Limnetica, 30 (1): 89-102 (2011) Limnetica, 29 (2): x-xx (2011)

c Asociación Ibérica de Limnologı́a, Madrid. Spain. ISSN: 0213-8409



Distribution and morphometry of shallow lakes in a temperate zone

(Buenos Aires Province, Argentina)
Vanesa Y. Bohn∗,1,2 , Gerardo M. E. Perillo1,3 and Marı́a C. Piccolo1,2
1
CONICET-Instituto Argentino de Oceanografı́a (IADO). CC 804 B8000FWB Bahı́a Blanca. Argentina.
2
Departamento de Geografı́a y Turismo, Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS) 12 de octubre y San Juan. 4o piso.
8000 Bahı́a Blanca, Argentina.
3
Departamento de Geologı́a, UNS. San Juan 670. 1o piso. 8000 Bahı́a Blanca, Argentina.
∗
Corresponding author: vbohn@criba.edu.ar
2

Received: 21/8/10 Accepted: 14/3/11

ABSTRACT
Distribution and morphometry of shallow lakes in a temperate zone (Buenos Aires Province, Argentina)
We have developed a database of water bodies to characterise and assess the distribution and morphometry of Pampean shallow
lakes and reservoirs in a temperate zone (Buenos Aires Province, Argentina). In the study area, there are over 2000 shallow
lakes with a mean area <1 km2 .
The spatial variation in the shallow lakes studied is related to alternating periods of different hydrological conditions and the
flatness of the Pampean landscape. The aim of this research is both to establish a classification system for the shallow lakes in
the studied area and to evaluate the influence of rainfall regime on their morphometry. This classification system will provide
a typological reference against which the ecological state of waters can be assessed.
The spatial distribution, morphometry and changes in the size of the shallow lakes in southern Buenos Aires were studied
during two periods: a normal (a year with average rainfall) and a wet year. A Geographic Information System (GIS) as well as
satellite imaging and Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data were used to calculate the morphometry of the shallow lakes and
observe changes over time.
Based on climatic criteria, geomorphology, soils and hydrology, four groups of lakes were identified: 1) plain and plateau
lakes (constituting the highest proportion of circular shallow lakes), 2) artificial lakes (a category constituted solely of the
only water reservoir in the studied area), 3) coastal plain lakes characterised by a Coastal Line Development (CLD) < 2 and
4) coastal plain lakes characterised by a CLD >2. In the last two cases, geomorphology determines the morphometry and
location of these shallow lakes. The development of numerous water bodies with areas <1 km2 caused a significant increase
in the number of water bodies during the wet year. The areal coverage and density of lakes is lowest in the western plateau
zones, low near the hills, moderate in the centre of the study area and high in the eastern plains.

Key words: Shallow lake morphometry, spatial distribution, precipitation regime, southern Buenos Aires Province.

RESUMEN
Distribución y morfometrı́a de lagos someros en una zona templada (provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina)
Se desarrolló una base de datos de cuerpos de agua para caracterizar la distribución y la morfometrı́a de lagos someros y
reservorios pampeanos en una zona templada (provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina). En el área de estudio existen más de
2000 lagos someros con un área media menor a 1 km2 .
La variación espacial se relaciona con la alternancia de perı́odos de condiciones hidrológicas distintas y con el relieve plano
caracterı́stico del paisaje pampeano. El objetivo de esta investigación es realizar una clasificación de los lagos del área de
estudio y evaluar la influencia de un parámetro climático (precipitación) sobre su morfometrı́a. Se espera que esta clasifi-
cación pueda contribuir al asesoramiento del estado ecológico de las aguas.
La distribución espacial, los parámetros morfométricos y cambios de extensión de los lagos someros en el sur de la provincia
de Buenos Aires fueron estudiados durante dos perı́odos: un año normal y un año húmedo. Se aplicó un Sistema de Infor-
mación Geográfica (SIG), datos satelitales y un Modelo de Elevación Digital (MED) para el cálculo de la morfometrı́a de los
lagos someros y sus cambios a lo largo del tiempo.
90 Bohn et al.

Se identificaron 4 grupos de lagos sobre la base de criterios climáticos, geomorfológicos, edáficos e hidrológicos: 1) Lagos
de planicie (la mayor proporción de lagos someros circulares), 2) Lagos artificiales (constituido por el único lago artificial
del área de estudio), 3) Lagos de planicie costera (Desarrollo de Lı́nea de Costa (DLC)<2) y 4) Lagos de planicie costera
(DLC>2). En los últimos dos casos, la morfometrı́a y la localización de los lagos fue influenciada por la geomorfologı́a. El
desarrollo de numerosos cuerpos de agua cuya área media es menor a 1 km2 causó un incremento en el número de cuerpos de
agua durante el año húmedo. El área cubierta por agua y la densidad de los lagos fue más baja en la zona de mesetas (situada
al oeste del área de estudio), baja en la zona serrana, moderada en el centro del área de estudio y alta en las planicies del
sector este del área de estudio.
Palabras clave: Morfometrı́a de lagos someros, distribución espacial, régimen de precipitación, sur de la provincia de Buenos
Aires.

INTRODUCTION because the functioning of shallow, non-stratified

Variations in distribution and morphometry
strongly influence the productivity and eutrophic
state of a lake (Wetzel, 2001). This variability,
a consequence of anthropogenic action and, in
temperate zones, seasonal climatic events, has
been thoroughly investigated (Quirós et al., 2002;
Geraldes & Boavida, 2005). The ecological im-
portance of morphometry was demonstrated by
Tavernini et al. (2003) in their study on the influ-
ence of water body morphometry on the distribu-
tion of some zooplankton species.
Because the morphometry and distribution of
shallow lakes influence numerous aspects of their
functioning, investigations of these subjects are
diverse (Vega et al., 2005; Rooney & Kalff, 2000;
Cheruvelil & Soranno, 2008). Ambrosetti & Bar-
banti (2002) established a distinction between
deep and shallow lakes by carefully examining
the mean energy variations in the water mass of
31 Italian lakes in relation to their morphometric
and geographic characteristics. They found a sig-
nificant correlation between the heat content and
morphometric parameters of these of lakes.
Kolada et al. (2005) used cluster analysis to
determine the relative importance of several abi-
otic lake parameters in the composition of a lake
typology. They categorised 749 Polish lakes by
morphometry, with the aim of characterising the
relationships between the abiotic and biotic classes
and determining whether variations in abiotic
conditions correspond to variability in biotic as-
semblages. Morphometric factors were considered
lakes is different from that of deep water bodies.
Temporal changes in the distribution and mor-
phometry of shallow lakes over time are related
to land use in areas where agriculture is the most
significant economic activity, making lake distri-
bution relevant to the planning of economic ac-
tivities in such regions. In a study estimating the
number, density, and area of small water bod-
ies across the United States; Smith et al. (2002)
concluded that small water bodies are numerous
across the United States and that the highest con-
centration of artificial lakes is in agricultural re-
gions. Their analyses also demonstrated the role
of transition from positive to negative water bal-
ance in shaping the distribution of water bodies.
Remote sensing techniques are frequently
used to detect changes in lakes and flooded sur-
faces, both continuously and at different time
points. For instance, an efficient method for map-
ping flood extent using Landsat 7 Thematic Map-
per (TM) imagery and Digital Elevation Model
(DEM) data was developed by Wang et al. (2002)
in response to the extensive flooding that oc-
curred in eastern North Carolina after Hurricane
Floyd. This method was based on the reflectance
of water versus non-water targets on a pair of
Landsat 7 TM images taken before and during the
flood event, and Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
data were used to model inundation. The method
was found to be reliable and readily applica-
ble to other coastal floodplains, especially be-
cause the data used are relatively easy and cost-
efficient to obtain and analyse.
 Distribution and morphometry of shallow lakes in a temperate zone
Figure 1. Location and topographic slope of the study area in the south of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. Localización y
pendiente topográfica del área de estudio en el sur de la provincia de Buenos Aires (Argentina).
In a study conducted on a regional scale, seven
water bodies in Buenos Aires, Argentina, were
classified into three categories (green, brown and
clear) according to their optical properties, which
are shaped by suspended inorganic solid matter and
weed algal biomass. Satellite image processing was
used to characterise the temporal variation in the
turbidity of the shallow lakes (Dukatz et al., 2005).
In Buenos Aires Province, the number of shal-
low lakes is on the order of 300000, including
both permanent and non-permanent water bod-
ies (Toresani et al., 1994). Most are natural water
bodies in agricultural zones with predominance
of grain crops and pastures. During normal years
in southern Buenos Aires Province, precipitation
varies between 600 and 900 mm. The seasonal
pattern shows maximum rainfall in autumn and
spring (Scian, 2002b). Spatial variation in shal-
low lakes in Buenos Aires Province is signifi-
cantly correlated with seasonal climatic events
because of their physical characteristics (Quirós
et al., 2002). It is important to detect changes in
shallow lake morphometry because of the pre-
dominance of agricultural land use in the area.
The hypothesis of this study is that the number
and morphometric parameters of shallow lakes
in southern Buenos Aires Province change in re-
sponse to precipitation regime variations. This
91
response varies depending on the geomorphol-
ogy and location of the shallow lakes. This study
aims to establish the relative degrees of influ-
ence that climatic, topographic and hydrolog-
ical features have on the distribution of shal-
low lakes. Special attention is given to varia-
tions in distribution and morphometry (Fig. 1)
during two distinct hydrological periods that are
defined based on annual precipitation values. The
data are also considered as a potential basis
for more extensive studies of the shallow lakes
covering the whole province, including regions
experiencing climatic extremes.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The annual precipitation record (INTA, 2005) for
the period 1970-2007 was analysed by applying
the Standardised Precipitation Index (SPI) to de-
fine normal and wet years (McKee et al., 1995).
Satellite data, provided by CONAE (Comisión
Nacional de Actividades Espaciales), for the
studied path and row is first available for 1997.
Normal and wet years were defined by consid-
ering these data and the magnitude of climatic
events. No extremely dry year is included in the
images of the analysed period (1998-2007) be-
92 Bohn et al.

Table 1. Qualitative variables included in the cluster analysis. Variables cualitativas incluidas en el análisis de cluster.
Qualitative Variable 0 1
Geomorphology dunes Plain
Soil permeability low medium/high
Drain density (Dd) low medium/high
Coastal Line Development (CLD) CLD <= 2 CLD > 2
Water residence time* ephemeral Permanent
Total Maximum Length (TML) TML < 1.74 km** TML > 1.74 km
Area A < 0.99 km2 *** A > 0.99 km2
Precipitation west isohyets 700 mm east isohyets 700 mm
TML orientation heterogeneous east – west
* Water residence time during the 1998-2007 period (Bohn et al. 2009).
** TML mean based Toresani et al. (1994).
*** Mean extension of all shallow lakes of the study area during a normal period.

cause no useful images from such a period were
available. Hence, Landsat satellite images of the
area for the 1998 and 2002 years (taken in spring,
in both cases) were selected for spatial analy-
sis and detecting changes in the morphometry of
shallow lakes. The study area was limited to path
226, row 087 and path 226, row 086 (Fig. 1). A
Geographic Information System (GIS) was used
to process the images.
The procedure for assessing lake distribution and
detecting morphometric changes relied on satel-
lite images with atmospheric and radiometric
corrections (Song et al., 2001), both of which
are essential in a multitemporal study. The geo-
metric registration of the GIS data improved the
fidelity of relative spatial and absolute location
parameters. Images were classified by the ISO-
DATA (Iterative Self-Organizing Data Analysis

Figure 2. Geomorphological units (INTA 1989) of the study area: hills, plateau, coastal plains, continental plains and depressions.
Unidades geomorfológicas (INTA 1989) del área de estudio: sierras, llanura, planicies costeras, planicies continentales y depresiones.
 Distribution and morphometry of shallow lakes in a temperate zone
Technique Algorithm) method. Finally, a class
frequency analysis was used to detect changes.
In the first step of the classification process,
using the ISODATA method, the unsupervised
classification indicated 15 classes. To improve
the accuracy of the determination of features, the 15
detailed classes were reduced manually to 2 classes
and converted to polygons: water and non-water.
Lakes that share some common traits were
grouped into four categories by cluster anal-
ysis. The cluster analysis was closely based
on the average linkage agglomeration method.
The qualitative variable was codified using pres-
ence/absence criteria. Variables used in the clus-
ter analysis are shown in Table 1. A multiple
correspondence analysis (on the same variables
shown in Table 1) complemented the cluster
analysis. Variables used in the cluster analysis
and multiple correspondence analysis are shown
in Table 1. The spatial distribution of shallow
lakes was defined using data from a regional
geomorphological study, the regional precipi-
tation regime, edaphic characteristics and lake
morphometry. The geomorphic units defined by
INTA (1989) were used to analyse the distri-
bution of shallow lakes in relation to the geo-
morphology of the study area. Therefore, five
geomorphic units (Fig. 2) were included: hills,
plateaus, coastal plains, continental plains and
depressions. Hills and plateaus represent 15.96 %
and 16.61 % of the study area, respectively.
Coastal plains occupy 6.31 % of the area, and
continental plains occupy 61.11 %. The units de-
scribed as “depressions” (INTA, 1989) are the
least common, occupying 0.94 % of the area.
In coastal plains, the distribution of water bod-
ies is influenced by the presence of loess and
coastal dunes. Geomorphological features were
also evaluated using a Digital Elevation Model
(DEM) (USGS, 2004). The relationship estab-
lished between the spatial distribution of shallow
lakes and the regional geomorphology facilitated
the drawing of active river channels, palaeochan-
nels (remnants of river and stream channels that
have been filled with sediments of active chan-
nels) and basins with the Hec Hms Arc View tool.
This hydrological modelling tool is designed to
be used with the ArcView Geographic Infor-
93
mation System. By analysing digital terrain in-
formation, Hec Hms Arc View transforms the
drainage paths and watershed boundaries into a
hydrological data structure that represents the wa-
tershed response to precipitation (US Army Corps
of Engineers, 2003). Geomorphological analysis
was completed with the palaeochannel analysis and
the relationship of palaeochannels to the terrain
slope, which was obtained from the DEM data
and GIS operations. Edaphic permeability was
also incorporated into the GIS database because
of its influence on surface and subsurface flows.
To calculate the drainage density (Dd), the
basins under study were delimited with the
Hec Hms tool and a DEM (USGS, 2004). The
drainage density (Dd) parameter, a useful mea-
sure of topographic texture in fluvial eroded land-
scapes (Abrahams & Ponczynski, 1985), was cal-
culated by non-permanent and permanent river
length values of the region basins as
L
Dd = (1)
A
where L is the total channel length (km) and A
is the total basin area (km2 ). The river length
and other cartographic data were digitised in this
study from the 1:50000 topographic sheets (Insti-
tuto Geográfico Militar, IGM).
The morphometric features of the shallow
lakes were determined according to the sys-
tematic description of the Argentine Pampean
plains by Dangavs (2005). Coastal Line Devel-
opment (CLD), Total Maximum Length (TML;
the longest axis of a water body), Effective Max-
imum Length (EML), Perimeter (P), Area (A),
Maximum Wide (MW) and predominant orienta-
tion of the TML were calculated by means of GIS
operations and satellite image processing.
The CLD is the ratio of the length of the shore-
line perimeter (P) to the circumference of a circle
of area (A) equal to that of the lake. The advan-
tage of using the CLD is that it reflects the lake’s
potential for the development of littoral commu-
nities, which usually have high biological pro-
ductivity. This parameter is given by
 
CLD = P/ 2 · (π · A)1/2 (2)
94 Bohn et al.

A CLD value of 1 indicates a circular shape
(Class I); a CLD value between 1 and 2 indi-
cates a sub-circular lake (Class II); and a CLD
value > 2 indicates an elliptical lake (Class III).
CLD is large for lakes in flooded river valleys.
The perimeter (P) was measured from Land-
sat satellite images. Given the spatial resolu-
tion (30 m) of these images, these perimeter val-
ues are overestimates. Nevertheless, the values
were incorporated into the CLD equation be-
cause this parameter was only used for com-
parison, (between lakes) and the same error af-
fected both datasets. Because of the large num-
ber of shallow lakes analysed, the depth (Z) was
obtained from databases and previous research
(Quirós et al., 2002; Geraldi, 2003; SRH-INA,
2005; Bohn, 2009). As a result, the values for
this parameter were only obtained for a limited
number of water bodies.
RESULTS
Determination of wet and normal years based
on precipitation
The years 1998 and 2002 were chosen as “nor-
mal” and “wet” periods, respectively. The dif-
ference between mean annual precipitation for
wet and normal periods was greater than 200
mm. In all cases, the annual precipitation values
for 1998 were close to the normal value (Scian,
2002a) for the study area.
During the normal year, the total surface cov-
ered by water was 324.17 km2 (1.11 % of the to-
tal studied area), whereas during the wet year, the
total surface covered by water was 415.29 km2
(1.42 % of the total studied area). The 0.31 % dif-
ference represents about 90 km2 of an important
agricultural area, a surface larger than any indi-
vidual water body analysed.
Drainage density (Dd) and precipitation
regime
The hydrological analysis showed that in eastern
basins, the hydrological network includes non-
permanent watercourses alternating with small
water bodies, resulting in chain-like arrange-
ments. In this area, the regional slope does not
exceed 3o (Fig. 1), and the predominant drainage
pattern is dendritic because of the lack of struc-
tural controls. As a consequence, a large num-
ber of ephemeral shallow lakes and intermit-
tent marshes are generated. There are some shal-
low lakes with origins in the confluence of two
streams, but such lakes are rare.
The geomorphological analysis showed that
the Ventania Hill System (VHS) (Fig. 1) has an
influence on palaeochannel development. In the
eastern and western area, the palaeochannels and
superficial courses originate in these hills. Be-
cause of the low regional slope in the east, runoff
waters in this region slowly flow south. In con-
trast, in the western zone, most of the streams are
permanent and more torrential than in the central
area, with a maximum regional slope (calculated
from the DEM) of 55o and a minimum of 4o . A
large number of channels end in a neighbouring
basin and flow into a shallow lake. In the west and

Table 2. Depth, shoreline development (CLD), area and total maximum length (TML) of some shallow lakes. Profundidad, Desar-
rollo de Lı́nea de Costa (DLC), área y Longitud Máxima Total (LMT) de algunos lagos someros.
Depth* (Z) (m) CLD Area (km2 ) TML (km) References*
Lake
maximum mean 1998 2002 1998 2002 (%) 1998 2002 (%)
La Tigra 5 1.30 2.13 2.15 3.28 3.92 16.33 3.02 3.26 9.82 (Bohn 2009)
El Cajón 3 n/d 5.15 3.03 11.00 11.17 1.52 6.73 7.42 9.30 (Bohn 2009)
Calderón 1.20 0.70 1.55 1.52 1.03 1.31 21.37 1.24 1.33 6.77 (Bohn 2009)
Malaver 2 n/d 2.17 2.00 0.74 1.64 54.88 1.60 2.19 46.58 (Geraldi 2003)
Sauce Grande 1.80 1.10 5.90 5.92 22.30 30.26 26.31 8.36 9.19 13.71 (SRHN 2002)
Unamuno 3 0.80 10.22 7.34 9.20 16.47 44.14 6.34 10.23 38.42 (Bohn 2009)
Aituén 2 0.60 2.47 2.30 0.61 0.70 12.86 1.08 1.55 30.32 (Quirós et al. 2002)
Tupungato 2 0.60 1.80 5.14 0.92 0.90 32.22 0.76 1.30 41.54 (Quirós et al. 2002)
 Distribution and morphometry of shallow lakes in a temperate zone 95

Table 3. Area, TML, EML, MW and CLD of some lakes during a normal year. Área, LMT, LME, AM y DLC de algunos lagos
durante un año normal.
Lake/Reservoir Area (km2 ) TML (km) EML (km) MW (A/LMT) CLD

Calderón 01.03 1.24 01.25 0.82 01.55

El Carrizal 00.15 0.62 10.62 0.23 02.17
El Toro 02.93 2.75 02.75 1.06 01.93
La Tigra 03.28 3.02 03.02 1.09 02.13
Tupungato 00.92 0.76 00.76 0.66 01.80
Paso de las Piedras reservoir 19.76 9.46 09.46 2.09 04.37
San Antonio 00.41 0.89 00.89 0.46 01.46
Malaver 00.74 1.60 01.26 0.46 02.17
Sauce Grande 22.30 8.36 09.44 2.67 05.90
Unamuno 09.20 6.34 06.34 1.45 10.22
El Cajón 11.00 8.07 11.13 1.36 05.15
La Salada 00.59 1.13 01.13 0.52 01.61
s/n (38◦ 49.33 S; 61◦ 30.25 W) 03.20 2.94 03.30 1.08 02.67
La Blanca 02.85 3.23 03.23 0.88 03.71
De la Yegua 02.20 3.48 03.48 0.63 02.14

in the centre of the study area, the drainage den-
sity is lower than 0.01 km/km2 , whereas in the
east, it surpasses the 0.1 km/km2 .
Morphometry of shallow lakes
For all morphometric parameters, the values in-
creased in 2002 in comparison with the values
from 1998. In both periods, the highest shallow
lake number was found in the central and eastern
regions of the area under study.
The Coastal Line Development (CLD)
showed the highest variation between periods;
the lowest CLD values were a consequence of
the formation of small and circular shallow lakes
during the wet period. The lakes also showed
irregularities when their volume increased after a
wet event and CLD values were larger. The mean
values of CLD were low during both periods:
1.76 (1998, normal year) and 1.99 (2002, wet
year). Circular forms were predominant. The
maximum values were 10.22 and 9.11 during the
normal and wet years, respectively. The minimum
values were ≤2 in both years (Tables 2 and 3).
Like other parameters, the P of the water bodies
increased from the normal to the wet year. P values
varied because of the influence of the precipita-
tion regime on the shapes of shallow lakes (e.g.,
during the wet year, a larger water body is de-
veloped from two smaller ones by coalescence).
Depth and LMT values of some shallow lakes
of the study area illustrate the general patterns
of variation. The La Tigra shallow lake (Fig. 3)
was the deepest water body studied; the maxi-
mum and mean depths were 5 m and 1.30 m, re-
spectively (Table 2). It is located in the eastern
region of the study area. The variations in its area
and its TML from 1998 to 2002 were 16.33 %
and 9.82 %, respectively. The El Cajón shallow
lake (Fig. 3) is located in the continental plain
and has a 3 m maximum depth (Table 2). The
area and TML of this lake increased 1.52 % and
9.30 %, respectively, from the normal to the wet
year. Also in this geomorphic unit is the Calderón
shallow lake, with a maximum depth of 1.20 m
(Table 2), and the Malaver shallow lake, with a
maximum depth of 2 m (Table 2).
In the coastal dunes region, the representative
cases are the Sauce Grande and Unamuno shal-
low lakes (Fig. 3). Sauce Grande had a maximum
depth of 1.80 m and a mean depth of 1.10 m,
whereas Unamuno had an approximate maxi-
mum depth of 3 m (Table 2). The Aituén and
Tupungato shallow lakes (Fig. 3), in the eastern
region of the study area, have maximum depths
of 2 m and a mean depth of approximately 0.60 m
96 Bohn et al.

Figure 3. Some shallow lakes of the study area: 1) San Antonio; 2) La Salada; 3) Calderón; 4) Paso de las Piedras Reservoir; 5)
Malaver; 6) Unamuno; 7) unnamed; 8) El Toro; 9) Sauce Grande; 10) De la Yegua; 11) El Cajón; 12) La Blanca; 13) La Tigra; 14) El
Carrizal; 15) Aituén; 16) Tupungato. Algunos lagos someros del área de estudio: 1) San Antonio; 2) La Salada; 3) Calderón; 4) Paso
de las Piedras Reservoir; 5) Malaver; 6) Unamuno; 7) sin nombre ; 8) El Toro; 9) Sauce Grande; 10) De la Yegua; 11) El Cajón;
12) La Blanca; 13) La Tigra; 14) El Carrizal; 15) Aituén; 16) Tupungato.

(Table 2). Because the described shallow lakes
are representative of the whole study area, we
can assume that the shallow lakes have an aver-
age depth of about 1.2 m and maximum depths
between 3 and 5 m. Nevertheless, because of the
lakes’ morphology, the deeper portions of these
lakes have relatively low areas either at the centre
(in the case of symmetric, bowl-shaped lakes) or
towards one of the borders (in asymmetric lakes).
The Total Maximum Length (TML) was
drawn in a straight line in the majority of cases
because of the predominance of elliptical and cir-
culars forms in the shallow lakes in the study
area. In these cases, the TML was equal to the
Effective Maximum Length (EML). The highest
TML from 1998 was longer than 9 km (Sauce
Grande shallow lake, Table 2), whereas during
the wet year, the highest TML value was 12 km,
recorded in the southeast region of the study area.
In both years, the TML was less than 0.50 km in
86.91 % of shallow lakes in 1998 and 84.72 % in
2002. About 12 % of shallow lakes had a TML
between 0.5 and 2 km during the periods anal-
ysed. Only 0.67 and 0.71 % of the shallow lakes
had TML values greater than 3 km during the
1998 and 2002 years, respectively.
The location of the shallow lakes and their re-
lationship to the geomorphic units influenced the
orientation of the TML. During both periods, the
TML orientation was heterogeneous (N-S, N-W,
NE-SW) in the eastern area, whereas in the west-
ern area, the TML had a predominantly NE-SW
orientation. In contrast, the predominant shallow
lake TML orientation was NW-SE in the coastal
plain, a response to dune morphology (Fig. 2).
Nine categories of water bodies were estab-
lished with respect to the area parameter (A).
One such category included water bodies whose
area was greater than 4 km2 . In all categories
but that comprising the smallest lakes, an in-
crease in the area of water bodies was ob-
served in 2002. The mean area values were 0.15
(±0.80) and 0.16 (±0.90) km2 during the years
1998 and 2002, respectively.
 Distribution and morphometry of shallow lakes in a temperate zone 97

The wet event in 2002 increased the number of small
water bodies in the study area. In the Argentinean
Pampean plains, during a wet period, a shallow
lake often forms when two small neighbouring
water bodies join; however, the number of shallow
lakes in 1998 was greater than 2000, and in 2002,
the number of small water bodies exceeded 2400.
Distribution of water bodies related to climatic
criteria, geomorphology and soil
From the cluster analysis application, four groups
of lakes were differentiated:
Plain and plateau lakes (C1). The lakes in the
continental plain and plateau geomorphic units
are the most numerous lake group. They primari-
ly differ from the lakes belonging to the other
groups in the CLD, with a predominance of cir-
cular, shallow lakes, and the heterogeneous TML,
which tends to be mainly NE-SW and NW-SE.
In 1998, 2170 shallow lakes were included
in this group, whereas during 2002, that number
increased to 2523 (+13.90 %). The mean TML
was 1.10 (±0.81), and the mean area was 0.11
(±0.31) during the normal year. In 2002, the
mean TML was 0.97 km (±0.75), whereas the
mean area was 0.59 (±0.87).
Some aspects of the relationship between cli-
mate and hydrology and the relation among wa-
ter bodies were not considered by this statistical
method. From a qualitative perspective, this clus-
ter included lakes belonging to three subzones
(Fig. 4): the defined channels zone, the continen-
tal plains zone and the eastern basin zone. The
essential differences between these classes lie in
the number and dynamics of the water bodies.
This difference relates the non-existence of a ge-
ological control to the highest drainage density
in the eastern basins. In the defined channels and
continental plain zones, the number of water bod-
ies is low because of the combination of optimal
drainage, clay texture and the lowest mean an-
nual precipitation. Some shallow lakes included
in this group are the El Toro, La Blanca and La
Tigra shallow lakes (Figs. 3 and 5).

Figure 4. Spatial distribution of water bodies considering hydrological, geomorphological, edaphic and climatic criteria from a clus-
ter analysis. Cluster 1: Lakes of plain and plateau; Cluster 2: Artificial lakes; Cluster 3: Coastal plain lakes (CLD<2); 4: Coastal plain
lakes (CLD>2). Distribución espacial de cuerpos de agua en base a criterios hidrológicos, geomorfológicos, edáficos y climáticos
(análisis de cluster). Cluster 1: Lagos de planicies y meseta, Cluster 2: Lagos artificiales, Cluster 3: Lagos de planicie costera
(CLD<2), 4: Lagos de planicie costera (CLD>2).
98 Bohn et al.

Figure 5. Lake groups by qualitative variables (Multiple Correspondence Analysis, MCA). The contribution of variables was F1
(LMT) and F2 (Area). Grupos de lagos sobre la base de variables cualitativas (Análisis de Correspondencias Múltiples, ACM). La
contribución de las variables fue: F1 (LMT) y F2 (Área).

Artificial lakes (C2). This cluster comprised the
only artificial water body, Paso de las Piedras
Reservoir (Fig. 3 and 5). The reservoir had an
extension of about 20 km2 during the normal
period, whereas in the wet period, the area in-
creased to 31 km2 . The TML increased by 14 %
between periods.
Coastal plain lakes, CLD<2 (C3). This group in-
cludes shallow, circular lakes (CLD<2) located in
the southwest region of the area of study. Since a
geomorphological point of view, the arrangement
of these lakes is related to the dunes along the
coast. The TML is the most significant difference
between groups 3 and 4 in terms of the orienta-
tion of the dunes. The mean TML did not exceed
1 km2 in either period. The mean area for the
shallow lakes in this group was 0.57 km2 (±0.23)
during the normal year. This parameter decreased
during the wet year as a consequence of the de-
velopment of intermittent shallow lakes, the areas
of which did not exceed 1 km2 .The number of wa-
ter bodies increased from 2 to 5 between the studied
periods. The San Antonio and Malaver shallow
lakes are included in this group (Fig. 3 and 5).
Coastal plain lakes, CLD>2 (C4). This group
consists of shallow lakes located in the south-
ernmost region of the study area. The CLD of
all lakes in this category is larger than 2, indi-
cating that elliptic forms are the most common.
The geomorphology of C4 lakes is characterised
by the presence of dunes along the coastal zone,
which act as the southern border of the lakes. The
TML orientation in the water bodies is NW-SE,
a response to the presence of those geomorpho-
logical features. During the normal period, the
mean TML and mean area were 4.72 km (±4.14)
and 6.41 km2 (±7.19), respectively. Both param-
eters increased by about 25 % in 2002. Sauce
Grande, Unamuno and El Cajón shallow lakes are
included in this group (Fig. 3 and 5).
During the normal year, the total surface cov-
ered by water was greater than 300 km2 (1.11 %
of the total studied area), whereas during the
wet year, the total surface covered by water was
415.29 km2 (1.42 % of the total studied area),
an increase of approximately 38 %. Although the
flooded area represents only a small percentage
of the total area, flooding is locally important if
we consider that an average farm area is around
5.33 km2 in the south of Buenos Aires (SAGPyA,
2002). Our study also demonstrates the impor-
tance of considering multiple variables and the
usefulness of automated tools, such as those used
 Distribution and morphometry of shallow lakes in a temperate zone
to process satellite imagery, in the classification
of natural, regional water bodies.
DISCUSSION
Variations in morphometry of shallow lakes of
the south of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina
show a direct correlation with precipitation.
Smith et al. (2002) indicated that both the area
and density of small water bodies can be ex-
plained by simple hydrological considerations.
Shallow lakes in temperate and plains zones, as in
the study area, exist in a hydrological balance be-
tween precipitation and evaporation. In this mat-
ter, Harbeck (1962) demonstrated that summer
evaporation from small water bodies is most el-
evated in shallow systems. The abovementioned
considerations are relevant for the study area be-
cause more than 98 % of the studied water bodies
are smaller than 1 km2 .
The total area coverage of water increased
from the normal to the wet year by about 27 %.
Similar patterns were detected around the world
in the case of floods, droughts or other anoma-
lous events, such as those studied here (Davis &
Froend, 1999; Birkett, 2000; Jöhnk et al., 2004).
In some cases, the flood or drought phenomena
were complemented by anthropogenic actions,
such as urban development, infilling or drainage
to create land for agricultural use. Such activities
were not detected in the study area.
The morphometric variations in the studied
shallow lakes have a significant impact on agri-
cultural activities and local fishing. Because agri-
culture is the most important economic activity
in the Pampean plains, any reduction in workable
area, especially in small farms, is potentially cru-
cial. Severe changes in fishing activity are dif-
ficult to assess. Dramatic changes in lake water
volume have been demonstrated to affect salin-
ity, impact abiotic and biotic conditions, cause a
loss of biodiversity and cause the loss or enrich-
ment of nutrients (Kainz & Lucotte, 2006; Hof-
man et al., 2008). These variations in morphom-
etry and water level also play important roles in
the lake’s littoral and aquatic – terrestrial inter-
face processes (Leira & Cantonati, 2008).
99
Six groups of lakes were defined in Argentina
based on biodiversity, geographical and hydro-
logical characteristics (Reca, 2004). The lakes
in the study area belong to a group of wa-
ter bodies called “The Pampas”. In this group,
the lakes have a great biodiversity and vari-
ability in area. The shallow lakes of flat ar-
eas not only present highly variable morphome-
tric parameters, but also include a large number
of ephemeral water bodies.
CONCLUSIONS
The influence of rainfall regime on the morphom-
etry of natural shallow lakes is well recognised
at several different scales (Ezzat Elshamy et al.,
2006; Swenson & Wahr, 2009; Turner et al.,
2010). We have demonstrated that this influence
is quantitatively significant and that geomorphol-
ogy and hydrology influence this variation.
In the study area, among all parameters anal-
ysed, the TML showed the highest variation
(∼ 66 %) in mean values between the normal
(1998) and the wet (2002) period. The areal cov-
erage of lakes in the study area was 1.11 % of the
total surface of the study area during the normal
year. In 2002, this percentage was 1.42 %.
As a result of this increased coverage, the den-
sity of lakes increased 22 % from the normal to
the wet year. Generally, the areal coverage and
density of lakes was lowest in the western plateau
zones because of the combination of natural op-
timal drainage with the lowest mean annual pre-
cipitation in the study area. Both parameters were
low near the hills, moderate in the centre of the
study area and high in the eastern plains.
The morphometry of shallow lakes in the
study area appears to be correlated with ge-
omorphology, soil permeability and hydrology,
rather than structural constraints. Circular, non-
permanent and smaller lakes are correlated
with the highest drain density and with plains.
Elongated lakes are associated with the pres-
ence of coastal dunes, irregular forms, how-
ever, were found to be associated with anthro-
pogenic activities, as in the case of the only
reservoir in the study area.
100 Bohn et al.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Partial support for this study was provided by
grants from Comisión de Investigaciones Cien-
tı́ficas de la Provincia de Buenos Aires (CIC),
Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientı́ficas
y Técnicas (CONICET), Universidad Nacional
del Sur (UNS) and Agencia Nacional de Pro-
moción Cientı́fica y Tecnológica (ANPCyT). The
satellite data were provided by Comisión Na-
cional de Actividades Espaciales (CONAE). Spe-
cial thanks to Dra. Vanessa Negrı́n.
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