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Second Edition
Essential
STATISTICS
exploring the world through data
Gould | Ryan | Wong

Contents
Preface xi
Index of Applications xx
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Data 2

CASE STUDY  Deadly Cell Phones? 3
1.1 What Are Data? 4
1.2 Classifying and Storing Data 6
1.3 Organizing Categorical Data 10
1.4 Collecting Data to Understand Causality 15
EXPLORING STATISTICS  Collecting a Table of Different Kinds of Data 25
CHAPTER 2 Picturing Variation with Graphs 36

CASE STUDY  Student-to-Teacher Ratio at Colleges 37
2.1 Visualizing Variation in Numerical Data 38
2.2 Summarizing Important Features of a Numerical Distribution 43
2.3 Visualizing Variation in Categorical Variables 51
2.4 Summarizing Categorical Distributions 54
2.5 Interpreting Graphs 57
EXPLORING STATISTICS  Personal Distance 61
CHAPTER 3 Numerical Summaries of Center and Variation 82

CASE STUDY  Living in a Risky World 83
3.1 Summaries for Symmetric Distributions 84
3.2 What’s Unusual? The Empirical Rule and z-Scores 94
3.3 Summaries for Skewed Distributions 99
3.4 Comparing Measures of Center 106
3.5 Using Boxplots for Displaying Summaries 111
EXPLORING STATISTICS  Does Reaction Distance Depend on Gender? 118
CHAPTER 4 Regression Analysis: Exploring Associations

between Variables 142
CASE STUDY  Catching Meter Thieves 143
4.1 Visualizing Variability with a Scatterplot 144
4.2 Measuring Strength of Association with Correlation 148
4.3 Modeling Linear Trends 156
4.4 Evaluating the Linear Model 169
EXPLORING STATISTICS  Guessing the Age of Famous People 177
vii
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viii CONTENTS
CHAPTER 5 Modeling Variation with Probability 204

CASE STUDY  SIDS or Murder? 205
5.1 What Is Randomness? 206
5.2 Finding Theoretical Probabilities 209
5.3 Associations in Categorical Variables 218
5.4 Finding Empirical Probabilities 228
EXPLORING STATISTICS  Let’s Make a Deal: Stay or Switch? 233
CHAPTER 6 Modeling Random Events: The Normal and

Binomial Models 248
CASE STUDY  You Sometimes Get More Than You Pay For 249
6.1 Probability Distributions Are Models of Random Experiments 250
6.2 The Normal Model 255
6.3 The Binomial Model (optional) 268
EXPLORING STATISTICS  ESP with Coin Flipping 283
CHAPTER 7 Survey Sampling and Inference 300

CASE STUDY  Spring Break Fever: Just What the Doctors Ordered? 301
7.1 Learning about the World through Surveys 302
7.2 Measuring the Quality of a Survey 308
7.3 The Central Limit Theorem for Sample Proportions 316
7.4 Estimating the Population Proportion with Confidence Intervals 323
7.5 Comparing Two Population Proportions with Confidence 330
EXPLORING STATISTICS  Simple Random Sampling Prevents Bias 337
CHAPTER 8 Hypothesis Testing for Population Proportions 354

CASE STUDY  Dodging the Question 355
8.1 The Essential Ingredients of Hypothesis Testing 356
8.2 Hypothesis Testing in Four Steps 363
8.3 Hypothesis Tests in Detail 372
8.4 Comparing Proportions from Two Populations 379
EXPLORING STATISTICS  Identifying Flavors of Gum through Smell 387
CHAPTER 9 Inferring Population Means 404

CASE STUDY  Epilepsy Drugs and Children 405
9.1 Sample Means of Random Samples 406
9.2 The Central Limit Theorem for Sample Means 410
9.3 Answering Questions about the Mean of a Population 417
9.4 Hypothesis Testing for Means 427
9.5 Comparing Two Population Means 433
9.6 Overview of Analyzing Means 448
EXPLORING STATISTICS  Pulse Rates 452

CONTENTS ix
CHAPTER 10 Analyzing Categorical Variables and Interpreting

Research 476
CASE STUDY  Popping Better Popcorn 477
10.1 The Basic Ingredients for Testing with Categorical Variables 478
10.2 Chi-Square Tests for Associations between Categorical Variables 485
10.3 Reading Research Papers 494
EXPLORING STATISTICS  Skittles 503
Appendix A Tables A–1
Appendix B Check Your Tech Answers A–9
Appendix C Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises A–11
Appendix D Credits A–33
Index I–1

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Preface
About This Text
The primary focus of this text is still, as in the first edition, data. We live in a data-
driven economy and, more and more, in a data-centered culture. We don’t choose
whether we interact with data; the choice is made for us by websites that track our
browsing patterns, membership cards that track our spending habits, cars that transmit
our driving patterns, and smart phones that record our most personal moments.
The silver lining of what some have called the Data Deluge is that we all have access
to rich and valuable data relevant in many important fields: environment, civics, social sci-
ences, economics, health care, entertainment. This text teaches students to learn from such
data and, we hope, to become cognizant of the role of the data that appear all around them.
We want students to develop a data habit of mind in which, when faced with decisions,
claims, or just plain curiosity, they know to reach for an appropriate data set to answer
their questions. More important, we want them to have the skills to access these data and
the understanding to analyze the data critically. Clearly, we’ve come a long way from the
“mean median mode” days of rote calculation. To survive in the modern economy requires
much more than knowing how to plug numbers into a formula. Today’s students must
know which questions can be answered by applying which statistic, and how to get tech-
nology to compute these statistics from within complex data sets.
What’s New in the Second Edition

The second edition remains true to the goals of the first edition: to provide students
with the tools they need to make sense of the world by teaching them to collect,
visualize, analyze, and interpret data. With the help of several wise and careful readers
and class testers, we have fine-tuned the second edition to better achieve this vision. In
some sections, we have rewritten explanations or added new ones. In others, we have
more substantially reordered content.
More precisely, in this new edition you will find
• Coverage of two-proportion confidence intervals in Chapters 7 and 8.
• An increase of more than 150 homework exercises in this edition, with more
than 400 total new, revised, and updated exercises. We’ve added larger data sets
to Chapters 2, 3, 4, and 9. We’ve also added exercises to Section 2.5 and more
Chapter Review exercises throughout.
• New or updated examples in each chapter, with current topics such as views of
stem cell research (Chapter 7) and online classes (Chapter 10).
• A more careful and thorough integration of technology in many examples.
• Two new case studies: Student-to-Teacher Ratios in Chapter 2 and Dodging the
Question in Chapter 8.
• A more straightforward implementation of simulations to understand probability in
Chapter 5.
• A more unified presentation of hypothesis testing in Chapter 8 that better joins
conceptual understanding with application.
• A greater number of “Looking Back” and “Caution” marginal boxes to help direct
students’ studies.
• Updated technology guides to match current hardware and software.
xi

xii PREFACE
Approach
Our text is concept-based, as opposed to method-based. We teach useful statistical
methods, but we emphasize that applying the method is secondary to understanding the
concept.
In the real world, computers do most of the heavy lifting for statisticians. We
therefore adopt an approach that frees the instructor from having to teach tedious
procedures and leaves more time for teaching deeper understanding of concepts.
Accordingly, we present formulas as an aid to understanding the concepts, rather than
as the focus of study.
We believe students need to learn how to
• Determine which statistical procedures are appropriate.
• Instruct the software to carry out the procedures.
• Interpret the output.
We understand that students will probably see only one type of statistical software in
class. But we believe it is useful for students to compare output from several different
sources, so in some examples we ask them to read output from two or more software
packages.
One of the authors (Rob Gould) served on a panel of co-authors for the first
edition of the collegiate version of the American Statistical Association–endorsed
Guidelines for Assessment and Instruction in Statistics Education (GAISE). We firmly
believe in its main goals and have adopted them in the preparation of this book.
• We emphasize understanding over rote performance of procedures.
• We use real data whenever possible.
• We encourage the use of technology both to develop conceptual understanding and
to analyze data.
• We believe strongly that students learn by doing. For this reason, the homework
problems offer students both practice in basic procedures and challenges to build
conceptual understanding.
Coverage
The first few chapters of this book are concept-driven and cover exploratory data anal-
ysis and inferential statistics—fundamental concepts that every introductory statistics
student should learn. The last part of the book builds on that strong conceptual foun-
dation and is more methods-based. It presents several popular statistical methods and
more fully explores methods presented earlier.
Our ordering of topics is guided by the process through which students should
analyze data. First, they explore and describe data, possibly deciding that graphics and
numerical summaries provide sufficient insight. Then they make generalizations (infer-
ences) about the larger world.
Chapters 1–4: Exploratory Data Analysis. The first four chapters cover data collection
and summary. Chapter 1 introduces the important topic of data collection and com-
pares and contrasts observational studies with controlled experiments. This chapter also
teaches students how to handle raw data so that the data can be uploaded to their statis-
tical software. Chapters 2 and 3 discuss graphical and numerical summaries of single
variables based on samples. We emphasize that the purpose is not just to produce a
graph or a number but, instead, to explain what those graphs and numbers say about
the world. Chapter 4 introduces simple linear regression and presents it as a technique
for providing graphical and numerical summaries of relationships between two numeri-
cal variables.

PREFACE xiii
We feel strongly that introducing regression early in the text is beneficial in build-
ing student understanding of the applicability of statistics to real-world scenarios.
After completing the chapters covering data collection and summary, students have
acquired the skills and sophistication they need to describe two-variable associations
and to generate informal hypotheses. Two-variable associations provide a rich context
for class discussion and allow the course to move from fabricated problems (because
one-variable analyses are relatively rare in the real world) to real problems that appear
frequently in everyday life.
Chapters 5–8: Inference. These chapters teach the fundamental concepts of statisti-
cal inference. The main idea is that our data mirror the real world, but imperfectly;
although our estimates are uncertain, under the right conditions we can quantify our
uncertainty. Verifying that these conditions exist and understanding what happens if
they are not satisfied are important themes of these chapters.
Chapters 9–10: Methods. Here we return to the themes covered earlier in the text and
present them in a new context by introducing additional statistical methods, such as
estimating population means and analyzing categorical variables. We also provide (in
Section 10.3) guidance for reading scientific literature, to offer students the experience
of critically examining real scientific papers.
Organization
Our preferred order of progressing through the text is reflected in the Contents, but
there are some alternative pathways as well.
10-week Quarter. The first eight chapters provide a full, one-quarter course in intro-
ductory statistics. If time remains, cover Sections 9.1 and 9.2 as well, so that students
can solidify their understanding of confidence intervals and hypothesis tests by revisit-
ing the topic with a new parameter.
Proportions First. Ask two statisticians, and you will get three opinions on whether
it is best to teach means or proportions first. We have come down on the side of
proportions for a variety of reasons. Proportions are much easier to find in popular
news media (particularly around election time), so they can more readily be tied to
students’ everyday lives. Also, the mathematics and statistical theory are simpler;
because there’s no need to provide a separate estimate for the population standard
deviation, inference is based on the Normal distribution, and no further approxima-
tions (that is, the t-distribution) are required. Hence, we can quickly get to the heart
of the matter with fewer technical diversions.
The basic problem here is how to quantify the uncertainty involved in estimating a
parameter and how to quantify the probability of making incorrect decisions when pos-
ing hypotheses. We cover these ideas in detail in the context of proportions. Students
can then more easily learn how these same concepts are applied in the new context of
means (and any other parameter they may need to estimate).
Means First. Conversely, many people feel that there is time for only one parameter
and that this parameter should be the mean. For this alternative presentation, cover
Chapters 6, 7, and 9, in that order. On this path, students learn about survey sampling
and the terminology of inference (population vs. sample, parameter vs. statistic) and
then tackle inference for the mean, including hypothesis testing.
To minimize the coverage of proportions, you might choose to cover Chapter 6,
Section 7.1 (which treats the language and framework of statistical inference in detail),
and then Chapter 9. Chapters 7 and 8 develop the concepts of statistical inference more
slowly than Chapter 9, but essentially, Chapter 9 develops the same ideas in the context
of the mean.

xiv PREFACE
If you present Chapter 9 before Chapters 7 and 8, we recommend that you devote
roughly twice as much time to Chapter 9 as you have devoted to previous chapters,
because many challenging ideas are explored in this chapter. If you have already cov-
ered Chapters 7 and 8 thoroughly, Chapter 9 can be covered more quickly.
Features
We’ve incorporated into this text a variety of features to aid student learning and to
facilitate its use in any classroom.
Integrating Technology
Modern statistics is inseparable from computers. We have worked to make this text acces-
sible for any classroom, regardless of the level of in-class exposure to technology, while
still remaining true to the demands of the analysis. We know that students sometimes do
not have access to technology when doing homework, so many exercises provide output
from software and ask students to interpret and critically evaluate that given output.
Using technology is important because it enables students to handle real data, and
real data sets are often large and messy. The following features are designed to guide
students.
• TechTips outline steps for performing calculations using TI-84® (including
TI-84 + C®) graphing calculators, Excel®, Minitab®, and StatCrunch®. We do not
want students to get stuck because they don’t know how to reproduce the results
we show in the text, so whenever a new method or procedure is introduced, an
icon, Tech , refers students to the TechTips section at the end of the chapter. Each
set of TechTips contains at least one mini-example, so that students are not only
learning to use the technology but also practicing data analysis and reinforcing
ideas discussed in the text. Most of the provided TI-84 steps apply to all TI-84
calculators, but some are unique to the TI-84 + C calculator.
• Check Your Tech examples help students understand that statistical calculations
done by technology do not happen in a vacuum and assure them that they can get
the same numerical values by hand. Although we place a higher value on inter-
preting results and verifying conditions required to apply statistical models, the
numerical values are important, too.
• All data sets used in the exposition and exercises are available on the companion
website at pearsonhighered.com/gould. These data are also available at http://www
.pearsonhighered.com/mathstatsresources/. A variety of statistical software options
are available to be bundled with this text. For a complete list of the software options,
please contact your Pearson Education sales representative.
Guiding Students
• Each chapter opens with a Theme. Beginners have difficulty seeing the forest for
the trees, so we use a theme to give an overview of the chapter content.
• Each chapter begins by posing a real-world Case Study. At the end of the chapter,
we show how techniques covered in the chapter helped solve the problem pre-
sented in the Case Study.
• Margin Notes draw attention to details that enhance student learning and reading
comprehension.
The data icon appears alongside examples or discussions to indicate that the
original data are available on the companion website.
Caution notes provide warnings about common mistakes or misconceptions.

PREFACE xv
Looking Back reminders refer students to earlier coverage of a topic.

Details clarify or expand on a concept.
• KEY
POINT Key Points highlight essential concepts to draw special attention to them.

Understanding these concepts is essential for progress.
• Snapshots break down key statistical concepts introduced in the chapter,
quickly summarizing each concept or procedure and indicating when and how
it should be used.
• An abundance of worked-out examples model solutions to real-world problems rel-
evant to students’ lives. Each example is tied to an end-of-chapter exercise so that
students can practice solving a similar problem and test their understanding. Within the
exercise sets, the icon TRY indicates which problems are tied to worked-out examples
in that chapter, and the numbers of those examples are indicated.
• The Chapter Review that concludes each chapter provides a list of important new
terms, student learning objectives, a summary of the concepts and methods dis-
cussed, and sources for data, articles, and graphics referred to in the chapter.
Active Learning
• For each chapter we’ve included an activity, Exploring Statistics, that students
are intended to do in class as a group. We have used these activities ourselves, and
we have found that they greatly increase student understanding and keep students
engaged in class.
• All exercises are located at the end of the chapter. Section Exercises are designed
to begin with a few basic problems that strengthen recall and assess basic knowl-
edge, followed by mid-level exercises that ask more complex, open-ended ques-
tions. Chapter Review Exercises provide a comprehensive review of material
covered throughout the chapter.
The exercises emphasize good statistical practice by requiring students to
verify conditions, make suitable use of graphics, find numerical values, and
interpret their findings in writing. All exercises are paired so that students can check
their work on the odd-numbered exercise and then tackle the corresponding even-
numbered exercise. The answers to all odd-numbered exercises appear in the back
of the student edition of the text.
Challenging exercises, identified with an asterisk (*), ask open-ended questions
and sometimes require students to perform a complete statistical analysis. For
exercises marked with a , accompanying data sets are available in MyStatLab and
on the companion website.
• Most chapters include select exercises marked with a within the exercise set,
to indicate that problem-solving help is available in the Guided Exercises
section. If students need support while doing homework, they can turn to the
Guided Exercises to see a step-by-step approach to solving the problem.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful for the attention and energy that a large number of people devoted to
making this a better book. We extend our gratitude to Elaine Newman (Sonoma State
University) and Ann Cannon (Cornell College), who checked the accuracy of this
text and its many exercises. Thanks also to David Chelton, our developmental editor,
to Carol Merrigan, who handled production, to Peggy McMahon, project manager,
and to Connie Day, our copyeditor. Many thanks to John Norbutas for his technical
advice and help with the TechTips. We thank Suzanna Bainbridge, our acquisitions

xvi PREFACE
editor, Justin Billing, editorial assistant, and Deirdre Lynch, editor-in-chief, for signing
us up and sticking with us, and we are grateful to Dona Kenly and Erin Kelly for their
market development efforts.
We extend our sincere thanks for the suggestions and contributions made by the
following reviewers of this edition:
Lloyd Best, Pacific Union College Patrick Perry, Hawaii Pacific University Mahbobeh Vezvaei, Kent State
Mario Borha, Loyola University of Victor I. Piercey, Ferris State University University
Chicago Danielle Rivard, Post University Jerimi Ann Walker, Moraine Valley
David Bosworth, Hutchinson Community Alex Rolon, North Hampton Community Community College
College College Dottie Walton, Cuyahoga Community
Beth Burns, Bowling Green State University Ali Saadat, University of California – College
Jim Johnston, Concord University Riverside Judy H. Williams, Tidewater Community
Manuel Lopez, Cerritos College Carol Saltsgaver, University of Illinois – College
Ralph Padgett Jr., University of California – Springfield Jane Marie Wright, Suffolk County
Riverside Kelly Sakkinen, Lake Land College Community College
Ron Palcic, Johnson County Community Sharon l. Sullivan, Catawba College Cathleen Zucco-Teveloff, Rider
College Manuel Uy, College of Alameda University
We would also like to extend our sincere thanks for the suggestions and contributions
that the following reviewers, class testers, and focus group attendees made to the previ-
ous edition.
Arun Agarwal, Grambling State University Elizabeth Paulus Brown, Waukesha Karen Estes, St. Petersburg College
Anne Albert, University of Findlay County Technical College Mariah Evans, University of Nevada, Reno
Michael Allen, Glendale Community College Leslie Buck, Suffolk Community College Harshini Fernando, Purdue University
Eugene Allevato, Woodbury University R.B. Campbell, University of Northern Iowa North Central
Dr. Jerry Allison, Trident Technical College Stephanie Campbell, Mineral Area College Stephanie Fitchett, University of Northern
Polly Amstutz, University of Nebraska Ann Cannon, Cornell College Colorado
Patricia Anderson, Southern Adventist Rao Chaganty, Old Dominion University Elaine B. Fitt, Bucks County Community
University Carolyn Chapel, Western Technical College College
MaryAnne Anthony-Smith, Santa Ana Christine Cole, Moorpark College Michael Flesch, Metropolitan Community
College Linda Brant Collins, University of Chicago College
David C. Ashley, Florida State College James A. Condor, Manatee Community Melinda Fox, Ivy Tech Community
at Jacksonville College College, Fairbanks
Diana Asmus, Greenville Technical College Carolyn Cuff, Westminster College Joshua Francis, Defiance College
Kathy Autrey, Northwestern State Phyllis Curtiss, Grand Valley State Michael Frankel, Kennesaw State
University of Louisiana University University
Wayne Barber, Chemeketa Community Monica Dabos, University of California, Heather Gamber, Lone Star College
College Santa Barbara Debbie Garrison, Valencia Community
Roxane Barrows, Hocking College Greg Davis, University of Wisconsin, College, East Campus
Jennifer Beineke, Western New England Green Bay Kim Gilbert, University of Georgia
College Bob Denton, Orange Coast College Stephen Gold, Cypress College
Diane Benner, Harrisburg Area Julie DePree, University of New Nick Gomersall, Luther College
Community College Mexico–Valencia Mary Elizabeth Gore, Community College
Norma Biscula, University of Maine, Jill DeWitt, Baker Community College of Baltimore County–Essex
Augusta of Muskegon Ken Grace, Anoka Ramsey Community
K.B. Boomer, Bucknell University Paul Drelles, West Shore Community College College
David Bosworth, Hutchinson Community Keith Driscoll, Clayton State University Larry Green, Lake Tahoe Community
College Rob Eby, Blinn College College
Diana Boyette, Seminole Community Nancy Eschen, Florida Community Jeffrey Grell, Baltimore City Community
College College at Jacksonville College

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xvii
Albert Groccia, Valencia Community Walter H. Mackey, Owens Community Community College
College, Osceola Campus College Delray Schultz, Millersville University
David Gurney, Southeastern Louisiana Keith McCoy, Wilbur Wright College Jenny Shook, Pennsylvania State
University Elaine McDonald-Newman, Sonoma State University
Chris Hakenkamp, University of University Danya Smithers, Northeast State
Maryland, College Park William McGregor, Rockland Community Technical Community College
Melodie Hallet, San Diego State University College Larry Southard, Florida Gulf Coast
Donnie Hallstone, Green River Bill Meisel, Florida State College at University
Community College Jacksonville Dianna J. Spence, North Georgia College
Cecil Hallum, Sam Houston State University Bruno Mendes, University of California, & State University
Josephine Hamer, Western Connecticut Santa Cruz René Sporer, Diablo Valley College
State University Wendy Miao, El Camino College Jeganathan Sriskandarajah, Madison Area
Mark Harbison, Sacramento City College Robert Mignone, College of Charleston Technical College–Traux
Beverly J. Hartter, Oklahoma Wesleyan Ashod Minasian, El Camino College David Stewart, Community College of
University Megan Mocko, University of Florida Baltimore County–Cantonsville
Laura Heath, Palm Beach State College Sumona Mondal, Clarkson University Linda Strauss, Penn State University
Greg Henderson, Hillsborough Kathy Mowers, Owensboro Community John Stroyls, Georgia Southwestern
Community College and Technical College State University
Susan Herring, Sonoma State University Mary Moyinhan, Cape Cod Community Joseph Sukta, Moraine Valley
Carla Hill, Marist College College Community College
Michael Huber, Muhlenberg College Junalyn Navarra-Madsen, Texas Woman’s Lori Thomas, Midland College
Kelly Jackson, Camden County College University Malissa Trent, Northeast State Technical
Bridgette Jacob, Onondaga Community Azarnia Nazanin, Santa Fe College Community College
College Stacey O. Nicholls, Anne Arundel Ruth Trygstad, Salt Lake Community
Robert Jernigan, American University Community College College
Chun Jin, Central Connecticut State Helen Noble, San Diego State University Gail Tudor, Husson University
University Lyn Noble, Florida State College at Manuel T. Uy, College of Alameda
Maryann Justinger, Ed.D., Erie Jacksonville Lewis Van Brackle, Kennesaw State
Community College Keith Oberlander, Pasadena City College University
Joseph Karnowski, Norwalk Community Pamela Omer, Western New England Mahbobeh Vezvaei, Kent State University
College College Joseph Villalobos, El Camino College
Susitha Karunaratne, Purdue University Nabendu Pal, University of Louisiana at Barbara Wainwright, Sailsbury University
North Central Lafayette Henry Wakhungu, Indiana University
Mohammed Kazemi, University of North Irene Palacios, Grossmont College Dottie Walton, Cuyahoga Community
Carolina–Charlotte Adam Pennell, Greensboro College College
Robert Keller, Loras College Joseph Pick, Palm Beach State College Jen-ting Wang, SUNY, Oneonta
Omar Keshk, Ohio State University Philip Pickering, Genesee Community Jane West, Trident Technical College
Raja Khoury, Collin County Community College Michelle White, Terra Community College
College Robin Powell, Greenville Technical Bonnie-Lou Wicklund, Mount Wachusett
Brianna Killian, Daytona State College College Community College
Yoon G. Kim, Humboldt State University Nicholas Pritchard, Coastal Carolina Sandra Williams, Front Range
Greg Knofczynski, Armstrong Atlantic University Community College
University Linda Quinn, Cleveland State University Rebecca Wong, West Valley College
Jeffrey Kollath, Oregon State University William Radulovich, Florida State Alan Worley, South Plains College
Erica Kwiatkowski-Egizio, Joliet Junior College at Jacksonville Jane-Marie Wright, Suffolk Community
College Mumunur Rashid, Indiana University of College
Sister Jean A. Lanahan, OP, Molloy Pennsylvania Haishen Yao, CUNY, Queensborough
College Fred J. Rispoli, Dowling College Community College
Katie Larkin, Lake Tahoe Community Nancy Rivers, Wake Technical Lynda Zenati, Robert Morris Community
College Community College College
Michael LaValle, Rochester Community Corlis Robe, East Tennesee State University Yan Zheng-Araujo, Springfield
College Thomas Roe, South Dakota State University Community Technical College
Deann Leoni, Edmonds Community College Dan Rowe, Heartland Community College Cathleen Zucco-Teveloff, Rider
Lenore Lerer, Bergen Community College Carol Saltsgaver, University of University
Quan Li, Texas A&M University Illinois–Springfield Mark A. Zuiker, Minnesota State
Doug Mace, Kirtland Community College Radha Sankaran, Passaic County University,

Resources for Success
MyStatLab® Online Course for Essential Statistics: Exploring
the World through Data, Second Edition, Gould/Ryan/Wong
(access code required)
MyStatLab is available to accompany Pearson’s market-leading text offerings. To
give students a consistent tone, voice, and teaching method, each text’s flavor and
approach is tightly integrated throughout the accompanying MyStatLab course, mak-
ing learning the material as seamless as possible.
Data Cycle of Everyday
Things Videos
Data Cycle of Everyday Things Videos
demonstrate for students that data can
be, and is, a part of everyday life! Through
a series of fun and engaging episodes,
students learn to collect, analyze, and
apply data to answer any range of real-
world statistical questions.
Chapter Review Videos

Chapter Review Videos walk students through
solving a selection of the more complex
problems posed in each chapter, provid-
ing a review of the chapter’s key concepts
and methods and offering students support
where they most need it.
Technology Tutorial
Videos and Study Cards
Technology Tutorials provide brief
video walkthroughs and step-by-
step instructional study cards on
common statistical procedures
for Minitab®, Excel®, and the
TI-83/84 graphing calculator.
www.mystatlab.com

Resources for Success
Instructor Resources Student Resources
Additional resources can be downloaded from Additional resources for student success.
www.pearsonhighered.com or MyStatLab; hard-copy
resources can be ordered from your sales representative. Student Solutions Manual
(ISBN 10: 0-13-413312-9; ISBN 13: 978-0-13-413312-6)
Instructor’s Edition Student Solutions Manual provides detailed,
(ISBN 10: 0-13-413335-8; ISBN 13: 978-0-13-413335-5) worked-out solutions to all odd-numbered text
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Index of Applications
BIOLOGY retail car sales, 71 course enrollment rates, 30
sex of children, 239 rich people, 120–121, 189, 344 debt after graduation, 457
baby seals, 260, 262–263 salaries/wages, 180, 184, 185, 191, 196 education and marital status, 214,
bats, 454 shrinking middle class, 56 215–216, 217, 221, 487–488
birth length, 292, 293 soda production, 148–149 education and widows, 225
births by month, 513 stressed moms, 344–345 employment after law school, 74
body temperature, 292 textbook prices, 67, 462, 463 English in California schools, 188–189
brain size, 28, 122–123, 128, 465 turkey costs, 191 exam scores, 97–98, 130, 133, 193, 198,
cats’ birth weights, 290 used car values, 168–169 199, 454, 466
elephants’ birth weights, 290 wealth distribution in United States, 70 gender of teachers, 342
eye color and sex, 242, 244 women CEOs, 392 GPAs, 179, 181, 458, 459, 460
finger length, 506 grades, 237
gestation periods for animals, 68 guessing on tests, 236, 243, 342,
CRIME AND CORRECTIONS 390–391
heights and armspans, 64, 185, 186–187 “boot camp” and prevention, 389, 390
longevity of animals, 68 height and test scores, 195
California judges, 513
low birth weights, 292 high school diplomas, 343
counseling and criminology, 395
men’s heights, 289, 290 high school graduation rates, 345,
crime and gender, 505
reaction distances, 459, 466 346–347, 349–350
criminal court judges, 235
red blood cells, 288 hours of study, 132, 197
death penalty, 241, 340, 342, 393
sex of children, 236, 290 IQs, 124, 286, 288
death row, 130
sex of grandchildren, 240 law school tuition, 68–69
DWI convictions, 291
sleep time of animals, 129 majors, 71
homicide clearance, 291
tree heights, 196 marriage and college degree, 237
jury duty, 240
twins, 290 math grades and tutoring, 30
jury selection, 342, 390
white blood cells, 288 math scores, 85–86
parental training and criminal behavior
women’s heights, 286–287, 288–290 multiple-choice tests, 69, 76, 238, 390,
of children, 513
399
Perry Preschool attendance and arrests,
BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS 513
number of years of formal education, 65
air fares, 183–184 Oregon bar exam, 342, 349
property crime, 124, 128
BAs and median income, 180 parental educational level, 121,
recidivism, 239, 242, 273–274, 290, 512
benefits of having rich people, 242 192–193
Scared Straight prevention program, 32
capitalism, 241 percentage of students married or
SIDS or murder?, 205–206
CEO ages, 63, 64, 120 parents, 244
stolen bicycles, 272–273, 290
CEO salaries, 76 preschool attendance, 345, 346–347,
therapy and criminology, 395
clothes spending, 65, 462 349–350
violent crime, 123, 134
debt after graduation, 457 preschool attendance and high school
Virginia juveniles, 242
e-book publishing, 363 graduation rates, 508–509
economic class, 54–55 proportion of seniors in student
film budgets and grosses, 196 EDUCATION population, 341
gas prices, 86–87, 92–93, 101 ACT scores, 287 random assignment of professors, 235
grocery prices, 466, 467 alumni donations, 512 rating professors, 184
happiness and wealth, 242 BA percentage, 129 salary and education, 184, 196
holiday spending, 131 bar exam pass rates, 42, 48, 129, 197 SAT scores, 67, 124, 160–161, 241, 286,
income, 455–456 BAs and median income, 180 288, 289, 292–293, 293–294
income tax rate, 68, 127, 466 of California residents, 70 semesters and units completed, 189, 454
Internet advertising, 358–359 changing multiple-choice answers, 237 shoe sizes, 75, 179, 194–195
investing, 190 cheating, 390 student ages, 28, 133, 454, 456, 460
likelihood of becoming rich, 242 college admission rates, 290–291, 457 student-to-teacher ratio, 37–38, 60
living in poverty, 342 college dropout rate, 390 teacher satisfaction, 227
Navy commissary prices, 464 college enrollment, 427 teachers’ pay and costs of education, 191
Occupy Wall Street, 509 college graduation, 291, 457 true/false tests, 398, 399
pay rate in different currencies, 122 college professors’ salaries, 180 tuition and fees, 64, 181, 420, 431,
percentage of people thriving, 343–344 college tours, 511 446–447
prices at Target and Whole Foods, commute times, 64 value of college education, 236–237, 238
195–196 confidence in public schools, 343 working and student grades, 191–192
xx

INDEX OF APPLICATIONS xxi
EMPLOYMENT coffee, 32, 465 houses with swimming pools, 120

age discrimination, 391 cola taste test, 390, 391, 396 Morse code, 322–323, 329, 340, 393
career goals, 348 color of M&Ms, 340, 341 number of pairs of shoes owned, 64,
college students working, 28 cost of turkeys, 191 126–127, 464
commuting times, 64 eating out, 67, 76, 122, 132, 464 pets, 68
earnings by gender, 120 fast food, 108–109 right-handed people, 29
eating out and jobs, 67, 76, 122, 132 fat in sliced turkey and ham compared, risky activities, 83–84, 116–117
employment after law school, 74 102 seesaw height, 184, 187
flex time, 397 grocery prices, 466, 467 skyscrapers, 112–113, 129
hours of work, 66 hungry monkeys, 488-489 sleeping in, 436–437
job categories, 73 mercury in freshwater fish, 342, 393 Social Security numbers and age, 187
paid vacation days, 121 no-carb diets, 394 tossing thumbtacks, 285, 237
pay rate in different currencies, 122 number of alcoholic drinks per week, weight of trash, 183, 192
salaries, 180, 184, 196, 344 123, 125
time employed, 455 organic food, 463 HEALTH
unemployment rates, 397 pizza size, 424 age and sleep, 180, 195
work and sleep, 180 popcorn, 477–478, 501 age and weight, 187, 195
work and TV, 180, 184 size of ice cream cones, 249, 282 ages of women who gave birth, 181
work from home, 397 snacks, 28 antibiotic or placebo, 506
working and student grades, 191–192 soda consumption, 131 antibiotics, 345–346, 389, 390
soda production, 148–149, 243 antiretrovirals to prevent HIV, 509
ENTERTAINMENT soft drink serving size, 458 arthritis, 394
animated movies, 124–125 vegan diets, 342 Atkins diet, 460
film budgets and grosses, 196 weight of carrots, 457 autism and MMR vaccine, 513
hours of television viewing, 73, 466 weight of colas, 465 bariatric surgery for diabetes, 509
iTunes library, 409 weight of hamburgers, 69, 458 birth lengths, 122, 124
movies and magic, 125, 167–168 weight of ice cream cones, 465 birth weights, 122, 124, 455
movies with dinner served, 28 weight of oranges, 457 blood pressure, 22, 190
MP3 song lengths, 107–108 weight of potatoes, 458 blood sugar, 512
New York City weather, 288 weight of tomatoes, 459 blood thinners, 33
numbers of televisions, 63, 120, 460, body mass index, 63, 459
body temperatures, 459, 468
461, 468–469 GAMES breast cancer, 31
roller coaster endurance, 46 blackjack tips, 198
work and TV, 180, 184 calcium, 449–450
brain games, 20–21, 497–498
calcium and death rate, 511–512
coin flips, 244, 339, 341, 389, 393, 396
caloric restriction, 488–489
ENVIRONMENT color of cubes, 244
causes of death, 56–57
blood pressure and city living, 22 dealing cards, 223–224
cell phones and cancer, 3–4, 23–24
city temperatures, 128 drawing cards, 236
cholesterol levels, 198, 459
climate change, 245 flipping coins, 226–227, 236, 239, 240,
coffee and stroke, 511
daily temperatures, 96, 98 285, 290, 291
college athletes’ weights, 462
depth of snow, 285 gambling, 240
colored vegetables and stroke, 512–513
global temperatures, 74–75 rolling dice, 218, 237, 390
copper bracelets, 31
mercury in freshwater fish, 342, 393 spinning coins, 366–367, 373, 393, 394
Crohn’s disease, 23, 335–336
smog levels, 87–89, 91–92, 95–96 throwing dice, 211–212, 229–230, 239,
dancers’ heights, 460
240, 241, 252–253, 285
death row and head trauma, 34
FINANCE deep vein thrombosis, 398
condo rental prices, 64 GENERAL INTEREST depression treatment, 30
land value prediction, 179 accuracy of shooting, 340 diabetes, 343
real estate prices, 122, 126, 133, 184, 194 ages of students, 237 diarrhea vaccine in Africa, 395
retirement income, 455 birthdays and days of the week, 236, 241 diet drug, 346
underwater mortgages, 328–329 book widths, 158–159 dieting, 444–445
breath holding, 74 drug for asthma, 512, 515
FOOD AND DRINK cat and dog ownership, 244 drug for platelets, 511
alcohol in beer, 69, 194 children’s ages, 122 drug for rheumatoid arthritis, 512
Atkins diet, 460 dogs vs. cats, 315, 319–320 early tonsillectomy for children, 30
banning super-size sugary drinks, 347 hand folding, 238, 245 endocarditis, 510
bottled vs. tap water, 389 handedness, 241 epilepsy drugs during pregnancy,
breakfast, 64 home and car ownership, 237 405–406, 451
butter taste test, 394, 396 houses with garages, 71–72 ER visits for injuries, 76

xxii INDEX OF APPLICATIONS
exercise, 34, 64, 197 stroke survival rate, 389 SOCIAL ISSUES
flu vaccines, 31 systolic blood pressures, 461–462 adoptions, 71
hand and foot length, 185–186 tight control of blood sugar, 512 age by year, 71
hand washing, 348, 399 transfusions for bleeding in the stomach, ages of brides and grooms, 464
handspans, 181 346 belief in UFOs, 245
head circumference, 126, 130, 134 treatment for CLL, 395, 400 body piercings, 50–51
healthcare plan, 399 triglycerides, 461, 462 cell phone calls, 455
heart attacks, 389 vaccinations for diarrhea, 514 country of origin, 507
heart rate before and after coffee, 465 vegan diets, 342 cremation rates, 292
heights, 131 video games and body mass index, 184 death row and head trauma, 34
heights and ages for children, 198 vitamin C and allergies, 31 divorce, 290
heights and weights, 152–153, 181, vitamin D and osteoporosis, 33 drunk walking, 291
193–194 weight loss, 31, 121, 180, 397, 507 education and marital status, 214,
heights of bedridden patients, 163–165 weights of soccer players and academic 215–216, 217, 221, 487–488
heights of children, 104–106 decathlon team members compared, education and widows, 225
heights of fathers and sons, 130, 193 122 gays and lesbians, 241, 345, 397
heights of females, 124, 133 weights of vegetarians, 459 gender and opinion on same-sex
heights of males, 133, 459, 464 marriage, 480–481
heights of students and parents, 467 LAW guns in homes, 398
HIV-1 and HIV-2, 33 chief justices’ ages at installation, 121 happiness, 123, 125, 196, 465
hormone replacement therapy, 73 gun control, 393, 397, 399 ideal family, 131
hospital rooms, 510–511 Oregon bar exam, 342, 349 Iraq casualties and hometown
human cloning, 344 three-strikes law, 397–398 populations, 191
hypothermia for babies, 395 life expectancy and TV, 191
ideal weight, 75 marital status, 32
iron and death rate, 511 POLITICS
marriage and children, 237
jet lag drug, 506–507 children of first ladies, 121
marriage and college degree, 237
life expectancy, 188, 191 dodging the question, 355–356, 385–386
marriage rates, 29
light at night and tumors, 510 party and right direction, 506
number of births and population, 30
light exposure in mice, 31–32 political party, 243–244
number of children, 458
low birth weights, 292 presidential election of 1960, 397
number of cigarettes smoked, 76
malnutrition, 345–346 presidents’ ages at inauguration, 121, 460
number of siblings, 28, 65, 180
Medicaid expansion, 33 primary elections of 2012, 348
obesity and marital status, 507, 515
men’s health, 370–372 socialism, 241
Occupy Wall Street, 509
multiple myeloma, 514 votes for independents, 398
population and number of millionaires, 189
nausea drug, 346 voting, 237, 343
population density, 29, 127, 132
nicotine gum, 395 population in 2007, 29
nicotine patch, 509–510 PSYCHOLOGY population increase, 132
nighttime physician staffing in ICU, 514 body image, 72 population prediction, 29
no-carb diets, 394 boys’ weight perception, 466–467 probation and gender, 32–33
number of AIDS cases, 29, 34–35 brain games, 20–21 proportion of people who are married,
obesity, 32, 344 confederates and compliance, 31, 397
obesity and marital status, 507 509–510 smiling and age, 396
overweight children, 342 depression treatment, 30 spring break fever, 301–302, 336
personal data collection, 8–9 dreaming, 348, 391
pneumonia vaccine for young children, extrasensory perception, 269, 274–276, SPORTS
30–31 340–341, 390, 396, 398–399 baseball strike, 126
position for breathing, 74 financial incentive effectiveness, 394 basketball free-throw shots, 243, 280
pregnancy, 124, 405–406, 451 gender and happiness of marriage, 508 basketball team heights, 468
preventable deaths, 69–70 happiness and traditional views, 239 marathon size, 46–47, 110, 131
prostate cancer, 32, 514 happiness and wealth, 242 NCAA soccer players, 50
pulse rates, 413, 460, 461, 463, 469 IQs, 124 Olympics, 122
removal of healthy appendixes, 510 obesity and marital status, 32 race finishing times, 165
scorpion antivenom, 33 opinion about nurses, 245 surfing, 121–122, 132, 464
SIDS, 205–206 overeating and brain function, 31 weights of backpacks, 464
sleep, 63, 64, 72, 180, 464, 466 poverty and IQ, 17–18 weights of baseball and soccer players
sleep medicine for shift workers, 398 sleep walking, 392 compared, 67
smoking, 123, 187, 188, 347, 463 smiling, 395 weights of college athletes, 462
steroids and height, 511 smiling and age, 508 wins and strike-outs for baseball pitchers,
stroke, 33 TV violence, 482–483, 506, 507–508 189

INDEX OF APPLICATIONS xxiii
SURVEYS AND OPINION stem cell research, 321, 332–334, driving accidents, 132–133
POLLS 381–382 DWI convictions, 291
astrology, 344 taxes, 393 gas mileage of cars, 196
capital punishment, 340 underwater mortgages, 328–329 gas prices, 86–87, 92–93, 101
confidence in military, 343 value of college education, 236–237, meter thieves, 143, 176
confidence in public schools, 343 238, 245 MPG for highway and city, 190
dreaming in color, 348 wording of polls, 397 pedestrian fatalities, 30
e-reader poll, 364–365 plane crashes, 393
economics in East Germany, 343 TECHNOLOGY red cars and stop signs, 505–506
gender and opinion on same-sex age and the Internet, 303 right of way, 382–384
marriage, 480–481 cell phone use, 72, 455 seat belt use, 11–13, 239, 245, 390,
ghosts, 327 e-music and the Internet, 73 391–392
human cloning, 344 e-readers, 441–443 speed driven, 75
immigration, 343 Internet access, 241, 291 speeding tickets, 64, 131
marriage as obsolete, 343, 391 Internet advertising, 358–359 stolen bicycles, 272–273, 290
most important problem, 507 teens and the Internet, 220 stolen car rates, 14
musician survey, 72 text messages, 69, 190, 192 SUVs, 390
news survey, 281 texting while driving, 291, 398 texting while driving, 291, 398
opinion about nurses, 245 time and distance of flights, 188, 198
opinions on global warming, 74–75, 393 TRANSPORTATION traffic cameras, 75
party and right direction, 506 air fares, 183–184 traffic lights, 243
political party affiliation, 70–71 commuting times, 64 turn signal use, 346
presidential elections, 320–321, 344 crash-test results, 7 used car age and mileage, 147–148,
seat belt use, 11–13, 140, 390, 391–392 driver’s exam, 238, 241, 291–292 168–169, 456
sexual harassment, 307–308 drivers aged 60–65, 291 used car values, 168–169
Social Security, 339 drivers’ deaths and ages, 188 waiting for the bus, 254–255

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Fig. 20.—Various forms of Heliozoa. In 3, a is the entire animal and b the
flagellula; c.vac, contractile vacuole; g, gelatinous investment; nu, nucleus;
psd, pseudopodia; sk, siliceous skeleton; sp, spicules. (From Parker and
Haswell, after other authors.)
Each of these divides, and the two sister cells then conjugate after
the same fashion as in Actinophrys, but the nuclear divisions to form
the coupling nucleus are two in number, i.e. the nucleus divides into
two, one of which goes to the surface as the first polar body, and the
sister of this again divides to form a second polar body (which also
passes to the surface) and a pairing nucleus.[84] The two cells then
fuse completely, and surround themselves with a second gelatinous
cyst wall, separated from the outer one by a layer of siliceous
spicules. The nucleus appears to divide at least twice before the
young creep out, to divide immediately into as many Actinophrys-like
cells as there were nuclei; then each of these multiplies its nuclei, to
become apocytial like the adult form.
Fig. 21.—Diagram illustrating the conjugation of Actinosphaerium. 1, Original
cell; 2, nucleus divides to form two, N2N2; 3, each nucleus again divides to
form two, N3 and n3, the latter passing out with a little cytoplasm as an
abortive cell; 4, repetition of the same process as in 3; 5, the two nuclei N4
have fused in syngamy to form the zygote nucleus Nz.
Schaudinn admits 24 genera (and 7 doubtful) and 41 species (and

18 doubtful). None are known fossil. Their geographical distribution
is cosmopolitan, as is the case with most of the minute fresh-water
Protista; 8 genera are exclusively marine, and Orbulinella has only
been found in a salt-pond; Actinophrys sol is both fresh-water and
marine, and Actinolophus has 1 species fresh-water, the other
marine. One of the 14 species of Acanthocystis is marine; the
remaining genera and species are all inhabitants of fresh water.[85]
4. Radiolaria
Sarcodina with the protoplasm divided by a perforated chitinous
central capsule into a central mass surrounding the nucleus, and an
outer layer; the pseudopodia radiate, never anastomosing enough to
form a marked network; skeleton either siliceous, of spicules, or
perforated; or of definitely arranged spicules of proteid matter
(acanthin), sometimes also coalescing into a latticed shell;
reproduction by fission and by zoospores formed in the central
capsule. Habitat marine, suspended at the surface (plankton), at
varying depths (zonarial), or near the bottom (abyssal).
Fig. 22.—Collozoum inerme. A, B, C, three forms of colony; D, small colony with

central capsules (c.caps), containing nuclei, and alveoli (vac) in ectoplasm;
E, isospores, with crystals (c); F, anisospores; nu, nucleus. (From Parker
and Haswell.)
The following is Haeckel's classification of the Radiolaria:—

I. Porulosa (Holotrypasta).—Homaxonic, or nearly so. Central capsule
spherical in the first instance; pores numerous, minute, scattered; mostly
pelagic.
A. Spumellaria (Peripylaea).—Pores evenly scattered; skeleton of solid
siliceous spicules, or continuous, and reticulate or latticed, rarely absent;
nucleus dividing late, as an antecedent to reproduction.
B. Acantharia (Actipylaea).—Pores aggregated into distinct areas;

skeleton of usually 20 centrogenous, regularly radiating spines of acanthin,
whose branches may coalesce into a latticed shell; nucleus dividing early.
II. Osculosa (Monotrypasta).—Monaxonic; pores of central capsule limited

to the basal area (osculum), sometimes accompanied by two (or more)
smaller oscula at apical pole, mostly zonarial or abyssal.
C. Nassellaria (Monopylaea).—Central capsule ovoid, of a single layer;
pores numerous on the operculum or basal field; skeleton siliceous, usually
with a principal tripod or calthrop-shaped spicule passing, by branching,
into a complex ring or a latticed bell-shaped shell; nucleus eccentric, near
apical pole.
D. Phaeodaria (Cannopylaea, Haeck.; Tripylaea, Hertw.).—Central

capsule spheroidal, of two layers, in its outer layer an operculum, with
radiate ribs and a single aperture, beyond which protrudes the outer layer;
osculum basal, a dependent tube (proboscis); accessory oscula, when
present, simpler, usually two placed symmetrically about the apical pole;
skeleton siliceous, with a combination of organic matter, often of hollow
spicules; nucleus sphaeroidal, eccentric; extracapsular protoplasm
containing an accumulation of dusky pigment granules ("phaeodium").
Fig. 23.—Actinomma asteracanthion. A, the shell with portions of the two outer
spheres broken away; B, section showing the relations of the skeleton to
the animal, cent.caps, Central capsule; ex.caps.pr, extra-capsular
protoplasm: nu, nucleus; sk.1, outer, sk.2, middle, sk.3, inner sphere of
skeleton. (From Parker and Haswell, after Haeckel and Hertwig.)
A. Spumellaria.
Sublegion (1). Collodaria.[86]—Skeleton absent or of detached spicules;

colonial or simple.
Order i. Colloidea.—Skeleton absent. (Families 1, 2.) Thalassicolla Huxl.;
Thalassophysa Haeck.; Collozoum Haeck.; Collosphaera J. Müll.; Actissa
Haeck.
Order ii. Beloidea.—Skeleton spicular. (Families 3, 4.)
Sublegion (2). Sphaerellaria.—Skeleton continuous, latticed or spongy,

reticulate.
Order iii. Sphaeroidea.—Skeleton of one or several concentric spherical
shells; sometimes colonial. (Families 5-10.) Haliomma Ehrb.; Actinomma
Haeck. (Fig. 23).
Order iv. Prunoidea.—Skeleton a prolate sphaeroid or cylinder, sometimes

constricted towards the middle, single or concentric. (Families 11-17.)
Order v. Discoidea.—Shell flattened, of circular plan, simple or concentric,

rarely spiral. (Families 18-23.)
Order vi. Larcoidea.—Shell ellipsoidal, with all three axes unequal or

irregular, sometimes becoming spiral. (Families 24-32.)[87]
Fig. 24.—Xiphacantha (Acantharia). From the surface. The skeleton only, × 100,
(From Wyville Thomson.)
B. Acantharia.
Order vii. Actinelida.—Radial spines numerous, more than 20, usually

grouped irregularly. (Families 33-35.) Xiphacantha Haeck.
Order viii. Acanthonida.—Radial spines equal. (Families 36-38.)
Order ix. Sphaerophracta.—Radial spines 20, with a latticed spherical

shell, independent of, or formed from the reticulations of the spines.
(Families 39-41.) Dorataspis Haeck. (Fig. 25, A).
Order x. Prunophracta.—Radial spines 20, unequal; latticed shell,

ellipsoidal, lenticular, or doubly conical. (Families 42-44.)
C. Nassellaria.
Order xi. Nassoidea.—Skeleton absent. (Family 45.)
Order xii. Plectoidea.—Skeleton of a single branching spicule, the

branches sometimes reticulate, but never forming a latticed shell or a
sagittal ring. (Families 46-47.)
Order xiii. Stephoidea.—Skeleton with a sagittal ring continuous with the

branched spicule, and sometimes other rings or branches. (Families 48-
51.) Lithocercus Théel (Fig. 26, A).
Order xiv. Spyroidea.—Skeleton with a latticed shell developed around the

sagittal ring (cephalis), and constricted in the sagittal plane, with a lower
chamber (thorax) sometimes added. (Families 52-55.)
Order xv. Botryoidea.—As in Spyroidea, but with the cephalis 3-4 lobed;
lower chambers, one or several successively formed. (Families 56-58.)
Order xvi. Cyrtoidea.—Shell as in the preceding orders, but without lobing

or constrictions. (Families 59-70.) Theoconus Haeck. (Fig. 25, B).
D. Phaeodaria.
Order xvii. Phaeocystina.—Skeleton 0 or of distinct spicules; capsule

centric. (Families 71-73.) Aulactinium Haeck. (Fig. 26, B).
Order xviii. Phaeosphaeria.—Skeleton a simple or latticed sphere, with no

oral opening (pylome); capsule central. (Families 74-77.)
Order xix. Phaeogromia.—Skeleton a simple latticed shell with a pylome

at one end of the principal axis; capsule excentric, sub-apical. (Families 78-
82.) Pharyngella Haeck.; Tuscarora Murr.; Haeckeliana Murr. (Fig. 28).
Order xx. Phaeoconchia.—Shell of two valves, opening in the plane

("frontal") of the three openings of the capsule. (Families 83-85.)
We exclude Haeckel's Dictyochida, with a skeleton recalling that of

the Stephoidea, but of the impure hollow substance of the
Phaeodaria (p. 84). They rank now as Silicoflagellates (p. 114).
The Radiolarian is distinguished from all other Protozoa by the

chitinous central capsule, so that its cytoplasm is separated into an
outer layer, the extracapsular protoplasm (ectoplasm), and a central
mass, the intracapsular, containing the nucleus.[88]
The extracapsular layer forms in its substance a gelatinous mass, of
variable reaction, through which the plasma itself ramifies as a
network of threads ("sarcodictyum"), uniting at the surface to
constitute the foundation for the pseudopodia. This gelatinous matter
constitutes the "calymma." It is largely vacuolated, the vacuoles
("alveoli"), of exceptional size, lying in the nodes of the plasmic
network, and containing a liquid probably of lower specific gravity
than seawater; and they are especially abundant towards the
surface, where they touch and become polygonal. On mechanical
irritation they disappear, to be formed anew after an interval, a fact
that may explain the sinking from the surface in disturbed water. This
layer may contain minute pigment granules, but the droplets of oil
and of albuminous matter frequent in the central layer are rare here.
The "yellow cells" of a symbiotic Flagellate or Alga, Zooxanthella, are
embedded in the jelly of all except Phaeodaria, and the whole
ectosarc has the average consistency of a firm jelly.
The pseudopodia are long and radiating, with a granular external

layer, whose streaming movements are continuous with those of the
inner network. In the Acantharia they contain a firm axial filament,
like that of the Heliozoa, which is traceable to the central capsule;
and occasionally a bundle of pseudopodia may coalesce to form a
stout process like a flagellum ("sarcoflagellum"). Here, too, each
spine, at its exit from the jelly, is surrounded by a little cone of
contractile filaments, the myophrisks, whose action seems to be to
pull up the jelly and increase the volume of the spherical body so as
to diminish its density.
Fig. 25.—Skeletons of Radiolaria. A, Dorataspis; B, Theoconus. (After Haeckel.)

The intracapsular protoplasm is free from Zooxanthella except in the
Acantharia. It is less abundantly vacuolated, and is finely granular. In
the Porulosa it shows a radial arrangement, with pyramidal stretches
of hyaline plasma separated by intervals rich in granules. Besides
the alveoli with watery contents, others are present with albuminoid
matter in solution. Oil-drops, often brilliantly coloured, occur either in
the plasma or floating in either kind of vacuole; and they are often
luminous at night. Added to these, the intracapsular plasm contains
pigment-granules, most frequently red or orange, passing into yellow
or brown, though violet, blue, and green also occur. The
"phaeodium,"[89] however, that gives its name to the Phaeodaria, is
an aggregate of dark grey, green, or brown granules which are
probably formed in the endoplasm, but accumulate in the
extracapsular plasm of the oral side of the central capsule. Inorganic
concretions and crystals are also found in the contents of the central
capsule, as well as aggregates of unknown composition, resembling
starch-grains in structure.
In the Monopylaea, or Nassellaria (Figs. 25, B, 26, A), the

endoplasm is differentiated above the perforated area of the central
capsule into a cone of radiating filaments termed the "porocone,"
which may be channels for the communication between the
exoplasm and the endoplasm, or perhaps serve, as Haeckel
suggests, to raise, by their contraction, the perforated area: he
compares them to the myophane striae of Infusoria. In the
Phaeodaria (Fig. 26, B), a radiating laminated cone is seen in the
outermost layer of the endoplasm above the principal opening
("astropyle"), and a fibrillar one around the two accessory ones
("parapyles"); and in some cases, continuous with these, the whole
outer layer of the endoplasm shows a meridional striation.
The nucleus is contained in the endoplasm, and is always at first

single, though it may divide again and again. The nuclear wall is a
firm membrane, sometimes finely porous. If there are concentric
shells it at first occupies the innermost, which it may actually come to
enclose, protruding lobes which grow through the several
perforations of the lattice-work, finally coalescing outside completely,
so as to show no signs of the joins. In the Nassellaria a similar
process usually results in the formation of a lobed nucleus,
contained in an equally lobed central capsule. The chromatin of the
nucleus may be concentrated into a central mass, or distributed into
several "nucleoli," or it may assume the form of a twisted, gut-like
filament, or, again, the nuclear plasm may be reticulated, with the
chromatin deposited at the nodes of the network.
Fig. 26.—A, Lithocercus annularis, with sagittal ring (from Parker and Haswell).
B, Aulactinium actinastrum. C, calymma; cent.caps., km, central capsule;
Ext.caps.pr., Extracapsular, and Int.caps.pr., intracapsular protoplasm; n,
nu, nucleus; op, operculum; ph, phaeodium; psd, pseudopodium; Skel.,
skeleton; z, Zooxanthella. (From Lang's Comparative Anatomy, after
Haeckel.)
The skeleton of this group varies, as shown in our conspectus, in the

several divisions.[90] The Acantharia (Figs. 24, 25, A) have a
skeleton of radiating spines meeting in the centre of figure of the
endoplasm, and forcing the nucleus to one side. The spines are
typically 20 in number, and emerge from the surface of the regular
spherical forms (from which the others may be readily derived)
radially, in five sets of four in the regions corresponding to the
equator and the tropics and polar circles of our world. The four rays
of adjacent circles alternate, so that the "polar" and "equatorial" rays
are on one set of meridians 90° apart, and the "tropical" spines are
on the intermediate meridians, as shown in the figures. By tangential
branching, and the meeting or coalescence of the branches,
reticulate (Figs. 23, 24, 25) and latticed shells are formed in some
families, with circles of openings or pylomes round the bases of the
spines. In the Sphaerocapsidae the spines are absent, but their
original sites are inferred from the 20 circles of pylomes.
In the Spumellaria the simplest form of the (siliceous) skeleton is that

of detached spicules, simple or complex, or passing into a latticed
shell, often with one or more larger openings (pylomes). Radiating
spines often traverse the whole of the cavity, becoming continuous
with its latticed wall, and bind firmly the successive zones when
present (Fig. 23).
Calcaromma calcarea was described by Wyville Thomson as having

a shell of apposed calcareous discs, and Myxobrachia, by Haeckel,
as having collections of the calcareous Coccoliths and
Coccospheres. In both cases we have to do with a Radiolarian not
possessing a skeleton, but retaining the undigested shells of its food,
in the former case (Actissa) in a continuous layer, in the latter
(Thalassicolla) in accumulations that, by their weight, droop and pull
out the lower hemisphere into distinct arms.
The (siliceous) skeleton of the Nassellaria is absent only in the

Nassoidea, and is never represented by distinct spicules. Its simplest
form is a "tripod" with the legs downward, and the central capsule
resting on its apex. The addition of a fourth limb converts the tripod
into a "calthrop," the central capsule in this case resting between the
upturned leg and two of the lower three regarded as the
"anterolateral"; the odd lower leg, like the upturned one, being
"posterior." Again, the skeleton may present a "sagittal ring," often
branched and spiny (Fig. 26, A), or combined with the tripod or
calthrop, or complicated by the addition of one or more horizontal
rings. Another type is presented by the "latticed chamber"
surrounding the central capsule, with a wide mouth ("pylome") below.
This is termed the "cephalis"; it may be combined in various ways
with the sagittal ring and the tripod or calthrop; and, again, it may be
prolonged by the addition of one, two, or three chambers below, the
last one opening by a pylome (Fig. 25, B). These are termed
"thorax," "abdomen," and "post-abdomen" respectively.
In the Phaeodaria the skeleton may be absent, spicular (of loose or

connected spicules) or latticed, continuous or bivalve. It is composed
of silica combined with organic matter, so that it chars when heated,
is more readily dissolved, and is not preserved in fossilisation. The
spicules or lattice-work are hollow, often with a central filament
running in the centre of the gelatinous contents. The latticed
structure of the shell of the Challengeridae (Fig. 28) is so fine as to
recall that of the Diatomaceae. In the Phaeoconchida the shell is in
two halves, parted along the "frontal" plane of the three apertures of
the capsule.
Fig. 27.—Scheme of various possible skeletal forms deposited in the meshes of

an alveolar system, most of which are realised in the Radiolaria. (From
Verworn, after Dreyer.)
The central capsule (rarely inconspicuous and difficult, if not

impossible to demonstrate) is of a substance which resembles chitin,
though its chemical reactions have not been fully studied hitherto,
and indeed vary from species to species. It is composed of a single
layer, except in Phaeodaria, where it is double. The operculum in this
group, i.e. the area around the aperture, is composed of an outer
layer, which is radially thickened, and a thin inner layer; the former is
produced into the projecting tube ("proboscis").
Reproduction in the Radiolaria may be simple fission due to the

binary fission of the nucleus, the capsule, and the ectoplasm in
succession. If this last feature is omitted we have a colonial
organism, composed of the common ectoplasm containing
numerous central capsules; and the genera in which this occurs, all
belonging to the Peripylaea, were formerly separated (as
Polycyttaria) from the remaining Radiolaria (Monocyttaria). They may
either lack a skeleton (Collozoidae, Fig. 22), or have a skeleton of
detached spicules (Sphaerozoidae), or possess latticed shells
(Collosphaeridae) one for each capsule, and would seem therefore
to belong, as only differentiated by their colonial habit, to the several
groups having these respective characters. Fission has been well
studied in Aulacantha (a Phaeodarian) by Borgert.[91] He finds that in
this case the skeleton is divided between the daughter-cells, and the
missing part is regenerated. In cases where this is impossible one of
the daughter-cells retains the old skeleton, and the other escapes as
a bud to form a new skeleton.
Fig. 28.—Shells of Challengeridae: A, Tuscarora; B, Pharyngella; C,

Haeckeliana. (From Wyville Thomson.)
Two modes of reproduction by flagellate zoospores have been

described (Fig. 22). In the one mode all the zoospores are alike—
isospores—and frequently contain a crystal of proteid nature as well
as oil-globules. In the Polycyttaria alone has the second mode of
spore-formation been seen, and that in the same species in which
the formation of isospores occurs. Here "anisospores" are formed,
namely, large "mega-," and small "micro-zoospores." They probably
conjugate as male and female respectively; but neither has the
process been observed, nor has any product of such conjugation
(zygote) been recognised. In every case the formation of the
zoospores only involves the endoplasm: the nucleus first undergoes
brood division, and the plasma within the capsule becomes
concentrated about its offspring, and segregates into the spores; the
extracapsular plasm disintegrates.[92]
The Yellow Cells (Zooxanthella), so frequently found in the

Radiolaria were long thought to be constituents of their body.
Cienkowsky found that when the host died from being kept in
unchanged water, the yellow cells survived and multiplied freely,
often escaping from the gelatinised cell-wall as biflagellate
zoospores. The cell-wall is of cellulose. The cell contains two
chloroplastids, or plates coloured with the vegetal pigment
"diatomin." Besides ordinary transverse fission in the ordinary
encysted state in the ectoplasm of the host, when free they may
pass into what is known as a "Palmella-state," the cell-walls
gelatinising; in this condition they multiply freely, and constitute a
jelly in which the individual cells are seen as rounded bodies. They
contain starch in two forms—large hollow granules, not doubly
refractive, and small solid granules which polarise light. We may
regard them as Chrysomonadaceae (p. 113). Similar organisms
occur in many Anthozoa (see pp. 261, 339, 373 f., 396).
Diatomaceae (yellow Algae with silicified cell-walls) sometimes live
in the jelly of certain Collosphaera. Both these forms live in the state
known as "symbiosis" with their host; i.e. they are in mutually helpful
association, the Radiolarian absorbing salts from the water for the
nutrition of both, and the Alga or Flagellate taking up the CO2 due to
the respiration of the host, and building up organic material, the
surplus of which is doubtless utilised, at least in part, for the nutrition
of the host. A similar union between a Fungus and a coloured
vegetal ("holophytic") organism is known as a Lichen.
The Suctorian Infusorian Amoebophrya is parasitic in the ectoplasm

of certain Acantharia, and in the peculiar genus Sticholonche which
appears to be intermediate between this group and Heliozoa.
The Silicoflagellate family Dictyochidae are found temporarily

embedded in the ectoplasm of some of the Phaeocystina, and have
a skeleton of similar nature. Their true nature was shown by Borgert.
The Amphipod crustacean Hyperia[93] may enter the jelly of the

colonial forms, and feed there at will on the host.[94]
Haeckel, in his Monograph of the Radiolaria of the Challenger

enumerated 739 genera, comprising 4318 species; and Dreyer has
added 6 new genera, comprising 39 species, besides 7 belonging to
known genera. Possibly, as we shall see, many of the species may
be mere states of growth, for it is impossible to study the life-
histories of this group; on the other hand, it is pretty certain that new
forms are likely to be discovered and described. The Radiolaria are
found living at all depths in the sea, by the superficial or deep tow-
net; and some appear to live near the bottom, where the durable
forms of the whole range also settle and accumulate. They thus form
what is known as Radiolarian ooze, which is distinguished from other
shallower deposits chiefly through the disappearance by solution of
all calcareous skeletons, as they slowly fell through the waters
whereon they originally floated at the same time with the siliceous
remains of the Radiolaria. The greatest wealth of forms is found in
tropical seas, though in some places in cold regions large numbers
of individuals of a limited range of species have been found.
Radiolaria of the groups with a pure siliceous skeleton can alone be

fossilised, even the impure siliceous skeleton of the Phaeodaria
readily dissolving in the depths at which they live: they have been
generally described by Ehrenberg's name Polycystineae. Tripolis
(Kieselguhr) of Tertiary ages have been found in many parts of the
globe, consisting largely or mainly of Radiolaria, and representing a
Radiolarian ooze. That of the Miocene of Barbados contains at least
400 species; that of Gruppe at least 130. In Secondary and
Palaeozoic rocks such oozes pass into Radiolarian quartzites (some
as recent as the Jurassic). They occur also in fossilised excrement
(coprolites), and in flint or chert concretions, as far down as the
lowest fossiliferous rocks, the Cambrian. The older forms are simple
Sphaerellaria and Nassellaria. From a synopsis of the history of the
order in Haeckel's Monograph (pp. clxxxvi.-clxxxviii.) we learn that
while a large number of skeletal forms had been described by
Ehrenberg, Huxley in 1851 published the first account of the living
animal. Since then our knowledge has been extended by the labours
of Haeckel, Cienkowsky, R. Hertwig, Karl Brandt, and A. Borgert.
5. Proteomyxa
Sarcodina without a clear ectoplasm, whose active forms are
amoeboid or flagellate, or pass from the latter form to the former;
multiplying chiefly, if not exclusively, by brood-formation in a cyst. No
complete cell-pairing (syngamy) known, though the cytoplasms may
unite into plasmodia; pseudopodia of the amoeboid forms usually
radiate or filose, but without axial filaments. Saprophytic or parasitic
in living animals or plants.
This group is a sort of lumber-room for forms which it is hard to place

under Rhizopoda or Flagellata, and which produce simple cysts for
reproduction, not fructifications like the Mycetozoa. The cyst may be
formed for protection under drought ("hypnocyst"), or as a
preliminary to spore-formation ("sporocyst"). The latter may have a
simple wall (simple sporocyst), or else two or three formed in
succession ("resting cyst"), so as to enable it to resist prolonged
desiccation, etc.: both differing from the hypnocyst in that their
contents undergo brood formation. On encystment any indigestible
food materials are extruded into the cyst, and in the "resting cysts,"
which are usually of at least two layers, this faecal mass lies in the
space between them. The brood-cells escape, either as flagellate-
cells, resembling the simpler Protomastigina, called "flagellulae," and
which often become amoeboid (Fig. 29); or already furnished with
pseudopodia, and called "amoebulae," though they usually recall
Actinophrys rather than Amoeba. In Vampyrella and some others the
amoebulae fuse, and so attain a greater size, which is most probably
advantageous for feeding purposes. But usually it is as a uninucleate
cell that the being encysts. They may feed either by ingestion by the
pseudopodia, by the whole surface contained in a living host-cell, or
by passing a pseudopodium into a host-cell (Fig. 29 5). They may be
divided as follows:—
A. Myxoidea.—Flagella 1-3; zoospores separating at once.

1. Zoosporeae.—Brood-cells escaping as flagellulae, even if they become
amoeboid later. Ciliophrys Cienk.; Pseudospora Cienk. (Fig. 29).
2. Azoosporeae.—Cells never flagellate. Protomyxa Haeckel;

Plasmodiophora Woronin; Vampyrella Cienk.; Serumsporidium L. Pfeiffer.
B. Catallacta.—Brood-cells of cyst on liberation adhering at the centre to

form a spherical colony, multiflagellate; afterwards separating, and becoming
amoeboid. Magosphaera Haeckel (marine).[95]
Fig. 29.—Pseudospora lindstedtii. 1, 2, Flagellate zoospores; 3, young

amoebula, with two contractile vacuoles, one being reconstituted by three
minute formative vacuoles; 4, 5, an amoebula migrating to a fungus hypha
through the wall of which it has sent a long pseudopodium; 6, amoebula full-
grown; 7, 8, mature cells rounded off, protruding a flagellum, before
encysting; 9, young sporocyst; 10, the nucleus has divided into a brood of
eight; 11-14, stages of formation of zoospores. cv, Contractile vacuole; e,
mass of faecal granules; fl, flagellum; n, nucleus, × about 750⁄1.
Plasmodiophora infests the roots of Crucifers, causing the disease

known as "Hanburies," or "fingers and toes," in turnips, etc.
Serumsporidium dwells in the body cavity of small Crustacea. Many
of this group were described by Cienkowsky under the name of
"Monadineae" (in Arch. Mikr. Anat. i. 1865, p. 203). Zopf has added
more than anyone else since then to our knowledge. He
monographed them under Cienkowsky's name, as a subordinate
group of the Myxomycetes, "Pilzthiere oder Schleimpilze," in
Schenk's Handb. d. Bot. vol. iii. pt. ii. (1887). To Lankester (Encycl.
Brit., reprint 1891) we owe the name here adopted. Zopf has
successfully pursued their study in recent papers in his Beitr. Nied.
Org. The Chytridieae, usually ascribed to Fungi, are so closely allied
to this group that Zopf proposes to include at least the Synchytrieae
herein.
This group is very closely allied to Sporozoa; for the absence of

cytogamy, and of sickle-germs,[96] and of the complex spores and
cysts of the Neosporidia, are the only absolute distinctions.
6. Mycetozoa (Myxomycetes, Myxogastres)

Sarcodina moving and feeding by pseudopodia, with no skeleton,
aggregating more or less completely into complex "fructifications"
before forming 1-nucleate resting spores; these may in the first
instance liberate flagellate zoospores, which afterwards become
amoeboid, or may be amoeboid from the first; zoospores capable of
forming hypnocysts from which the contents escape in the original
form.
1. Aggregation taking place without

plastogamy, zoospores amoeboid, with a
clear ectosarc Acrasieae.
Copromyxa Zopf; Dictyostelium Brefeld.
2. Aggregation remaining lax, with merely
thread-like connexions, except when
encystment is to take place; cytoplasm
finely granular throughout; complete
fusion of the cytoplasm doubtful Filoplasmodieae
Labyrinthula Cienk.; Chlamydomyxa Archer; Leydenia (?)
Schaud.
3. Plasmodium formation complete, Myxomycetes.
eventuating in the formation of a complex
fructification often traversed by elastic,
hygroscopic threads, which by their
contraction scatter the spores; zoospores
usually flagellate at first
Fuligo Hall.; Chondrioderma Rostaf.; Didymium Schrad. (Fig.
30).
I. The Acrasieae are a small group of saprophytes, often in the most

literal sense, though in some cases it has been proved that the
actual food is the bacteria of putrefaction. In them, since no cell-
division takes place in the fructification, it is certain that the
multiplication of the species must be due to the fissions of the
amoeboid zoospores, which often have the habit of Amoeba limax
(Fig. 1, p. 5).
II. Filoplasmodieae.—Chlamydomyxa[97] is a not uncommon

inhabitant of the cells of bog-mosses and bog-pools, and its nutrition
may be holophytic, as it contains chromoplasts; but it can also feed
amoeba-fashion. Labyrinthula is marine, and in its fructification each
of the component cells forms four spores. Leydenia has been found
in the fluid of ascitic dropsy, associated with malignant tumour.
III. Myxomycetes.—The fructification in this group is not formed by

the mere aggregation of the zoospores, but these fuse by their
cytoplasm to form a multinucleate body, the "plasmodium," which,
after moving and growing (with nuclear division) for some time like a
great multinucleate Reticularian, passes into rest, and develops a
fructification by the formation of a complex outer wall; within this the
contents, after multiplication of the nuclei, resolve themselves into
uninucleate spores, each with its own cyst-wall. The fructifications of
this group are often conspicuous, and resemble those of the
Gasteromycetous fungi (e.g., the Puffballs), whence they were at
first called Myxogastres. De Bary first discovered their true nature in
1859, and ever since they have been claimed by botanist and
zoologist alike.
The spore on germination liberates its contents as a minute

flagellate, with a single anterior lash and a contractile vacuole (Fig.
30, C). It soon loses the lash, becomes amoeboid, and feeds on
bacteria, etc. (Fig. 30, D, E). In this state it can pass into hypnocysts,
from which, as from the spores, it emerges as a flagellula. After a
time the amoeboids, which may multiply by fission, fuse on meeting,
so as to form the plasmodium (Fig. 30, F). This contains numerous
nuclei, which multiply as it grows, and numerous contractile
vacuoles. When it attains full size it becomes negatively hydrotactic,
crawls to a dry place, and resolves itself into the fructification. The
external wall, and sometimes a basal support to the fruit, are
differentiated from the outer layer of protoplasm; while the nuclei
within, after undergoing a final bipartition, concentrate each around
an independent portion of plasma, which again is surrounded as a
spore by a cyst-wall. Often the maturing plasmodium within the wall
of the fruit is traversed by a network of anastomosing tubes filled
with liquid, the walls of which become differentiated into membrane
like the fruit-wall, and are continuous therewith. As the fruit ripens
the liquid dries, and the tubes now form a network of hollow threads,
the "capillitium," often with external spiral ridges (Fig. 30, A, B).
These are very hygroscopic, and by their expansion and contraction
determine the rupture of the fruit-wall and the scattering of the
spores.

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CHAPTER 2 Picturing Variation with Graphs 36

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CHAPTER 8 Hypothesis Testing for Population Proportions 354

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Schaudinn admits 24 genera (and 7 doubtful) and 41 species (and

Fig. 22.—Collozoum inerme. A, B, C, three forms of colony; D, small colony with

The following is Haeckel's classification of the Radiolaria:—

B. Acantharia (Actipylaea).—Pores aggregated into distinct areas;

II. Osculosa (Monotrypasta).—Monaxonic; pores of central capsule limited

D. Phaeodaria (Cannopylaea, Haeck.; Tripylaea, Hertw.).—Central

Sublegion (1). Collodaria.[86]—Skeleton absent or of detached spicules;

Order ii. Beloidea.—Skeleton spicular. (Families 3, 4.)

Sublegion (2). Sphaerellaria.—Skeleton continuous, latticed or spongy,

Order iv. Prunoidea.—Skeleton a prolate sphaeroid or cylinder, sometimes

Order v. Discoidea.—Shell flattened, of circular plan, simple or concentric,

Order vi. Larcoidea.—Shell ellipsoidal, with all three axes unequal or

Order vii. Actinelida.—Radial spines numerous, more than 20, usually

Order viii. Acanthonida.—Radial spines equal. (Families 36-38.)

Order ix. Sphaerophracta.—Radial spines 20, with a latticed spherical

Order x. Prunophracta.—Radial spines 20, unequal; latticed shell,

Order xi. Nassoidea.—Skeleton absent. (Family 45.)

Order xii. Plectoidea.—Skeleton of a single branching spicule, the

Order xiii. Stephoidea.—Skeleton with a sagittal ring continuous with the

Order xiv. Spyroidea.—Skeleton with a latticed shell developed around the