98% compared to URAC.
Mineral admixtures reduce the chloride ion permeability of HBC by improving binding capacity and
refining pores. Additionally, HBC has an abrasion resistance equivalent to that of NAC of a higher grade than it
(Limbachiya et al 2000). In their research, Mi et al (2021) indicates that the microcracks at the residual mortar
sampling location create more pathways for the diffusion of carbon dioxide, weakening the resistance to
carbonation. Thus, the process for improving the physical and mechanical properties along with the surface
characteristics of RCA comparable to NA will probably remove mortar content from RCA as efficiently as
possible. It may also change the chemical composition of the mortar attached to the RCA. In both cases the
amount of microcracks and pores in the adhered mortar may be reduced which may improve the durability
properties even more.
3.4. Bond behaviour and structural performance

According to Xiao and Falkner (2007), and Butler et al (2011, 2014), bond strength decreases with increasing
RCA crushing value. An HBC beam with a high hybridization ratio shows horizontal cracks aligned with
longitudinal reinforcement, indicating its lower bond strength than conventional concrete. For reinforcement
bars of lowered diameter, the bond-slip relationship, anchorage length, and bond resistance mechanism of HBC
are reported to be the same as NAC of the same strength (Prince and Singh 2014). In a pull-out test conducted by
Surya et al (2019), hybridization weaken slip resistance in HBCs because of crushing the old mortar. The
brittleness index (defined as the ratio of compressive strength to split tensile strength) has been suggested by Xiao
and Falkner (2007) and Surya et al (2019) as an indicator of the bond strength of concrete. The brittleness index
of RAC is obtained as 15.30 and 14.93 for hybridization ratios of 0.5 and 0.75 while it is 13.43 for NAC by Surya
17
Figure 11. Normalised bod strength (Pandurangan et al 2016).
et al (2019). The split tensile strength of RAC is also reduced by 10.85% and 8.33% for hybridization ratios of 0.5
and 0.75 compared to NAC. Thus, the bond strength of RAC is reduced compared to NAC because of its higher
brittleness index and lower split tensile strength.
In contrast to the standard concrete beam, HBC beams with a hybridization ratio of 0.5 show irregular crack
patterns and split before yielding the reinforcement during full-scale bending tests (Sadati et al 2017). The
treatment of RCA significantly influences the bond strength in RAC compared to untreated RCA as shown in
figure 11 (Pandurangan et al 2016, Alhawat and Ashour 2020). According to Pandurangan et al (2016), the bond
strength of RAC is reduced by 40.47%, 24.23%, 13.33% and 7.27% compared to NAC when untreated,
thermally treated, mechanically treated, and acid-treated RCA are utilized.
Stiffness of HBC beam decreases with increasing hybridisation ratio (Knaack and Kurama 2015). Moreover,
the quality of reinforcing bars, aggregate, concrete cover, and bonding length affects the bond strength of HBC
like NAC (Alonso et al 1996, Mangat and Elgarf 1999, Vidal et al 2004, Knaack and Kurama 2020). HBC has
similar crack patterns and failure modes to NAC according to Maruyama et al (2004). The shear strength and
flexural strength also decrease with the hybridisation ratio in HBC beams (Choi et al 2010). The increasing
hybridisation ratio results in extensive concrete crushing in the compression zone and flexural cracks in the
tension zone of the HBC. According to Choi et al (2010), the span-to-depth ratio (a/d) significantly affects the
ultimate shear strength of beams. Compared to HBC beam of a/d ratio of 3.5, the ultimate shear strength of
HBC beam is observed to be 200% higher for HBC beam of a/d equals to 1.5 for same longitudinal
reinforcement ratio and RCA replacement ratio. Additionally, the cracking strength (first crack) of HBC is
lowered by 20% compared to NAC, because of the small tensile strength of RAC. The shear strength of RAC
decreases by 27% and 34% for longitudinal reinforcement ratios of 1.61% and 0.53%.
According to Ignjatovic et al (2013), the ultimate load, yield load and cracking load of RAC are decreased by
5.46%, 4.10% and 20% respectively compared to NAC for a tensile reinforcement ratio of 0.28%. The deflection
of a beam at ultimate load is also increased by 22.81% for RAC compared to NAC because of the MOE of RAC.
According to Arezoumandi et al (2015), the HBC beam retains its linear elastic behaviour only up to the first
flexural crack due to its low MOE. When the tensile reinforcement ratio is increased from 0.28% to 1.46%, the
ultimate load, yield load and cracking load of RAC become 3.93-, 4.32- and 2-times of the RAC with tensile
reinforcement ratio of 0.28%. The deflection at ultimate load also decreases around 58% (92.6 mm to 38.9 mm).
According to Seara-Paz et al (2018), because of the lowered splitting tensile strength of HBC the cracking
moment of HBC beams reduces by 10.88%, 45.55% and 46.31% for hybridization ratios of 0.2, 0.5 and 1,
respectively. The yield moment and ultimate moment are reduced by 3.43% and 5% for hybridization ratio 1.
The crack width of HBC with hybridization ratios 0.2, 0.5 and 1 is reported as 0.25 mm, 0.25 mm, and 0.27 mm,
and for NAC it is 0.22 mm. Thus, a higher hybridisation ratio decreases the split-tensile strength of HBC and
thus the cracking moment (Seara-Paz et al 2018). According to Choi and Yun (2013), maximum deflection in the
HBC beam satisfies the ACI (2011) code provision for maximum permissible deflection of NAC. However, the
HBC beam shows more cracks and longer cracks at failure than the NAC beam. The HBC beam fails abruptly
after reinforcement yields because of its high brittleness. Figure 8 shows the comparative analysis of the MOE of
NAC and treated and untreated RAC/HBC.
The high reinforcement ratio increases the shear capacity of an HBC beam (Arezoumandi et al 2014, 2015,
Ignjatović et al 2017). The shear strength of RAC beam is increased by 29% and 56% when the shear
18
reinforcement is increased from 0.14% to 0.19% (Ignjatović et al 2017). According to Trindade et al (2020), the
shear strength of HBC (50%) composed of RCA obtained from 35–40 MPa source concrete is augmented by
46.15% compared to HBC composed of RCA obtained from 15–20 MPa. Similarly for RAC composed of RCA
obtained from 35–40 MPa the shear strength is increased by 47.35% compared to RAC composed of RCA
obtained from 15–20 MPa. Thus, the shear strength of HBC increases closer to NAC as the strength ratio is
increased. The shear resistance capacity for HBC beams constructed with high strength RCA is similar to that of
NAC. RCA with a high strength produces a better aggregate interlocking mechanism and more shear resistance.
Even 50% hybridization affects the aggregate behaviour and shear resistance capacity of HBC beams (Zhang
et al 2020). In Zhang et al (2020), the first crack shear stress is observed to be 1.71 MPa, 1.90 MPa, and 2.37 MPa,
correspondingly, for RAC, HBC (50%), and NAC, because of split tensile strength of RAC, HBC, and NAC is as
2.9, 3, and 3.2 MPa respectively. Additionally, the peak strains of RAC and HBC (50%) are reported to be 1.96
and 1.88 respectively, which are also higher than NAC (1.55). The MOE of RAC is 27.1 MPa where NAC has
31.2 MPa. The shear carrying capacity of HBC (50%) for 0 %, 0.46% and 0.81% transverse reinforcement ratio is
observed as 2.01, 5.31 and 7.14 MPa. Thus, after increasing the transverse reinforcement ratio by 76% the shear
stress of HBC is increased by 34.46%.
According to Kim et al (2020), the compressive strength rather than the level of hybridization plays a
significant role in determining the shear strength of HBC. Although crack propagation in RAC and NAC
without shear reinforcement is the same, crack spacing is observed to be closer in RAC by Pradhan et al (2018).
Comparing RAC with a NAC beam without shear reinforcement, 17%–22% less cracking load and
approximately 14% less ultimate load are observed in the studies conducted by Choi et al (2010), Etxeberria et al
(2007a), and Kim et al 2013. According to Butler et al (2014) and Kang et al (2014), RAC with higher tensile and
compressive strains, and lower bond strength, develops cracks faster. Additionally, in direct compression, the
ultimate axial load carrying capacity of HBC columns is inferior to that of NAC columns (Choi and Yun 2012),
and this is predicted conservatively by ACI 2008. According to Xu et al (2018), HBC columns with a high
hybridization ratio and a high strength ratio have a lower load-carrying capacity. The volumetric ratio of the
transverse reinforcement increases the load-carrying capacity and ductility of HBC columns significantly rather
than concrete grade.
The cracking moment of RCC beams mostly depends upon the tensile strength of concrete. As a result, RAC
has a lower cracking moment than NAC due to its lower tensile strength. Poor ITZ and available microcracks on
the RCA surface reduce the tensile strength of RAC (Ignjatovic et al 2013). In addition, various studies have also
shown that microcracks on the RCA surface increase RAC brittleness and reduce its energy consumption during
failure (Shi et al 2016, Seara-Paz et al 2018). The bond strength decreases as the brittleness index of RAC/HBC
increases. Additionally, it is suggested by Reza et al (2018) that adding steel fiber to HBC increases flexural
capacity and ductility, aligns crack distribution, and reduces crack width. Confinement in RAC beams with
stirrups are more effective than NAC beams (Sunayana and Barai 2020). In addition, confinement with stirrups
also changes the failure mode to ductile, resulting in flexural cracks and some flexure-shear cracks. However,
these studies do not discuss the effect of crushing strength on RCA on the structural performance of RAC. The
mechanical properties of aggregate are pertinent to discuss when discussing these types of mechanical properties
of concrete. It is possible that these effects are caused by the conglomeration of the two types of concrete used in
HBCs. Furthermore, the low crushing value of RCA compared to NA may also contribute to the crushing of
concrete in compression zones (Neville 1995).
4. Summary and scope for future research
The current state-of-the-art review suggests future research on improving RCA’s physical properties and
mechanical properties to increase RAC’s performance similar to that of NAC. It is possible to produce RCA by
improving its physical and mechanical properties in accordance with the requirements specified by the code for
NA. Specific gravity, water absorption, crushing and impact values, abrasion values, flakiness, and elongation are
some of the physical and mechanical properties that may be considered for the treatment criteria. Following are
the summary of the present study along with the scope for future research.
• The mortar attached to RCA determines critical physical and mechanical properties such as water absorption,
specific gravity, crushing and impact values, and characteristics of ITZ. Mineral admixtures slurry and
nanomaterials are sprayed with or without cement to enhance RCA quality. These treatments only improve
the physical properties of RCA through pozzolanic reactivity and filler effect. Researchers have also used
mineral admixtures and mixing approaches to enhance the strength, durability, and structural performance
of HBC. However, to improve the structural performance of RAC/HBC, the mechanical properties of RCA
19
need to be improved. Additionally, these treatments make the concrete production process tedious and
expensive and is demoralizing the construction industry.
• Pre-treatment can improve the characteristics of RCA. By using SCM, the cement matrix (new and old) is
strengthened. Fiber generally increases the tensile strength of concrete. Using a mixing approach, the effective
water-cement ratio can be controlled. There are relatively few discussions of improving RCA’s physical and
mechanical properties in the literature. If the physical and mechanical properties of RCA are improved by any
process closer to NA, it may not be required additional treatment to improve its material properties even
more. The process may also be a direct way of producing RCA for industrial use.
• Researchers have attempted to remove mortar by machine grinding (Los Angeles) using some random charges
and drum rotations. If the number of charges and drum revolutions is reduced, RCA may not meet an
expected quality parameter like NA. Moreover, the high rotation (number of rotations) of the drum can cause
damage to the RCA after the mortar is removed. For some drum revolutions, the literature does not consider
the impact of charges on the physical and mechanical properties of RCA when treating with Los Angeles
abrasion. Different charges may affect the physical and mechanical properties of RCA differently.
• Mechanical treatment can be used to obtain the physical and mechanical properties of RCA for certain charges
and drum revolutions. It is possible to compare the physical and mechanical properties of treated RCA based
on varying charges and drum revolutions. The selection of RCAs with superior physical and mechanical
properties among the RCAs treated at different combinations of charge and drum revolutions is not
straightforward. Meanwhile, the performance of treated RCA can be evaluated by assigning a particular weight
to any physical or mechanical property. Through statistical techniques, the optimal set of charges and drum
revolutions can be determined, resulting in the most optimal physical and mechanical properties for the
treated RCA. For the preparation of concrete mixes, treated RCA with the most suitable material properties
can be used.
• Pre-soaking the RCA in an acid solution (strong or mild) removes the hydration product present in the
mortar. Strong acids negatively impact the physical, mechanical, and durability properties of RAC and
severely impact the environment. A weak acid is preferred for acid treatment of RCA to improve its physical
properties. To enhance RCA’s physical and mechanical properties even more, weak acids and mechanical
grinding are used. As a result, weak acid treatment accompanied by mechanical treatment with different
charges and drum revolutions may also result in RCA with different physical and mechanical properties. In
accordance with the process proposed for mechanical treatment, acid-mechanical treatment can also produce
RCA with optimal physical and mechanical properties. Acid treatment followed by mechanical treatment may
be expected to produce better results. An acid treatment reduces CH content, microcracks, and pores in
adhered mortar, while a mechanical treatment removes mortar adhered to the surface, thereby reducing the
amount of said microcracks and pores.
• Due to the difference in thermal expansion coefficients between NA and cement mortar, thermal treatment
also removes mortar from RCA. Thermal treatment at high temperatures, however, degrades the physical and
mechanical properties of the parent aggregate in RCA. There is no literature on optimizing thermal treatment
duration. In order to achieve optimal material properties of RCA, the duration of the thermal treatment can
be adjusted. A thermal treatment can be applied following the mechanical treatment as proposed in this study
to produce RCA with optimal material properties. At a minimum temperature, mechanical treatment can
produce RCA with superior properties. To manufacture RCA, heating (up to 350 °C) following mechanical
grinding may be energy efficient. It is possible to evaluate the mechanical properties, durability properties, and
structural performance of RAC using these RCA compared to NAC.
• Mineral admixture mixed with a mixing procedure improves RAC/HBC performance. The synergistic effects
of fibers and SCM densify the mortar matrix, increase the bond strength between the fibers and the mortar
matrix in RAC like NAC, and produce an additional gain in strength and tensile strength. As a result, RAC or
HBC is not widely accepted due to implicit predictions of strength and durability. Using statistical analysis to
predict design relationships can also eliminate costly modifications to HBC. After reviewing previous studies,
it is concluded that if RCA’s physical and mechanical properties can be improved to meet the code
requirements for NA, then RAC’s mechanical and durability properties and structural performance similar to
NAC’s can be achieved.
Data availability statement
No new data were created or analysed in this study.
20
Funding
The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this
manuscript.
Competing interests
The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
Data access statement
Data derived from public domain resources.
Appendix A
Nomenclatures
AC Acid Treatment with HCL
AS Acid treatment with H2SO4

ASR Alkali silica reaction
BF Basalf fibre
C Chemical treatment,
CDW Construction and demolition waste
CH Calcium hydroxide
CM Chemical and mechanical treatment
CPEAA Cement paste encapsulating aggregate approach
DMA Double mixing approach
FA Fly ash
GGBS Ground granular blast slag
HBC Hybrid concrete
ITZ Interfacial transition zone
M Mechanical treatment
MK Metakaolin
MOE Modulus of elasticity
NA Natural aggregate
NAC Natural aggregate concrete
NT No treatment
OITZ Old interfacial transition zone
OPC Ordinary Portland cement
OTMA Optimized triple mixing approach
PP Poly-propylene fiber
RAC Recycled aggregate concrete
TRAC Treated recycled aggregate concrete
URAC Untreated recycled aggregate concrete
RCA Recycled concrete aggregate
URCA Untreated recycled concrete aggregate
TRCA Treated recycled concrete aggregate
21
RCPT Rapid chloride-ion penetration test

SCM Supplementary cementitious materials
SEPC Stone enveloped with Portland cement
SEPP Stone enveloped with pozzolanic powder
SF Silica fume
SSD Surface saturated dry
T Thermal treatment
TM Thermal and mechanical treatment
TMATwo stage mixing approach
TSMA Triple mixing approach
WCM Water compensation method
ORCID iDs
Gyani Jail Singh https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3770-2922
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Improving the physical and mechanical properties of recycled

© 2023 IOP Publishing Ltd

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Improving the quality of RCA

Figure 4. Methodology incorporated in the present study.

AS 0.81 2.57 1453 27 33 28

A Kumar and G J Singh

Figure 5. ITZ in RCA (Mi et al 2021).

2.1.2. Thermal treatments and thermal-mechanical treatments

2.1.3. Chemical treatment and chemical-mechanical treatments

2.2. Improving the quality of attached mortar

2.3. Applications of mixing approaches

Figure 6. Different mixing approaches producing RAC.

2.4. Application of ﬁbre

3. Strength, durability, bond behaviour and structural performance

3.1. Strength properties

Figure 9. Stess-strain curve for NAC, URAC and TRAC.

3.2. Tensile strength capacity

Bhasya and Bharatkumar (2018) 50 % URCA 2.59

40% TRCA 2.45 4.44

A Kumar and G J Singh

0.6% PP 2.44 4.34

BF(2 kg m−3) 1.7 1.97

A Kumar and G J Singh

3.3. Durability properties

3.4. Bond behaviour and structural performance

Figure 11. Normalised bod strength (Pandurangan et al 2016).

4. Summary and scope for future research

Data availability statement

No new data were created or analysed in this study.

The authors have no relevant ﬁnancial or non-ﬁnancial interests to disclose.

Data access statement

Data derived from public domain resources.

AC Acid Treatment with HCL

AS Acid treatment with H2SO4

RCPT Rapid chloride-ion penetration test

Gyani Jail Singh https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3770-2922

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