Chemical Equations

Equations

Chemical Equations

Chemical reactions can be represented by word equations or equations

using symbols and formulae.
Key Aims

1. Chemical Equations. • Formation of compounds can be represented in a chemical formula.

2. Balancing Equations.
The chemical formula shows you the elements involved and the
3. State Symbols.
number of atoms involved.

• An equation has reactants and products. Reactants are substances

that react together in a chemical reaction to form the products.
Reactants are found before the arrow in a chemical formula and
products are found after the arrow.

• All chemical equations need to be balanced. On either side of the

reaction the number of atoms should be the same and this can be
done by putting numbers in front of the atoms or compound.

Study Mind Tip Balancing Equations

Never change the chemical
formula to balance the equation. Let’s work through an example to balance an equation:
Always add numbers in front!
Remember to balance
equations logically. Count the 1. Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium Oxide. First write the
number of atoms of each
chemical formula for the word equation.
element on each side of the
equation and determine which
needs balancing. Start off by
Mg + O2 → MgO
balancing one element, then
proceed to balance the next.
Don’t try to balance all the
2. First balance the oxygen. Find an element that does not balance
elements at once as you will get
confused! and add a number in front of on the other side.

Mg + O2 → 2 MgO
 3. Then balance the magnesium. This is fixing the discrepancy caused
by initially balancing the oxygen. Add another number on the other side
to finish balancing the equation.

2 Mg + O2 → 2 MgO

State Symbols

You can also add state symbols to any reactant or product in the
chemical equation.

State of Matter State Symbol

Solid (s)
Study Mind Tip

Aqueous just means dissolved in

water. This is useful when looking Liquid (l)
at a chemical equation and
determining if there are any
solutions. An example could be
an aqueous solution of copper Gas (g)
(II) sulfate,

Aqueous (aq)

Below is a reaction that involves all the state symbols:

2 Na (s) + 2 H2O (l) → 2 NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)

 Common Molecules & Ions

Recognising Common Ions

There are several common ions you will come across throughout GCSE
Chemistry, which you need to be familiar with. The following tables show
the positive and negative ions you should know.

Positive Ions

Study Mind Tip Ion Charge

It will help to learn which metals

are in which group. This make it
easier to remember the charge Group 1 metals: Li, Na, K, Rb,
1
of the ions. However, there’s Cs, Fr
always a periodic table in the
exam to refer back to!
Group 2 metals: Be, Mg, Ca, Sr,
2
Ba, Ra

Group 3 metals: B, Al, Ga, In, Ti 3

Hydrogen (H) 1

Silver (Ag) 1

Study Mind Tip Copper (Cu) 1

Writing the charge of ions is

very important when writing out Ammonium (NH4) 1
chemical equations.

Iron II (Fe II) 2

Lead (Pb) 2

Zinc (Zn) 2

Iron III (Fe III) 3

 Negative Ions

Ion Charge

Group 5 non-metals: N, P, As -3

Group 6 non-metals: O, S, Se,

-2
? Knowledge Recall Te

1. What is the charge of an

Group 7 non-metals: F, Cl, Br, I,
ammonium ion? -1
2. What is the charge of a At
silver ion?
3. What is the charge of a
hydroxide ion? Hydroxide (OH) -1

Nitrate (NO3) -1

Carbonate (CO3) -2

Sulfate (SO4) -2

Key Aims
1. Atoms.
2. Elements.
3. Compounds.
Study Mind Tip
Make sure you are familiar with
the differences between
elements and compounds as
the whole of Chemistry GCSE is
built on these concepts.
Study Mind Tip
We will learn about electron
transfer and making/breaking
bonds in a lot more detail later
on.
Elements & Compounds
Atoms
All substances are made out of atoms. An atom is the smallest unit of all
matter. An atom is the smallest part of an element that can exist.
A molecule is made of a fixed number of atoms, which are covalently
bonded together.
Elements
Periodic Table
• An element is made of one type of atom. Elements are made up of
atoms, and each element only has one type of atom. For example,
oxygen is only made up of oxygen atoms.
• Elements are arranged in the periodic table. There are about 100
different elements, which are arranged in the periodic table based on
their properties.
• Elements are arranged by atomic number. All elements are arranged
in the periodic table in ascending order of atomic number. Elements
are represented using a symbol which is usually one or two letters for
e.g. C = Carbon and Na = Sodium.
Compounds
• What is a compound? A compound is a substance that contains two
or more elements chemically combined together. The elements in each
compound are present in fixed proportions - for example in carbon
dioxide (CO2) for every gram of carbon there is 2g of oxygen.
• The formation of compounds involves breaking and making bonds.
Making a compound involves making bonds between atoms.
Sometimes you also need to break bonds in the reactants. usually
results in a change in energy which can be detected. So either energy
is required for the formation or energy is made during the formation.
• Making and breaking bonds involves electrons. Electrons can either
be shared, lost or gained to form chemical bonds. For example,
covalent bonds are formed when electrons are shared, and ionic bonds
are formed when electrons are transferred from metal to non-metal.

Key Aims
1. Billiard Ball Model
2. Plum Pudding Model
Study Mind Tip
Try to learn each stage of the
progression of the atomic model
systematically, so you don’t get
confused between the different
models.
Atomic Models Part 1
Models for Atoms
Models used to explain atoms have changed overtime as scientists
gather new evidence through conducting experiments. We will first look
at a summary of the first two stages in developing the model for an atom
accepted today.
Billiard Ball Model (John Dalton)
In the early 1800s, John Dalton conducted many experiments, making
the following findings to form the Billiard Ball model:
• Elements are made of tiny particles called atoms.
• Atoms were spherical in shape and could not be divided or split.
• During chemical reactions, atoms can be combined, separated or
rearranged.
• Atoms were solid spheres.
Plum Pudding Model (Thompson)
 In the late 1800s, Thompson discovered negatively charged particles
within the atom, known as electrons. Here is a summary of his findings:

• Negatively charged electrons are present in atoms.

• He proposed the ‘plum pudding’ model, which suggested the atom

Study Mind Tip was a positively charged sphere with negatively charged electrons
randomly embedded within it.
Questions about the history of
the atom usually focus on the
plum pudding model. You need • The mass of the atom is equally distributed throughout the atom.
to be able to describe why the
atom was likened to a plum
pudding in detail. Thompson believed that the atom (pudding) was a ball of positive
charge, with electrons (plums) embedded within it.
 Atomic Models Part 2
Models for Atoms

Nuclear Model (Rutherford)

Key Aims

1. Nuclear Model.
2. Developed Nuclear Model.

Ten years later, Rutherford proposed the nuclear model based on

evidence from the alpha particle scattering experiment.

Rutherford and his partners (Marsden and Geiger) fired high speed alpha
particles, which are densely charged, tiny, positive particles, at a piece of
very thin gold foil.

Study Mind Tip

Rutherford’s particle scattering

experiment is one that you
need to know. Exam questions
tend to focus on the results of
this experiment and how it
made the model of the atom
change drastically.

According to the plum pudding model, they were expecting all of the
alpha particles to pass through undeflected because the positive charge
of the atom was spread throughout the atom.
 However, what actually happened was that most alpha particles went
straight through the foil, whilst some alpha particles were greatly
deflected and scattered.

The observations suggested the following conclusions:

Observation Conclusion

Study Mind Tip Most of the alpha particles went Most of the atom is made up of
through the gold foil. empty space.
You must understand what we
can learn from the observations
to draw a conclusion. This will
Alpha particles were deflected The nucleus of the atom must be
help you to understand how and some rebounded. positive to repel and deflect alpha
each atomic model was
developed.
particles.

Only a very small proportion of The nucleus is very small

the alpha particles were compared to the size of the atom.
deflected.

To explain these findings Ernest Rutherford proposed the nuclear

model, in which there are electrons that orbit the central positively
charged nucleus.

Study Mind Tip

In the nuclear model here is a tiny positive nucleus, surrounded by
Whenever we look at
empty space. The electrons are a long way from the nucleus in an outer
contrasting scientific theories, try
to make a table of the orbit. Most of the mass of the atom is in the central nucleus.
differences between the two like
this one. This will help you in 6
mark questions that ask you to If Thomson’s plum pudding model was correct, then the alpha particles
‘Compare and contrast…’.
should have just passed through. But in fact most alpha particles passed
through, but some were deflected greatly by the positive charge in the
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 centre of the atom. There is just empty space between the nucleus and
the electrons.

Study Mind Tip

It is important to remember
that these are old models and
not what we actually use in
theory today.

Positive charge is found in the centre (red) and electrons are found
around (green).

Developed Nuclear Model (Bohr)

Neils Bohr adapted Rutherford’s nuclear model by suggesting the

Study Mind Tip

The Bohr model is the one we
use at GCSE. You will soon learn
more about electron shells and
how we show the number of
electrons in each shell.
electrons are at specific distances from the nucleus organised in energy
levels.
Bohr’s theoretical calculations supported the experimental observations.
He suggested there are two electrons in the first shell, up to eight
electrons in the second shell, and up to eight electrons in the third shell.

Bohr suggested that electrons orbit at specific distances (shells) from the
nucleus.

Key Aims
1. Discovery of Protons.
2. Discovery of Neutrons.
Study Mind Tip
Make sure to have a thorough
understanding of protons,
including charge, mass and
position in the atom. Exam
questions will have lots of
questions relating to these
aspects.
Study Mind Tip
As with protons, you need to
know a neutron’s charge, mass
and position in the atom. The
questions about neutrons will
often come with questions
about protons.
Discovery of Protons &
Neutrons
Protons and Neutrons
Discovery of Protons
At this stage, the model showed that there was a centre of positive
charge, with electrons orbiting in different levels. However, the centre of
positive charge was not understood fully.
Further experiments led to show that the nucleus could be subdivided
into smaller particles, each having the same positive charge. These
individual positively charged particles were called protons.
Discovery of Neutrons
In 1932 James Chadwick found evidence to support the existence of
neutrons. He suggested that the nucleus consists of neutrons which
have a mass but no charge. This was roughly 20 years after the concept
of a nucleus was accepted within the scientific community.
 Study Mind Tip

Exams can include a 6 mark

question on this topic. They are
testing your understanding of
how the model of the atom
changed over time, so try to
order your answer in a logical
fashion.

This model showed that an atom consisted of electrons orbiting around

a central nucleus, consisting of protons and neutrons. Neutrons have no
charge but have a mass.
 Developing the Atomic
Model
Looking Forward

Overtime scientists have gathered new experimental data which leads to

Study Mind Tip the development or replacement of the old models used to explain
atoms. For instance after the alpha particle scattering experiment there
You need to learn each of these
models off by heart and explain was a change in the atomic model from the ‘plum pudding’ model to the
them. You need to explain the
nuclear model.
experimental evidence which
led to their development where
applicable. Learn Rutherford’s
alpha particle scattering
experiment off by heart and Worked example: Compare and contrast the plum pudding model with
how the observations relate to
the nuclear model of the atom. (3 marks)
the given conclusions.

1. Compare the structure of each model.

In the plum pudding model, there is a positive sphere with negative

charge randomly placed within the sphere. There is no empty space.

Study Mind Tip In the nuclear model, there is a central positive, tiny nucleus, with mostly

Remember for 3 marks you

empty space and lots of negative charges a long way from the nucleus.
need to give 3 clear points. Try
not to waffle and write too
much unnecessary information.
2. Compare the masses.

The mass in the plum pudding model is distributed equally throughout

the sphere. The mass in the nuclear model is concentrated in the
nucleus.
 Representing Elements
Representing Elements in the Periodic Table

In the periodic table, each element is represented using a symbol and is

surrounded by two numbers.

• The number at the top of the symbol is the mass number, which is
the number of protons plus the number of neutrons within the atom.

Recap
• The number at the bottom of the symbol is the atomic number,
Elements are made up of which is the number of protons within the atom.
atoms, and each element only
has one type of atom. We learnt
that there are protons, neutrons
and electrons which make up
an atom. Now we will look at
how these can be represented
using atomic symbols.

Figure X. Argon. The element argon is represented as the symbol Ar

within the periodic table. The number at the top represents the mass
number (40) and the number at the bottom represents the atomic
number (18).

Practice Question:
 1. Be2+ has 7 electrons
2. H+ has no electrons
3. Se2- and Fe together have 77 electrons.
4. The atomic number of Be2+ is different to that of Be.
5. The mass number of H+ is different to that of H.

Which of the above statements are true?

1. False - Be2+ has 2 electrons. As an uncharged element, it has 4

electrons. However, as it is positively charged with a +2 charge, it

loses 2 electrons (4-2=2)

2. True - H+ has no electrons. This is correct, as H only has 1

electron. When it’s positively charged, it loses this electron.

Study Mind Tip

3. False - Se2- and Fe together have 62 electrons. Se2- has 34 + 2 =

It’s really important to grasp the
concept of charges. A positive
charge indicates an element or
36 (as 2 electrons gained due to -2 charge). 36 + 26 (electrons in
compound has lost electrons. On
the other hand, a negative Fe) = 62.
charge indicates an element or
compound has gained electrons.

4. False - The atomic number of Be2+ is the same as that of Be, as

the atomic number is the number of protons, which do not

change with electron number changes. If the proton number
changes, the element would differ.

5. False - The mass number of H+ is the same as that of H, as there

are the same number of protons and neutrons in both uncharged

and charged forms of H.
 Isotopes
Isotopes

• What are isotopes? Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the
Key Aims same number of protons but different number of neutrons in the
nucleus. So isotopes have the same atomic number but different mass
1. Isotopes.
2. Examples of Isotopes.
numbers.

• Physical properties of isotopes are different. Isotopes can have

varying physical properties, because mass determines physical
properties such as density, boiling and melting point.

• Chemical properties of isotopes are pretty similar. Chemical

properties are determined by the number of electrons, which is the
same in isotopes. Therefore they have the same chemical properties.
Study Mind Tip
• Isotopes can be radioactive or non-radioactive. Radioactive isotopes
There may be an exam have many uses. Common uses include use in medical imaging or in
question asking you to describe
how the physical and chemical
carbon dating.
properties of isotopes differ.

Example: Isotopes of Chlorine

Chlorine-35 and Chlorine-37 have the same number of protons (and

electrons), but have a different number of neutrons. Therefore the mass
number is different. They are both the same element, so have the same
atomic number.

Atomic Mass
Protons Electrons Neutrons
Number Number
Study Mind Tip

Remember you can work out Cl-35 17 35 17 17 18

the number of neutrons by the
mass number minus the atomic
number. Cl-37 17 37 17 17 20
 Example: Isotopes of Hydrogen
Study Mind Tip

Isotopes of hydrogen are asked

about very often. It may seem a
bit strange that Protium has no
Atomic Mass
electrons, but don’t worry it is Protons Electrons Neutrons
correct! Number Number

Protium 1 1 1 0 1

Deuterium 1 2 1 1 1

Tritium 1 3 1 2 1

Example: Isotopes of Carbon

Atomic Mass
Protons Electrons Neutrons
Number Number

Carbon-12 6 12 6 6 6

Carbon-13 6 13 6 7 6

Practice Question: Magnesium has several different isotopes, including

Study Mind Tip
The best way to work through
this question is to draw a table
like the ones shown above and
write out the numbers. Then it is
much easier to work through
the statements and determine
which are true.
Mg-24, Mg-25 and Mg-26. Which of the following statements about
Magnesium’s isotopes are true:
1. They have the same number of protons
2. They have the same number of neutrons
3. They have a different number of electrons
4. They have a different mass
5. They have the same atomic number
6. They have similar chemical properties.
1. Isotopes only differ in neutron number, not protons.
2. Different isotopes have different numbers of neutrons
3. They have the same number of electrons, as their atomic numbers
are the same.
4. This is as their mass number differs, due to the variation in neutron
number.
5. They have the same atomic number, as the number of protons is
invariant.
6. They have similar chemical properties, as the electron number is the
same.
 Size & Mass of Atoms
Size of an Atom

• Atoms are extremely small. Each individual atom is incredibly small

Key Aims
1. Size of an Atom.
2. Mass Number.
3. Calculations of Protons,
Neutrons & Electrons.
and can not be seen by the human eye. The radius of each atom is
around 0.1nm, which in standard form is 1 x 10-10 m.
• The nucleus is only a tiny part of an atom. Each atom has a central
nucleus and the radius of this nucleus is around 1 x 10-14 m. The
nucleus is tiny compared to the whole atom. The radius of the nucleus
is less than 1/10,000 of the radius of the whole atom. This means that
most of the atom is occupied by the cloud of electrons.

Study Mind Tip

You need to learn the radius of

the atom and nucleus off by
heart for your exams.
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 Fig X. Size of an atom. The central nucleus (red) is extremely small
compared to the size of Rutherford’s nuclear model. Positive charge is
found in the centre (red) and electrons are found around (blue). (http://
dispatchesfromturtleisland.blogspot.com/2013/04/an-atom-drawn-to-
scale.html)

Mass Number

The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons which are
found in the nucleus. Electrons have a negligible mass, so we don’t
usually count it when working out the mass of an atom.

Study Mind Tip

• Protons, neutrons, electrons have a relative mass. Both protons and
Electrons actually has a mass of neutrons have a relative mass of 1. Electrons have a really small mass
around 1/1800, but this is such so it is usually assumed as 0.
a small number we can just
assume it is zero when doing
calculations.

Proton Neutron Electron

Mass 1 1 Very small

• The majority of the mass of an atom is in the nucleus. The nucleus

consists of the majority of the mass of an atom because the subatomic
particles within the nucleus (the protons and the neutrons) both have a
relative mass of 1. Whereas the electrons surrounding the nucleus have
a very small mass; the mass is negligible.

Study Mind Tip

Calculations of Protons, Neutrons, Electrons

Becoming familiar with We can perform calculations to determine the number of protons,
calculating the numbers of
protons, neutrons and electrons neutrons and electrons within an atom:
in an atom or ion, given its
atomic number and mass
number. Worked Example: Use your periodic table to calculate the number of
protons, neutrons and electrons in phosphorus.
Answer:

1. Find phosphorus on the periodic table.

It has a mass number of 31 and an atomic number of 15

2. Number of protons = number of electrons.

Protons = 15, therefore electrons = 15

3. Number of neutrons = Atomic mass number - Atomic number

31-15= 16 neutrons

Recap
We learnt that elements are
made of lots of small atoms. We
also learnt more about the
history of research into atomic
structure. By the end of the
tutorial, we learnt about the
current known structure of the
atom, summarised here.
Study Mind Tip
Make sure you learn the relative
charges of protons, neutrons
and electrons.
Relative Electrical
Charges
Atoms and Elements
• The nucleus contains protons (+1 charge) and neutrons (0 charge).
• Electrons (-1 charge) orbit in shells around the central nucleus.
• The mass if concentrated in the nucleus.
• The number of protons = the number of electrons in a non-charged
atom.
Protons, Neutrons, Electrons
Structure of an Atom
An atom consists of neutrons, protons and electrons. Each atom has 2
regions:
• The nucleus is found in the centre of the atom, and consists of
positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons. This makes the
atomic nucleus positively charged.
• A cloud of electrons surrounding the nucleus. The electrons are
negatively charged and orbit the nucleus in shells.
Relative Charge
• Protons, neutrons and electrons have relative charge. We can give a
relative charge to protons (+1), neutrons (0) and electrons (-1). Make
sure to memorise these!
• All atoms have no overall charge. Atoms are neutral and have no
overall charge because the number of protons (positively charged)
 equals the number of electrons (negatively charged). The opposite
charges cancel each other out.

Proton Neutron Electron

Relative Charge 1 0 -1

Study Mind Tip Fig 1. Relative Charges. Each of proton, neutrons

and electrons have a relative charge.
If two atoms don’t have the
same number of protons, then
they are not from the same
element. We will later learn
about isotopes, which are Atomic Number
different atoms of the same
element which have the same
number of protons but different The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus. Each
number of neutrons. So the
element has its own atomic number and specific characteristic that helps
number of neutrons can vary
between atoms of the same you recognise it. The periodic table is arranged in ascending atomic
element, but never the number
number.
of protons.

• Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons. The
number of protons in a particular atom is equal to the atomic number
and all atoms of a specific element have the same number of protons.
For example, calcium has an atomic number of 20. Therefore calcium
has 20 protons and all atoms of calcium have the same number of
protons - 20.

• Atoms of different elements have different numbers of protons.

The atomic number of each element is different, therefore the number
of protons each element has is different. For example, calcium has an
atomic number of 20 and therefore has 20 protons. However sodium
has an atomic number of 11 and therefore has 11 protons.

Key Aims
1. Understanding RAM.
2. Calculating RAM.
Study Mind Tip
You should be able to calculate
the relative atomic mass of an
element given the percentage
abundance of its isotopes.
Relative Atomic Mass
Understanding RAM
The relative atomic mass (Ar) is the average mass of atoms of an
element relative to the mass of an atom of carbon-12 (which is given a
mass exactly of 12). The average mass must take into account the
proportions of naturally occurring isotopes of the element.
Scientists decided that the atomic mass of an atom of an element would
be compared to carbon-12. Therefore the atomic mass is known as
relative as it is being compared to the mass of carbon-12. If the Ar of an
atom is lower than 12 it has a mass smaller than carbon-12 atom.
You can find the relative atomic mass of an element on a periodic table
by looking at the number directly above the element symbol. For
example the relative atomic mass of Copper (Cu) is 29.
Calculating RAM
The relative atomic mass of an element is the average mass of an atom,
and it takes into account the masses of each isotope and their
proportions in the environment.
To calculate the relative atomic mass you require the following
information:
• The abundance of each isotope which tells you the quantity the
isotope is present in the environment. This is different for each
isotope of an element.
• The mass number of each isotope of a particular element. The
number of protons in all the isotopes of an atom remains the same, it
is only the number of neutrons.
Lets work through an example:
 Practice Question: A sample of chlorine gas is a mixture of 2 isotopes,
chlorine-35 and chlorine-37. These isotopes occur in specific proportions
in the sample i.e. 75% chlorine-35 and 25% chlorine-37. Calculate the
relative atomic mass of chlorine in the sample.

1. Identify the isotopes. Both isotopes present in the mixture or

environment, and the abundance of each isotope of the element.

Relative isotopic Abundance

Cl-35 75%
Study Mind Tip
Cl-37 25%
Relative atomic mass is may not
be written as a whole number
due to the fact that is often an
average of the masses of many
isotopes. 2. Identify the mass number. For each isotope of the element.

Relative isotopic
Mass Number
Abundance
Cl-35 35 75%
Cl-37 37 25%

3. Write out the formula to calculate relative atomic mass.

4. Substitute identified data. Substitute into the formula and work out
the answer.

= 35.5
 The relative atomic mass of chlorine in this mixture was 35.5. This
number is closer to 35 compared to 37 as chlorine-35 is more abundant
than chlorine-37.

We can do a sense-check, to make sure that the value seems right. 35.5
is in between 35 and 37, as we would expect, and it has a closer mass to
Cl-35, which is the more abundant isotope. This seems fine!

You need to be able to rearrange the equation to work out a missing

abundance or mass.
Study Mind Tip

This type of question comes up Worked example. Oxygen has three isotopes. The abundances in
frequently. Make sure you learn
percentage are given here. The mass of one of the isotopes is unknown.
the equation and know how to
rearrange it. It is important that The average atomic mass of the isotopes is 16.65. Work out the values of
you are confident with using
x and y.
algebra and rearranging
equations to find an unknown
value.

Answer:

1. Set up a table. Put in all the values as shown.

 Mass x
Isoptope Mass Abundance (%)
Abundance

16 O 16 50 16 x 50 = 800

17 O 17 35 17 x 35 = 595

x = 100 -
yO y y x 15
(50+35) = 15
2. Work out x.

All percentages = 100, so x = 100-(50+35) =15%

3. Form an equation for y. Use the given atomic mass and the
equation for calculating it.

16.65 = (800 + 595 + 15y) / 100

4. Rearrange to find y.

[16.65 x 100 - (800+595)] / 15 = y = 18

So the atomic mass of the unknown isotope = 18 and the abundance =

15%

Key Aims
1. The Early Periodic Table.
2. Newlands Octaves.
3. Mendeleev’s Periodic Table.
Study Mind Tip
You need to be able to interpret
and compare the ideas of early
scientists in developing the
periodic table. Look carefully at
the types of elements that have
been grouped together.
Developing the Periodic
Table
The Early Periodic Table
By the 19th century scientists had discovered over 50 elements, many
attempts had been made to put these elements into a logical order to
reflect the similarities in their chemical properties.
The early periodic tables were arranged strictly by atomic weight as
protons, neutrons and electrons had not been discovered yet. Below is a
summary of how the periodic table has changed over time to form the
periodic table we use today.
Newlands Octaves
• Newton’s Law of Octaves. In 1864, an English scientist, John Newland
proposed his ‘law of octaves’ where he arranged the elements in
order of their atomic mass. Newland noticed that every 8th element
had similar chemical properties.
• Newland’s Octaves. Newland arranged the discovered elements in
order of atomic weight with H (Hydrogen) as the lowest then Li
(Lithium) then Be (beryllium) and so on. Newland proposed that
properties of every 8th element were similar for example Li (lithium)
and Na (sodium).
• Problems with the Law of Octaves. However, many scientists did not
accept Newland’s law of octaves because many new elements were still
being discovered and did not fit in the table. Furthermore, all elements
in his octaves did not have similar properties for example in the 7th
octave O (Oxygen a non-metal) and Fe (Iron a metal).
Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

Study Mind Tip
Learn the differences between
Newland’s octaves and
Mendeleev’s periodic system.
Study Mind Tip
When it comes to looking at the
periodic table, always think
about the different physical and
chemical properties of the
elements in each group.
In 1869 Dimitri Mendeleev categorised the elements into ‘Periodic
System’. This was a table of elements arranged according to atomic
mass however there were many differences between Newland’s octaves
and the Mendeleev’s periodic system.
Mendeleev’s main focus was arranging the elements based on similarities
of chemical and physical properties. So he arranged the elements in a
table, with vertical columns known as groups and these groups had
elements with similar properties.
Mendeleev acknowledged that all elements had not been discovered
yet, therefore left gaps to be filled in once they had been discovered.
The gaps existed in certain groups with particular characteristics,
therefore Mendeleev was able to predict the properties of these
undiscovered elements. When these elements were discovered, his
predictions were right and Mendeleev’s table was accepted by other
scientists.
Rearranging the Position of Elements
• He did not stick to the strict order of arranging elements in order
of increasing atomic mass. When Mendeleev organised elements in
order of atomic mass, some elements did not fit the pattern of the
group of increasing atomic mass. He rearranged these elements so
that they would be placed in a group with similar properties.
• Iodine and Tellurium swapped positions. Iodine has a lower atomic
mass than Tellurium, therefore it should be placed before Tellurium in
the periodic table. However, Mendeleev saw that Iodine has similar
properties to the elements in Tellurium’s group (7) such as fluorine,
chlorine and bromine. Therefore, Mendeleev swapped around these
two elements to ensure elements were in groups with similar
properties.
• Explanation of Tellurium and Iodine order. We now know that the
explanation of isotopes is the reason why iodine has a lower mass
number than tellurium, even though it has a higher proton number.
 The Current Periodic Table
The Modern Periodic Table

• Discovery of isotopes of the same element explained the order

based on atomic mass was not always correct. When scientists
Key Aims
discovered isotopes it explained why some atoms had heavier atomic
1. Modern Periodic Table. masses than expected. This meant that Mendeleev was correct to not
2. Arrangement of the Periodic
Table. stick to arranging the periodic table according to atomic mass.

• Elements in the modern periodic table are arranged according to

atomic number. In the 20th century, protons and electrons were
discovered by scientists who then realised the periodic table should be
arranged according to atomic number rather than atomic mass.

• Order of elements in modern periodic table. Elements in the modern

periodic table are arranged according to atomic number. The periodic
table we use today is arranged according to the number of protons an
element has also known as the atomic number. Before the 20th
century, scientists had not discovered subatomic particles such as
protons and electrons. Therefore scientists arranged elements in order
of atomic weight in the past before this discovery was made.

Study Mind Tip

The table is called a periodic

Arrangement of the Periodic Table
table because similar properties
occur at regular intervals.
• Elements with similar properties are arranged in vertical columns
known as groups. In the periodic table, elements are arranged in
vertical columns’; these are known as groups.

• Each group of elements has similar chemical and physical

characteristics. Let's take group 1 all the elements. in group 1 such as
lithium, sodium and potassium are all very reactive alkali metals.
 Groups =
column
down
Study Mind Tip
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
You should be able to predict
possible reactions and probable
reactivity of elements from their H Li Be B C N O
positions in the periodic table.
With more practice you will
F Na Mg Al Si P S
become more familiar with the
similarities and differences
across the elements in the Cl K Ca Cr Ti Mn Fe
periodic table.

• Elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in

their outermost shell. Elements in each group in the periodic table
have a distinctive set of properties and react in the same way, this is
due to the number of electrons in the outermost shell. When atoms of
elements react, they either gain, lose or share the electrons in their
outermost shell.

• Elements in the periodic table are also arranged in horizontal rows.

Study Mind Tip
You need to be able to “read”
the periodic table and
determine the number of
electrons in the outer shell and
the number of electron shells
from the group number and
period number from the Periodic
Table.
The periodic table is formed of multiple rows, these are known as
periods. The elements are arranged in periods in ascending atomic
numbers. Each period signifies the number of shells that the atoms of
the elements in that period have. For example, lithium is in the second
period and has 2 shells.
• Group Number. The group number at the top signifies the number of
electrons in the outermost shell.
• Period.There are also horizontal rows known as periods. These rows
tell you the number of electron shells that an atom has.
Fig 1. Periodic Table. The modern periodic
table is arranged by ascending atomic number.
It is made of vertical columns known as groups.
 Electronic Configuration
Electronic Configuration

Working out the Electronic Configuration

As we mentioned in a previous tutorial, a cloud of electrons surround

the nucleus. These electrons moved in different energy levels, which we
can call electron shells.

We can work out the arrangement of electrons into shells. This is called
Study Mind Tip
the electronic configuration.
The first shell will always have
two electrons.
• Electrons occupy the closest shell first. Electrons will occupy the shell
closest to the nucleus before occupying the next shell. The shell must
be full before another shell is occupied.

• The shells hold different numbers of electrons. The first shell holds
up to two electrons. The second and third shells can hold up to eight
electrons.

• The electronic configuration can be written. We can write the

electronic configuration by writing the number of electrons in each
shell, separating the numbers with commas. For example electronic
configuration of potassium is 2, 8, 8, 1.

Study Mind Tip

When drawing the electron

shells, the electrons are
represented as crosses. It is best
to draw them at equal distances
from each other on each shell.

Fig 1. Potassium. Electron shells of potassium.

Potassium has an electronic configuration of 2, 8, 8, 1.
Relating the Electronic Configuration to the Periodic
Table

• The number of notations determine the period. For example the

electronic configuration of potassium is 2, 8, 8, 1. There are four
notations, therefore potassium is in period 4.

• The number of the last notation determines the group. The last
notation for the electronic configuration of potassium is 1. Therefore
potassium is in group 1.
 Metals & Non-Metals

Formation of Ions

Ions are formed from atoms when electrons are transferred between
atoms:
Key Aims

• A positive ion is formed when an atom has lost electrons, after which
1. Formation of Ions.
2. Properties of Metals and it contains less electrons than protons. Atoms of elements that react
Non-Metals. to form a positive ion are metals.

• A negative ion is when an atom gains electrons so it contains more

electrons than protons. Atoms of elements that react to form a
negative ion are non metals.

Let's take sodium and chlorine as an example. When sodium reacts with
chlorine, it losses the outermost electron and becomes a positively
charged sodium ion. This suggests that sodium is a metal.

Study Mind Tip

If you get confused when

working out the charge of an
ion, draw out some electron
configuration diagrams. This will
help you to work out how many
electrons will be lost or gained.

Fig 1. Sodium ion formation. Sodium atoms have one electron in their
outermost shell with an electron configuration of 2,8,1.
 When the sodium atom loses the electron in the outermost shell it
becomes a sodium ion. The ion now has 2 full shells and has a positive
charge. The electronic configuration is now [2,8]+

Study Mind Tip When Chlorine gains the electron lost by sodium and becomes a
negatively charged chloride Ion. This suggests that chlorine is a non
Remember electrons are
negatively charged. So if an metal.
electron is gained, the ion will
have a negative charge.

Fig 2. Chloride ion formation. Chlorine atoms have 7 electrons in their

outermost shell with an electron configuration of 2,8,7.

When the chlorine atom gains the electron in the outermost shell it
becomes a chloride ion. The ion now has 3 full shells with a negative
charge. The electronic configuration is now [2,8,8]-

Study Mind Tip

It is really important that you Properties of Metals and Non-Metals

are able to explain the
differences between metals and
Metals and non-metals have different physical and chemical properties.
non-metals on the basis of their
characteristic physical and Below is a table that summarises these main differences
chemical properties. A lot of
these properties are covered in
Physics GCSE as well,
particularly the conduction of
heat and electricity.
 Metals Non-metals

Appearance Shiny Dull

Strength Strong Weak

Density High Low

Solid Solids and Gases

State at Room
exception: mercury - exception: bromine -
Temperature
liquid liquid

Melting and
High Low
Boiling Points
? Knowledge Recall
Conduction of Good conductors of Poor conductors of heat
1. Define a positive ion. Heat heat good insulators
2. Define a negative ion.
3. Are metals good or bad Conduction of
conductors of heat? Good Poor
4. Do metals generally have a Electricity
high or low density?
Ductile (stretched
Ductile Non-ductile
into wires)

Malleable (beaten
Malleable Brittle
into sheets)

Metals as Conductors

Metals are good conductors of both heat and electricity because they
contain delocalised electrons which are free to move around.
Delocalised electrons can carry current, throughout the structure of the
metal, as well as transfer kinetic energy between themselves.
 Periodic Table Metals vs
Non-Metals
Metals and Non-Metals
Key Aims
The metal and non-metals in the periodic table can be further
1. Group 1 and 2 Metals.
2. Transition Metals. subdivided. Below we will discuss these divisions and the physical and
3. Group 0. chemical properties that group them.

Group 1 and 2 metals

Metals in groups 1 and 2 are known as the reactive metals. During a

reaction, elements in Group 1 lose 1 electron and all react in the same
way. All elements in Group 2 elements lose 2 electrons and react in the
same way.

Study Mind Tip We will learn more about the reactions that Group 1 and 2 elements
undergo soon. Here is a brief overview of the reactive metals’ properties:
You should be able to explain
how the atomic structure of
metals and non-metals relates • They react vigorously with other elements such as oxygen and
to their position in the periodic
table A common exam question chlorine.
is having to explain how the
reactions of elements are
related to the arrangement of • They react with water to form alkaline solutions and are also known as
electrons in their atoms and alkaline metals.
hence to their atomic number.

• They are soft and can be cut very easily with a knife.

Transition Metals

Transition metals are the blocks of elements found between groups 2

and 3, in the centre of the periodic table. These are the elements that
most people associate the world metal to such as copper, iron and silver.
They are very strong, good conductors of electricity and heat.

Group 0
 Non-metals in Group 0 are also known as noble gases. These elements
do not react easily and this is because they have a full outer shell of
electrons. We will learn more about transition metals and their properties
in a later tutorial.
Study Mind Tip

Make sure you are familiar of

the positions of the different
groups and the split between
metals and non-metals.

Fig 1. Subdivisions in the Periodic Table. The group 1 and

2 reactive metals (red and orange) are on the left-hand
side of the periodic table. The transition metals (pink) are
between the main grouped elements and are at the centre
of the periodic table. The noble gasses are furthest to the
right-hand side of the table (blue).
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Key Aims
1. Group 1.
2. Physical Properties.
3. Chemical Properties.
Study Mind Tip
There may be an exam
question asking you to explain
the different physical and
chemical properties of the
group 1 alkali metals.
Group 1
Group 1 - The Alkali Metals
Group 1 are metals that are found on the left hand-side of the periodic
table. They are also known as the alkali metals and are highly reactive.
Through this tutorial we will be exploring the physical and chemical
properties of the alkali metals and the trends through group 1.
Physical properties of the alkali metals
• The alkali metals are soft solids at room temperature and can easily be
cut with a knife.
• They also have low densities which means that these elements can
float on water.
• They have low melting and boiling points; this decreases as you go
down the group.
Chemical properties of the alkali metals
• Atoms of group 1 elements react in the same way. All the elements
in group 1 are highly reactive, have the same properties and react in
the same way this is because all the alkali metals have a single electron
in their outermost shell. When atoms of group 1 elements react, they
each lose one electron forming a positively charged ion.
Fig 1. Group 1 Ions. When atoms of group 1
elements react they lose 1 electron. For example,
when lithium reacts it loses 1 electron forming a +1
lithium ion. All elements in group 1 react in the same
way and have similar properties.
 Group 1: Reactions

Group 1 - reactions with oxygen

All group 1 metals react quickly with oxygen in the air to produce a
metal oxide. Below is a generic formula that represents the alkali metals
Key Aims (X) reacting with oxygen to form a metal oxide:

1. Reactions with Oxygen.

2. Reactions with Water. 4 X (s) + O2 (g) → 2 X2O (s)
3. Reactions with Chlorine.

Group 1 elements are stored in oil this is to prevent them from reacting
spontaneously with oxygen. When these metals are left out, the oxygen
in the air reacts with the surface of the metal forming a white oxide that
coats the surface.

They can also be heated in glass jar full of oxygen, where they burn
strongly with a flame forming a metal oxide. Some elements form
mixtures of a metal oxide (X2O), metal peroxide (X2O2) and metal

Study Mind Tip superoxide (XO2). Below is a table describing the observations made

The reactions of the first three when the first three elements in group 1 react with oxygens and the
alkali metals with oxygen, equations.
chlorine and water should
become second nature to you
after lots of practice.

Observations Equation

Red Flame - forms lithium 4 Li (s) + O2 (g)

Lithium
oxide → 2 Li2O (s)
4 Na (s) + O2 (g)
Orange Flame - forms
→ 2 Na2O (s)
Sodium sodium oxide and sodium
peroxide 2 Na (s) + O2 (g)

→ 2 Na2O2 (s)
2 K (s) + O2 (g)
Lilac Flame - forms potassium
→ 2 K2O2 (s)
Potassium peroxide and potassium
superoxide K (s) + O2 (g)

→ KO2 (s)

Study Mind Tip
If you memorise the generic
equation and practice balancing
it, then it will be easier for you
to write the equations for
reactions with specific elements.
Study Mind Tip
Memorise the observations as
well as the equations. An exam
question may tell you the
observation and you will have to
determine with metal was used
in the experiment.
Group 1 - reactions with water
All group 1 metals react vigorously with water to produce a metal
hydroxide and hydrogen. The Group 1 metals floats on the surfaces and
fizzes vigorously. Below is a generic formula that represents the alkali
metals (X) reacting with water:
2 X (s) + 2 H2O (l) → 2 XOH (aq) + H2 (g)
These metal hydroxides (XOH) are soluble in water and represented as
being aqueous (aq). They form a colourless solution. When a universal
indicator is added to measure the pH of the solution it turns purple, this
suggests that the solution is highly alkaline. Hence, group 1 elements are
also known as alkali metals.
Below is a table describing the observations made when the first three
elements in group 1 react with water and the equations.
Observations Equation
Floats on the surface, effervescing
2 Li(s) + 2 H2O (l) →
Lithium gently. Gradually become smaller as
it reacts and until it disappears. 2 LiOH (aq) + H2 (g)
Floats on the surface, effervescing
rapidly. Quickly, melts into a ball 2 Na(s) + 2 H2O (l) →
Sodium
gets smaller and smaller until it 2 NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
disappears.
Burns violently giving off a purple
2 K(s) + 2 H2O (l) →
Potassium flame. Disappears rapidly, sparks are
also seen. 2 KOH (aq) + H2 (g)

Study Mind Tip
Don’t forget to use the state
symbols to distinguish between
solids, liquids, gases and
aqueous solutions.
Group 1 - reactions with chlorine
All group 1 metals react vigorously with chlorine gas forming white salts
or colourless crystals known as metal chlorides. Below is a generic
formula that represents the alkali metals (X) reacting with chlorine:
2 X (s) + Cl2 (g) → 2 XCl (s)
All alkali metals have 1 electron in their outermost shell. During this
reaction the alkali metal X loses the electron in its outermost shell and
forms a +1 ion. Chlorine then gains that electron, to form a chloride ion
(Cl-). The oppositely charged ions are attracted to each other and form a
metal chloride (XCl).

Study Mind Tip
You should be able to explain
how properties of the elements
in Group 1 depend on the outer
shell of electrons of the atoms
and predict properties from
given trends down the group.
Study Mind Tip
The explanation for the
reactivity of Group 1 elements
down the group is a common
six mark exam question. Learn
all the factors off by heart.
Group 1: Reactivity
Group 1 - trend in reactivity
Trend in reactivity in a group can be explained using the electronic
structure of atoms. Looking at the reactions discussed beforehand, when
going down group 1 the reactions get more and more vigorous. This
suggests that as you go down group 1, the reactivity of the elements
increases. So lithium would be the least reactive and francium would be
the most reactive out of all the elements in group 1.
Explaining the trend in reactivity
As you go down the group the reactivity of the Group 1 increases
because:
• The atoms become larger. This is due to the number of shells
increasing. Therefore, the outer electron is further away from the
positive nucleus, as you go down the group. The electrostatic
attraction of the outer electron to the positive nucleus decreases as
you go down group 1.
• The number of electron shells increases. This increases the shielding
effect the positively charged nucleus has on the outer electron.
Therefore, the attraction of the outer electron to the nucleus decreases
as you go down group 1.
Therefore, as you go down the group the outermost electron becomes
easier to lose and the reactivity increases as you go down the group.
 Study Mind Tip

By learning the trend in

reactivity, you should be able to
predict other reactions, for
example with astatine which is
the least chemically reactive of
the halogens. Looking at the
reactions and observations from
the previous tutorial, we can
predict that astatine would
react very slowly with hydrogen
and only a small amount of
hydrogen astatide would form.

Fig 1. Group 1 atoms. As you go down group 1, the atoms

become larger and the outer electron is further away from
the nucleus. There are also more electrons shielding the
positive charge of the nucleus as you go down the group.
The force of attraction between the nucleus and the other
electron decreases and the electron can be easily lost as
you go down the group.

Key Aims
1. Group 7.
2. Physical Properties.
3. Chemical Properties.
Study Mind Tip
Again, like with the group 1
metals, you should be able to
predict properties from given
trends down the group.
Group 7
Group 7 - The Halogens
Elements that are non-metals are found on the right hand-side of the
periodic table. They are also known as the halogens. Through this
tutorial we will be exploring the physical and chemical properties of the
halogens and the trends through group 7.
Physical properties of the halogens
• How does the mass and boiling point change down Group 7? As
you go down group 7, the relative atomic mass increases and the
boiling point of halogens also increases. So fluorine has the lowest
atomic mass and the lowest boiling point whereas astatine has the
highest atomic mass and the highest boiling point.
• The boiling point is affected by the intermolecular forces. Between
atoms of a particular element, there are weak attractive forces known
as intermolecular forces. When molecules are boiled or melted, these
intermolecular forces are overcome.
• Down group 7, the melting and boiling points increase. The atoms
increase in size, as they gain extra electron shells, and the
intermolecular forces become stronger. More energy is required to
break these forces, thus there are higher melting and boiling points as
you go down the group.
• Halogens have covalent bonding. The halogens are naturally found as
simple molecules - a pair of halogen atoms sharing a pair of electrons,
this is known as covalent bonding.
 Study Mind Tip

The reactions across a group

will be similar because all the
elements will have the same
number of electrons in their
outer shell. For example, all Fig X. Halogen Molecule. Halogens exist naturally as
halogens have seven electrons
in their outer shell. a pair of the same halogen atom sharing 2 electrons.
In the chlorine molecule, there is a pair of electrons
shared between the two atoms. Each chlorine atom
donates one electron to be shared.

Below is a table that summarises the states of the halogens and their
colours.

Halogen State Colour

Fluorine (F2) Gas Pale Yellow

? Knowledge Recall

1. How does the boiling point

Chlorine (Cl2) Gas Green
change down group 7? Give
an explanation for your Bromine (Br2) Liquid Red-brown
answer.
2. What type of bonding do
halogens have? Solid
3. What colour is chlorine at
Grey
Iodine (I2) easily vaporises into a
room temperature? gaseous vapour - violet
4. What state of matter is gas
bromine at room
temperature?

Chemical properties of the halogens

All atoms of group 7 elements have the same properties and react in the
same way, this is because all halogens have 7 electrons in their
outermost shell. They need to gain one electron to make a full
outermost shell. This can happen in two ways:

1. By reacting with a non-metal and forming covalent compounds and

2. By reacting with a metal and forming ionic compounds.

Key Aims
1. Reactions with Non-Metals.
2. Reactions with Metals.
3. Displacement Reactions.
Study Mind Tip
Remember when a halogen
becomes an ion it ends in -ide.
Let’s take fluorine, when it gains
an electron it becomes an ion
and is called fluoride.
Group 7: Reactions &
Displacement
Halogens - Reactions with Non-Metals
Halogens also form covalent bonds with other non-metals to form a
molecule. Lets work through an example, below is a generic formula that
represents the halogens (X) reacting with hydrogen:
H2 (g) + X2 (g) → 2 HX (g)
When this reaction occurs a hydrogen halide is formed which is gaseous
at room temperature. When dissolved in water this forms an acidic
solution.
Halogens - Reactions with Metals
The halogens react with metals to form salts. When these salts are
dissolved in water they form colourless solutions. Below is a generic
formula that represents the halogens (X) reacting with sodium:
2 Na (s) + X2 (g) → 2 NaX (s)
When a halogen reacts with a metal, the metal atom loses an electron
forming a positively charged ion. That lost electron is then taken up by
the halogen atom, this forms a negatively charged ion. The oppositely
charged ions are attracted to each other; this is known as ionic bonding.
Fig 1. Sodium Chloride. Sodium metal loses an electron
(blue) to form a positively charged sodium ion.
 The electron (blue) is then taken up by chlorine to form a negatively
charged chloride ion.

2 Na (s) + Cl2 (g) → 2 NaCl (s)

Halogens - Displacement Reaction

A displacement reaction is when more reactive halogen can displace a

less reactive halogen from a solution of its salt. All these reactions occur
in solution and all the salts when dissolved in water are colourless. Let's
work through some examples.

1. Chlorine solution reacting with potassium bromide

2 KBr (aq) + Cl2 (aq) → 2 KCl (aq) + Br2 (aq)

Chlorine is the more reactive halogen and it will displace bromine from

Study Mind Tip

potassium bromide. The aqueous bromine will turn the solution from
colourless to yellow-orange.
Learn these reactions off by
heart. Make sure you know the
colours produced from each 2. Bromine solution reacting with potassium chloride
reaction: bromine forms an
orange colour and iodine forms
a brown solution. 2 KCl (aq) + Br2 (aq) → NO REACTION

Chlorine is the more reactive halogen and will not be displaced by

bromine. Therefore no reaction will occur and the solution will remain
colourless.

Below is a summary of all the displacement reactions you need to know,

make sure you learn how to write a balanced equation for all these
reactions and observations.
 Potassium Potassium
Potassium Iodide
Study Mind Tip Chloride Bromide

Remember that no
displacement reactions will 2KCl + Br2 2KCl + I2
occur in some, for example
there will be no displacement
Chlorine -
reaction with chlorine and a Colourless solution Colourless solution
chloride solution as their
reactivity is the same. to orange to brown

2KBr + I2

Bromine No reaction -
Colourless solution
to brown

Iodine No reaction No reaction -

 Group 7: Reactivity
Halogens - trend in reactivity

As you go down Group 7, the reactivity of halogens decreases so

fluorine is the most reactive halogen and astatine is the least reactive
halogen.

Halogens react to gain an electron so they become more stable. The

Study Mind Tip negatively charged electron is attracted to the halogen atom due to the
positive charge of the atom’s nucleus. As you go down the group the
The way the atoms change
down the group are identical to reactivity of the halogens decreases because:
group 1. In Group 1 atoms are
trying to lose electrons, so they
become more reactive down the • The atomic mass of the halogens increases. They increase in electron
group. In group 7 they are trying shells; so the atoms are larger as you go down the group. Therefore,
to gain electrons, so they are
less reactive down the group. the attraction of the outer electron to the nucleus decreases as you go
Learn the explanation off by down group 7.
heart.

• The number of electrons increase. There are more electrons

shielding the positively charged nucleus from the outer electron.
Therefore, the attraction of the outer electron to the nucleus decreases
as you go down group 7.

The weaker electrostatic attraction of the electron being gained to the

positive nucleus, makes it harder for the atom to gain an electron and it
decreases in reactivity.

Key Aims
1. Group 0.
2. Chemical Properties.
3. Physical Properties.
4. Uses of Noble Gases.
Study Mind Tip
Remember that all the noble
gases have eight electrons in
their outer shell, except for
helium, which has only two
electrons.
Study Mind Tip
The noble gasses all have a full
outer shell of electrons. All
Group 0 elements, except
helium, have 8 electrons in their
outer shell. However, helium has
2 electrons. Remember before
we discussed electronic
structure and the first shell can
only hold up to 2 electrons.
Group 0
Group 0 - Noble Gases
Group 0 elements are non-metals that are found on the right-hand side
of the periodic table. They are also known as noble gases, this is due to
the highly unreactive nature of these elements. Through this tutorial we
will be exploring the physical and chemical properties of the noble
gasses and the trends through the group.
Chemical properties of the Noble Gases
• Noble gases are inert. Group 0 elements are highly unreactive
(inert) and do not form molecules readily, this is because the
electronic structure of these elements is very stable. The noble
gasses all have a full outer shell so they do not need to react to
gain, lose or share electrons.
• Noble gases exist as single atoms. The noble gases do not form
molecules and are monoatomic. As all noble gasses have a full outer
shell of electrons and are very stable, they do not need to share
electrons to achieve more stability therefore exist as single atoms.
Physical properties of the Noble Gases
• Boiling point increases down Group 0. As you go down group 0,
the relative atomic mass increases and the boiling point of noble
gases also increases. So helium has the lowest atomic mass and the
lowest boiling point whereas radon has the highest atomic mass and
the highest boiling point.
• Explanation for change in boiling point. Between atoms of a
particular element, there are weak attractive forces known as
intermolecular forces. When atoms are boiled or melted, these
intermolecular forces are broken. As you go down group 0, the
atoms increase in size, as they have more electron shells. The
intermolecular forces become stronger so more energy is required
 to break these forces thus a higher boiling point as you go down the
group.
Study Mind Tip

In an exam you might be asked

to predict the boiling of a
particular noble gas given the Uses of Noble Gases
boiling point of others.
The main use of noble gases is to provide an inert atmosphere.

For example argon is used in lamps and light bulbs, as it will not react
with the hot filament inside the bulb when it is hot.

Also helium is used for filling balloons due to it’s low density compared
to air.
 The Transition Metals
Transition Metals

Transition elements are metals that are found in the central block of the
periodic table between Group 2 and Group 3. These are the elements
that most people associate the world metal to such as copper, iron and
silver.

During this tutorial we will be discussing the properties of transition

metals. When we talk about transition metals, we will be focusing on the
properties of chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel and copper.
Study Mind Tip

The transition metals listed above have similar properties however are
You should be able to exemplify
these general properties by different from the alkali metals we discussed before. Below is a table
reference to Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni,
comparing the properties between Group 1 and transition metals:
Cu.

Group 1 Metals Transition Metals

Melting Point Lower Higher

Density Less Dense More Dense

Study Mind Tip

Strength Weaker Stronger
A very common exam question
is to describe the difference Hardness Softer Harder
compared with Group 1 in
melting points, densities, Reacts with oxygen
strength, hardness and reactivity Reactivity - Reacts quickly at room
with oxygen, water and when heated to form a
Oxygen temperature
halogens. metal oxide
Reacts very slowly or no
Reacts vigorously with
Reactivity - Water reaction at all with cold
cold water
water
Some transition metals
Reactivity - Reacts vigorously with
react with halogens but
Halogens halogens
very slowly

Study Mind Tip
We would say that transition
metals have ‘variable oxidation
states.’ This will make more
sense when we look at the
transfer of electrons.
• Transition metals have more than one ion. Transition metals form
ions with various charges. For example: Copper has 2 ions Cu+ or Cu2+
, Iron has 2 ions Fe2+ or Fe3+ and Cobalt has 2 ions Co2+ or Co3+.
• Transition metals can be used as catalysts. Transition metals can act
as catalysts which means they increase the rate of reaction without
being used in the reaction. For example an iron catalyst is used in the
Haber process to produce ammonia.
 Separating Mixtures
Mixtures and Compounds

Mixtures
Key Aims
A mixture is made from two or more elements or compounds being
1. Mixtures. mixed together, without the formation of any chemical bonds. This
2. Compounds.
3. Separating Mixtures. diagram represents the differences between elements, compounds and
4. Separating Mixtures in mixtures.
Everyday Life.

• The chemical property of each substance in a mixture does not

Study Mind Tip
change. When elements or compounds are mixed together, the
Try to remember the diagram to chemical properties of the individual substances do not change. This is
help you remember the
because there are no chemical bonds between substances in a
difference between mixtures,
compounds and elements. mixture.

• Mixtures can be separated by physical processes. Substances in a

mixture can be separated using physical processes. These processes
do not involve any chemical reactions or the formation of new
substances.

• Mixtures come in different states. You can get a mixture of liquids

(e.g. oil), a mixture of solids (e.g. different grains in sand), or a mixture
(e.g. water and sand in cement).
 Study Mind Tip

Make sure you can differentiate

between mixtures and
compounds. An exam question
may ask you to compare the
two and explain your answer.
Compounds

A compound is made from two or more elements which are chemically

bonded together.

• Compounds involve chemical bonding. Compounds are different to

mixtures because they involve actual chemical bonds between the
substances.

• The chemical properties change when compounds are formed.

Substances bonded together in a compound, the chemical properties
of the compounds do change. For example, iron is magnetic, but when
? Knowledge Recall
it reacts with sulphur to form iron sulphide, it is no longer magnetic.
1. What type of bonding do
mixtures have?
2. What type of bonding do Property Mixture Compound
compounds have?
3. Give two examples of a
mixture.
4. Give two examples of a
The properties of the The properties of the
compound. Properties constituent substances constituent substances
does not change. does change.

Bonding No chemical bonding Chemical bonding

Can only be separated

Can be separated easily
Separation using a chemical
via various methods
reaction

Crude oil, sand, cement, Iron sulphide, copper

Example
air sulphate, water

Study Mind Tip
We will cover the processes of
separation in more detail in the
next few tutorials.
Study Mind Tip
Learn the steps for the
purification of ground water. An
exam question may ask you to
explain the steps.
Separating Mixtures
In the next few tutorials we will discuss different physical processes that
can be used to separate mixtures. First, here are a few key definitions
that will help understand the processes better:
• Solvent. The liquid in which a solute dissolves to form a solution
• Solute. The dissolved substance in a solution
• Solution. The mixture formed by a solute and a solvent
Mixtures can be separated using physical processes such as filtration,
crystallisation and distillation.
Separating Mixtures in Everyday Life
Waste and Ground Water
Waste and ground water can be made potable through separation
processes including sedimentation, filtration and chlorination.
1. Large objects are removed. For example branches and leaves are
removed by screens with holes in them.
2. Insoluble particles are removed. A coarse filter bed removes these
particles.
3. Smaller insoluble particles are removed. This is done using a fine
bed filter.
4. Finally harmful microorganisms are removed. Chlorine gas can be
added to remove any harmful substances.
Seawater

Similarly salty sea water can be made drinkable using simple distillation.
By boiling the seawater and cooling the water vapour, pure water is
formed. This means the water no longer contains salt, so is drinkable.
This process can be quite expensive as a lot of energy is required to heat
large quantities of water.

Water used in chemical analysis must not contain any dissolved salts
which would interfere, so water produced by distillation would be useful
in this case.
 Distillation

Distillation

Distillation is used to separate a solvent from a solution. For example,

this process is used to obtain pure water from seawater.
Key Aims
1. Set up the apparatus. The distillation apparatus involves a round-
1. Distillation.
2. Fractional Distillation. bottomed flask, a heat source, a thermometer, a condenser and a
collecting beaker. We have to use a round-bottomed flask because it
is less prone to cracking under heat.

2. Heat the solution. The solution is heated and the liquid begins to
evaporate. The vapour from the solution rises and then passes down
the condenser, in which it is cooled and condensed using cold water.

3. The liquid collects in the beaker. The cooling in the condenser

turns the vapour into liquid again, and this liquid is collected in the
beaker. The solute (e.g. salt from saltwater) is left in the round-
bottomed flask.
Study Mind Tip

The thermometer in the Distillation works on the principle that the dissolved solute has a higher
fractional distillation apparatus boiling point than the solvent.
is essential. It enables us to
control the temperature, and
therefore we can collect the
correct liquid with a particular
boiling point. Fractional Distillation

Fractional Distillation is used to separate individual liquids from a

mixture of different liquids. These liquids dissolve in each other
completely and are known as miscible liquids. Fractional distillation
works on the principle that individual liquids in the mixture have
different boiling points, starting with the liquid that has the lowest to
the highest.

1. Set up the apparatus. The mixture is placed in a flask with a

fractionating column placed on top. The fractionating column is a
long tube with lots of small glass beads. The column is hot near the
bottom, and cooler near the top.
 2. Heat the mixture. The mixture is then heated and evaporates. The
vapours rise through the column. The vapour condenses when it
reaches a point in the column that has a temperature lower than its
boiling point. Therefore the column separates liquids that condense
at different temperatures.

3. Liquid collects in the beaker. This liquid is then collected in a

beaker, the first liquid to be collected will have the lowest boiling
point.

Study Mind Tip

The glass beads in the Fractional distillation is used for separating ethanol from water and crude
fractionating column give a high
surface area for condensation. oil. We will look at this in more detail later on.

Fig 1. Fractional Distillation.

 Filtration & Crystallisation
Filtration

Filtration is used to separate liquids from insoluble solids. The liquid

may have a soluble solute dissolved inside it.

Key Aims 1. We begin with an insoluble solid and a liquid. Let’s take a mixture
of salt, sand and water. Salt dissolves in water, however the sand
1. Filtration.
2. Crystallisation. does not.

2. Pour the mixture into the filter funnel. When you pour the mixture
into a filter funnel lined with filter paper, the sand will be caught by
the filter paper and the water with salt dissolved will drip through.

3. The separation is complete. The liquid (salt solution) and solid

(sand) are separated.

Study Mind Tip

Make sure you can draw a

simple diagram to illustrate the
processes as well as writing out
the steps.

Crystallisation

Crystallisation is used to separate a soluble substance from a solvent.

For example, crystallisation can be used to separate salt from a salt
solution.

1. We begin with a soluble solid dissolved in a solvent. We begin

with a salt solution, containing salt (solute) dissolved in water
(solvent).

Study Mind Tip
If you leave the liquid crystal
solution overnight, they should
form full solid crystals by the
next day. But you can speed up
this process using an oven.
2. Warm the mixture in an evaporating basin. The mixture is poured
into an evaporating basin and gently heated. This will evaporate
away some of the solvent, which makes the solution more
concentrated (i.e. more solute per unit solvent), until it becomes a
saturated solution. This means that crystals start to develop. The
point at which crystals form is called the point of crystallisation.
3. Remove the heat. When insoluble crystals form, the heat is
removed, and the saturated solution is allowed to cool. The crystals
are separated from the remaining solvent using filtration and left to
dry, within the folds of filter paper. The second step is key as it
increases the concentration of the solution, hence making the crystals
insoluble.
 Paper Chromatography
Paper Chromatography

Paper Chromatography is used to separate mixtures of soluble

substances in a solution. Paper chromatography works on the principle
that some substances are more soluble than others in a solvent. This is
used to separate food colourings, inks and dyes.
Key Aims

1. Paper Chromatography.

Study Mind Tip

Don’t stress about the detail for

now, we will go through this
properly later on.

Practice Question

Question: Sam has a mixture in a beaker, containing:

• Sand
• Salt
• Liquid A
• Liquid B
• Liquid C

Liquid A, B and C have boiling points of 72°C, 89°C and 120°C.


Study Mind Tip
You need to be able to apply
these separation techniques to
explain how to separate any
given mixture.
? Knowledge Recall
1. What principle does paper
chromatography work on?
2. Give two uses of paper
chromatography?
Salt is soluble in the mixture of liquids.
Sand is insoluble in the mixture of liquids.
Sam would like to collect samples of sand and Liquid B. How should he
go about this?
For this question, we need to use multiple separation techniques.
Firstly, we need to consider our starting beaker. It contains a mixture of
three liquids with salt dissolved (soluble), and sand collecting at the
bottom (insoluble). Therefore, first we use filtration to collect the sand,
whilst the salt solution passes through.
Secondly, we are left with a salt solution. If we wanted to collect just the
salt, we could use crystallisation to remove the three liquid solvents.
However, the question says that Sam wants to collect Liquid B. Therefore
we can use fractional distillation, because the liquids have different
boiling points.
We heat the solution, and Liquid A will be discarded first. We can keep
the temperature at 72°C until all of Liquid A has been collected. It is
important not to allow the temperature to rise anymore, because then
Liquid B will start to collect too. Next, we discard Liquid A, and raise the
temperature to 89°C, after which we collect Liquid B.
We are left with sand in the filter funnel, and a beaker of Liquid B. The
salt remains dissolved in Liquid C in the round-bottomed flask, whilst
Liquid A has been discarded.
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