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Computer Vision Technology for Food
Quality Evaluation
This page intentionally left blank
Computer Vision Technology for
Food Quality Evaluation
Second Edition

Edited by
Da-Wen Sun

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON

NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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(other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden
our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

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Contents
Contributors................................................................................................... xvii
About the Editor ............................................................................................. xix
Preface to the 2nd Edition................................................................................ xxi
Part 1 Fundamentals of Computer Vision Technology
Chapter 1: Image Acquisition Systems ................................................................. 3
M.Z. Abdullah
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 3
1.2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum ............................................................................. 4
1.3 Image Acquisition Systems ................................................................................... 6
1.3.1 Computer Vision ................................................................................................ 6
1.3.2 Ultrasound ........................................................................................................ 17
1.3.3 Infrared ............................................................................................................. 20
1.3.4 Tomographic Imaging ...................................................................................... 26
1.4 Future Trends ....................................................................................................... 39
Nomenclature.............................................................................................................. 39
References................................................................................................................... 40
Chapter 2: Image Segmentation Techniques........................................................ 45
H.-J. He, C. Zheng, D.-W. Sun
2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 45
2.2 Preprocessing Techniques .................................................................................... 46
2.2.1 Noise Removal ................................................................................................. 46
2.2.2 Contrast Enhancing .......................................................................................... 48
2.3 Segmentation Techniques .................................................................................... 49
2.3.1 Thresholding-Based Segmentation .................................................................. 49
2.3.2 Edge-Based Segmentation ............................................................................... 55
2.3.3 Region-Based Segmentation ............................................................................ 55
2.3.4 Gradient-Based Segmentation ......................................................................... 55
2.3.5 Classification-Based Segmentation.................................................................. 57
2.3.6 Other Segmentation Techniques ...................................................................... 60
Nomenclature.............................................................................................................. 61
Greek Symbols .......................................................................................................... 61
List of Abbreviations................................................................................................. 61
References................................................................................................................... 61

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Chapter 3: Object Measurement Methods.......................................................... 65

C. Zheng, H.-J. He, D.-W. Sun
3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 65
3.2 Size ....................................................................................................................... 66
3.3 Shape .................................................................................................................... 67
3.3.1 Size-Dependent Measurement ......................................................................... 67
3.3.2 Size-Independent Measurement....................................................................... 67
3.4 Color ..................................................................................................................... 70
3.4.1 Hardware-Orientated ........................................................................................ 71
3.4.2 Human-Orientated ............................................................................................ 72
3.4.3 Instrumental...................................................................................................... 73
3.5 Texture.................................................................................................................. 74
3.5.1 Statistical Methods........................................................................................... 75
3.5.2 Structural Methods........................................................................................... 76
3.5.3 Transform-Based Methods............................................................................... 76
3.5.4 Model-Based Methods ..................................................................................... 78
3.6 Combined Measurements..................................................................................... 79
Nomenclatures ............................................................................................................ 79
Greek.......................................................................................................................... 80
Subscripts................................................................................................................... 81
List of Abbreviation .................................................................................................. 81
Appendix..................................................................................................................... 81
Statistical Measurements of Co-occurrence Matrix ................................................. 81
Statistical Measurements of Run-Length Matrix ..................................................... 81
Statistical Measurements of Neighboring Dependence Matrix ............................... 82
References................................................................................................................... 82
Chapter 4: Object Classification Methods .......................................................... 87
C.-J. Du, H.-J. He, D.-W. Sun
4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 87
4.2 Artificial Neural Network .................................................................................... 88
4.2.1 Structure of Neural Network ........................................................................... 88
4.2.2 Learning Process .............................................................................................. 90
4.3 Statistical Classification (SC) .............................................................................. 92
4.3.1 Bayesian Classification .................................................................................... 92
4.3.2 Discriminant Analysis...................................................................................... 93
4.3.3 Nearest Neighbor ............................................................................................. 95
4.4 Fuzzy Logic.......................................................................................................... 96
4.4.1 Creating Fuzzy Sets and Membership Functions ........................................... 96
4.4.2 Constructing Fuzzy Rule Base ........................................................................ 98
4.4.3 Producing Fuzzy Outputs and Defuzzification ............................................... 98
4.5 Decision Tree ....................................................................................................... 99

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4.6 Support Vector Machine .................................................................................... 101

4.6.1 Binary Classification ...................................................................................... 101
4.6.2 Multiclassification .......................................................................................... 103
Nomenclature............................................................................................................ 106
References................................................................................................................. 107
Chapter 5: Introduction to Hyperspectral Imaging Technology ............................ 111
M. Kamruzzaman, D.-W. Sun
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 111
5.2 Fundamentals of Hyperspectral Imaging Technology ...................................... 112
5.3 Multivariate Data Analysis ................................................................................ 116
5.3.1 Spectral Preprocessing ................................................................................... 116
5.3.2 Development of Multivariate Calibration ..................................................... 117
5.3.3 Model Validation and Evaluation .................................................................. 118
5.3.4 Selection of Important Wavelengths ............................................................. 118
5.3.5 Multivariate Image Analysis.......................................................................... 119
5.4 Hyperspectral Image Analysis Software ........................................................... 119
5.5 Application of HSI for Muscle Foods............................................................... 120
5.5.1 Beef ................................................................................................................ 122
5.5.2 Pork ................................................................................................................ 122
5.5.3 Lamb............................................................................................................... 125
5.5.4 Chicken........................................................................................................... 126
5.5.5 Turkey............................................................................................................. 129
5.5.6 Fish ................................................................................................................. 129
References................................................................................................................. 133
Chapter 6: Introduction to Raman Chemical Imaging Technology ........................ 141
J. Qin, K. Chao, M.S. Kim
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 141
6.2 Principles of Raman Scattering ......................................................................... 142
6.3 Raman Spectroscopy Techniques ...................................................................... 143
6.3.1 Backscattering Raman Spectroscopy............................................................. 143
6.3.2 Transmission Raman Spectroscopy ............................................................... 144
6.3.3 Spatially Offset Raman Spectroscopy........................................................... 144
6.3.4 Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy ....................................................... 144
6.3.5 Other Raman Techniques............................................................................... 145
6.4 Raman Chemical Imaging and Acquisition Methods....................................... 145
6.5 Raman Imaging Instruments.............................................................................. 149
6.5.1 Major Components of Raman Imaging Systems .......................................... 149
6.5.2 Raman Imaging Systems and Calibrations ................................................... 154
6.6 Raman Image Analysis Techniques .................................................................. 158
6.6.1 Image Preprocessing ...................................................................................... 158
6.6.2 Target Identification ....................................................................................... 159
6.6.3 Mapping and Quantitative Analysis .............................................................. 161

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6.7 Applications for Food and Agricultural Products............................................. 163

References................................................................................................................. 169
Part 2 Quality Evaluation of Meat, Poultry and Seafood
Chapter 7: Quality Evaluation of Meat Cuts .................................................... 175
N.A. Valous, L. Zheng, D.-W. Sun, J. Tan
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 175
7.2 Quality Evaluation Using Computer Vision ..................................................... 177
7.2.1 Beef Quality, Yield Grade, Composition, and Tenderness........................... 177
7.2.2 Pork Color, Marbling, Grade, and Composition........................................... 178
7.2.3 Poultry Inspection, Contaminant Detection, and Composition .................... 179
7.2.4 Lamb Yield Grade and Tenderness ............................................................... 179
7.3 Quality Evaluation Using Hyperspectral Imaging ............................................ 180
7.3.1 Beef Tenderness, Microbial Spoilage, and Composition ............................. 180
7.3.2 Pork Grading, Composition, and Microbial Spoilage .................................. 181
7.3.3 Poultry Classification, Contaminant Detection, and Composition............... 183
7.3.4 Lamb Classification, Composition, and Tenderness ..................................... 185
7.4 Future Work ....................................................................................................... 185
References................................................................................................................. 186
Chapter 8: Quality Measurement of Cooked Meats .......................................... 195
C.-J. Du, A. Iqbal, D.-W. Sun
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 195
8.2 Shrinkage............................................................................................................ 196
8.2.1 Size and Shape Measurements ...................................................................... 196
8.2.2 Shrinkage Determination and Its Relations With Yield, Water
Content, and Texture...................................................................................... 198
8.3 Pores and Porosity ............................................................................................. 200
8.3.1 Measurement of Pores and Porosity.............................................................. 201
8.3.2 Correlations With Water Content, Processing Time, and Texture ............... 202
8.4 Color ................................................................................................................... 204
8.4.1 Color Measurement........................................................................................ 204
8.4.2 Correlation With Water Content.................................................................... 205
8.5 Image Texture..................................................................................................... 205
8.5.1 Extraction of Image Texture Features........................................................... 205
8.5.2 Correlations With Tenderness........................................................................ 207
Nomenclature............................................................................................................ 209
References................................................................................................................. 210
Chapter 9: Quality Evaluation of Poultry Carcass............................................. 213
B. Park
9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 213
9.2 Poultry Quality Inspection ................................................................................. 214

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9.3 Color Imaging for Quality Inspection ............................................................... 215

9.3.1 Detection of Splenomegaly ........................................................................... 215
9.3.2 Viscera Inspection .......................................................................................... 216
9.3.3 Wholesomeness Inspection ............................................................................ 217
9.4 Spectral Imaging ................................................................................................ 217
9.4.1 Quality Characterization ................................................................................ 217
9.4.2 Skin Tumor Detection.................................................................................... 219
9.4.3 Systemic Disease Detection........................................................................... 220
9.4.4 Heart Disease Detection ................................................................................ 221
9.4.5 Systemic Disease Identification..................................................................... 222
9.4.6 Quality Inspection by Dual-Band Spectral Imaging..................................... 224
9.5 Poultry Image Classifications ............................................................................ 225
9.5.1 Air Sacs Classification by Learning Vector Quantization............................ 225
9.5.2 Quality Classification by Texture Analysis................................................... 225
9.5.3 Supervised Algorithms for Hyperspectral Image Classification .................. 230
References................................................................................................................. 238
Chapter 10: Quality Evaluation of Seafoods..................................................... 243
M.O. Balaban, E. Misimi, Z. Ayvaz
10.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 243
10.1.1 Developments in New Hardware and Technologies................................. 243
10.1.2 Central Processing Unit (CPU): Computing Power ................................. 244
10.1.3 Graphical Processing Unit: Accelerated Computing ................................ 244
10.1.4 New Camera Technology .......................................................................... 245
10.2 New Methods ................................................................................................... 247
10.2.1 Hyperspectral Imaging............................................................................... 247
10.2.2 Sorting of Cod Roe, Liver, and Milt......................................................... 247
10.2.3 X-Rays........................................................................................................ 248
10.2.4 Two Image Method.................................................................................... 249
10.3 Color ................................................................................................................. 249
10.3.1 Raw Seafood .............................................................................................. 249
10.3.2 Processed Seafood...................................................................................... 250
10.3.3 Color of Gills and Eyes............................................................................. 251
10.3.4 Quality, Gaping, Defects............................................................................ 252
10.3.5 Area, Volume, and Shape .......................................................................... 256
10.3.6 View Area Versus Weight.......................................................................... 258
10.4 Automation ....................................................................................................... 260
10.4.1 Robot-Based Posttrimming of Salmon Fillets .......................................... 261
10.4.2 Automated Sorting of Pelagic Fish Based on 3-D Machine Vision ........ 262
10.5 Conclusion and Outlook .................................................................................. 263
10.5.1 Fusion of Sensor Data ............................................................................... 264
10.5.2 Dense 3-D Point Cloud Image Maps ........................................................ 264
10.5.3 Dense 3-D Visual Servoing of Robots ...................................................... 264

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10.5.4 Robot-Based Automation........................................................................... 264

10.5.5 Big Data, Cloud Computing, and Cloud Robotics ................................... 265
10.5.6 Early Differentiation and Sorting .............................................................. 265
10.5.7 Flexible and Raw Material-Adapted Handling and Processing ............... 266
References................................................................................................................. 266
Further Reading ........................................................................................................ 270
Part 3 Quality Evaluation of Fruit and Vegetables
Chapter 11: Quality Evaluation of Apples........................................................ 273
Y. Lu, R. Lu
11.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 273
11.1.1 Apple Production ....................................................................................... 273
11.1.2 Necessity for Quality Evaluation .............................................................. 273
11.1.3 Computer Vision Technologies for Quality Evaluation ........................... 274
11.2 Detection of Surface Defects........................................................................... 275
11.3 Detection of Internal Defects .......................................................................... 279
11.3.1 Watercore.................................................................................................... 279
11.3.2 Internal Browning ...................................................................................... 282
11.4 Evaluation of Texture and Flavor.................................................................... 284
11.4.1 Firmness ..................................................................................................... 284
11.4.2 Mealiness.................................................................................................... 290
11.4.3 Soluble Solids Content .............................................................................. 291
11.5 Quality Evaluation Based on Optical Properties of Apples ........................... 293
11.6 In-Orchard Sorting and Grading of Apples .................................................... 295
11.7 Future Trends ................................................................................................... 299
References................................................................................................................. 299
Chapter 12: Quality Evaluation of Citrus Fruits ............................................... 305
J. Blasco, S. Cubero, E. Moltó
12.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 305
12.1.1 Economic Importance of Citrus Production ............................................. 305
12.1.2 Physiological and Physicochemical Characteristics of Citrus
Fruits that Affect Their Inspection............................................................ 305
12.1.3 Quality Features to be Inspected in Citrus Fruits..................................... 306
12.1.4 Major Defects and Diseases Found in Citrus Fruits................................. 306
12.1.5 The Citrus Inspection Line ........................................................................ 309
12.2 Analysis of Visible Images for Automatic Citrus Fruit Inspection ............... 310
12.2.1 Preparation of the Scene............................................................................ 310
12.2.2 Defect Detection ........................................................................................ 311
12.2.3 Identification of Defects ............................................................................ 314
12.2.4 Automated Inspection of Citrus in Packing Lines.................................... 314
12.2.5 Mobile Platforms........................................................................................ 315
12.3 Quality Inspection Using Nonstandard Computer Vision .............................. 315
12.3.1 Detection of Rottenness............................................................................. 316

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12.3.2 Detection of Citrus Canker........................................................................ 318

12.3.3 Detection of Other Skin Defects ............................................................... 319
12.4 Internal Quality Inspection .............................................................................. 319
References................................................................................................................. 321
Chapter 13: Quality Evaluation of Strawberry ................................................. 327
J.-H. Cheng, D.-W. Sun, M. Nagata, J.G. Tallada
13.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 327
13.1.1 Overview of Strawberries .......................................................................... 327
13.1.2 Necessity of Quality Measurement ........................................................... 327
13.1.3 Computer Vision Technologies for Quality Measurement ....................... 328
13.2 Grading of Size, Shape, and Ripeness ............................................................ 329
13.2.1 Standards for Quality Grades .................................................................... 329
13.2.2 Preliminary Study for Size and Shape Judgment ..................................... 330
13.2.3 Advance Techniques for Size and Shape Judgment ................................. 332
13.2.4 Grading of Ripeness .................................................................................. 336
13.3 Detection of Bruises and Fecal Contamination .............................................. 337
13.3.1 Importance of Detecting Bruises............................................................... 337
13.3.2 Color Imaging for Bruise Detection ......................................................... 338
13.3.3 NIR Imaging for Bruise Detection............................................................ 338
13.3.4 Hyperspectral Imaging for Bruise Detection ............................................ 339
13.4 Estimation of Firmness and Soluble Solids Content ...................................... 343
13.4.1 Importance of Measurement of Internal Quality ...................................... 343
13.4.2 Measurement of Firmness.......................................................................... 343
13.4.3 Measurement of Soluble Solids Content................................................... 346
13.4.4 Estimation of Anthocyanin Distribution ................................................... 347
13.5 Further Challenges ........................................................................................... 348
References................................................................................................................. 349
Chapter 14: Classification and Quality Evaluation of Table Olives ..................... 351
R. Diaz
14.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 351
14.2 Table Olive Classification ................................................................................ 352
14.2.1 Production Process ..................................................................................... 352
14.2.2 Classification by Quality ........................................................................... 352
14.2.3 Industrial Needs of Table Olive Producers ............................................... 355
14.3 Application of Computer Vision ..................................................................... 355
14.3.1 Conventional Machine Vision ................................................................... 355
14.3.2 Near Infrared Vision .................................................................................. 362
14.3.3 X-Ray to Detect Internal Defects and Stone Fruits ................................. 363
14.4 Industrial Applications ..................................................................................... 364
References................................................................................................................. 366

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Chapter 15: Grading of Potatoes .................................................................... 369

F. Pedreschi, D. Mery, T. Marique
15.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 369
15.2 Surface Potato Defects..................................................................................... 370
15.3 Potato Classification......................................................................................... 371
15.4 Applications...................................................................................................... 373
15.4.1 Automated Defect Detection ..................................................................... 375
15.4.2 Machine Vision System ............................................................................. 377
15.4.3 Characterization of Potato Defects............................................................ 379
15.4.4 Algorithm Design....................................................................................... 379
Acknowledgments..................................................................................................... 380
References................................................................................................................. 380
Further Reading ........................................................................................................ 382

Part 4 Quality Evaluation of Grains

Chapter 16: Wheat Quality Evaluation............................................................ 385
D.S. Jayas, J. Paliwal, C. Erkinbaev, P.K. Ghosh, C. Karunakaran
16.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 385
16.2 Machine Vision ................................................................................................ 386
16.2.1 Context for Wheat Quality Monitoring..................................................... 386
16.2.2 Area-Scan Imaging .................................................................................... 387
16.2.3 Line-Scan Imaging..................................................................................... 388
16.2.4 Sample Presentation Devices..................................................................... 389
16.2.5 Development of Separation Algorithms.................................................... 391
16.2.6 Morphological, Color, and Textural Algorithms....................................... 393
16.3 Soft X-Ray Imaging......................................................................................... 396
16.3.1 Soft X-Rays for Insect Infestation Detection in Grain............................. 397
16.4 Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) and Hyperspectral Imaging .................. 398
16.4.1 Measurement of Near Infrared Radiation ................................................. 399
16.4.2 Near Infrared Spectroscopy Instrumentation ............................................ 401
16.4.3 Near Infrared Hyperspectral Imaging ....................................................... 402
16.4.4 Application of Near Infrared Spectroscopy and Hyperspectral
Imaging Systems ........................................................................................ 403
16.5 Thermal Imaging.............................................................................................. 405
16.5.1 Application of Thermal Imaging............................................................... 406
16.6 Potential Practical Applications....................................................................... 406
16.6.1 Automation of Railcar Unloading ............................................................. 406
16.6.2 Optimization of Grain Cleaning................................................................ 406
16.6.3 Quality Monitoring of Export Grains........................................................ 406
16.6.4 Detection of Low-Level Infestation .......................................................... 407
References................................................................................................................. 407

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Chapter 17: Quality Evaluation of Rice ........................................................... 413

Y. Ogawa
17.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 413
17.2 Quality of Rice................................................................................................. 413
17.3 Quality Evaluation of Raw Rice ..................................................................... 416
17.3.1 Morphological Features ............................................................................. 416
17.3.2 Surface and Structural Traits ..................................................................... 419
17.3.3 Moisture and Compound Distributions ..................................................... 422
17.3.4 Defect Detection ........................................................................................ 425
17.4 Quality Evaluation of Cooked Rice ................................................................ 426
17.4.1 Changes in Water Distribution During Soaking ....................................... 426
17.4.2 Water Migration and Structural Changes During Boiling........................ 428
17.4.3 Grain Structure of Cooked Rice................................................................ 430
17.5 Quality Evaluation of Rice-Related Products ................................................. 432
References................................................................................................................. 433
Chapter 18: Quality Evaluation of Corn/Maize ................................................ 439
S.J. Symons, M.A. Shahin, Z. Xiong, Q. Dai, D.-W. Sun
18.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 439
18.1.1 Whole Seed Analysis for Type.................................................................. 440
18.1.2 Internal Seed Characteristics ..................................................................... 440
18.1.3 Relating Seed Morphometry to Quality .................................................... 442
18.1.4 Assessing Seed Quality Indirectly............................................................. 442
18.1.5 Adding Color into the Analysis ................................................................ 444
18.1.6 The Analysis Is Only as Good as the Sample.......................................... 444
18.1.7 Integration and Automation of Analysis................................................... 444
18.2 Corn .................................................................................................................. 446
18.2.1 Use of Corn................................................................................................ 446
18.2.2 Corn Grading.............................................................................................. 446
18.3 Machine Vision Determination of Corn Quality ............................................ 447
18.3.1 Color........................................................................................................... 448
18.3.2 Size and Shape........................................................................................... 448
18.3.3 Breakage..................................................................................................... 451
18.3.4 Stress Cracks .............................................................................................. 452
18.3.5 Heat Damage.............................................................................................. 453
18.3.6 Mold and Fungal Contamination............................................................... 453
18.3.7 Hardness or Vitreousness........................................................................... 454
18.3.8 Seed Viability............................................................................................. 455
18.3.9 Other Applications ..................................................................................... 456
18.3.10 Changing Directions ................................................................................ 456
References................................................................................................................. 457
Further Reading ........................................................................................................ 462

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Part 5 Quality Evaluation of Other Foods

Chapter 19: Quality Evaluation of Pizzas ........................................................ 465
C.-J. Du, D.F. Barbin, D.-W. Sun
19.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 465
19.2 Pizza Base Production ..................................................................................... 466
19.2.1 Feature Extraction...................................................................................... 466
19.2.2 Classification .............................................................................................. 470
19.3 Pizza Sauce Spread .......................................................................................... 471
19.3.1 Color Feature Extraction ........................................................................... 472
19.3.2 Classification .............................................................................................. 473
19.4 Pizza Toppings Applied ................................................................................... 474
19.4.1 Evaluating Color ........................................................................................ 475
19.4.2 Evaluating Topping Percentage and Distribution ..................................... 477
Nomenclature............................................................................................................ 482
References................................................................................................................. 483
Chapter 20: Cheese Quality Evaluation ........................................................... 487
S. Gunasekaran
20.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 487
20.2 Cheese Quality Attributes................................................................................ 487
20.2.1 Physical Attributes ..................................................................................... 488
20.2.2 End-Use Qualities ...................................................................................... 491
20.2.3 Cheese Shred Morphology and Integrity .................................................. 499
20.2.4 Cheese Defects........................................................................................... 505
20.2.5 Microstructure Evaluation.......................................................................... 508
References................................................................................................................. 519
Chapter 21: Quality Evaluation of Bakery Products.......................................... 525
S. Nashat, M.Z. Abdullah
21.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 525
21.2 Quality Characteristics of Bakery Products .................................................... 528
21.2.1 Color........................................................................................................... 529
21.2.2 Rheological and Textural Properties ......................................................... 535
21.3 Computer Vision Inspection of Bakery Products ........................................... 538
21.3.1 Color Inspection......................................................................................... 538
21.3.2 Shape and Size Inspection......................................................................... 555
21.3.3 Crack Inspection ........................................................................................ 563
21.3.4 Texture Inspection...................................................................................... 578
Nomenclature............................................................................................................ 583
References................................................................................................................. 585
Further Reading ........................................................................................................ 589

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Chapter 22: Quality Evaluation and Control of Potato Chips............................. 591

F. Pedreschi, D. Mery, T. Marique
22.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 591
22.2 Computer Vision .............................................................................................. 592
22.3 Image Features ................................................................................................. 595
22.4 Applications...................................................................................................... 599
22.5 Fried Potato Sorting ......................................................................................... 604
22.5.1 Browning Sorting Using Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)
by CARAH (Centre pour l’agronomie et l’agro-industrie de la
Province e Hainaut, Belgium) ................................................................... 604
22.5.2 Browning Sorting Without ANN (Walloon Agricultural
Research Center, Belgium) ........................................................................ 607
22.5.3 Browning Sorting and Acrylamide Estimation Using ANN
by CARAH................................................................................................. 610
Acknowledgments..................................................................................................... 611
References................................................................................................................. 611
Further Reading ........................................................................................................ 613
Index ............................................................................................................ 615

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Contributors
M.Z. Abdullah School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
Penang, Malaysia
Z. Ayvaz Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Çanakkale, Turkey
M.O. Balaban University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
D.F. Barbin University College Dublin (UCD), National University of Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
J. Blasco Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones Agrarias (IVIA), Moncada, Spain
K. Chao Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, MD, United States
J.-H. Cheng South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
S. Cubero Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones Agrarias (IVIA), Moncada, Spain
Q. Dai South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
R. Diaz AINIA Technological Centre, Valencia, Spain
C.-J. Du University College Dublin (UCD), National University of Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
C. Erkinbaev University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
P.K. Ghosh Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, Government of Manitoba,
Winnipeg, MB, Canada
S. Gunasekaran University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
H.-J. He University College Dublin (UCD), National University of Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
A. Iqbal University College Dublin (UCD), National University of Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
D.S. Jayas University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
M. Kamruzzaman University College Dublin (UCD), National University of Ireland,
Dublin, Ireland
C. Karunakaran Canadian Light Source, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
M.S. Kim Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, MD, United States
Y. Lu Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
R. Lu Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
T. Marique Centre pour l’Agronomie et l’Agro-Industrie de la Province de Hainaut (CARAH),
Belgium
D. Mery Pontificia Universidad de Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
E. Misimi SINTEF Fisheries and Aquaculture, Trondheim, Norway
E. Moltó Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones Agrarias (IVIA), Moncada, Spain
M. Nagata University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan

xvii
Contributors

S. Nashat School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia,

Penang, Malaysia
Y. Ogawa Chiba University, Matsudo, Japan
J. Paliwal University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
B. Park US National Poultry Research Center, Athens, GA, United States
F. Pedreschi Pontificia Universidad de Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
J. Qin Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, MD, United States
M.A. Shahin Grain Research Laboratory, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
D.-W. Sun South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China; University College
Dublin (UCD), National University of Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
S.J. Symons Grain Research Laboratory, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
J.G. Tallada University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan
J. Tan University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States
N.A. Valous University College Dublin (UCD), National University of Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
Z. Xiong South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
C. Zheng University College Dublin (UCD), National University of Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
L. Zheng University College Dublin (UCD), National University of Ireland, Dublin, Ireland

xviii
About the Editor

Born in southern China, Professor Da-Wen Sun is a global

authority in food engineering research and education. He is a
Member of the Royal Irish Academy, the highest academic honor
in Ireland; a Member of Academia Europaea (The Academy of
Europe), one of the most prestigious academies in the world; and a
Fellow of the International Academy of Food Science and
Technology. He has significantly contributed to the field of food
engineering as a researcher, as an academic authority, and as an
educator.
His main research activities include cooling, drying, and
refrigeration processes and systems; quality and safety of food
products; bioprocess simulation and optimization; and computer
vision/image processing and hyperspectral imaging technologies. His many scholarly works have
become standard reference materials for researchers in the areas of computer vision, computational
fluid dynamics modeling, vacuum cooling, etc. Results of his work have been published in over 800
papers, including more than 400 peer-reviewed journal papers (Web of Science h-index ¼ 71),
among them, 31 papers have been selected by Thomson Reuters’s Essential Science IndicatorsSM as
highly-cited papers, ranking him No. 1 in the world in Agricultural Sciences (December 2015).
He has also edited 14 authoritative books. According to ESI, based on data derived over a period of
10 years from the Web of Science, there are about 4500 scientists who are among the top 1% of the
most cited scientists in the category of Agriculture Sciences, and Professor Sun has consistently
been ranked among the top 50 scientists in the world (he was at the 20th position in December
2015), and has recently been named Highly Cited Researcher 2015 by Thomson Reuters.
He received a first class BSc Honors and MSc in Mechanical Engineering and a PhD in
Chemical Engineering in China before working in various universities in Europe. He became the
first Chinese national to be permanently employed in an Irish University when he was appointed
college lecturer at the National University of Ireland, Dublin (University College Dublin) in 1995.
He was then continuously promoted in the shortest possible time to senior lecturer, associate
professor, and full professor. Dr. Sun is now professor of Food and Biosystems Engineering, and
director of the Food Refrigeration and Computerized Food Technology Research Group at
University College Dublin (UCD).
As a leading educator in food engineering, Professor Sun has significantly contributed to the
field of food engineering. He has trained many PhD students, who have made their own
contributions to the industry and academia. He has also given lectures on advances in food
engineering on a regular basis in academic institutions internationally and has delivered keynote

xix
About the Editor

speeches at international conferences. As a recognized authority in food engineering, he has been

conferred adjunct/visiting/consulting professorships from 10 top universities in China, including
Zhejiang University, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Harbin Institute of Technology, China
Agricultural University, South China University of Technology, Jiangnan University. In recognition
of his significant contribution to Food Engineering worldwide and for his outstanding leadership
in the field, the International Commission of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering (CIGR)
awarded him the “CIGR Merit Award” in 2000, and again in 2006, the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers (IMechE) based in the United Kingdom named him “Food Engineer of the Year 2004,”
and in 2008 he was awarded the “CIGR Recognition Award” in honor of his distinguished
achievements as the top 1% of Agricultural Engineering scientists in the world. In 2007, he was
presented with the only “AFST(I) Fellow Award” in that year by the Association of Food
Scientists and Technologists (India). In 2010, he received the “CIGR Fellow Award”; the title of
Fellow is the highest honor in CIGR and is conferred to individuals who have made sustained,
outstanding contributions worldwide. In March 2013, he was presented with the “You Bring
Charm to the World Award” by Hong Kong-based Phoenix Satellite Television, with other award
recipients including the 2012 Nobel Laureate in Literature and the Chinese Astronaut Team for
the Shenzhou IX Spaceship. In July 2013 he received “The Frozen Food Foundation Freezing
Research Award” from the International Association for Food Protection (IAFP) for his significant
contributions to enhancing the field of food freezing technologies; this is the first time that this
prestigious award was presented to a scientist outside the United States. In June 2015 he was pre-
sented with the “IAEF Lifetime Achievement Award.” This IAEF (International Association of
Engineering and Food) award highlights the lifetime contribution of a prominent engineer in the
field of food.
He is a Fellow of the Institution of Agricultural Engineers and a Fellow of Engineers Ireland (the
Institution of Engineers of Ireland). He is also the founder and editor-in-chief of Food and Bioprocess
Technologydan International Journal (Springer) (2012 Impact Factor ¼ 4.115), series editor of the
Contemporary Food Engineering book series (CRC Press/Taylor and Francis), former editor of
Journal of Food Engineering (Elsevier), and editorial board member for a number of international
journals including Journal of Food Process Engineering, Journal of Food Measurement and
Characterization, Polish Journal of Food and Nutritional Sciences, etc. He is also a Chartered
Engineer.
At the 51st CIGR General Assembly held during the CIGR World Congress in Quebec City,
Canada on June 13e17, 2010, he was elected Incoming President of CIGR, became CIGR President
in 2013e14, and is now CIGR Past President. CIGR is the world largest organization in the field of
agricultural and biosystems engineering.

xx
Preface to the 2nd Edition

Computer vision is a technology that employs image processing and analysis for object recognition
and quantitative information extraction. Driven by significant increases in computer power and rapid
developments in image processing techniques and software, the application of computer vision has
become widespread, in particular, to provide objective, rapid, noncontact, and nondestructive quality
inspection, classification, and evaluation for a wide range of food and agricultural products.
The 1st edition of Computer Vision Technology for Food Quality Evaluation was published in
2008, with the main aims to present a comprehensive review of computer vision applications for the
food industry and pinpoint the research and development trends in the development of the technology;
to provide the engineer and technologist working in research, development, and operations in the food
industry with critical, comprehensive, and readily accessible information on the art and science of
computer vision technology; and to serve as an essential reference source to undergraduate and post-
graduate students and researchers in universities and research institutions. This will continue to be the
purpose of this 2nd edition.
In the 2nd edition, besides updating or rewriting individual chapters with the latest developments in
each topic area, two new chapters are added. Hyperspectral imaging has rapidly emerged as and
matured into one of the most powerful and fastest growing nondestructive tools for food quality anal-
ysis and control. Using hyperspectral imaging techniques, the spectrum associated with each pixel in a
food image can be used as a fingerprint to characterize the biochemical composition of the pixel, thus
enabling the visualization of the constituents of the food sample at the pixel level. Many chapters in
this 2nd edition have thus been updated to include hyperspectral imaging applications in relevant
areas. On the other hand, Raman chemical imaging technology is expected to become one of the
dominant imaging techniques in food research. Therefore two new chapters are added in Part I to
reflect this current trend of developments in food imaging technology. In addition, one chapter is
removed from Part V due to lack of development in the topic area.
D.-W. Sun
South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China;
University College Dublin (UCD), National University of Ireland, Dublin, Ireland

xxi
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 PART 1

Fundamentals of Computer
Vision Technology
This page intentionally left blank
 CHAPTER 1

Image Acquisition Systems

M.Z. Abdullah
School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia

1.1 Introduction
In making a physical assessment of agricultural materials and foodstuff, images are undoubtedly
the preferred method in representing concepts to the human brain. Many of the quality factors
affecting foodstuffs can be determined by visual inspection and image analysis. Such inspections
determine market price and, to some extent, the “best-if-used-before date.” Traditionally, quality
inspection is performed by trained human inspectors who approach the problem of quality assess-
ment in two ways: seeing and feeling. In addition to being costly, this method is highly variable,
and decisions are not always consistent between inspectors or from day to day. This is, however,
changing with the advent of electronic imaging systems and with the rapid decline in costs of com-
puters, peripherals and other digital devices. Moreover, the inspection of foodstuffs for various
quality factors is a very repetitive task, which is also very subjective in nature. In this type of envi-
ronment, machine vision systems are ideally suited for routine inspection and quality assurance
tasks. Backed by powerful artificial intelligence systems and the state-of-the-art electronic technol-
ogies, machine vision provides a mechanism in which the human thinking process is simulated arti-
ficially. To date, machine vision has extensively been applied to solve various food engineering
problems, ranging from the simple quality evaluation of food products to complicated robot guid-
ance applications (Abdullah et al., 2000; Pearson, 1996; Tao et al., 1995). Despite the general
utility of machine vision images as a first-line inspection tool, their capabilities for more in-depth
investigation are fundamentally limited. This is due to the fact that images produced by vision
camera are formed using a narrow band of radiation, extending from 10
4 to 10
7 m in wave-
length. Due to this, scientists and engineers have invented camera systems that allow patterns of
energy from virtually any part of the electromagnetic spectrum to be visualized. Camera systems
such as the computed tomography (CT), the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), the nuclear mag-
netic resonance (NMR), the single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), and the posi-
tron emission tomography (PET) operate at shorter wavelengths, ranging from 10
8 to 10
13 m.
On the opposite side of the electromagnetic spectrum, there are infrared and radio cameras, which
enable visualization to be performed at wavelengths greater than 10
6 and 10
4 m, respectively.
All these imaging modalities rely on acquisition hardware featuring an array or ring of detectors,
which measure the strength of some form of radiation, either due to reflection or after the signal
has passed transversely through the object. Perhaps one thing that these camera systems have in
common is the requirement to perform digital image processing of the resulting signals using
modern computing power. While digital image processing is usually assumed as the process of
converting radiant energy in a three-dimensional world into a two-dimensional radiant array of

Computer Vision Technology for Food Quality Evaluation. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802232-0.00001-3

Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
3
4 Chapter 1

numbers, this is certainly not so when the detected energy is outside the visible part of the spec-
trum. The reason is that the technology used to acquire the imaging signals are quite different
depending on the camera modalities. The aim of this chapter is, therefore, to give a brief review of
the present state-of-the-art image acquisition technologies which have found many applications in
the food industry.
Section 1.2 summarizes the electromagnetic spectrum, which is useful in image formation. Section
1.3.1 gives a summary of the principle of operation of the machine vision technology, followed in
Section 1.3.1.1 and Section 1.3.1.2 by the illumination and electronics requirements, respectively.
Other imaging modalities, particularly the acquisition technologies operating at the nonvisible range,
are briefly discussed in Section 1.3. In particular, technologies based on ultrasound (Section 1.3.2),
infrared (Section 1.3.3), MRI and CT (Section 1.3.4) will be addressed, followed by some of their
successful applications in food engineering found in literature. Section 1.4, which is the final conclu-
sion section, addresses likely future developments in this exciting field of electronic imaging.

1.2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

As discussed above, images are derived from the electromagnetic radiation in both visible and nonvi-
sible range. Radiation energy travels in the space at the speed of light in the form of sinusoidal
waves with known wavelengths. Arranged from shorter to longer wavelengths, the electromagnetic
spectrum provides information on frequency as well as energy distributions of the electromagnetic
radiation. Fig. 1.1 gives the electromagnetic spectrum of all electromagnetic waves.
Referring to Fig. 1.1, the gamma rays with wavelengths less than 0.1 nm constitute the shortest
wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum. Traditionally, gamma radiation is important for
medical and astronomical imaging, leading to the development of various types of anatomical
imaging modalities such as the CT, MRI, SPECT, and PET. In CT the radiation is projected into
the target from a diametrically opposed source, while with others it originates from the targetd
by simulated emission in the case of MRI and through the use of radiopharmaceuticals in SPECT
and PET. On the other hand, the longest waves are radio waves, which have wavelengths of
many kilometers. The well-known ground probing radar (GPR) and other microwave-based
imaging modalities operate in this frequency range. Located in the middle of the electromagnetic
spectrum is the visible range, consisting of a narrow portion of the spectrum, from 400 (blue) to
700 nm (red). The popular charge-coupled device or CCD camera operates in this spectrum
range. Infrared (IR) light lies between the visible and microwave portions of the electromagnetic
band. Just like the visible light, infrared has wavelengths that range from near (shorter) infrared
to far (longer) infrared. The latter belongs to the thermally sensitive region, which makes it
useful in imaging applications that rely on heat signature. One example of such an imaging
device is the Indium Galium Arsenide (InGaAs) based near infrared (NIR) camera, which gives
optimum response from a 900 to 1700 nm band (Deobelin, 1996). Ultraviolet (UV) light has a
shorter wavelength than visible light. Similar to IR, the UV part of the spectrum can be divided
into three regions: the near ultraviolet (NUV) (300 nm), the far ultraviolet (FUV) (30 nm) and the
extreme ultraviolet (EUV) (3 nm). The NUV is closest to the visible band. In contrast, the EUV
is closest to the x-ray region, and therefore is the most energetic of the three types. The FUV,
meanwhile, lies between the near and extreme ultraviolet regions. It is the least explored of the
three regions. To date, many types of CCD cameras exist that provide sensitivity down near UV
wavelength range. The sensitivity of such a camera usually peaks at around 369 nm while offer-
ing coverage down to 300 nm.
 Image Acquisition Systems 5

0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

UV BLUE GREEN RED IR

Visible

Wavelength ( μm) Wavelength ( μm)

-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
10 10 10 10 10 10 1 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Ultraviolet Infrared
X-Rays (UV) (IR)

Gamma Microwaves
rays Increasing resolution
Increasing energy
Radio waves
Decreasing wavelength

Figure 1.1
The electromagnetic spectrum comprising the visible and nonvisible range.

Mathematically, the wavelength (l), the frequency ( f ) and the energy (E) are related by Planck’s
equation, which is given by:
c
E¼h [1.1]
l
where h is the Planck’s constant (6.626076  10
34 J s), and c is the speed of light (2.998  108 m/
s). Consequently, the energy increases as the wavelength decreases. Therefore gamma rays, which
have the shortest wavelengths, have the highest energy of all the electromagnetic waves. This
explains why gamma rays could easily travel through most objects without being affected. In
contrast, radio waves have the longest wavelength and hence the lowest energy. Therefore their pene-
trative power is at least hundreds orders of magnitude lower compared to gamma or x-rays. More-
over, both gamma and x-rays travel in a straight line, and the paths are not affected by the object
through which these signals propagate. This is known as the hard field effect. Conversely, radio
waves do not travel in straight lines, and their paths depend strongly on the medium of propagation.
This is the soft field effect. Both the hard and soft field effects have a direct implication on the
quality of images produced by these signals. Soft field effect causes many undesirable artifacts, most
notably, image blurring. Therefore images produced by gamma rays generally appear better than
6 Chapter 1

images produced by radio waves. Another important attribute, which is wavelength dependent, is the
image resolution. In theory, the image spatial resolution is essentially limited to half of the interro-
gating wavelength. Therefore the spatial resolution also increases as the wavelength decreases. Thus
the resolution of typical gamma rays is less than 0.05 nm, enabling this type of electromagnetic
wave to “see” extremely small objects such as water molecules. In summary, these attributes, along
with the physical properties of the sensor materials, establish the fundamental limits on the capability
of imaging modalities and their applications.
The following sections explain the technology of image acquisition and applications for all the
imaging modalities discussed, focusing on the visible modality or computer vision system since this
device has extensively been used for solving various food engineering problems. Moreover, given the
progress in computer technology, computer vision hardware is now relatively inexpensive and easy
to use. To date, some personal computers offer capability for a basic vision system by including a
camera and its interface within the system. However, there are specialized systems for vision, offer-
ing performance in more than one aspect. Naturally, as any specialized equipment, such systems can
be expensive.

1.3 Image Acquisition Systems

In general, images are formed by incidents, light in the visible spectrum falling on a partially reflec-
tive, partially absorptive surface, with the scattered photons being gathered up in the camera lens and
converted to electrical signals either by vacuum tube or CCD. In practice, this is only one of many
ways in which images can be generated. Generally, thermal, ultrasonic, x-rays, radio waves, and
other techniques can all generate an image. This section examines the methods and procedures in
which images are generated for computer vision applications, including tomography.

1.3.1 Computer Vision

Hardware configuration of a computer-based machine vision system is relatively standard. Typically,
a vision system consists of the illumination device to illuminate the sample under test; the solid-state
CCD array camera to acquire an image; the frame grabber to provide scanning the analog-to-digital
(A/D) conversion of scan lines into picture elements or pixels digitized in an N row by M column
image; personal computer or microprocessor system to provide disk storage of images and computa-
tional capability with vendor-supplied software and specific application programs; and a
high-resolution color monitor, which aids in visualizing images and the effects of various image anal-
ysis routines. Fig. 1.2 shows a typical setup. The setup shown in Fig. 1.2 is what the investigator
needs to start experimenting with machine vision applications. All essential components are commer-
cially available and the price for the elementary system can be as low as £2000.00.
The setup shown in Fig. 1.2 is an example of a computer vision system which can be found in
many food laboratories, mainly for research and imaging applications. In this case the objective is to
ultimately free human inspectors for undertaking tedious, laborious, time-consuming, and repetitive
inspection tasks, allowing them to focus on more demanding and skillful jobs. Computer vision tech-
nology does not only provide a high level of flexibility and repeatability at a relatively low cost, but
more importantly, it permits fairly high plant throughput without compromising accuracy. The food
industry continues to be among the fastest-growing segments of machine vision application, and it
ranks among the top 10 industries that use machine vision systems (Gunasekaran, 1996). Currently,
several commercial vendors offer automatic vision-based quality evaluations for the food industry.
 Image Acquisition Systems 7

CCD
color Illumination
camera system
BNC cable

Test
station Sample under test
Colour frame
grabber
Figure 1.2
Essential elements of a typical computer vision system.

Even though machine vision systems have become increasingly simple to use, the applications
themselves can still be extremely complicated. A developer needs to know precisely what needs to
be achieved in order to ensure a successful implementation of machine vision application. Key char-
acteristics include not only the specific part dimensions and part tolerances, but also the level of mea-
surement precision required and the speed of the production line. Virtually all manufacturing
processes will produce some degree of variability, and while the best machine vision technology is
robust enough to compensate automatically for minor difference over time, the applications them-
selves need to take major changes into account. Additional complexity arises for companies with
complex lighting and optical strategies, or unusual materials-handling logistics. For these reasons, it
is essential to understand the characteristics of the part and subassemblies of the machine system, as
well as the specifications of the production line itself.

1.3.1.1 Illumination
The importance of correct and high-quality illumination, in many vision applications, is absolutely
decisive. Despite the advances of machine vision hardware and electronics, lighting for machine
vision remains the art for those involved in vision integration. Engineers and machine vision prac-
titioners have long recognized lighting as an important piece of the machine vision system.
However, choosing the right lighting strategy remains a difficult problem because there is no spe-
cific guideline for integrating lighting and machine vision application. In spite of this, some rules
of thumb exist. In general, three areas of knowledge are required to ensure successful levels of
lighting for the vision task: firstly, understanding the role of the lighting component in machine
vision applications; secondly, knowing the behavior of light on a given surface; and finally, under-
standing what basic lighting techniques are available that will cause the light to create the desired
feature extraction. In the vast majority of machine vision applications, image acquisition deals
with reflected light even though the use of backlight techniques can still be found. Therefore the
most important aspect of lighting is to understand what happens when light hits the surface, more
specifically, to know how to control the reflection so that the image appears at reasonably good
quality.
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Æquitas non vaga atque incerta est, sed terminos habet atque
limites præfinitas.
Equity is not vague and uncertain, but has determinate
or prescribed boundaries and limits.

Æquitas non vult res novas atque inusitatas inducere.

Equity does not incline to introduce new and unusual
things.

Æquitas nunquam contravenit legi.

Equity never contravenes the law.

Æquitas nunquam liti ancillatur ubi remedium potest dare.

Equity is never the handmaid to strife, where she can
give a remedy.

Æquitas opitulatur ubi pensationi damni locus est.

Equity assists where there is room for the
compensation of a loss.

Æquitas pars legis Angliæ.

Equity (is) part of the English law.

Æquitas rei oppignoratæ redemptionibus favet.

Equity is favourable for the redemption of a thing given
in pawn.
Æquitas rem ipsam intuetur de forma et circumstantiis minus anxia.
Equity considers the matter itself, less anxious about
the form and circumstances.

Æquitas sequitur legem.

Equity follows or attends the law.

Æquitas supervacua odit.

Equity hates superfluous matters.

Æquitas uxoribus, liberis, creditoribus maxime favet.

Equity is favourable to wives, children, and chiefly to
creditors.

Æquitas veritatis filia, bonitatis et justitiæ soror.

Equity is the daughter of truth, and the sister of
goodness and justice.

Æquitas vult domum quod alteri obsit ex causa æque favorabili esse
ac id quod aufert.
Equity wishes that the house which may be injurious to
another should be in the predicament, equally
favourable to that other, as that which it takes from
him.

Æquitas vult omnibus modis ad veritatem pervenire.

Equity wishes by all means to arrive at truth.

Æquitas vult spoliatos, vel deceptos, vel lapsos ante omnia restituti.
 Equity wishes the spoiled, the deceived, and the
ruined, above all things to have restitution.

Æstimatio præteriti delicto ex postremo facto nunquam crescit.

An estimation of the past never increases from the
fault last committed.

Affectio tua nomen imponit operi tuo.

Your affection fixes a character upon your service.

Affectus punitur licet non sequatur effectus.

The inclination is punished although the effect may not
follow.

Affirmanti, non neganti, incubit probatio.

The burden of proving rests upon the person affirming,
not upon him denying.

Affirmativum, negativum implicat.

The affirmative implies the existence of the negative.

Agentes et consentientes pari pœna plectentur.

The principals and accessories should suffer the same
punishment.

Alea et ganea res turpissimæ.

The dice and the brothel are infamous things.
Aliud est possidere, aliud esse in possessione.
It is one thing to possess, and another thing to be in
possession.

Aliud est vendere, aliud vendenti consentire.

It is one thing to sell, and another thing to agree to the
persons selling.

Aliquis non debet esse judex in propria causa; quia non potest esse
judex et pars.
One ought not to be judge in his own cause, because
he cannot be a judge and a party.

Allegans contraria non est audiendus.

A person alleging contradictory things ought not to be
heard.

Allegans suam turpitudinem non est audiendus.

A person alleging his own disgrace is not to be heard.

Allegari non debuit quod probatum non relevat.

That ought not to be alleged, which, when tried is
irrelevant.

Alterius circumventio alii non præbet actionem.

The deceiving of one person does not afford an action
to another.

Alternativa petitio non est audienda.

 An alternative petition is not to be heard.

Ambigua autem intentio ita accipienda est, ut res salva actori sit.
An ambiguous answer is so to be understood that the
interest of the pleader may be safe.

Ambigua responsio contra proferentem est accipienda.

An ambiguous answer is to be considered as against
the person who gives it.

Ambiguis casibus semper præsumitur pro rege.

In doubtful cases there is always a presumption in
behalf of the king.

Ambiguitas verborum latens verificatione facti tollitur.

The latent ambiguity of words is removed by the
establishment of the fact.

Ambiguitas verborum latens, verificatione suppletur; nam quod ex

facto oritur ambiguum, verificatione facti tollitur.
The latent ambiguity of words is supplied by their
verification; for the ambiguity which arises from the
fact, is taken away by its being verified.

Ambiguitas verborum patens nulla verificatione excluditur.

The evident ambiguity of words is excluded by no
verification.

Ambiguum pactum contra venditorem interpretandum est.

 An ambiguous agreement is to be interpreted against
the seller.

Ambiguum placitum interpretari debet contra proferentem.

An ambiguous order is to be interpreted against the
person uttering it.

Angliæ jura in omni casu libertatis dant favorem.

The laws of England in every case give countenance
to liberty.

Animalia fera, si facta sint mansueta, et ex consuetudine eunt et

redeunt, volant et revolant, ut Cervi, Cygni, &c. eousque nostra sunt;
et ita intelliguntur quamdiu habuerunt animum revertendi.
Wild animals, if they have become tame, and go and
return, fly back and fore, and habitually, as stags and
swans, &c. are so far ours, and are so understood to
be, so long as they are inclined to return to us.

Animi notum vultus detegit.

The countenance is the index of the mind.

Animus hominis est anima scripti.

The mind of man is the soul of his writing.

Aperte impossibilia cum dicuntur non faciunt calumniam.

Impossibilities when they are spoken openly, do not
constitute calumny.
Apices juris non sunt jura.
The extreme points of the law are not the laws.

Applicatio est vita regulæ.

Application is the life of rule.

Arbitrio domini res æstimari debet.

Property ought to be valued at the will of the owner.

Argumenta ignota et obscura ad lucem rationis proferunt et reddunt

splendida.
Arguments bring forward to the light of reason,
unknown and obscure facts, and render them clear.

Argumentum a divisione, est fortissimum in jure.

An argument from division is the strongest in the law.

Argumentum a majori ad minus, negativè, non valet; valet e

converso.
An argument from the greater to the less negatively,
has no weight; contrariwise.

Argumentum a simili valet in lege.

An argument from a like case has weight in law.

Argumentum ab authoritate est fortissimum in lege.

An argument drawn from authority is very strong in law.
Argumentum ab impossibili, plurimum valet in lege.
An argument from an impossibility has very great
weight in law.

Argumentum ab inconvenienti est validum in lege; quia lex non

permittit aliquod inconveniens.
An argument from an incongruous thing is not valid in
law, because the law does not allow any thing
incongruous. [See Transcriber’s Note.]

Arma in armatos sumere jura sinunt.

The laws allow to take arms against the armed.

Assignatus utitur jure auctoris.

An assignee enjoys the privilege of his author.

Aucupia verborum sunt judice indigna.

Hunting curiously for words is unworthy of a judge.

Authoritates philosophorum, medicorum, et poetarum, sunt in causis

allegandæ et tenendæ.
The authorities of philosophers, physicians, and poets,
are to be regarded and held in law.
 B.
Baratriam committit qui propter pecuniam justitiam baractat.
He commits barratry who barters justice for money.

Benedicta est expositio quando res redimitur a destructione.

It is a blessed exposure when the thing is redeemed
from destruction.

Beneficium non datum nisi propter officium.

A favour is not granted, unless on account of service.

Beneficium non datur nisi officii causa.

A benefice is not granted but for the sake of duty.

Beneficium clericale omnibus patet ubi pœna capitalis statuto

inducitur, nisi ex expresso tollatur.
The benefit of the clergy is open to all, when capital
punishment is inflicted by the statute, unless it be
taken away expressly.

Beneficium principis debet esse mansurum.

The kindness of a prince ought to be permanent.

Benigne faciendæ sunt interpretationes chartarum, ut res magis

valeat quam pereat.
 The meaning or interpretation of writs is to be
favourably taken, that the matter may rather succeed
than perish.

Benigne faciendæ sunt interpretationes, ut res magis valeat quam

pereat, et ut voletur repugnantia et supervacua.
Interpretations are to be made favourably, that the
thing may succeed rather than perish; and what is
repugnant and superfluous may be avoided.

Benigne faciendæ sunt interpretationes propter simplicitatem

laicorum, ut res magis valeat quam pereat.
Interpretations are to be favourably given of the
simplicity of the laity, that the affair may rather prosper
than perish.

Benignior sententia in verbis generalibus seu dubiis, est præferenda.

The more favourable opinion in general or doubtful
words is to be preferred.

Benignius leges interpretandæ sunt, quo voluntas earum

conservetur.
The laws are to be more favourably explained that their
will or intention may be preserved.

Bis idem exegi bona fides non patitur; et in satisfactionibus, non

permittitur amplius fieri quam semel factum est.
Honesty does not suffer the same thing to be exacted
twice; and in satisfaction it is not granted that more be
done than hath been once done.
Bona fides non patitur, ut bis idem exigatur.
Honesty does not permit the same thing to be exacted
twice.

Bonæ fidei possessor, in id tantum quod ad se pervenerit, tenetur.

A bona fide possessor is bound only with respect to
that which has come to him.

Boni judicis est ampliare jurisdictionem.

It is the property of a good judge to enlarge his
jurisdiction.

Boni judicis est ampliare justitiam.

It is the property of a good judge to enlarge or extend
justice.

Boni judicis est causas litium dirimere.

It is the property of a good judge to put an end to the
causes of litigation.

Boni judicis est judicium sine dilatione mandare executioni.

It is the property of a good judge to give a mandate for
execution without delay.

Boni judicis est lites dirimere, ne lis ex lite oritur; et interest

reipublicæ ut sint fines litium.
It is the property of a good judge to put an end to law
suits, lest law suit should arise out of law suit; and it is
the interest of the state that there be limits to law suits.
Bonus judex secundum æquum et bonum judicat, et æquitatem
stricto juri præfert.
A good judge decides according to what is just and
good; and prefers equity to strict law.

Bonum defendentis ex integra causa, malum ex quolibet defectu.

Good is the result of a person defending from an entire
cause: evil results from one defending from any defect.

Bonum necessarium extra terminos necessitatis non est bonum.

A necessary good beyond the limits of necessity, is no
good.
 C.
Carcer ad homines custodiendos, non ad puniendos, dari debet.
A prison ought to be assigned for keeping men, not for
punishing them.

Carcer non supplicii causa sed custodiæ constitutus.

A prison is ordained not for the sake of punishment,
but for ward.

Casus fortuitus non est sperandus, et nemo tenetur divinare.

A fortuitous case is not to be calculated upon, and
nobody is bound to conjecture what may happen.

Casus omissus pro omisso habendus est.

A case omitted is to be considered as omitted.

Casus omissus et oblivioni datus, depositioni communis juris

relinquitur.
A case omitted and consigned to oblivion is left to the
disposal of common law.

Catella juste possessa amitti non possunt.

A little whelp, (perhaps cattle), lawfully possessed,
cannot be lost. [See Transcriber’s Note.]
Catalla reputantur inter minima in lege.
Chattels are considered as among the least things, in
law.

Causa et origo est materia negotii.

Cause and origin are the subject matters of business.

Causa publica vicarium non recipit.

A public cause does not admit of a substitute.

Causa vaga et incerta, non est causa rationabilis.

A vague and uncertain cause is not a reasonable
cause.

Cautionis in re plus est quam in persona.

There is more security in the thing than in a person.

Caveat emptor; caveat venditor.

Let the purchaser beware—let the seller beware.

Caveat emptor; qui ignorare non debuit quod jus alienum emit.
Let the purchaser take care; who ought not to be
ignorant what right of another he purchases.

Certa debet esse intentio et narratio, et certum fundamentum, et

certa res quæ deducitur in judicium.
The design and narration ought to be certain, and the
foundation certain, and the matter certain, which is
 brought into court to be tried.

Certum est quod certum reddi potest.

What can be rendered certain is certain.

Cessa regnare si non vis judicare.

Cease to reign if there be no power to judge.

Cessante causa, cessat effectus.

The cause ceasing, the effect ceases.

Cessante ratione legis, cessat ipsa lex.

The reason of a law discontinuing, the law itself
discontinues.

Charta ejus quæ sub potestate viri sit in lege nulla.

The writing of that woman who is under the power of
her husband has no legal weight—is void in law.

Chirographum apud debitorem repertum præsumitur solutum.

A bill found in the possession of a debtor, is presumed
to be paid.

Certa res oportet in judicium deducatur.

A certain matter is necessary sometimes to be brought
into court for trial.

Clam delinquentes magis puniuntur quam palam.

 Clandestine transactions are more severely punished
than those openly committed.

Clausula generalis de residuo non ea complectitur quæ non ejusdem

sint generis cum iis quæ speciatim dicta fuerant.
A general clause of reservation does not comprehend
those things which may not be of the same kind with
those which have been specially expressed.

Clausula generalis non refertur ad expressa.

A general clause does not refer to things mentioned.

Clausula vel dispositio inutilis per præsumptionem remotam vel

causam ex post facto non fulcitur.
An unnecessary clause, or disposition, is not
supported by a remote inference, or an ex post facto
cause.

Clausulæ inconsuetæ semper inducunt suspicionem.

Uncustomary clauses always induce suspicion.

Clerici non ponantur in officio seculari.

The clergy cannot be placed in a secular office.

Collegium seu corpus corporatum nisi regiis constitutionibus non

potest existere.
A college or incorporated body, cannot exist unless by
royal authority.
Commercium jure gentium commune esse debet, et non in
monopolium et privatum paucorum quæstum convertendum.
Commerce by the law of nations ought to be common,
and not to be converted into a monopoly, and the
private gain of a few.

Commodum ex injuria sua nemo habere debet.

Nobody ought to derive advantage from his injurious
behaviour.

Communis error facit jus.

A common error makes law necessary.

Communiter unum officium est excusatio alterius.

One duty commonly is the excuse for the non
performance of another.

Concessio versus concedentem latam interpretationem habere

debeat.
A grant made to another person granting, should have
a wide interpretation.

Condictio dicitur, cum quid in casum incertum, qui potest tendere ad

esse aut non esse, confertur.
The appointment of an action for a certain day, is said
to take place, when any thing in an uncertain case
happens, which may have a tendency to be or not to
be. [See Transcriber’s Note.]
Condictio rei furtivæ, quia rei habet persecutionem, hæredem
quoque furis obligat.
The appointment of an action on a certain day, relating
to stolen goods, as it implies the production of these
stolen goods, binds the heir of the thief also.

Condictio præcedens adimpleri debet priusquam sequatur effectus.

The appointment of an action preceding, ought to take
place before any effect can follow. [See Transcriber’s
Note.]

Condictio ad liberum tenementum auferendum non nisi ex facto

placitari debet.
An argument for taking away a free tenure, ought not
to be pleaded, except from the deed.

Conditio beneficialis quæ statum construit, benigne, secundum

verborum intentionem est interpretanda; odiosa, autem, quæ statum
destruit, stricte, secundum verborum proprietatem, accipienda.
A beneficial agreement which confirms one state, is to
be interpreted favourably, according to the intention of
the words; but an odious agreement, which destroys
one state, is to be understood strictly, according to the
exact meaning of the words.

Conditio ex parte extincta ex toto extinguitur.

An agreement extinguished in part, is wholly
extinguished.

Conditio liberum tenementum cassans non per nuda verba sine

charta valebit.
 An agreement making void a free tenement, will have
no weight by bare words without writing.

Conditio neminem juvabit nisi qui pars fuerit aut privus.

An agreement shall avail no one, unless he shall have
been a party, or privy to it.

Conditio partim extincta in omnibus extinguitur.

An agreement extinguished in any of its parts, is
extinguished in them all.

Conditiones præcedentes ad normam legis severe exigendæ; aliter

de subsequentibus ubi æquitati licet damnum rei infectæ pensari.
Preceding agreements must be rigorously exacted
according to the rule of the law; it is otherwise
concerning subsequent agreements, where equity is
allowed to make up for the loss incurred by the failure.

Conditiones præcedentes stricte interpretandæ, sed non ita de

subsequentibus.
Preceding agreements are to be strictly interpreted; but
not so concerning subsequent ones.

Conditiones quælibet odiosæ; maxime autem contra matrimonium et

commercium.
Some agreements are odious, but chiefly those against
matrimony and commerce.

Confessio facta in judicio, omni probatione major est.

Confession made in a trial is stronger than all proof.
Confessus in judicio pro judicato habetur, et quodammodo sua
sententia damnatur.
A person who confesses on trial, is considered as
judged; and in some measure is condemned on his
own admission.

Confirmare nemo potest priusquam jus ei accederit.

Nobody can confirm before the right fall to him.

Confirmare est id quod prius infirmum fuit, firmare vel firmum facere.
To confirm is to strengthen, or make strong, that which
before was weak.

Confirmat usum qui tollit abusum.

He confirms the use who takes away the abuse.

Confirmatio est nulla ubi donum præcedens est invalidum.

There is no confirmation where the preceding gift is
invalid.

Confirmatio est possessionis jure defective per eos quorum jus est
ratihabitio.
The confirmation of a possession defective in law, is a
ratification by means of those whose right it is.

Confirmatio omnes supplet defectus, licet id quod actum est ab initio

non valuit.