© [10.1 CHAPTER-10 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF A MATTER. INTRODUCTION Till 18** century, heat was considered as a fluid known as ealorie. A hot substance was thought to have a more calorie than a cold substance. But later Benjamin ‘Thompson, Count Rumford rejected the theory of heat. He concluded that heat is not a fluid (or substance) it is a form of energy. HEAT Heat is the form of energy, which transferred from hot body to cold body until their temperatures become equal. LA T, Ome) T>h The transfer of heat from hot to cold body is non- mechanical process. It should be clearly understood that the word ‘heat’ is meaningful only as long as the energy is being transferred:Thus, expressions like ‘heat in a body’ or "heat ofa body" are meaningless, Heat is something that produces the senSation OF hotness or coldne in us. > Heat gained by a body is taken a®ipositive > Heat lost by a body is taken af negative. Sl unit of heat isijoule (J). » InCGS system Unitof heat is calorie. 9 JOULE’S MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF HEAT From experiments,™oule established a relation between the\work done and heat produced. He showed that whenever a given amount of work (W) “is converted into heat, always the same ammount Of heat (Q) is produced wag W=JQ Jj WwW Q J is called joule’s mechanical equivalent of heat 1 cal = 4.186] ~ 4.2) 1 calorie: One calorie is defined as the heat energy required (o raises the temperature of one gram of water through 1°C (from 14.5 to 15.5°C) at one atmospheric pressure. 1K cal = 1000 cal 1Kj = 1000] NOTE: Joule is not a physical quantity. Is just a conversion factor. TEMPERATURE, ‘Temperature of a substance is a physical quantity which measure the degree of hiOtness or coldness of the substance. When a hot bodysis placed in contact with a cold body,then the energy is transferred from the hot body to the'eoldhbody. A™bratich of science which deals with the medstremefit of temperature of a substance is known as thermometry. ‘Thermometric substance: When a substance is heated then some of its physical properties change. Their volume increase pressure increase resistance of conductor increase. A. substance that exhibits one of _ these thermometric properties and used in a thermometer is called a thermometric substance. A device which is used to measure the temperature is called a thermometer. The commonly used thermometers are mercury thermometer and alcohol thermometer TEMPERATURE SCALES For any standard scale, two fixed reference points are needed. Since all substances change dimensions with temperature, an absolute reference for expansion is not available. However, the necessary fixed points may be correlated to the physical phenomena that always occur at the same temperature. The ice point and the steam point of water are two convenient fixed points and are known as the freezing and boiling points, respectively. Excellent tutorials (Mayur Vihar Phase-3), Alpha Study Point (Trilok Puri), Sky Institute (Panday Nagar), Baba Tutorials (West Vinod Nagar)© [10.2 o 100°C 4 32°F 212°F + Boiling 273.15K 373.15K| points 4 Freezing Point Celsius Seale (°C): In this scale of temperature the melting point of ice is taken as 0°C and the boiling point of water as 100°C and space between these two points is divided into 100 equal parts. Each division is known as one degree Celsius cee) Fahrenheit Scale (F): In this scale of temperature, the melting point of ice is taken as 32°F and the boiling point of water as 212°F and the space between these two points is divided into 180 equal parts. Each division is known as one Fahrenheit (1°F) Kelvin Scale (K): In this scale of temperature, the melting point of ice is taken as 273.15 K and the boiling point of water is 373.15 K the space between these two points is divided into 100 equal parts. Reaumer Scale: On this scale, melting poirot ice is taken as 0°R and the boiling point ofswater is 80° R. The interval between them divided into ‘80 equal parts and each parts represents 1°R. A relationship for converting between the ‘two scales may be obtained from a geaph of Fahrenheit temperature (tp) vs Celsius temperature (tc) ° “Temperature (°C) 100 Scale — Freezing point Reading = Boiling point — Free: to-0 _ tp—32 100-0 212-32 100” 180 te _ te 32 10 18 a2 PS Conversion of temperature from oné’scale to another te _ tp 32 te +32 Freezing point Boiling point = Freezing point tk 5273.15 ST, -0 ‘UR7ais — 27815 80-0 Reading = te-0 100 te _ te=320 tk 273.15 _ Tr 100 ‘180 100 80 Q. Calculatesthe temperature which has same numerical value on»Celsius and Fahrenheit scale, tp = tc =0 te 32 100 180 0 = -40° IDEAL-GAS EQUATION AND ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE When temperature is held constant, the pressure and volume of a quantity of gas are related as PV=Constant .. (i) This relationship is known as Boyle’s law, after Robert Boyle (1627-1691) the English Chemist who discovered it, ‘When the pressure is held constant, the volume of a quantity of the gas is related to the temperature as vo os p= Constant. (ii) This relationship is known as Charles’ law, after the French scientist Jacques Charles (1747-1823). From equation (i) and (ii) PV Sp = Constant PV pa uR PV = uRT Excellent tutorials (Mayur Vihar Phase-3), Alpha Study Point (Trilok Puri), Sky Institute (Panday Nagar), Baba Tutorials (West Vinod Nagar)© [10.3 This is ideal gas equations. P— Pressure, V— Volume,T — Temperature h = Number of moles R = (8.31] mol~*K~*) Universal gas constant Graph: Pressure versus temperature of a low density gas kept at constant volume. Pressure -273.15°C “200°C-100°C_0°C 100°C “Temperature ABSOLUTE ZERO: The pressure of gas becomes zero at —273.15°C. The scale of temperature whose zero coincides with =273.15 °C is known as absolute zero. Absolute zero is the foundation of the Kelvin temperature scale or absolute scale temperature named after the British scientist Lord Kelvin. Ort this scale, — 273.15 °C is taken as the zero point, that is 0K K=°C+273.15 Graph: A plot of pressure versus temperature and: extrapolation of lines for low density gases indicates the same absolute zero temperature. Pressure Gas A Gas B Gas C -273.15°C orc ‘Temperature (0%), ‘THERMAL EXPANSION ‘The increase in the dimensions of a matter due to the fierease in its temperature is called thermal expansion, Most of the materials expands, when their temperature increase, with few exception such as carbon. Cause of thermal expansion: According to atomic theory of matter, asymmetry in potential energy curve is responsible for thermal expansion. ‘As with rise in temperature the amplitude of vibration of atom and molecules increases. The average interatomic separation increases. So the matter as a whole expands. Solid, Liquid and Gases expand when “their temperature increases. > Solids can change in length, area or volume. > Liquids and gases change in! theityolumes, when heated, ‘Type of thermal expansion: Solids cart €xpand in > One dimension (Linea expansion), > Two dimensions (Superficial expansion) > Three dimensions(Volumietric expansion) (i) Linear expansion; When a solid is heated and its length incfeasedthen the expansion is called linear expansion, Consider a rod whose original length | when the rod heated Change in temperature(AT), the increase in length Al proportional to > Its original length (1) > Change in temperature (AT) Al LAT Al = alAT @ =Coefficient of linear expansion Alo T* aT Increase in length Original Tength x Rise in temperature It is defined as the increase in length per unit length per degree increase in temperature. Unit is °C? or K“* If a body has length U and {, at temperature 0°C « and t°C respectively, then Al = ly —L. ly -1 =aldT 1 =1+alaT Excellent tutorials (Mayur Vihar Phase-3), Alpha Study Point (Trilok Puri), Sky Institute (Panday Nagar), Baba Tutorials (West Vinod Nagar)© [10.4 1, =I +adT) (ii) Superficial (Area) expansion: When a solid is heated, its area increase, then the thermal expansion is called superficial or area expansion. AA Consider a Solid plate whose original Area A when the rod heated, the increase in Area AA proportional to > Its original Area (A) > Change in temperature (AT) AA c AAT A= BAAT B =Coefficient of superficial or area expansion WAI ACT _ Increase in Area Be Original Area x Rise in temperature It is defined as the increase in area per unitarea per degree increase in temperatute. Unit is °C 'yoRK-* If a body has area A anthA, at temperature 0°C and t°C respectively, then AA = Ap A Ay — Ags RAAT A = A+ BAAT ‘A, = A(1 + BAT) (iii) Volume Or Cubical expansion: When a substance iSpheated and its volume increase, then thepexpansion is called volume expansion or cubical expansion. Consider a Solid or liquid whose original Volume V when the body heated, the increase in Volume AV proportional to > Its original Volume (V) > Change in temperature (A), Ay «VAT ay = wat Y = Coefficient of Volume or cubical expansion av 1 Yay tT Increase in Volume ‘Otigifial Volume x Rise in temperature This defined as the increase in volume per unit ‘voluiifé per degree increase in temperature. Unit is °C“? or K-? If a body has volume V and V_ at temperature 0°C and t°C respectively, then AV = Vy —V \-V =yvaT Y=V +yvaT VYe=V(1+yAT) Variation of y with temperature (Copper): The Value of y first increases with temperature and then becomes constant at a high temperature (above 500K) 6 z 3 20 «300 TH The average value of y for some common substance in the temperature range (0 — 100 °C). Excellent tutorials (Mayur Vihar Phase-3), Alpha Study Point (Trilok Puri), Sky Institute (Panday Nagar), Baba Tutorials (West Vinod Nagar)Page [105 pyrex glass and invar (a special iron-nickel alloy) having particularly low values of y. The value of y for alcohol (ethyl) is more than mercury and expands more than mercury for the same rise in temperature Relation between yanda: For an isotropic solid consider a cube of length J and volume V. When the temperature of the cube is increased by AT, the side length increase by dl and volume increased by dV dv = yvdT ... (i) Volume of cube v= av = 30dl Put in equation (i) 3Pdl = yaT 3dl = ylaT Linear expansion dl = aldT 3aldT = yldT 3a=y y=3a Material_[a(10-K~4)_| y@0-5K-*) Steel 12 3.6 Copper 17 5.1 Bras 1.8 6 i 7 Relation between B aiid aConsider a square of length [ and area A. Whenithe’temperature of the square is increased by dT, the side length increase by dl and @reaincreased by dA. da= BACT ...(i) Area ofsquare A=P dA = 2ldl Put in equation (i) 2ldl = praT 2dl = BldT Linear expansion dl = aldT 2alaT = plat Applications of Thermal Expansion (i) In Solids Bimetallic strip: When two strips of eqiial Tength but of different metals (different coefficient of linear expansion) are placed on @ach¥other and! riveted. This strip has the characteristic property of bending on heating dué\to unequal) linear expansion of the two metals. The,strip Will bend with metal of greater 9 on|outer side, Coefficient of expansion is more for brass than steel. Steel I) \Biess Steol QB Room temperature Higher temperature This strip finds its application in auto-cut or thermostat in electric heating circuits. It has also been used as thermometer by calibrating its bending. [ts on zc (Of) = 30 (ii) In Liquids Liquids do not have linear and superficial expansion but these only have volumetric expansion, Excellent tutorials (Mayur Vihar Phase-3), Alpha Study Point (Trilok Puri), Sky Institute (Panday Nagar), Baba Tutorials (West Vinod Nagar)Since liquids are always to be heated along with a vessel which contains them so initially on heating the system (liquid + vessel), the level of liquid in vessel falls (as vessel expands more since it absorbs heat and liquid expands less) but later on, it starts rising due to faster expansion of the liquid. Some other application of thermal expansion > A:small gap left between two iron rails of the railways helps to avoid accident } Telephone or electric wires are not tightly fixed between two poles. Concrete flooring is laid in small blocks and! not in one continuous piece. THE ANOMALOUS BEHAVIOUR OF, WATER Water show unusual or anomalous behaviour when heated from 0°C to 4°C. Itsis not expand, when heated from 0°C to (4°C Mike other substances. The volume of a givénamount dfywater decreast as it is cooled from room temperature, until temperature reaches 4°C [Fig. (a)] Below 4°C the volume increases, andestherefore the density decreases [Fig. (b)]. This means that water has a ‘maximum density at4°C. Volume of one of water fai Denstty Og/mx 109 0.999701 + bt ‘Temperature (C} ) This property has an important environmental effect: The anomalous behaviouRof water p! an important role in the freezing of top surface of water in a lake ota river and survival of aquatic life. Water at bottom.of the lakes remains at 4°C even it freezes atthe top surface. This allows marine animals to remains alive and move freely near the bottom. Role of anomalous behavior of water Tee Water below Ice layer THERMAL STRESS Consider a metallic rod whose end are fixed rigidly as shown in fig. When the temperature of the rod increases, its length increase. Since there is no space left to compensate its increased length, so it bend as shown in fig. Metalic Rod Excellent tutorials (Mayur Vihar Phase-3), Alpha Study Point (Trilok Puri), Sky Institute (Panday Nagar), Baba Tutorials (West Vinod Nagar)© [10.7 If the rod is not allowed to bend, then it will be under a great stress. This stress is known as thermal stress. Al = alAT Al = GAT Young’s modulus of the material of the rod is given by Thermal stress ‘aT Thermal stress = YoAT stress == A F = Stress x A F=YaATxA Force developed in the rod Y.ALA T Heat capcity(S) = 2 Q = amount of heat needed to raise the temperture AT = change in temperture from T to T + AT > SI unit of heat capacity is joule/2C_or joule/K. > Dimensional [M*1?T-?K-4] formula of heat{ capacity SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY HEAT CAPACITY OR THERMAL, CAPACITY To understand the concept of heat capatity Take two blocks of same mass. One made of altiminium and other made of iron and heat both the blockto same temperature. Then place these blocks of an ice. It is observed that the amount of ige melted is different when aluminiumiblock is pliced over the ice block and when irdn, block is placed over the ice block. This shows that Wifferent materials absorb or give off different amount of heat. If the blo¢ks made of aluminium and iron have ferent temperattitep then these blocks absorb or give different amount of heat. Thus we conclude that the Yamotint of heat needed to raise the temperaturéof substance depends upon PrMass > Change in temperature } Nature of the material of substance Heat (Thermal) Capacity: Heat capacity of a body is defined as the amount of heat absorbed or rejected to change the temperature by one unit(1°C). When a body is heated its, temperaturé"increase, On the other hand, A@mtiperatureYof the body decrease when it is cooled. It is found that the gain or loss/6f heat is directly proportional to > The massofithe body > Riser fall of temperature of the body (A) Quam Qe AT Q=smaT so m.AT Q S* aT s is constant known as specific heat capacity of body. Specific heat capacity depends on the nature of material body. Specific heat capacity: It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of substance through 1°C. > SLunit J kg~!K~? and in CGS cal g~!°C-? > Dimensional formula of heat capacity [M°LzT-2K-1] Specific heat of water J cal _ | Keal_ cal 4200 0005800 = kgoc = 'gmec Effect of Temperature on the Specific Heat Capacity of a Material: The specific heat capacity of a material changes with the change in temperature of the material. This is because the internal structure of the material changes with the change in temperature. kgec Excellent tutorials (Mayur Vihar Phase-3), Alpha Study Point (Trilok Puri), Sky Institute (Panday Nagar), Baba Tutorials (West Vinod Nagar)