CURMCS 223 Business Research Methods

Rev. Dr. Kakava - +263712316741

nzkakava@cut.ac.zw

1.0. Introduction to Business Research Methods

1.1. Definition of Terms

1.1.1. Research is a systematic method of discovering new facts and verifying old ones with
their sequence interrelationship and caused explanation.
From the definition, the following key elements of research can be noted:
 Systematic method
 Discovering new facts
 Verifying old facts
 Sequence interrelationship of facts
 Seeking explanation of what caused the facts
1.1.2. Research is knowledge acquisition gained through reasoning; through intuition but
most importantly through the use of appropriate methods
Also from the definition three key aspects can be noted:
 through reasoning
 through intuition
 most importantly through the use of appropriate methods.
1.1.3. Business and management research - Saunders et al. (2007:5) define business and
management research as undertaking systematic research to find out things about
business and management.
Three things combine to make business and management a distinctive focus for
research:
 the way in which managers (and researchers) draw on knowledge developed
by other disciplines;
 the fact that managers tend to be powerful and busy people. Therefore, they
are unlikely to allow research access unless they can see personal or
commercial advantages;
 the requirement for the research to have some practical consequence. This
means it either needs to contain the potential for taking some form of action
or needs to take account of the practical consequences of the findings.
1.1.4. Business research methods is a careful and diligent study of a market, an industry or
a particular company's business operations, using investigative techniques to discover
facts, examine theories or develop an action plan based on discovered facts. Businesses
use a number of research methods to help grow their operations or to solve problems in
the company.
Also six aspects of business research can be noted from the definition:
 Careful/Systematic/planned
 Diligence
 Market, Industry, Organisation
 Investigative techniques,
 to discover, to examine theories/models,

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  develop an action plan/solve business problems
Business Research as a Process
1. Define the problem
2. Literature review
3. Data collection
4. Data analysis
5. Conclusions & Recommendations

1.2. Types of Business Research

There are two types of business research namely: Applied Business Research and Basic
Business Research

1.3. Basic, fundamental or pure research is research that is undertaken purely to

understand the processes of business and management and their outcomes. Such
research is undertaken largely in universities and largely as the result of an academic
agenda. Its key consumer is the academic community, with relatively little attention
being given to its practical applications. It is where the motive is to generate a body of
knowledge by developing an understanding on how certain problems that occur in the
organizations could be solved. There is a definite possibility that organizations might
transfer the learning from the research to the workplace for problem solving. For
instance a research carried out at a university facility on ―Motivating Employees in
times Recession with Low Pay‖ could be a useful piece of work, and could be applied
to practical settings when businesses are facing downturn. Thus research done primarily
to enhance understanding on certain problems that commonly occur in organizations is
called Basic, fundamental or pure research

1.4. Applied research is of direct and immediate relevance to managers, addresses issues
that they see as important, and is presented in ways that they understand and can act on.
Thus it of immediate provision of solutions to a pertinent organisational managerial,
functional or operational problem. It comes out from work related problems that need
timely solutions. For example a product may not be selling well and the manager might
want to find the reasons for this in order to take action or Business is facing problems in
retaining employees, or there is higher degree of absenteeism in the business. All these
are problems that require the business to find immediate solutions; otherwise the
business would fail to run smoothly. Thus research carried out with the intention of
applying the results of the findings to solve specific problems is applied business
research

Table 1.1 Basic and applied research

Basic research Applied research

Purpose:
• expand knowledge of processes of business
and management
• results in universal principles relating to the
process and its relationship to outcomes
• findings of significance and value to society
in general
Purpose:
• improve understanding of particular
business
or management problem
• results in solution to problem
• new knowledge limited to problem
• findings of practical relevance and value to

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 manager(s) in organisation(s)

Context: Context:
• undertaken by people based in universities • undertaken by people based in a variety of
• choice of topic and objectives determined settings, including organisations and
by the researcher universities
• flexible timescales • objectives negotiated with originator
• tight timescales

Sources: Authors‘ experience, Easterby-Smith et al., 2002, Hedrick et al., 1993

For the purpose of our studies, we concentrate much on Applied research since we are
managers, entrepreneurs, marketers and administrators. The objective is to aid decision
making and solve problems in Retail, Entrepreneurship, Accounting, Supply chain and
Marketing. The common element of all research is rigour as the researcher goes through the
research process. At the undergraduate level we concentrate on Applied Business Research
1.5. Why do business Research
Simply research would be initiated in the business when:
 Something is not going well,
 A need for change is desired,
 An organisation face any issue/problem,
 A business seeks answers to specific managerial questions

1.6. The business and managerial problem

The function of management in every organisation is to: Plan, Organise, Lead and control.
Organising allocates duties and resources, then people are lead so as to achieve goals and
objectives which are set during planning. The extent to which goals and objectives are
achieved is performance measurement or Control. If there is negative variation between the
set goals and objectives and actual performance it means there is a business or managerial
problem. Different departments are to perform a specific function which could be Purchasing
and supply – Supply Chain; Marketing; Accounting; Finance; ICT; Retail; Entrepreneurial;
HR etc. All such departments have goals and objectives. Having a comprehensive list of
business objectives creates the guidelines that become the foundation for your business
planning and control. Your business objectives are the results you hope to achieve and
maintain as you run and grow your business. As an entrepreneur, you are concerned with
every aspect of your business and need to have clear goals in mind for your company. Having
a comprehensive list of business objectives creates the guidelines that become the foundation
for your business planning and control.
 Profitability - Maintaining profitability means making sure that revenue stays ahead of
the costs of doing business, according to James Stephenson, writing for the
"Entrepreneur" website. Focus on controlling costs in both production and operations
while maintaining the profit margin on products sold.
 Productivity - Employee training, equipment maintenance and new equipment
purchases all go into company productivity. Your objective should be to provide all of
the resources your employees need to remain as productive as possible.

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 Customer Service - Good customer service helps you retain clients and generate repeat
revenue. Keeping your customers happy should be a primary objective of your
organization.
 Employee Retention - Employee turnover costs you money in lost productivity and the
costs associated with recruiting, which include employment advertising and paying
placement agencies. Maintaining a productive and positive employee environment
improves retention, according to the Dun and Bradstreet website.
 Core Values - Your company mission statement is a description of the core values of
your company, according to the Dun and Bradstreet website. It is a summary of the
beliefs your company holds in regard to customer interaction, responsibility to the
community and employee satisfaction. The company's core values become the
objectives necessary to create a positive corporate culture.
 Growth - Growth is planned based on historical data and future projections. Growth
requires the careful use of company resources such as finances and personnel,
according to Tim Berry, writing on the "Entrepreneur" website.
 Maintain Financing - Even a company with good cash flow needs financing contacts in
the event that capital is needed to expand the organization, according to Tim Berry,
writing on the "Entrepreneur" website. Maintaining your ability to finance operations
means that you can prepare for long-term projects and address short-term needs such as
payroll and accounts payable.
 Change Management - Change management is the process of preparing your
organization for growth and creating processes that effectively deal with a developing
marketplace. The objective of change management is to create a dynamic organization
that is prepared to meet the challenges of your industry.
 Marketing - Marketing is more than creating advertising and getting customer input on
product changes. It is understanding consumer buying trends, being able to anticipate
product distribution needs and developing business partnerships that help your
organization to improve market share.
 Competitive Analysis - A comprehensive analysis of the activities of the competition
should be an on-going business objective for your organization. Understanding where
your products rank in the marketplace helps you to better determine how to improve
your standing among consumers and improve your revenue.

1.7. The Research problem

The first step in research to know where and what is the problem, once the problem is
identified clearly, steps can be taken to gather information relevant to the problem and issues.
This entire process where we try to solve a problem, search for answers to questions is called
research.

• A research problem is the situation that causes the researcher/manager/entrepreneur to

feel concerned, confused and ill at ease.

• It is the demarcation of a problem area within a certain context involving the WHO or
WHAT, the WHERE, the WHEN and the WHY of the problem situation.

• The prospective researcher should think on what caused the need to do the research
(problem identification).

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• The question that he/she should ask is: Are there questions about this problem to which
answers have not been found up to the present?

• Research originates from a need that arises.

• The problem is the aspect the researcher worries about, think about, wants to find a
solution for. Problem Audit

• The purpose is to solve the problem, ie find answers to the question(s).

• If there is no clear problem formulation, the purpose and methods are meaningless.

1.8. Problem background Statement

• Outline the general context of the problem area.

• Highlight key theories, concepts and ideas current in this area.

• What appear to be some of the underlying assumptions of this area?

• Why are these issues identified important?

• What needs to be solved?

• Read round the area (subject) to get to know the background and to identify unanswered
questions or controversies, and/or to identify the most significant issues for further
exploration.

1.9. Research Problem statement

• Research problems can be stated in the form of either questions and statements.

• The research problem should always be formulated grammatically correct and as

completely as possible. You should bear in mind the wording (expressions) you
use. Avoid meaningless words. There should be no doubt in the mind of the reader what
your intentions are.

• Demarcating the research field into manageable parts by dividing the main problem into
subproblems is of the utmost importance.

1.9.1. Subproblem(S)

• Subproblems are problems related to the main problem identified.

• Subproblems flow from the main problem and make up the main problem.

• It is the means to reach the set goal in a manageable way and contribute to solving the
problem.

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• The statement of the problem involves the demarcation and formulation of the problem, ie
the WHO/WHAT, WHERE, WHEN, WHY. It usually includes the statement of the
hypothesis.

1.9.2. Checklist For Testing The Feasibility of The Research Problem

 Is the problem of current interest? Will the research results have social, educational or
scientific value?
 Will it be possible to apply the results in practice?
 Does the research contribute to the science of education?
 Will the research opt new problems and lead to further research?
 Is the research problem important? Will you be proud of the result?
 Is there enough scope left within the area of research (field of research)?
 Can you find an answer to the problem through research? Will you be able to handle
the research problem?
 Will it be practically possible to undertake the research?
 Will it be possible for another researcher to repeat the research?
 Is the research free of any ethical problems and limitations?
 Will it have any value?
 Do you have the necessary knowledge and skills to do the research? Are you qualified
to undertake the research?
 Is the problem important to you and are you motivated to undertake the research?
 Is the research viable in your situation? Do you have enough time and energy to
complete the project?
 Do you have the necessary funds for the research?
 Will you be able to complete the project within the time available?
 Do you have access to the administrative, statistic and computer facilities the research
necessitates?

1.10. Research Title/Topic

The Research Title/Topic is naturally derived from the research problem and purpose. It
should have:
• The dependent variable to be measured
• The independent variable to be measured
• Delimitation
In contemporary terms, the two variables which are being studied should be reflected in the
topic. Thus the dependent and independent variables should be reflected in the topic.

WHAT ARE INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES?

Question: What's a variable?

Answer: A variable is an object, event, idea, feeling, time period, or any other type of
category you are trying to measure. It is any phenomenon that changes/varies. There are two
types of variables-independent and dependent.

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Question: What's an independent variable?

Answer: An independent variable is exactly what it sounds like. It is a variable that stands
alone and isn't changed by the other variables you are trying to measure. For example,
someone's age might be an independent variable. Other factors (such as what they eat, how
much they go to school, how much television they watch) aren't going to change a person's
age. In fact, when you are looking for some kind of relationship between variables you are
trying to see if the independent variable causes some kind of change in the other variables, or
dependent variables.

Question: What's a dependent variable?

Answer: Just like an independent variable, a dependent variable is exactly what it sounds
like. It is something that depends on other factors. For example, a test score could be a
dependent variable because it could change depending on several factors such as how much
you studied, how much sleep you got the night before you took the test, or even how hungry
you were when you took it. Usually when you are looking for a relationship between two
things you are trying to find out what makes the dependent variable change the way it does.

Many people have trouble remembering which is the independent variable and which is the
dependent variable. An easy way to remember is to insert the names of the two variables you
are using in this sentence in they way that makes the most sense. Then you can figure out
which is the independent variable and which is the dependent variable:

(Independent variable) causes a change in (Dependent Variable) and it isn't possible that
(Dependent Variable) could cause a change in (Independent Variable).

For example:

(Time Spent Studying) causes a change in (Test Score) and it isn't possible that (Test Score)
could cause a change in (Time Spent Studying).

We see that "Time Spent Studying" must be the independent variable and "Test Score" must
be the dependent variable because the sentence doesn't make sense the other way around.

1.10.1. Characteristics of a Good research Topic are:

 Relevant: Arising from issues raised in literature and/or practice, the question will be of
academic and intellectual interest.
 Manageable: You must be able to access your sources of data (be they documents or
people), and to give a full and nuanced answer to your question.
 Substantial and original: The question should showcase your imaginative abilities,
however far it may be couched in existing literature.
 Fit for assessment: Remember, you must satisfy the learning outcomes of your course.
Your question must be open to assessment, as well as interesting.
 Clear and simple: A clear and simple research question will become more complex as
your research progresses. Start with an uncluttered question then unpeel the layers in your
reading and writing.

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 Interesting: Make your question interesting, but try to avoid questions which are
convenient or flashy. Remember, you will be thinking about this question for an entire
year.

1.10.2. Key Questions

 What aspect do you find the most interesting about your chosen field or topic?
 Is there 'room' for investigation in this sub-topic area?
 Have you tried formulating questions in different ways?
 Are you happy with your questions? (You will be the one working on them!)
 Have you discussed your topic with your supervisor?

Title leads to the preparation of the Research Proposal

1.2. The Scientific Approach

1.2.1. Definition of the scientific approach - The scientific method is a body of techniques
for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating
previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry is commonly based on
empirical or measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. Scientific
method is a set of procedures consisting of systematic experiment, observation, measurement,
and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses. To be termed scientific, a
method of inquiry must be based on gathering observable, empirical, and measurable
evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.

1.2.2. Basic Elements of the Scientific Method

• Empiricism: the notion that enquiry is conducted through observation and knowledge
verified through evidence; It relies on empirical evidence
• Determinism: the notion that events occur according to regular laws and causes. The
goal of research is to discover these
• Scepticism: the notion that any proposition is open to analysis and critique
• It utilizes relevant concepts;
• It is committed to only objective considerations;
• It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate and
correct statements about population objects;
• It results into probabilistic predictions;
• Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in testing
the conclusions through replication;
• It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.

1.2.3. Defining Science

To define the term science adequately, we must state the goals that are sought, the assumptions that
are made, and the characteristics of the method.
 Goals of Science - Most scientists, but not all, are interested in three goals: understanding,
prediction, and control. Of these three goals, two of them, understanding and prediction, are
sought by all scientists. The third goal, control, is sought only by those scientists who can
manipulate the phenomena they study. One of the most rigorous and precise disciplines in
terms of prediction is astronomy, but it is unlikely that astronomers will ever acquire sufficient
control over their subject matter to manipulate events.

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 Understanding - Sometimes description and explanation are used synonymously with
understanding when stating the goals of science. Although there is a similarity of meaning
among the three concepts, there are also subtle differences. Description of things and events
appears first. We must know the ―what‖ of what we are studying. It is important to give an
accurate description, identifying the factors and conditions that exist and also the extent to
which they exist. As the description becomes more complete—as we identify more factors or
conditions affecting the events we are studying—the better our understanding of the event
becomes. A complete description of the event would constitute an explanation. We would then
be able to state clearly and accurately the conditions under which a phenomenon occurs.
 Predictions - Some have argued that prediction is the ultimate goal that sciences seek. To a
degree, we know that we understand (at some level) an event when we can predict the
occurrence of that event. Prediction may also permit a substantial amount of control. When
events can be predicted accurately, preparation in anticipation of the event can occur. However,
we should be careful not to fully equate prediction with understanding. Based on past
experience, we may correctly predict that some people with severe depression will evidence a
remission of symptoms following electroconvulsive shock. However, we may have little
understanding of why this is so.
 Control - Considerable research has taken place in countries throughout the world regarding
natural disasters such as earthquakes, hurricanes, droughts, and epidemics. Imagine, in terms of
human welfare, the impact of acquiring an understanding sufficient to predict these natural
disasters. Timely preparation of those threatened could save lives and dramatically reduce
injuries and human suffering. But the next step—achieving control of the environmental
conditions leading to these events—would permit us to alter the time, place, and intensity of
their occurrence or prevent them altogether. The prospect of control over disordered behavior is
also exciting to contemplate. When sufficient knowledge is acquired, perhaps we will be able to
eliminate or reduce the symptoms of many psychological and physiological disorders,
maximize a sense of well-being, enhance memory and learning, or eliminate AIDS. Ultimately,
science seeks to explain, through the development of theory, the phenomena that exist in the
universe. Scientists try to arrive at general statements that link together the basic events being
studied. If this is accomplished, understanding, prediction, and control follow.

1.2.4. The Scientific approach as a process

 Choose a question to investigate

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  Identify a hypothesis related to the question
 Make testable predictions in the hypothesis
 Design an experiment to answer hypothesis question
 Collect data in experiment
 Determine results and assess their validity
 Determine if results support or refute your hypothesis

1.2.5. Inductive and Deductive Research Strategies

The systematic nature of science involves the use of both inductive and deductive research strategies.
Inductive reasoning involves the formulation of a general principle or theory based on a set of
specific observations. Conversely, deductive reasoning involves the formulation of specific
observational predictions based on a general principle or theory. Figure 3.2 depicts the direction of
reasoning. Notice that with inductive reasoning, multiple observations lead to one theory. With
deductive reasoning, one theory leads to multiple predictions.

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1.2.6. Assumptions of Science
All scientists make two fundamental assumptions. One is determinism—the assumption that all
events in the universe, including behavior, are lawful or orderly. The second assumption is that this
lawfulness is discoverable. Notice that the first assumption does not necessarily imply the second
assumption. In other words, we can assume that behavior is lawful without presuming that we will
discover this lawfulness.

1.2.7. Approaches to Knowing

 Authority - One source of knowledge is that derived from authority figures. Religious leaders,
teachers, parents, and judges may dictate the truth as they believe it.
 Personal Experience -Some individuals (such as writers and artists) have insights derived from
experiences and observations unique to them. They attempt to communicate their insights and
intuitions to others through writing and works of art.
 Rationalism - In wearing the hat of rationalism, we emphasize reasoning and logic rather than
experience. Reasoning and logic can be very powerful methods in the search for knowledge and
understanding. They play an important role in the formation of theories and the formation of
hypotheses to test those theories.
 Empiricism - Unlike rationalism, which tends to seek universal truths, the goals of empiricism
are more modest. The empiricist stresses the importance of observation as the basis for
understanding our past and present and predicting the future. Reasoning, personal experience,
and authority are not enough for the empiricist.

1.2.8. Formulating a Research Problem & Research Topic

Formulating the research problem begins during the first steps of the scientific process.
Research starts with a problem and ends with a solution to the problem. The problem
statement is therefore the axis which the whole research revolves around, because it explains
in short the aim of the research.

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2. A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
2.1. Defining – a research proposal can only be defined in terms of what its contents. The
research proposal - What is a Research Proposal? A research proposal is a document
that outlines:
 The research problem (research topic)
 States its associated research questions
 Summaries the prior literature related to the topic
 Specifies the procedure to be followed in answering the research questions

The purpose of your proposal is to sell your research idea by showing that you have thought
it through very carefully and have devised a good strategy to address the questions of the
study.

2.2. Structure of the research proposal:

NB: The attached research project guidelines
Cover page
Preliminary pages
1. Proposed title of the project
2. Background to the study (Background to the research problem)
3. Statement of the problem (Research problem)
4. Research objectives
5. Research questions
6. Research hypotheses / Propositions (optional)
7. Significance of the study (Justification)
8. Scope of the study (Delimitations of the study)
9. Assumptions
10. Brief literature review
11. Research methodology
12. Organisation of the research report
13. Research schedule
14. Research budget (optional)
15. References

2.3. Background of the Study

The background of the study outlines the background information. Background information
identifies and describes the history and nature of a well-defined research problem with
reference to the existing literature. The background information should indicate:

 the root of the problem being studied,

 appropriate context of the problem in relation to theory, research, and/or practice,
 its scope, and
 the extent to which previous studies have successfully investigated the problem, noting, in
particular,

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 where gaps exist that your study attempts to address.

Background information expands upon the key points stated in the beginning of the
introduction but is not intended to be the main focus of the paper. It generally supports the
question, what did we know about this topic before I did this study? Sufficient background
information helps your reader determine if you have a basic understanding of the research
problem being investigated and promotes confidence in the overall quality of your analysis
and findings. This information provides the reader with the essential context needed to
understand the research problem and its significance.

2.3.1. Contextualising the background of the study - Depending on the problem being
studied, forms of contextualization may include one or more of the following:

 Cultural -- placed within the learned behaviour of specific groups of people.

 Economic -- of or relating to systems of production and management of material wealth
and/or business activities.
 Gender -- located within the behavioural, cultural, or psychological traits typically
associated with being male or female.
 Historical -- the time in which something takes place or was created and how that
influences how you interpret it.
 Interdisciplinary -- explanation of theories, concepts, ideas, or methodologies borrowed
from other disciplines applied to the research problem rooted in another discipline.
 Philosophical -- clarification of the essential nature of being or of phenomena as it relates
to the research problem.
 Physical/Spatial -- reflects the space around something and how that influences how you
see it.
 Political -- concerns the environment in which something is produced indicating it's
public purpose or agenda.
 Social -- the environment of people that surrounds something's creation or intended
audience, reflecting how the people around something use and interpret it.
 Temporal -- reflects issues or events of, relating to, or limited by time.

Background information can also include summaries of important, relevant research studies.
This is particularly important if there is an essential or ground breaking study about the
research problem or a key study that refutes or supports your thesis. The key is to summarize
for the reader what is known about the specific research problem before you conduct the
analysis. This is accomplished with a general review of the foundational research literature
[with citations] that document findings informing your study's aims and objectives.

2.3.2. Structure and Writing Style

Providing background information in the introduction of a research paper serves as a bridge

that links the reader to the topic of your study. Precisely how long and in-depth this bridge
should be is largely dependent upon how much information you think the reader will need to
know in order to fully understand the topic being discussed and to appreciate why the issues
you are investigating are important.

From another perspective, the length and detail of background information also depends on
the degree to which you need to demonstrate to your professor how much you understand the
research problem. Keep this in mind because providing pertinent background information can

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be an effective way to demonstrate that you have a clear grasp of key issues and concepts
underpinning your overall study. Don't try to show off, though! And, avoid stating the
obvious.

The structure and writing style of your background information can vary depending upon the
complexity of your research and/or the nature of the assignment. Given this, here are some
questions to consider while writing this part of your introduction:

 Are there concepts, terms, theories, or ideas that may be unfamiliar to the reader and,
thus, require additional explanation?
 Are there historical elements that need to be explored in order to provide needed
context, to highlight specific people, issues, or events, or to lay a foundation for
understanding the emergence of a current issue or event?
 Are there theories, concepts, or ideas borrowed from other disciplines or academic
traditions that may be unfamiliar to the reader and therefore require further
explanation?
 Is the research study unusual in a way that requires additional explanation, such as, 1)
your study uses a method of analysis never applied before; 2) your study investigates a
very esoteric or complex research problem; or, 3) your study relies upon analyzing
unique texts or documents, such as, archival materials or primary documents like
diaries or personal letters that do not represent the established body of source literature
on the topic.

Almost all introductions to a research problem require some contextualizing, but the scope
and breadth of background information varies depending on your assumption about the
reader's level of prior knowledge. Despite this assessment, however, background information
should be brief and succinct; save any elaboration of critical points or in-depth discussion of
key issues for the literature review section of your paper.

2.4. Research Problem Statement

A problem statement:

 identifies the problem,

 when it started;
 who and what is affected to what extent,
 what was ever done to address the problem,
 what were the results and
 why do we still need a research.

Others may say, the research problem statement consists of:

* the type & purpose of study

* who or what
* limits of when (time period)
* major constructs (identified as observable variables)
* theoretical framework (this supports how the construct is defined and defines the lens used
to analyze & interpret the data)

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Furthermore it can be said that a problem statement:

 Introduces the reader to the importance of the problem. The reader is oriented to the
significance of the study and the research questions or hypotheses to follow.
 Places the problem in a context
 Provides the framework for reporting the results. Indicate what is probably necessary to
conduct the study and explain how the findings will present this information.

2.5. Research objectives

Research objectives are equivalent to the sub-problems. Objective is a purpose that can be
reasonably achieved within the expected timeframe and with the available resources. The
objective of research project summarizes what is to be achieved by the study. The research
objectives are the specific accomplishments the researcher hopes to achieve by the study.
Objectives are how you intend to achieve the purpose of the study. They will include the
specific means of answering the research question that you have posed and details of the key
issues involved.

It can be difficult to develop realistic research objectives. There are common pitfalls such as:

 the scope being too broad,

 not including enough detail,
 being too simplistic,
 being too ambitious, etc.

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What elements mark good specific objectives?

 They state why the objective is important

 They specify the individual actions to be taken in order to address the research problem
 They state the level of ambition for each objective
 They can be used to draw conclusions from within the scope of the thesis
 They specify which literature the study is based on
 They state where the study will take place
 They point at the relevant type of study or method

2.5. Research Questions

Research questions are research objectives expressed in question form. However there are at
least two research questions per research objective.

It's absolutely essential to develop a research question that you're interested in or care about
in order to focus your research and your paper (unless, of course, your instructor gives you a
very specific assignment). For example, researching a broad topic such as "business
management" is difficult since there may be hundreds of sources on all aspects of business
management. On the other hand, a focused question such as "What are the pros and cons of
Japanese management style?" is easier to research and can be covered more fully and in
more depth.

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 BUSINESS RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
1.1. By definition, a hypothesis is a proposed statement made on the basis of limited
evidence that can be proved or disproved and is used as a starting point for further
investigation.
From the definition the following aspects can be noted:
 It is a proposed statement: a hypothesis is not a fact, and should not be argued as right
or wrong until it is tested and proven one way or the other.
 It is made on the basis of limited (but hopefully some) evidence: Your hypothesis
should be informed by as much knowledge as you have. This should include data that
you have gathered, any research you have done, and the analysis of the current
problems you have performed.
 It can be proved or disproved: A hypothesis pretty much says, ―I think by making this
change, it will cause this effect.‖ So, based on your results, you should be able to say
―this is true‖ or ―this is false.‖
 It is used as a starting point for further investigation: The key word here is starting
point. Your hypothesis should be formed and agreed upon before you make any
wireframes or designs as it is what guides the design of your test. It helps you focus
on what elements to change, how to change them, and which to leave alone.
1.2. A hypothesis is a prediction you create prior to running an experiment. The common
format is:
If [cause], then [effect], because [rationale].

In the world of experience optimization, strong hypotheses consist of three distinct parts: a
definition of the problem, a proposed solution, and a result.

Let‘s discuss each component in greater detail.

Problem

Experience optimization is most impactful when it solves a problem in the customer

experience. When defining a hypothesis, start with a meaningful problem: an issue or pain-
point in your visitor‘s experience that you'd like to solve.

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Use qualitative and quantitative sources to validate your problem. Often, it can be tempting to
slide into assumption when thinking about the user experience. It's important to use data to
confirm the issue you're trying to solve.

Explain the problem from the visitor's perspective. Doing so will help you understand the
issue more deeply and generate hypotheses that get to the root cause.

For the problem validation, try the following format:

Problem definition: Users don't see the filters on our search results page.

Data validation: Less than 15% of users use filters when searching for products, which is very
low compared to industry standards.

Solution

Next, propose a solution. Describe the change so someone who reads the hypothesis can
understand the change, without screenshots. Then, add a rationale that offers a theory about
why this solution is the right one to solve the identified problem.

Proposed solution: Move the filters to the left side of the results.

Rationale: This is the most common place for filters to be; users are more likely to notice
them there.

Result

Finally, predict a result that ties your hypothesis back to your key business metrics. Include
metrics that determine the success or failure of your experiment. Once you know those,
decide on the specific metrics you'll use to track success in the experiment or campaign.

Primary metric: % of users who use filters will increase

What does success look like: % of users who move on to a product page will increase;
purchase rate will increase.

Examples of strong hypotheses

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 Example 1

Users find the featured products on the homepage irrelevant. Only 12% of
Problem users click on them. 9 out of 11 users state that they never found interesting
products on the homepage.
Set the algorithm for featured products to display products from recent
Solution categories the user has visited. If the user visits the category, they have
expressed interest in those types of products.
Percentage of users that click on the featured products and Percentage of
Result
users that added a product to cart will increase.
 Qualitative and quantitative validations to the problem
What makes
 Solution is based on a common UI practice in the industry
this strong?

Example 2

Users do not understand the name on the tab of our financial services
Problem (―money services‖), as explained in usability interviews. Therefore, 85%
of users drop-off after getting to the page.
Try different names for the sections such as: ―financial services‖,
Solution
―professional services‖, or ―money."
More clicks on the tab and smaller drop-off rate on the section landing
Result
page.
 Clear problem identification, including symptom
What makes  The results encapsulate quantity (more clicks to section) and
this strong? quality (less drop off at section)

Ideally, the cycle follows this general pattern:

1. Gather data about your visitor‘s behaviors and industry and use insights from that data
to ask questions
2. Formulate a hypothesis based on insights from your data
3. Design and implement an Experiment or Campaign based on your hypothesis
4. Analyze your results to decide whether your hypothesis is confirmed or rejected
5. Create and document conclusions
6. Use conclusions to create new questions

Hypothesis Versus Proposition

The terms "proposition" and "hypothesis" both refer to the formulation of a possible answer
to a specific scientific question. In particular, a proposition deals with the connection between
two existing concepts. The main difference between the two is that a hypothesis must be

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testable and measurable, while a proposition deals with pure concepts for which no laboratory
test is currently available.

Thus mainly, a hypothesis suits quantitative research methods while a proposition suits
research qualitative methods.

Hypotheses and the Scientific Method

Forming a hypothesis is the initial step in developing a theory under the scientific method. It
is an educated guess based on research and working knowledge. For a hypothesis to be
considered valid, it must make a prediction that scientists can test using a repeatable
experiment. If a hypothesis cannot be falsified through experimentation, it cannot be
considered part of a valid scientific theory.

Scientific Propositions

A proposition is similar to a hypothesis, but its main purpose is to suggest a link between two
concepts in a situation where the link cannot be verified by experiment. As a result, it relies
heavily on prior research, reasonable assumptions and existing correlative evidence. A
scientist can use a proposition to spur further research on a question or pose one in hopes that
further evidence or experimental methods will be discovered that will make it a testable
hypothesis.

Valid Uses for Propositions

Propositions can serve an important role in the scientific process. By suggesting a link
between two concepts, a scientific proposition can suggest promising areas of inquiry for
researchers. In areas of study where valid hypotheses can rarely be made, a proposition may
serve as a common assumption that can support further speculation. This can occur in
extremely complex systems, such as those dealt with by sociology and economics, where an
experimental test would be prohibitively expensive or difficult. Propositions are also valuable
in areas of study in which little hard evidence remains, such as archeological and
paleontological studies in which only fragments of evidence have been discovered.

Drawbacks of Propositions

Because a proposition does not rely on testable data, it is more difficult to disprove in a
scientific context. It only needs to be convincing and internally consistent to appear valid.
Propositions that satisfy both of these conditions have nevertheless been found to be wrong or
inaccurate when new testable data becomes available. Belief in propositions that have been
commonly accepted for long periods of time may be extremely difficult to overcome, even if
other researchers put more likely propositions forward.

Towards the Entrepreneurial Organization

Proposition 1: An entrepreneurial organization is that which pursues opportunity, regard-less of resources
currently controlled.

Proposition 2: The level of entrepreneurship within the firm (i.e. the pursuit of opportunities) is critically
dependent on the attitude of individuals within the firm, below the ranks of top managment.

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Proposition 3: The entrepreneurial behavior exhibited by a firm will be positively correlated with its efforts to
put individuals in a position to detect opportunities; to train them to be able to do so and to reward them for
doing so.

Proposition 4: Firms which make a conscious effort to lessen negative consequences of failure when
opportunity is pursued will exhibit a higher degree of entrepreneurial behavior.

Proposition 5: Not only the success rate, but the very amount of entrepreneurial behavior will be a function of
the employees' (subjective) ability to exploit opportunities.

Proposition 6: Organizations which facilitate the emergence of informal internal and external networks, and
allow the gradual allocation and sharing of resources, will exhibit a higher degree of entrepreneurial behavior.

Five sets of hypotheses to test attitudes towards advertising and defining consumer behaviour
models;

Hypothesis 1: The perceived entertainment, informativeness, irritation, and credibility of

mobile ads affect the attitude toward mobile advertising.

Hypothesis 2: Consumer attitudes are different for permission-based and general mobile
advertising.

Hypothesis 3: Attitudes toward mobile advertising affect consumer inten tions to receive
mobile ads.

Hypothesis 4: Providing incentives for receiving mobile ads can affect consumer intentions to
receive mobile ads.

Hypothesis 5: Consumers' intentions to receive mobile ads affect their behavior after
receiving mobile ads.

3. LITERATURE REVIEW

A literature review surveys books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to a
particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description,
summary, and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being
investigated. Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have
explored while researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your
research fits within a larger field of study.

A literature review may consist of simply a summary of key sources, but in the social
sciences, a literature review usually has an organizational pattern and combines both
summary and synthesis, often within specific conceptual categories. A summary is a recap of
the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling,
of that information in a way that informs how you are planning to investigate a research
problem. The analytical features of a literature review might:

 Give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations,
 Trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates,

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  Depending on the situation, evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most
pertinent or relevant research, or
 Usually in the conclusion of a literature review, identify where gaps exist in how a
problem has been researched to date.

The purpose of a literature review is to:

 Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research
problem being studied.
 Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration.
 Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
 Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.
 Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
 Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
 Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research.
 Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important].

3.1. Types of Literature Reviews

It is important to think of knowledge in a given field as consisting of three layers. First, there
are the primary studies that researchers conduct and publish. Second are the reviews of those
studies that summarize and offer new interpretations built from and often extending beyond
the primary studies. Third, there are the perceptions, conclusions, opinion, and interpretations
that are shared informally that become part of the lore of field.

In composing a literature review, it is important to note that it is often this third layer of
knowledge that is cited as "true" even though it often has only a loose relationship to the
primary studies and secondary literature reviews. Given this, while literature reviews are
designed to provide an overview and synthesis of pertinent sources you have explored, there
are a number of approaches you could adopt depending upon the type of analysis
underpinning your study.

 Argumentative Review - This form examines literature selectively in order to

support or refute an argument, deeply imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem
already established in the literature. The purpose is to develop a body of literature that
establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the value-laden nature of some social
science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration control], argumentative
approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important form of
discourse. However, note that they can also introduce problems of bias when they are
used to make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews [see below].
 Integrative Review - Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and
synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new
frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of literature
includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses or research problems.
A well-done integrative review meets the same standards as primary research in
regard to clarity, rigor, and replication. This is the most common form of review in
the social sciences.
 Historical Review - Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical
literature reviews focus on examining research throughout a period of time, often
starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the

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 literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose
is to place research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art
developments and to identify the likely directions for future research.
 Methodological Review - A review does not always focus on what someone said
[findings], but how they came about saying what they say [method of analysis].
Reviewing methods of analysis provides a framework of understanding at different
levels [i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches, and data collection
and analysis techniques], how researchers draw upon a wide variety of knowledge
ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the
areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative
integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection, and data analysis. This approach
helps highlight ethical issues which you should be aware of and consider as you go
through your own study.
 Systematic Review - This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent
to a clearly formulated research question, which uses pre-specified and standardized
methods to identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect, report,
and analyze data from the studies that are included in the review. The goal is to
deliberately document, critically evaluate, and summarize scientifically all of the
research about a clearly defined research problem. Typically it focuses on a very
specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what
extent does A contribute to B?" This type of literature review is primarily applied to
examining prior research studies in clinical medicine and allied health fields, but it is
increasingly being used in the social sciences.
 Theoretical Review - The purpose of this form is to examine the corpus of theory
that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The
theoretical literature review helps to establish what theories already exist, the
relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been
investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to
help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are
inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis
can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.

3.2. Structure of a literature review

The structure of a literature review should include the following:

 An overview of the subject, issue, or theory under consideration, along with the
objectives of the literature review,
 Division of works under review into themes or categories [e.g. works that support a
particular position, those against, and those offering alternative approaches entirely],
 An explanation of how each work is similar to and how it varies from the others,
 Conclusions as to which pieces are best considered in their argument, are most
convincing of their opinions, and make the greatest contribution to the understanding
and development of their area of research.

3.3. The Critical Evaluation of Each Work Should Consider:

 Provenance -- what are the author's credentials? Are the author's arguments
supported by evidence [e.g. primary historical material, case studies, narratives,
statistics, recent scientific findings]?

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  Methodology -- were the techniques used to identify, gather, and analyze the data
appropriate to addressing the research problem? Was the sample size appropriate?
Were the results effectively interpreted and reported?
 Objectivity -- is the author's perspective even-handed or prejudicial? Is contrary data
considered or is certain pertinent information ignored to prove the author's point?
 Persuasiveness -- which of the author's theses are most convincing or least
convincing?
 Value -- are the author's arguments and conclusions convincing? Does the work
ultimately contribute in any significant way to an understanding of the subject?

3.4. Literature review Development process

 Recap the research problem -- which topic or field is being examined and what are its
component issues? The component issues are determined by the research objectives,
research questions, research hypotheses or propositions.
 Literature search -- finding materials relevant to the subject being explored.
 Data evaluation -- determining which literature makes a significant contribution to the
understanding of the topic.
 Analysis and interpretation -- discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent
literature.

Consider the following issues before writing the literature review:

If your assignment is not very specific about what form your literature review should take,
seek clarification from your supervisor by asking these questions:

 Roughly how many sources should I include?

 What types of sources should I review (books, journal articles, websites; scholarly
versus popular sources)?
 Should I summarize, synthesize, or critique sources by discussing a common theme or
issue?
 Should I evaluate the sources?
 Should I provide subheadings and other background information, such as definitions
and/or a history?

 Use the exercise of reviewing the literature to examine how authors in your discipline
or area of interest have composed their literature review sections. Read them to get a
sense of the types of themes you might want to look for in your own research or to
identify ways to organize your final review. The bibliography or reference section of
sources you've already read are also excellent entry points into your own research.
 Narrow the Topic - The narrower your topic, the easier it will be to limit the number
of sources you need to read in order to obtain a good survey of relevant resources.
Your professor will probably not expect you to read everything that's available about
the topic, but you'll make your job easier if you first limit scope of the research
problem. A good strategy is to begin by searching the catalogue for books about the
topic and review the table of contents for chapters that focuses on specific issues. You

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 can also review the indexes of books to find references to specific issues that can
serve as the focus of your research. For example, a book surveying the history of the
Israeli-Palestinian conflict may include a chapter on the role Egypt has played in
mediating the conflict, or look in the index for the pages where Egypt is mentioned in
the text.
 Consider Whether Your Sources are Current - Some disciplines require that you
use information that is as current as possible. This is particularly true in disciplines in
medicine and the sciences where research conducted becomes obsolete very quickly
as new discoveries are made. However, when writing a review in the social sciences,
a survey of the history of the literature may be required. In other words, a complete
understanding the research problem requires you to deliberately examine how
knowledge and perspectives have changed over time. Sort through other current
bibliographies or literature reviews in the field to get a sense of what your discipline
expects. You can also use this method to explore what is considered by scholars to be
a "hot topic" and what is not.

3.5. Ways to Organize Your Literature Review

 Chronology of Events - If your review follows the chronological method, you could
write about the materials according to when they were published. This approach should
only be followed if a clear path of research building on previous research can be
identified and that these trends follow a clear chronological order of development. For
example, a literature review that focuses on continuing research about the emergence of
German economic power after the fall of the Soviet Union.
 By Publication - Order your sources by publication chronology, then, only if the order
demonstrates a more important trend. For instance, you could order a review of
literature on environmental studies of brown fields if the progression revealed, for
example, a change in the soil collection practices of the researchers who wrote and/or
conducted the studies.
 Thematic [“conceptual categories”] - Thematic reviews of literature are organized
around a topic or issue, rather than the progression of time. However, progression of
time may still be an important factor in a thematic review. For example, a review of the
Internet‘s impact on American presidential politics could focus on the development of
online political satire. While the study focuses on one topic, the Internet‘s impact on
American presidential politics, it will still be organized chronologically reflecting
technological developments in media. The only difference here between a
"chronological" and a "thematic" approach is what is emphasized the most: the role of
the Internet in presidential politics. Note however that more authentic thematic reviews
tend to break away from chronological order. A review organized in this manner would
shift between time periods within each section according to the point made.
 Methodological - A methodological approach focuses on the methods utilized by the
researcher. For the Internet in American presidential politics project, one
methodological approach would be to look at cultural differences between the portrayal
of American presidents on American, British, and French websites. Or the review might
focus on the fundraising impact of the Internet on a particular political party. A
methodological scope will influence either the types of documents in the review or the
way in which these documents are discussed.

Other Sections of Your Literature Review - Once you've decided on the organizational
method for your literature review, the sections you need to include in the paper should be

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easy to figure out because they arise from your organizational strategy. In other words, a
chronological review would have subsections for each vital time period; a thematic review
would have subtopics based upon factors that relate to the theme or issue. However,
sometimes you may need to add additional sections that are necessary for your study, but do
not fit in the organizational strategy of the body. What other sections you include in the body
is up to you but include only what is necessary for the reader to locate your study within the
larger scholarship framework.

Here are examples of other sections you may need to include depending on the type of review
you write:

 Current Situation: information necessary to understand the topic or focus of the

literature review.
 History: the chronological progression of the field, the literature, or an idea that is
necessary to understand the literature review, if the body of the literature review is not
already a chronology.
 Selection Methods: the criteria you used to select (and perhaps exclude) sources in
your literature review. For instance, you might explain that your review includes only
peer-reviewed articles and journals.
 Standards: the way in which you present your information.
 Questions for Further Research: What questions about the field has the review
sparked? How will you further your research as a result of the review?

3.6. Writing Style of Your Literature Review

Once you've settled on how to organize your literature review, you're ready to write each
section. When writing your review, keep in mind these issues.

 Use Evidence - A literature review section is, in this sense, just like any other academic
research paper. Your interpretation of the available sources must be backed up with
evidence [citations] that demonstrates that what you are saying is valid.
 Be Selective - Select only the most important points in each source to highlight in the
review. The type of information you choose to mention should relate directly to the
research problem, whether it is thematic, methodological, or chronological. Related
items that provide additional information but that are not key to understanding the
research problem can be included in a list of further readings.
 Use Quotes Sparingly - Some short quotes are okay if you want to emphasize a point,
or if what an author stated cannot be easily paraphrased. Sometimes you may need to
quote certain terminology that was coined by the author, not common knowledge, or
taken directly from the study. Do not use extensive quotes as a substitute for your own
summary and interpretation of the literature.
 Summarize and Synthesize - Remember to summarize and synthesize your sources
within each thematic paragraph as well as throughout the review. Recapitulate
important features of a research study, but then synthesize it by rephrasing the study's
significance and relating it to your own work.
 Keep Your Own Voice - While the literature review presents others' ideas, your voice
[the writer's] should remain front and center. For example, weave references to other
sources into what you are writing but maintain your own voice by starting and ending
the paragraph with your own ideas and wording.

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 Use Caution When Paraphrasing - When paraphrasing a source that is not your own,
be sure to represent the author's information or opinions accurately and in your own
words. Even when paraphrasing an author‘s work, you still must provide a citation to
that work.

3.7. Common Mistakes to Avoid

These are the most common mistakes made in reviewing social science research literature.

 Sources in your literature review do not clearly relate to the research problem;
 You do not take sufficient time to define and identify the most relevent sources to use
in the literature review related to the research problem;
 Relies exclusively on secondary analytical sources rather than including relevant
primary research studies or data;
 Uncritically accepts another researcher's findings and interpretations as valid, rather
than examining critically all aspects of the research design and analysis;
 Does not describe the search procedures that were used in identifying the literature to
review;
 Reports isolated statistical results rather than synthesizing them in chi-squared or
meta-analytic methods; and,
 Only includes research that validates assumptions and does not consider contrary
findings and alternative interpretations found in the literature.

SOURCES OF DATA/TYPES OF DATA

Data is the plural of datum which means raw facts and figures. In other words these are
unprocessed facts and figures.

Information is processed data. In other words information is data endowed with purpose and
meaning.

Business decision makers do not use data to decide but use information to make informed
decisions.

There are basically two sources and types of data, namely primary and secondary sources and
types.

PRIMARY DATA: Are those which are collected afresh and for the first time and thus
happen to be original in character and known as Primary data.

There are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in surveys and descriptive
researches. In descriptive research, we obtain primary data either through observation or
through direct communication with respondents in one form or another or through personal
interviews.

The data units include: consumer behavioural aspects, market profile and structure, industrial
profiles and structure and so on.

Secondary Data: Are those which have been collected by someone else and which have
already been passed through the statistical process are known as Secondary data.

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These are already available i.e. they refer to the data which have already been collected and
analyzed by someone else. Secondary data may either be published or unpublished data.
Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data, because the data available may be
sometimes unsuitable.

Types of Secondary Data

Below are 5 types of secondary data that a company that can collect to help it decide whether
it should go into a new catering business (Hair et. al, 2009):

1. Sales data - Sales Activity Reports (Internal)

These reports contain data on sales, competition, territory activities, and changes in the
market place (if it is competitor intelligence, it is not considered internal data) , enabling the
company to identify potential target markets, sales trends and competition. With this data, the
company would be able to forecast future sales trends and revenues for its catering business.
For example, the daily sales activity report would provide the company with insight: the
monitoring and identifying of sales frequency (i.e. cyclical nature of the sales – sale increase
during festive seasons) would enable the company to formulate its marketing strategy
appropriately (i.e. set promotions and pricing), or translate the data for other expenses (i.e.
price promotions may boost sales volume but does not generate profit).

2. Customer Feedback Forms (Internal)

The company can collect data from customer feedback forms, which are collected on-
premises. By allowing customers to rate some food items, vote for popular items, and
indicate the level of customer satisfaction survey (i.e. service response time, delivery timing,
professionalism) the company can determine the types of food and beverages to include in its
catering menu based on customers‘ preferences and opinions. As feedback forms usually
require customers to fill in their names, age, and gender and contact information, potential
customers (target market) can be identified.

3. Competitors‟ annual reports (External)

In order be successful, the company needs to identify and understand its existing and
potential competition. By analyzing competitors‘ (name them) annual reports, the company
will be able to correlate how competitors‘ financial and business activities influence the
company‘s marketing strategy. The company would also be able to determine its competitive
advantages/disadvantages relative to competitors. Such competitor information (i.e. resources
and capabilities, objectives, strategies, size and dominance within the market, positioning
within the market) enables the company to anticipate competitor action, and leverage on
competitor weaknesses to gain overall competitive advantage. (Learn Marketing 2011)

4. Government Data (External)

Government documents are a rich and accurate source of secondary data (i.e. laws,
regulations, statistics, consumer information etc…). For example, the Department of
Statistics Singapore provides data on Singapore demographics and trends, customer buying
patterns, Singaporean‘s health concerns or attitudes towards health. Using information from

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government data enables the company to determine as its target market and identify growing
trends in Singapore. The company would also need to be aware of laws and regulations,
which it will have to abide before starting a catering business (i.e. business taxes and
licensing).

5. The Internet (External)

With financial and marketing information being easily available on the Internet due to
increased technological advancements (i.e. multiple powerful search engines such as
Google), the Internet is a growing source of secondary data. Moreover, with many companies
having a website which contain a wealth of information about their current services, products
and markets, the Internet can also be used to monitor competitors through their press releases
and news stories. The company can also mine vital information about Singaporeans‘ eating
habits via social media websites (i.e. Facebook and Twitter). For example, the company can
extract relevant useful information from the many food-related Facebook groups to discover
more about Singaporean‘s eating habits.

Overview

Secondary Research is a common research method; it involves using information that others
have gathered through primary research.

Advantages

 The information already exists and is readily available -> quick & low cost
 Helps guide the focus of any subsequent primary research being conducted
 Internal secondary data uses categories and breakdowns that reflect a corporation‘s
preferred way of structuring the world
 Secondary research may be the only available source of specific pieces of information
(i.e. government data)

Limitations

 The information lacks specificity or does not exactly address question of concern
 Some external secondary data may be of suspect quality or outdated
 Internal secondary data such as sales reports and customer databases may only
describe existing customers
 Information is less likely to exist, particularly in developing countries, due to the lack
of primary research conducted in unpopular markets or strict media control from the
governments

Purpose

This technique is performed in order to:

 Access easy, low-cost and quick knowledge;

 Clarify the research question;
 Help align the focus of primary research in a larger scale and can also help to identify the
answer; and

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 Rule out potentially irrelevant project proposals (ex. The proposed work may have
already been carried out).

Goes By

This technique is also known as Desk Research.

Variations

There are two types of Secondary Research hence two types of data collected from this
technique:

 Internal Secondary Data consists of information gathered within researcher‘s firm (i.e.
customers databases and reports from past primary research)
 External Secondary Data consists of information gathered outside of researcher‘s firm
(i.e. government statistics and information from media sources)

Using the Technique

Secondary Research can happen at any stage of the creative process. Each Secondary
Research process involves 4 steps that can be repeated as necessary:

1. Identifying the subject domain and where to acquire the information;

2. Gathering existing data;
3. Comparing data from different sources, if necessary and if feasible; and
4. Analyzing the data

1. Identifying What & Where

Before starting any Secondary Research, it is helpful to define the research topic/domain.
Next, the researcher would prepare a list of questions to be solved by the end of the process.
This step helps narrow down the topic and also allows researcher to have an active role in
conducting the research. After identifying the research domain, the researcher would look at
various sources of information and decide where to get necessary data.

Good sources of information include:

 Internal data such as databases, sale reports, past primary researches;

 Government statistics and information from government agencies such as Canada
Business Service Centre (http://www.canadabusiness.ca), Statistics Canada
(http://www.statcan.gc.ca/);
 Information resources companies (ex. Passport GMID or Datamonitor360); and
 Different media such as articles from respected magazines and newspaper, reports
from university research centers or non-profit agency.

2. Gathering Existing Data

At this step, researcher looks at the topic and breaks it down in to keywords and their
synonyms. For example, when looking at the topic: ―What are the trends in woman clothing
market?‖ the keywords would be ―clothing‖, ―women‖ and ―trend‖. Accordingly, their

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synonyms would be ―apparel‖, ―female‖ and ―fashion‖. Using these words to search can save
researcher a lot of time in finding valuable data and also warrant no important information to
be missed out.

3. Normalizing Data If Needed

Sometimes researchers would want to normalize the data to make it easier to analyze later.

Example for this step comes from a research project of area household income data in the US.
The collected information came from 3 different sources: US Census Bureau Data (1997
data), a telephone survey of area residents (2000 data) and a published article (2007 data).
Raw information table
By shrinking the categories into 6 income scales and putting all data form in percentage, the
information was then much easier to look at and analyze.
Normalized data

4. Analyzing Data

At this final step, the researcher should seek actionable findings to move the project forward.
It is important to look back at the list of research questions from the first step and ask if they
have all been answered and if there is any new question been raised. The most important goal
is to come up with future actions for the project.

Inputs:

 Most of the time, Secondary Research would start during or after brainstorming
process. Brainstorming brings in ideas or concepts/themes that would become the
topic of secondary research.
 Topic for secondary research can also come from different stages of the creative
process; basically, anytime a new question arises in the creative process, secondary
research can be used to find the answer.

Outputs:

 Secondary Research provides answers to the uncertainties and questions, and will
narrow down the subject domain making it easier for primary research to be
conducted later on.

Other Points of Note

During the step of gathering data, researcher should make sure to verify the credibility of the
information coming from the Internet. Screenshots or another method for saving important
websites should be used for reference since the online data might be changed without notice.

For data such as reports and statistics, the best way to verify their credibility is to consult the
appendix and references. Generally, the more detailed the references, the more trustable the
data.

On it‘s own, copying or summarizing information identified by secondary research has no

value as far as the project is concerned. Secondary Research is of value when information is

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compared and analyzed, when the researcher performs a critical review of the data, and when
the researcher comes up with actionable findings to move the project forward.

Research Designs

A research design is a framework or blueprint (plan) for conducting the business research
project. It details the procedures necessary for obtaining the information needed to structure
or solve business research problems.

Research design is formulated after the problem has been defined and the approach
developed.

A comparison of Basic Research Designs

Exploratory Descriptive Causal
Objective Discovery of ideas Describe market Determine cause and
and insights characteristics or effect relationships
functions
Characteristics Flexible, versatile Marked by the prior Manipulation of
formulation of independent variables,
specific hypotheses measure the effect on
dependent variables,
Often the front end of Preplanned and Control mediating
total research design structured design variables
Methods Expert surveys Secondary data: Experiments
Pilot surveys quantitative analysis
Case studies Survey

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

As the name implies, the primary objective of exploratory research is to explore a problem to
provide insights into and comprehension for more precise investigation. It focuses on the
discovery of ideas and thoughts. The exploratory research design is suitable for studies which
are flexible enough to provide an opportunity for considering all the aspects of the problem.

At this point, the required information is loosely defined, and the research process is flexible
and unstructured. It is used in the situation when you must define the problem correctly,
identify alternative courses of actions, develop a hypothesis, gain additional insights before
the development of an approach, set priorities for further examination. The following
methods are used for conducting exploratory research

 Survey of concerning literature

 Experience survey
 Analysis of insights stimulating

Uses of Exploratory Research

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• Formulate a problem or define a problem more precisely
• Identify alternative courses of action
• Develop hypotheses
• Isolate key variables and relationships for further examination
• Gain insights for developing an approach to the problem

CAUSAL DESIGN

Causal design seeks to establish the cause and effect relationship of variables. Its objectives
are:

• To understand which variables are the cause (independent variables) and which variables
are the effect (dependent variables) of a phenomenon.
• To determine the nature of the relationship between the causal variables and the effect to
be predicted.

It mainly takes the form of experiments.

According to Saunders et al. (2007) experiment is a classical form of research that owes
much to the natural sciences, although it features strongly in much social science research,
particularly psychology.
The purpose of an experiment is to study causal links; whether a change in one independent
variable produces a change in another dependent variable (Hakim, 2000). The simplest
experiments are concerned with whether there is a link between two variables. More complex
experiments also consider the size of the change and the relative importance of two or more
independent variables. Experiments therefore tend to be used in exploratory and explanatory
research to answer ‗how‘ and ‗why‘ questions.
In a classic experiment, two groups are established and members assigned at random to
each. This means the two groups will be exactly similar in all aspects relevant to the research
other than whether or not they are exposed to the planned intervention or manipulation. In the
first of these groups, the experimental group, some form of planned intervention or
manipulation, such as a ‗buy two, get one free‘ promotion, is made subsequently. In the other
group, the control group, no such intervention is made.
The dependent variable, in this example purchasing behaviour, is measured before and after
the manipulation of the independent variable (the use of the ‗buy two, get one free‘
promotion) for both the experimental group and the control group. This means that a before
and after comparison can be undertaken. On the basis of this comparison, any difference
between the experimental and control groups for the dependent variable (purchasing
behaviour) is attributed to the intervention, in our example the ‗buy two, get one free‘
promotion.
In assigning the members to the control and experimental groups at random and using a
control group, you try to control (that is, remove) the possible effects of an alternative
explanation to the planned intervention (manipulation) and eliminate threats to internal
validity. This is because the control group is subject to exactly the same external influences
as the experimental group other than the planned intervention and, consequently, this
intervention is the only explanation for any changes to the dependent variable. By assigning
the members of each group at random, changes cannot be attributed to differences in the
composition of the two groups. Therefore, in minimising threats to internal validity, you are

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minimising the extent to which the findings can be attributed to any flaws in your research
design rather than the planned interventions.

In summary, an experiment will involve typically:

■ definition of a theoretical hypothesis (in our discussion: the introduction of a promotion
will result in a change in the number of sales);
■ selection of samples of individuals from known populations;
■ random allocation of samples to different experimental conditions, the experimental group
and the control group;
■ introduction of planned intervention or manipulation to one or more of the variables (in our
discussion, the introduction of the promotion);
■ measurement on a small number of dependent variables (in our discussion, purchasing
behaviour);
■ control of all other variables.

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

By the term descriptive research, we mean a type of conclusive research study which is
concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual or group. It includes
research related to specific predictions, features or functions of person or group, the narration
of facts, etc.

The descriptive research aims at obtaining complete and accurate information for the study,
the method adopted must be carefully planned. The researcher should precisely define what
he wants to measure? How does he want to measure? He should clearly define the population
under study. It uses methods like quantitative analysis of secondary data, surveys, panels,
observations, interviews, questionnaires, etc.

Descriptive Research concentrates on formulating the research objective, designing methods

for the collection of data, selection of the sample, data collection, processing, and analysis,
reporting the results.

Key Differences Between Exploratory and Descriptive Research

The difference between exploratory and descriptive research can be drawn clearly on the
following grounds:

1. Research conducted for formulating a problem for more clear investigation is called
exploratory research. Research that explore and explains an individual, group or a
situation, is called descriptive research.
2. The exploratory research aims at the discovery of ideas and thoughts whereas the
primary purpose of descriptive research is to describe the characteristics and
functions.
3. The overall design of the exploratory research should be flexible enough so that it
provides an opportunity to consider various aspects of the problem. On the contrary,
in descriptive research, the overall design should be rigid which protects against bias
and also maximise reliability.

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 4. The research process is unstructured in exploratory research. However, it is structured
in the case of descriptive research.
5. Non-probability sampling i.e. judgment or purposive sampling design is used in
exploratory research. As opposed to descriptive research where probability (random)
sampling design is used.
6. When it comes to statistical design, exploratory research has no pre-planned design
for analysis. Unlike, descriptive research that has the pre-planned design for analysis.

Uses of Descriptive Research

• To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such as consumers, salespeople,

organizations, or market areas
• To estimate the percentage of units in a specified population exhibiting a certain behavior
• To determine the perceptions of product characteristics
• To determine the degree to which marketing variables are associated

Descriptive research design: Cross-Sectional Designs

• Involve the collection of information from any given sample of population elements only
once
• In single cross-sectional designs, there is only one sample of respondents drawn of the
target population, and information is obtained from this sample only once.
• In multiple cross-sectional designs, there are two or more samples of respondents, and
information from each sample is obtained only once. Often, information from different
samples is obtained at different times.

A type of special interest analysis of this design is Cohort Analysis.

• Cohort analysis consists of a series of surveys conducted at appropriate time intervals,

where the cohort serves as the basic unit of analysis.

Descriptive Research Design Longitudinal Designs

• A fixed sample (or samples) of population elements is measured repeatedly on the same
variables. (the same people are studied over time and the same variables are measured).
• A longitudinal design differs from a cross-sectional design in that the sample or samples
participants remain the same over time.
• Longitudinal design study provides changes that take place over time.

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Page 42
Page 43
Potential Errors Affecting Research Designs
The research design must attempt to reduce the 8 types of potential errors that can influence
research results, that is,
1. Surrogate Information Error
2. M e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r
3. E x p e r i m e n t a l E r r o r
4. P o p u l a t i o n S p e c i f i c a t i o n E r r o r
5. F r a m e E r r o r
6. S a m p l i n g E r r o r
7. S e l e c t i o n E r r o r
8. N o n - r e s p o n s e E r r o r

However, it should also be kept in mind that research design must reduce total error, not just
one or two aspects of total error.

1. Surrogate Information Error:

Surrogate information error is caused by a variation between the information r e q u i r e d t o
solve the problem and the information sought by the researcher. The
s o - c a l l e d p r i c e - q u a l i t y relationship, where a consumer uses the price of a brand to
represent its quality level, is a common example of a measure that is subject to surrogate
information error (because price level does not always reflect quality level). It has been
argued that, in part, the earlier mentioned taste test research done by Coca -Cola
India resulted in surrogate information. The company based its decision on taste

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preferences. The resultant consumer back lash was caused by surrogate information error, as
consumers purchase Coke for reasons other than taste alone.

2. Measurement error:
Measurement error is caused by a difference between the information desired by
the researcher and the information provided by the measurement process, In other words, not
only is it possible to seek the wrong type of information (surrogate information
error) but it is also possible to gather information that is different from what is
being sought. This is one of the most common and serious errors. For example,
respondents may exaggerate their income in order to impress an interviewer; the
reported income will then reflect an unknown amount of measurement error,
measurement error is particularly difficult to control because it can arise from many different
sources.

3. Experimental Error:
Experiments are designed to measure the impact of one or more independent variables on a
dependent variable. Experimental error occurs when the effect of the
experimental situation itself is measured rather than the effect of the independent
variable. For example, a retail chain may increase the price of selected items in four
outlets and leave the price of the same items constant in four similar outlets, in
an a t t e m p t t o d i s c o v e r t h e b e s t p r i c i n g s t r a t e g y. H o w e v e r , u n i q u e
w e a t h e r p a t t e r n s , t r a f f i c c o n d i t i o n s , o r competitors' activities may affect the sales
at one set of stores and not the other. Thus, the experimental results will reflect the impact of
variables other than price. Like measurement error, experimental error can arise from a
number of sources.

4. Population Specification Error:

Population specification error is caused by selecting an in appropriate universe or
population from which to collect data. This is a potentially serious problem in both industrial
and consumer research. A firm wishing to learn the criteria that are considered
most important in the purchase of certain machine tools might conduct a survey
among purchasing agents. Yet, in many firms, the purchasing agents do not
determine or necessarily even know the criteria behind brand selections. These decisions may
be made by the machine operators, by committee, or by higher Level executives.
A study that focuses on the purchasing agent as the person who decides which brands to
order may be subject to population specification error.

5. Sample Frame Error:

The sampling frame is the list of population members from which the
s a m p l e u n i t s a r e selected. An ideal frame identifies each member of the population once
and only once. Frame error is caused by using an inaccurate or incomplete sampling
frame. For example, using the telephone directory as a sampling frame for the
population of a community contains a potential for frame error. Those families who do not
have

6. Selection Error

This occurs when respondents self select their participation in the study – only those that are
interested respond. Selection error can be controlled by going extra lengths to get
participation. A typical survey process includes initiating pre-survey contact requesting

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cooperation, actual surveying, post survey follow-up if a response is not received, a second
survey request, and finally interviews using alternate modes such as telephone or person to
person.

7. Non-Response

Non-response errors occur when respondents are different than those who do not respond.
This may occur because either the potential respondent was not contacted or they refused to
respond. The extent of this non-response error can be checked through follow-up surveys
using alternate modes.

8. Sampling Errors

These errors occur because of variation in the number or representativeness of the sample that
responds. Sampling errors can be controlled by (1) careful sample designs, (2) large samples,
and (3) multiple contacts to assure representative response.

Sources of non-sampling errors:

Non sampling errors can occur at every stage of planning and execution of survey or census.
It occurs at planning stage, field work stage as well as at tabulation and computation stage.
The main sources of the nonsampling errors are:
 lack of proper specification of the domain of study and scope of investigation,
 incomplete coverage of the population or sample,
 faulty definition,
 defective methods of data collection and
 tabulation errors.

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More specifically, one or more of the following reasons may give rise to nonsampling errors
or indicate its presence:
• The data specification may be inadequate and inconsistent with the objectives of the survey
or census.
• Due to imprecise definition of the boundaries of area units, incomplete or wrong
identification of units, faulty methods of enumeration etc, the data may be duplicated or
may be omitted.
• The methods of interview and observation collection may be inaccurate or inappropriate.
• The questionnaire, definitions and instructions may be ambiguous.
• The investigators may be inexperienced or not trained properly.
• The recall errors may pose difficulty in reporting the true data.
• The scrutiny of data is not adequate.
• The coding, tabulation etc. of the data may be erroneous.
• There can be errors in presenting and printing the tabulated results, graphs etc.
• In a sample survey, the non-sampling errors arise due to defective frames and faulty
selection of sampling units.

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Relative Advantages and Disadvantages of Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Designs

Evaluation Criteria Cross-Sectional Design Longitudinal Design

Detecting Change - +
Large amount of data collection - +
Accuracy - +
Representative Sampling + -
Representative Sampling + -
Note: A ―+‖ indicates a relative advantage over the other design, whereas a ―-‖ indicates a
relative disadvantage.
Large amount of data = (+) for longitudinal because panel members (sample units) are
compensated for their participation.

Accuracy = (+) for longitudinal because panels rely on continuous recording of data in a
diary, place less reliance on the respondents‘ memory.

Representing sampling = (-) for longitudinal because it depends on small samples and only
persons who agree to participate including in the panel, often because of money.

Response bias = (-) for longitudinal because panel members tend to increase the measured
behavior such as food purchasing.

RESEARCH APPROACHES/STRATEGIES

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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH APPROACH
It employs methods of data collection and analysis that are non-quantitative, aims towards the
exploration of social relations, and describes reality as experienced by the respondents.
 Gathers qualitative data.
 Through qualitative methods like; interviews, focus groups and observations
 Uses qualitative instruments like; interview forms, audio and video recorders and
observation forms.
 Uses qualitative methods to analyse data.

Qualitative research methods have long been used in the field of social sciences. For instance,
these are the principal methods employed by anthropologists to study the customs and
behaviours of people from other cultures, and are also used in such diverse areas as
sociology, psychology, education, history and cultural studies. These methods have much to
offer in studying the health and well-being of people and their daily lives in business and
home.

Qualitative research Approach focus on discovering and understanding the experiences, per-
spectives, and thoughts of participants—that is, qualitative research explores meaning,
purpose, or reality (Hiatt, 1986). In other words,
qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. It consists of a
set of interpretive, material practices that make the world visible. These practices transform
the world. They turn the world into a series of representations, including field notes,
interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings, and memos to the self. At this level,
qualitative research involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world. This means
that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of,
or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. (Denzin & Lincoln,
2005, p. 3)

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH APPROACH

This refers to the type of research that is based on the methodological principles of positivism
and neopositivism, and adheres to the standards of a strict research design developed prior to
the actual research. It is applied for quantitative measurement and hence statistical analysis is
used. Quantitative research is used in almost every sphere of life, such as in clinical,
biological, epidemiological, sociological and business research.
 Gathers quantitative data
 Through surveys and experiments
 Uses questionnaires and mechanical instruments
 Uses quantitative methods of handling data

Quantitative research approach attempt to maximize objectivity, replicability, and general-

izibility of findings, and are typically interested in prediction. Integral to this approach is the
expectation that a researcher will set aside his or her experiences, perceptions, and biases to
ensure objectivity in the conduct of the study and the conclusions that are drawn. Key
features of many quantitative studies are the use of instruments such as tests or surveys to
collect data, and reliance on probability theory to test statistical hypotheses that correspond to
research questions of interest. Quantitative methods are frequently described as deductive in

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nature, in the sense that inferences from tests of statistical hypotheses lead to general
inferences about characteristics of a population. Quantitative methods are also frequently
characterized as assuming that there is a single ―truth‖ that exists, independent of human
perception (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
Trochim and Land (1982) defined quantitative research design as the glue that holds the
research project together. A design is used to structure the research, to show how all of the
major parts of the research project—the samples or groups, measures, treatments or
programs, and methods of assignment—work together to try to address the central research
questions.

Mixed research approach

Mixed research approach is formally defined here as the class of research where the
researcher mixes or combines quantitative and qualitative research techniques, methods,
approaches, concepts or language into a single study. Mixed methods research also is an
attempt to legitimate the use of multiple approaches in answering research questions, rather
than restricting or constraining researchers‘ choices (i.e., it rejects dogmatism). It is an
expansive and creative form of research, not a limiting form of research. It is inclusive,
pluralistic, and complementary, and it suggests that researchers take an eclectic approach to
method selection and the thinking about and conduct of research.

Mixed methods research is a methodology for conducting research that involves collecting,
analysing and integrating quantitative (e.g., experiments, surveys) and qualitative (e.g., focus
groups, interviews) research. This approach to research is used when this integration provides
a better understanding of the research problem than either of each alone.

Quantitative data includes close-ended information such as that found to measure attitudes (e.g.,
rating scales), behaviours (e.g., observation checklists), and performance instruments. The analysis of
this type of data consists of statistically analysing scores collected on instruments (e.g.,
questionnaires) or checklists to answer research questions or to test hypotheses.

Qualitative data consists of open-ended information that the researcher usually gathers through
interviews, focus groups and observations. The analysis of the qualitative data (words, text or
behaviours) typically follows the path of aggregating it into categories of information and presenting
the diversity of ideas gathered during data collection.

By mixing both quantitative and qualitative research and data, the researcher gains in breadth
and depth of understanding and corroboration, while offsetting the weaknesses inherent to
using each approach by itself. One of the most advantageous characteristics of conducting
mixed methods research is the possibility of triangulation, i.e., the use of several means
(methods, data sources and researchers) to examine the same phenomenon. Triangulation
allows one to identify aspects of a phenomenon more accurately by approaching it from
different vantage points using different methods and techniques. Successful triangulation
requires careful analysis of the type of information provided by each method, including its
strengths and weaknesses.

When to use it?

Mixed methods research is particularly suited:
 When one wants to validate or corroborate the results obtained from other methods.

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  When one needs to use one method to inform another method. For instance, when
little is known about a topic and it is necessary to first learn about what variables to
study through qualitative research, and then study those variables with a large sample
of individuals using quantitative research.
 When one wants to continuously look at a research question from different angles,
and clarify unexpected findings and/or potential contradictions.
 When one wants to elaborate, clarify, or build on findings from other methods. For
instance, if a causal relationship has being established through experimental research
but one wants to understand and explain the causal processes involved through
qualitative research.
 When one wants to develop a theory about a phenomenon of interest and then test it.
Usually, qualitative research is more suitable to build theory, while quantitative
research provides a better way of testing theories.
 When one wants to generalize findings from qualitative research.

Advantages
The use of mixed method research provides a number of advantages, namely:
 Provides strengths that offset the weaknesses of both quantitative and qualitative
research. For instance, quantitative research is weak in understanding the context or
setting in which people behave, something that qualitative research makes up for. On
the other hand, qualitative research is seen as deficient because of the potential for
biased interpretations made by the researcher and the difficulty in generalizing
findings to a large group. Quantitative research does not have these weaknesses. Thus,
by using both types of research, the strengths of each approach can make up for the
weaknesses of the other.
 Provides a more complete and comprehensive understanding of the research problem
than either quantitative or qualitative approaches alone.
 Provides an approach for developing better, more context specific instruments. For
instance, by using qualitative research it is possible to gather information about a
certain topic or construct in order to develop an instrument with greater construct
validity, i.e., that measures the construct that it intends to measure.
 Helps to explain findings or how causal processes work.

Disadvantages and limitations

Mixed method research has some disadvantages and limitations, namely:
 The research design can be very complex.
 Takes much more time and resources to plan and implement this type of research.
 It may be difficult to plan and implement one method by drawing on the findings of
another.
 It may be unclear how to resolve discrepancies that arise in the interpretation of the
findings.

DATA COLLECTION METHODS

There are basically four data collection methods and these include Surveys, Focus Groups,
Observations, and Tests/Experiments. The task of data collection begins after a research
problem has been defined and research design /plan chalked out.

SURVEYS
A survey is where data is collected by asking standard questions and securing answers.

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Surveys are typically selected when information is to be collected from a large number of people
or when answers are needed to a clearly defined set of questions. Surveys are good tools for
obtaining information on a wide range of topics when in-depth probing of responses is not
necessary, and they are useful for both formative and summative purposes. Frequently, the same
survey is used at spaced intervals of time to measure progress along some dimension or change in
behavior.

Advantages and disadvantages of surveys advantages:

Good for gathering descriptive data
Can cover a wide range of topics
Are relatively inexpensive to use
Can be analyzed using a variety of existing software

Disadvantages:
Self-report may lead to biased reporting
Data may provide a general picture but lack depth
May not provide adequate information on context

INTERVIEWS

The use of interviews as a data collection method begins with the assumption that the
participants‘ perspectives are meaningful, knowable, and can be made explicit, and that their
perspectives affect the success of the project. An in-person or telephone interview, rather than a
paper-and pencil survey, is selected when interpersonal contact is important and when
opportunities for follow up of interesting comments are desired.
Two types of interviews are used in evaluation research: structured interviews, in which a
carefully worded questionnaire is administered, and in-depth interviews, in which the interviewer
does not follow a rigid form. In the former, the emphasis is on obtaining answers to carefully
phrased questions. Interviewers are trained to deviate only minimally from the question wording
to ensure uniformity of interview administration. In the latter, however, the interviewers seek to
encourage free and open responses, and there may be a trade-off between comprehensive
coverage of topics and in-depth exploration of a more limited set of questions. In-depth
interviews also encourage capturing respondents‘ perceptions in their own words, a very desirable
strategy in qualitative data collection. This allows the evaluator to present the meaningfulness of
the experience from the respondent‘s perspective.
In-depth interviews are conducted with individuals or a small group of individuals.

When to Use Interviews

Interviews can be used at any stage of the evaluation process. In-depth interviews are especially
useful in answering questions such as those suggested by Patton (1990):
 What does the program look and feel like to the participants? To other stakeholders?
 What do stakeholders know about the project?
 What thoughts do stakeholders knowledgeable about the program have concerning program
operations, processes, and outcomes?
 What are participants‘ and stakeholders‘ expectations?
 What features of the project are most salient to the participants?
 What changes do participants perceive in themselves as a result of their involvement in the
project?
Specific circumstances for which in-depth interviews are particularly appropriate include
situations involving complex subject matter, detailed information, high-status respondents, and
highly sensitive subject matter.

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Advantages and disadvantages of interviews Advantages:

 Usually yield richest data, details, new insights

 Permit face-to-face contact with respondents
 Provide opportunity to explore topics in depth
 Allow interviewer to experience the affective as well as cognitive aspects of responses
 Allow interviewer to explain or help clarify questions, increasing the likelihood of useful
responses
 Allow interviewer to be flexible in administering interview to particular individuals or in
particular circumstances

Disadvantages:
 Expensive and time-consuming
 Need well-qualified, highly trained interviewers
 Interviewee may distort information through recall error, selective perceptions, desire to
please interviewer
 Flexibility can result in inconsistencies across interviews
 Volume of information very large; may be difficult to transcribe and reduce data

FOCUS GROUPS
Focus groups are a gathering of 8 to 12 people who share some characteristics relevant to the
evaluation. Originally used as a market research tool to investigate the appeal of various products,
the focus group technique has been adopted by other fields, such as education, as a tool for data
gathering on a given topic. Initially, focus groups took place in a special facility that included
recording apparatus (audio and/or visual) and an attached room with a one-way mirror for
observation.

There was an official recorder, who may or may not have been in the room. Participants were
paid for attendance and provided with refreshments. As the focus group technique has been
adopted by fields outside of marketing, some of these features, such as payment or refreshments,
have sometimes been eliminated.

Focus groups combine elements of both interviewing and participant observation. The focus
group session is, indeed, an interview—not a discussion group, problem-solving session, or
decision-making group. At the same time, focus groups capitalize on group dynamics. The
hallmark of focus groups is the explicit use of the group interaction to generate data and insights
that would be unlikely to emerge otherwise. The technique inherently allows observation of
group dynamics, discussion, and first hand insights into the respondents‘ behaviors, attitudes,
language, etc.

When to use Focus Groups

Focus groups can be useful at both the formative and summative stages of an evaluation. They
provide answers to the same types of questions as in-depth interviews, except that they take place
in a social context. Specific applications of the focus group method in evaluations include:
 Identifying and defining problems in project implementation
 Pretesting topics or idea
 Identifying project strengths, weaknesses, and recommendations
 Assisting with interpretation of quantitative findings
 Obtaining perceptions of project outcomes and impacts

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 Generating new ideas

Although focus groups and in-depth interviews share many characteristics, they should not be
used interchangeably. Factors to consider when choosing between focus groups and indepth
interviews are displayed in Exhibit 15.

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Observations
Observational techniques are methods by which an individual or individuals gather firsthand data
on programs, processes, or behaviors being studied. They provide evaluators with an opportunity
to collect data on a wide range of behaviors, to capture a great variety of interactions, and to
openly explore the evaluation topic. By directly observing operations and activities, the evaluator
can develop a holistic perspective, i.e., an understanding of the context within which the project
operates. This may be especially important where it is not the event that is of interest, but rather
how that event may fit into, or be affected by, a sequence of events. Observational approaches
also allow the evaluator to learn about issues the participants or staff may be unaware of or that
they are unwilling or unable to discuss candidly in an interview or focus group.

When to Use Observations

Observations can be useful during both the formative and summative phases of evaluation. For
example, during the formative phase, observations can be useful in determining whether or not
the project is being delivered and operated as planned. During the summative phase, observations
can be used to determine whether or not the project has been successful. The technique would be
especially useful in directly examining teaching methods employed by the faculty in their own
classes after program participation.

Advantages and disadvantages of observations Advantages:

 Provide direct information about behavior of individuals and groups

 Permit evaluator to enter into and understand situation/context
 Provide good opportunities for identifying unanticipated outcomes
 Exist in natural, unstructured, and flexible setting

Disadvantages:

 Expensive and time consuming

 Need well-qualified, highly trained observers; may need to be content experts
 May affect behavior of participants
 Selective perception of observer may distort data
 Behavior or set of behaviors observed may be atypical

TESTS/EXPERIMENTS

Tests provide a way to assess subjects‘ knowledge and capacity to apply this knowledge to new
situations. Tests take many forms. They may require respondents to choose among alternatives
(select a correct answer, select an incorrect answer, select the best answer), to cluster choices into
like groups, to produce short answers, or to write extended responses. A question may address a
single outcome of interest or lead to questions involving a number of outcome areas.

Tests provide information that is measured against a variety of standards. The most popular test
has traditionally been norm-referenced assessment. Norm-referenced tests provide information on
how the target performs against a reference group or normative population. In and of itself, such
scores say nothing about how adequate the target‘s performance may be, only how that
performance compares with the reference group. Other assessments are constructed to determine
whether or not the target has attained mastery of a skill or knowledge area. These tests, called
criterion-referenced assessments, provide data on whether important skills have been reached but
say far less about a subject‘s standing relative to his/her peers. A variant on the criterion-
referenced approach is proficiency testing. Like the criterion-referenced test, the proficiency test

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provides an assessment against a level of skill attainment, but includes standards for performance
at varying levels of proficiency, typically a three- or four-point scale ranging from below basic to
advanced performance.

Criticisms of traditional, short-answer, norm-referenced tests have become widespread. These

criticisms focus on the fragmented and superficial nature of these tests and the consequent,
negative influence they have on instruction, especially where the tests are used for high stakes
decision making. Critics call instead for assessments that are more authentic in nature, involving
higher order thinking skills and the coordination of a broad range of knowledge. The new tests,
called performance assessments, require students to engage in solving more complex problems
and may involve activities such as oral interviews, group problem-solving tasks, portfolios, or
personal documentation.

When to Use Tests

Tests are used when one wants to gather information on the status of knowledge or the change in
status of knowledge over time. They may be used purely descriptively or to determine whether
the test taker qualifies in terms of some standard of performance. Changes in test performance are
frequently used to determine whether a project has been successful in transmitting information in
specific areas or influencing the thinking skills of participants
In choosing a test, it is important to assess the extent to which the test measures knowledge,
skills, or behaviors that are relevant to your program. Not all tests measure the same things, nor
do they do so in the same ways. The critical word here is ―alignment.‖ There are a number of
different ways to assess alignment. Some useful suggestions are offered at the following web
sites:

Advantages and disadvantages of tests

The advantages and disadvantage of tests depend largely on the type of test being considered and
the personal opinion of the stakeholder. However, the following claims are made by proponents.

Advantages:

 Provide objective information on what the test taker knows and can do
 Can be constructed to match a given curriculum or set of skills
 Can be scored in a straightforward manner
 Are accepted by the public as a credible indicator of learning

Disadvantages:

 May be oversimplified and superficial

 May be very time consuming
 May be biased against some groups of test takers
 May be subject to corruption via coaching or cheating

CASE STUDIES
Classical case studies depend on ethnographic and participant observer methods. They are largely
descriptive examinations, usually of a small number of sites (small towns, projects, individuals,
schools) where the principal investigator is immersed in the life of the site or institution, combs
available documents, holds formal and informal conversations with informants, observes on-
going activities, and develops an analysis of both individual and cross-case findings.

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Case studies can provide very engaging, rich explorations of a project or application as it
develops in a real-world setting. Project evaluators must be aware, however, that doing even
relatively modest, illustrative case studies is a complex task that cannot be accomplished through
occasional, brief site visits. Demands with regard to design, data collection, and reporting can be
substantial (Yin, 1989).

Advantages and disadvantages of using case studies Advantages:

 Provide a rich picture of what is happening, as seen through the eyes of many individuals
 Allow a thorough exploration of interactions between treatment and contextual factors
 Can help explain changes or facilitating factors that might otherwise not emerge from the data

Disadvantages:

 Require a sophisticated and well-trained data collection and reporting team
 Can be costly in terms of the demands on time and resources
 Individual cases may be over interpreted or overgeneralized

MEASUREMENT SCALES

There are four measurement scales (or types of data): nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. ...
These four measurement scales (nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio) are best understood
with examples.

The 4 scales are in the order of Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio scale with Nominal
having least mathematical properties, followed by Ordinal and Interval, whereas Ratio having
most mathematical properties.

Nominal Scale

From the Statistical point of view it is the lowest measurement level. Nominal Scale is
assigned to items that is divided into categories without having any order or structure, for
instance Colors do not have any assigned order, We can have 5 colors like Red, Blue,
Orange, Green and Yellow and could number them 1 to 5 or 5 - 1 or number them in a mix,
here the numbers are assigned to color just for the purpose of identification, and ordering
them Ascending or Descending doesnt mean that Colors have an Order. The number gives us
the identity of the category assigned. The only mathematical operation we can perform with
nominal data is to count. Another example from research activities is a YES/NO scale, which
is nominal. It has no order and there is no distance between YES and NO.

Ordinal Scale

Next up the list is the Ordinal Scale. Ordinal Scale is ranking of responses, for instance
Ranking Cyclist at the end of the race at the position 1, 2 and 3. Not these are rank and the
time distance between 1 and 2 may well not be the same as between 2 and 3, so the distance
between points is not the same but there is an order present, when responses have an order
but the distance between the response is not necessarily same, the items are regarded or put
into the Ordinal Scale. Therefore an ordinal scale lets the researcher interpret gross order and
not the relative positional distances.

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Ordinal Scale variables have the property of Identity and Magnitude. The numbers represent
a quality being measured (identity) and can tell us whether a case has moreof the quality
measured or less of the quality measured than another case (magnitude). The distance
between scale points is not equal. Ranked preferences are presented as an example of ordinal
scales encountered in everyday life.

Interval Scale

A normal survey rating scale is an interval scale for instance when asked to rate satisfaction
with a training on a 5 point scale, from Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree and
Strongly Disagree, an interval scale is being used. It is an interval scale because it is assumed
to have equal distance between each of the scale elements i.e. the Magnitude between
Strongly Agree and Agree is assumed to be the same as Agree and Strongly Agree. This
means that we can interpret differences in the distance along the scale. We contrast this to an
ordinal scale where we can only talk about differences in order, not differences in the degree
of order i-e the distance between responses.

Properties of Interval Scales

Interval scales have the properties of:

 Identity
 Magnitude
 Equal distance

Variables which fulfill the above mentioned properties are put in this scale. The equal
distance between scale points helps in knowing how many units greater than, or less than, one
case is from another. The meaning of the distance between 25 and 35 is the same as the
distance between 65 and 75.

Ratio Scale

A Ratio Scale is at the top level of Measurement. The factor which clearly defines a ratio
scale is that it has a true zero point. The simplest example of a ratio scale is the measurement
of length (disregarding any philosophical points about defining how we can identify zero
length) or money. Having zero length or zero money means that there is no length and no
money but zero tempratue is not an absolute zero, as it certainly has its effect. Ratio scales of
measurement have all of the properties of the abstract number system.

Properties of Ratio Scale

 Identity
 Magnitude
 Equal distance
 Absolute/true zero

These properties allow to apply all possible mathematical operations that include addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. The absolute/true zero allows us to know how many
times greater one case is than another. Variables falling in this category and having all the
above mentioned numerical properties fall in ratio scale.

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TYPES OF RESEARCH DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES

Contact Methods

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1. Personal Interviews
Advantages
1- High response rate
2- Great flexibility (ability to adapt/explain questions)
3- Can show or demonstrate items
4- Fuller explanations can be given
5- Very timely data
Disadvantages
1- Relatively expensive
2- Possibility of interviewer bias
3- Personal nature of questions (e.g., age or income)
4- Respondents not relaxed (put on the spot)
5- Time may not be convenient for respondents

2. Mail Surveys
Advantages
1-Relatively inexpensive
2- No interviewer bias
3- Consistent questions (for all respondents)
4- Large number of respondents can be included
5- Anonymity
6-Respondents can choose the most convenient time to answer
Disadvantages

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 1- Low response rates (relative to other survey types)
2- Junk mail syndrome
3- Impersonal nature

3. Telephone Surveys
Advantages
1- More flexibility compared to mail surveys
2- Quick and inexpensive
3- High response rates
Disadvantages
1- More obtrusive than mail
2- Greater difficulties in rapport building
3- Long-distance calls are expensive

4. Pros and Cons of Online Research

Advantages
1- Inexpensive
2- Fast
3- Accuracy of data, even for sensitive questions
4- Versatility

Disadvantages
1- Small samples
2- Skewed samples
3- Technological problems
4- Inconsistencies

Types of interviews for data collection

Every qualitative researcher will at one time or another need to conduct research where they
need to interview their research participant(s). In the view of the research (Burnard, Gill,
Stewart, Treasure, & Chadwick, 2008; Gill, Stewart, Treasure, & Chadwick, 2008; Morse &
Corbin, 2003) there are three fundamental types of research interviews, these are:

 Structured,
 Semi-structured
 Unstructured

Each of these have a slight variation in their structure and more importantly conduct. Morse
& Corbin (2003) discus this in more detail and note that the main difference between the
three approaches is ―The degree to which participants have control over the process and
content of the interview‖.

So lets look at these three types of interviews in a little bit of detail and try to identify the
advantages and the disadvantages of each.

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Structured Interview

The structured interview is by its very nature a very rigid instrument, In the view of Gill et
al., (2008) the structured interviews is defined as a ―verbally administered questionnaire‖
which does not use prompts and provides very little scope for follow up questions to
investigate responses which warrant more depth and detail. The advantage of such an
approach is that this extra structure allows for the interview to be administered quickly,
though it is of little use if ‗depth‘ is required.

Unstructured Interview (In-depth interview)

The opposite to this type of approach is the unstructured interview also referred to by Legard
et al., (2003) as the In-depth interview. Legard et al., (2003) describe the unstructured
interview as a ―conversation with a purpose‖ (p. 138) as it is intended to allow researchers to
collect in-depth information. This is a view also shared by Morse & Corbin (2003) who
describe the unstructured interview as a shared experience ―in which researchers and
interviewees come together to create a context of conversational intimacy in which
participants feel comfortable telling their story‖. In the view of Legard et al., (2003) one of
the ―main advantages of the in-depth interview is the ability to combine structure with
flexibility‖ (p. 141).

Gill et al., (2008) view the unstructured interview in a slightly different light and argue that
the unstructured interview does ―not reflect any preconceived theories or idea and are
performed with little or no organisation‖, thereby implying that the process of the
unstructured interview can be a little bit chaotic with little structure or planning.

Semi-structured Interview

The final interview approach is the semi-structured interview, Gill et al., (2008) define this
approach as an interview that has several key questions which help to define the areas to be
explored, but also allow the researcher the flexibility to pursue an idea in a response in more
detail, this is a medium between structured and unstructured interviews.

Whats best for me and my research?

It is important to remember that the construction of knowledge is only viable when the data
collection method allows the researcher to use a range of probes and other techniques to
achieve depth of answer in terms of penetration, exploration and explanation (Legard et al.,
2003, p. 141). Hence only you can know which interview approach is best for you, because
only you know your research.

RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

There are two main types of research instruments available to market researchers:
(1) Questionnaires or surveys,
(3) Mechanical devices,
Questionnaires or surveys - For gathering primary research data, surveys are the most
commonly used of the instruments.

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Part I: The Instrument

Instrument is the general term that researchers use for a measurement device (survey, test,
questionnaire, etc.). To help distinguish between instrument and instrumentation, consider
that the instrument is the device and instrumentation is the course of action (the process of
developing, testing, and using the device).

Instruments fall into two broad categories, researcher-completed and subject-completed,

distinguished by those instruments that researchers administer versus those that are
completed by participants. Researchers chose which type of instrument, or instruments, to use
based on the research question. Examples are listed below:

Questionnaire Mechanical Instruments

Questionnaires Projective devices
Rating scales Sociometric devices
Interview schedules/guides Self-checklists
Tally sheets Personality inventories
Flowcharts Achievement/aptitude tests
Performance checklists
Time-and-motion logs
Observation forms
Attitude scales

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
A questionnaire is a set of questions to be asked from respondents in an interview, with
appropriate instructions indicating which questions are to be asked, and in what order.
Questionnaires are used in various fields of research like survey research and experimental
design. A questionnaire serves four functions—enables data collection from respondents,
lends a structure to interviews, provides a standard means for writing down answers and help
in processing collected data.
A questionnaire will be ineffective if it is not designed in a manner easily understood by
both the interviewer and the interviewee. If there is a single, fundamental principle for
developing a sound questionnaire design (Labaw 1980) it is that the respondent defines what
you can do: the types of questions you can reasonably ask; the types of words you can
reasonably use; the concepts you can explore; the methodology you can employ. The design
is dependent on the researcher‘s decision to collect qualitative data for better understanding
and generation of hypotheses on a subject (exploratory research), or quantitative data to test
specific hypotheses.

Steps in questionnaire design:

1. Preliminary decisions
2. Question content
3. Response format
4. Question wording
5. Questionnaire sequence
6. Questionnaire pre-test, revision and final draft

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1. Preliminary Decisions
1.1. Required Information
1.2. Target Respondents
1.3. Interviewing Technique

2. Question Content
2.1. The Utility of Data
2.2. Effectiveness in Producing Data
2.3. The Participant‘s Ability to Answer Accurately
2.4. The Respondent‘s Willingness to Answer Accurately
2.5. Effect of External Events
3. Response Format
3.1. Open-Ended Questions
Free Response
Probing
Projective
3.2. Close-Ended Questions
• Binary
• Ranking questions
• Multiple choice
• Checklist

Likert (1932) developed the principle of measuring attitudes by asking people to respond to a
series of statements about a topic, in terms of the extent to which they agree with them, and
so tapping into the cognitive and affective components of attitudes.

Likert-type or frequency scales use fixed choice response formats and are designed to
measure attitudes or opinions (Bowling, 1997; Burns, & Grove, 1997). These ordinal scales
measure levels of agreement/disagreement.

A Likert-type scale assumes that the strength/intensity of experience is linear, i.e. on a

continuum from strongly agree to strongly disagree, and makes the assumption that attitudes
can be measured. Respondents may be offered a choice of five to seven or even nine pre-
coded responses with the neutral point being neither agree nor disagree.

In its final form, the Likert Scale is a five (or seven) point scale which is used to allow the
individual to express how much they agree or disagree with a particular statement.

For example:

I believe that ecological questions are the most important issues facing human beings today.

Strongly agree / agree / don‟t know / disagree / strongly disagree

Each of the five (or seven) responses would have a numerical value which would be used to
measure the attitude under investigation.

Likert Scale Examples

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 Agreement Frequency
 Strongly Agree  Very Frequently
 Agree  Frequently
 Undecided  Occasionally
 Disagree  Rarely
 Strongly Disagree  Never

Importance Likelihood
 Very Important  Almost Always True
 Important  Usually True
 Moderately Important  Occasionally True
 Of Little Importance  Usually Not True
 Unimportant  Almost Never True

How can you analyze data from a Likert Scale?

• Summarize using a median or a mode (not a mean); the mode is probably the most suitable
for easy interpretation.

• Display the distribution of observations in a bar chart (it can‘t be a histogram, because the
data is not continuous).

4. Question Wording
Shared vocabulary
Unsupported assumptions
Frame of reference
Biased wording
Adequate alternatives
Double-barrelled questions
Generalizations and Estimates

Exhibit 5.2 Examples of common problems with question wording

1. Avoid objectionable and Objectionable: How often do you travel in a
sensitive questions bus without a ticket?

Unobjectionable: How often do you forget

to take a ticket while travelling by bus?
(Disguised)

2. Biased: Do you think that TV has a negative

Avoid biased questions effect on children?

Unbiased: What are your views about the

effects of TV on children?

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3. Avoid vague questions Vague: How satisfied are you with Celebrity
Resorts?
Better: How would you describe the
hospitality in Celebrity Resorts in your own
words?

4. Presumptive: How satisfied are you with the

speed of response for on-site technical
Avoid unwarranted support? (assumes that customers are
Presumptions satisfied)

Better: How satisfied or dissatisfied are you

with the speed of response for on-site
technical support?

5. Avoid the use of leading

questions that prompt
the respondent to a Leading: Would you prefer a supermarket
particular answer nearer your home?
Better: How often would you shop from a
supermarket based on its distance from your
house?

6. Negative: Sales persons should not be

Avoid asking negative allowed to make visits in the evening.
Questions Agree/Disagree

Positive: Sales persons should be allowed to

make visits at any time. Agree/Disagree

7. Ensure that the

wording is completely Ambiguous: How seldom, occasionally
unambiguous and frequently do you purchase stock?

Unambiguous: How often do you purchase

stock?a) Seldom b) Occasionally c)
Frequently

8. Avoid double- Double-barrelled: Do you drive or take the

barrelled questions bus everyday to office? Yes/No

Better: How do you go to your office

everyday? Drive or take a bus?

9. Have as narrow a Too broad a time period: How many times

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 reference range as have sales promotions influenced you to
possible switch brands over the last 1 year?
Better: How many times in the last month
have sales promotions influenced you to
switch brands?

5. Questionnaire Sequence
• Lead-in questions
• Qualifying questions
• Warm-up questions
• Specifics questions
• Demographics questions

6. Questionnaire Pre-testing, Revision and Final Draft

7. Summary

A good questionnaire is imperative for good survey results. A questionnaire can be judged
based on its relevance (no collection of unnecessary information) and accuracy (information
should be reliable and valid). This chapter discussed the proper designing of a questionnaire
for better results. As no established rules exist for such designing, the steps outlined in this
chapter are taken from experiences accumulated through various studies. The first step in
questionnaire designing is arriving at preliminary decisions regarding the issues of required
information, the target respondents and the interview techniques to be adopted. This is
necessary as the content, format, wording and sequencing of the questionnaire will depend on
these basic factors. The next step is to determine the questionnaire content, so that it deals
with identifying the need for data, the question‘s ability to yield data, the participant‘s ability
to answer without generalizations and estimates and willing-ness to answer sensitive
questions.
Knowing how each question should be phrased requires familiarity with the different types
of questions. This leads to the next step of the questionnaire designing, that is questionnaire
response format. This deals with issues of using open-ended or close-ended questions. Open-
ended questions require the respon-dent to do most of the talking while close-ended questions
restrict the respondent‘s responses to the available options. Each has its own advantages and
disadvantages and is suited to different interviewing techniques.
Experiences from previous researches have helped establish general guidelines regarding
questionnaire wording and sequence. It should be ensured that questions resort to shared
vocabulary and adequate alternatives for better understanding and response rates. The
questions should be free of implicit assumptions, biased and loaded words. It should also be
free of questions that are double-barrelled and that would provoke the respondent to provide
generalizations and estimated answers. Questionnaire sequencing is very important to elicit
required information from the participant. The opening questions should arouse the
respondent‘s interest in the survey. The specific and general questions should be followed in
order. This means that the questions are sequenced in the following manner: lead-in,
qualifying, warm-up, specific and demographic.
Last, the questionnaire should be pre-tested before administration for detecting flaws and
revised with necessary corrections and deletions. This would lead to the final draft to be used
in the actual survey.

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Validity

Validity is the extent to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure and
performs as it is designed to perform. It is rare, if nearly impossible, that an instrument be
100% valid, so validity is generally measured in degrees. As a process, validation involves
collecting and analyzing data to assess the accuracy of an instrument. There are numerous
statistical tests and measures to assess the validity of quantitative instruments, which
generally involves pilot testing. The remainder of this discussion focuses on external validity
and content validity.

External validity is the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized from a
sample to a population. Establishing eternal validity for an instrument, then, follows directly
from sampling. Recall that a sample should be an accurate representation of a population,
because the total population may not be available. An instrument that is externally valid helps
obtain population generalizability, or the degree to which a sample represents the population.

Content validity refers to the appropriateness of the content of an instrument. In other words,
do the measures (questions, observation logs, etc.) accurately assess what you want to know?
This is particularly important with achievement tests. Consider that a test developer wants to
maximize the validity of a unit test for 7th grade mathematics. This would involve taking
representative questions from each of the sections of the unit and evaluating them against the
desired outcomes.

Reliability

Reliability can be thought of as consistency. Does the instrument consistently measure what it
is intended to measure? It is not possible to calculate reliability; however, there are four
general estimators that you may encounter in reading research:

1. Inter-Rater/Observer Reliability: The degree to which different raters/observers give

consistent answers or estimates.
2. Test-Retest Reliability: The consistency of a measure evaluated over time.
3. Parallel-Forms Reliability: The reliability of two tests constructed the same way, from
the same content.
4. Internal Consistency Reliability: The consistency of results across items, often measured
with Cronbach‘s Alpha.

POPULATIONS & SAMPLING

Population is a complete set of elements (persons or objects) that possess some common
characteristic defined by the sampling criteria established by the researcher
Composed of two groups - target population & accessible population

Target population (universe) - The entire group of people or objects to which the researcher
wishes to generalize the study findings. Meet set of criteria of interest to researcher
Examples: All people with AIDS; All low birth weight infants; All school-age children
with asthma; All pregnant teens

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Accessible population - the portion of the population to which the researcher has reasonable
access; may be a subset of the target population. May be limited to region, state, city, county,
or institution
Examples: All people with AIDS in the metropolitan St. Louis area; All low birth weight
infants admitted to the neonatal ICUs in St. Louis city & county; All school-age children with
asthma treated in pediatric asthma clinics in university-affiliated medical centers in the
Midwest; All pregnant teens in the state of Missouri

A census is where the population is the sample. A census is an attempt to list all elements in a
group and to measure one or more characteristics of those elements. The group is often an
actual national population, but it can also be all houses, businesses, farms, books in a library,
cars from an assembly line, and so on. A census can provide detailed information on all or
most elements in the population, thereby enabling totals for rare population groups or small
geographic areas. A census and a sample survey have many features in common, such as the
use of a questionnaire to collect information, the need to process and edit the data, and the
susceptibility to various sources of error.

Sample is the selected elements (people or objects) chosen for participation in a study;
people are referred to as subjects or participants
Sampling is the process of selecting a group of people, events, behaviors, or other elements
with which to conduct a study
Sampling frame is a list of all the elements in the population from which the sample is
drawn
Could be extremely large if population is national or international in nature
Frame is needed so that everyone in the population is identified so they will have an equal
opportunity for selection as a subject (element)
Sampling unit – is one of the units into which an aggregate is divided for the purpose of
sampling, each unit being regarded as individual and indivisible when the selection is made.

Sampling unit is a single section selected to research and gather statistics of the whole. For
example, when studying a group of college students, a single student could be a sampling
unit.

Sample size - determination is the act of choosing the number of observations or replicates to
include in a statistical sample. The sample size is an important feature of any empirical study
in which the goal is to make inferences about a population from a sample.

Randomization is ensuring that each individual in the population has an equal opportunity to
be selected for the sample
Representativeness is the notion that the sample must be as much like the population in as
many ways as possible. Sample reflects the characteristics of the population, so those sample
findings can be generalized to the population
Most effective way to achieve representativeness is through randomization; random selection
or random assignment

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Census vs. Sampling

Surveys can gather information through different methods of observation. However, most
surveys employ a questionnaire to measure specific characteristics of the population. There
are two main ways to gather this information.

A census survey collects complete information from all participants in the population.
General criteria of a census survey include:

 Establish and maintain a complete list of the primary sampling unit (PSU)
components.
 All members of the PSU in the fishery must be included
 Validation (used to correct for missing and misreported data)
 Enforceable and enforced

A sample survey uses a representative group of a given population to determine

characteristics of the entire population. General requirements of a sample survey include:

 The sample must be representative of the entire population.

 The data collected from the representative sample is expanded to produce an estimate
of the total population.
 The estimate has two parts: Point estimate and margin of error.
 Assumptions should be tested to identify and measure potential bias if possible.

Sample surveys are used when it is not possible or practical to conduct a census to count each
individual of an entire population. Everyday examples of sample surveys include political
polling, health statistics, and television ratings. Sample surveys are a proven, effective
method for gathering accurate information if they are properly designed and the sample
design is accounted for in the estimation methods.

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

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Census Sometimes, the entire population will be sufficiently small, and the researcher can
include the entire population in the study. This type of research is called a census study
because data is gathered on every member of the population.

Usually, the population is too large for the researcher to attempt to survey all of its members.
A small, but carefully chosen sample can be used to represent the population. The sample
reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.

Sampling methods are classified as either probability or nonprobability.

Probability sampling is where each member of the population has a known non-zero
probability of being selected. Probability sampling includes:

 Simple Random Sampling,

 Systematic Sampling,
 Stratified Random Sampling,
 Cluster Sampling
 Multistage Sampling.
 Multiphase sampling

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Nonprobability sampling is where members are selected from the population in some
nonrandom manner. These include convenience sampling, judgment sampling, quota
sampling, and snowball sampling.

The advantage of probability sampling is that sampling error can be calculated. Sampling
error is the degree to which a sample might differ from the population. When inferring to the
population, results are reported plus or minus the sampling error. In nonprobability sampling,
the degree to which the sample differs from the population remains unknown.

Simple random sampling is where each member of the population has an equal and known
chance of being selected. When there are very large populations, it is often difficult or
impossible to identify every member of the population, so the pool of available subjects
becomes biased.

• Applicable when population is small, homogeneous & readily available

• All subsets of the frame are given an equal probability. Each element of the frame thus
has an equal probability of selection.
• It provides for greatest number of possible samples. This is done by assigning a number
to each unit in the sampling frame.
• A table of random number or lottery system is used to determine which units are to be
selected.
• Estimates are easy to calculate.
• Simple random sampling is always an EPS design, but not all EPS designs are simple
random sampling.
• Disadvantages
• If sampling frame large, this method impracticable.
• Minority subgroups of interest in population may not be present in sample in sufficient
numbers for study.
•

Systematic sampling is often used instead of random sampling. It is also called an Nth name
selection technique. After the required sample size has been calculated, every Nth record is
selected from a list of population members. As long as the list does not contain any hidden
order, this sampling method is as good as the random sampling method. Its only advantage
over the random sampling technique is simplicity. Systematic sampling is frequently used to
select a specified number of records from a computer file.

Systematic sampling relies on arranging the target population according to some ordering
scheme and then selecting elements at regular intervals through that ordered list.

 Systematic sampling involves a random start and then proceeds with the selection of
every kth element from then onwards. In this case, k=(population size/sample size).
 It is important that the starting point is not automatically the first in the list, but is instead
randomly chosen from within the first to the kth element in the list.
 A simple example would be to select every 10th name from the telephone directory (an
'every 10th' sample, also referred to as 'sampling with a skip of 10').

Advantages:

 Sample easy to select

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 Suitable sampling frame can be identified easily
 Sample evenly spread over entire reference population

Disadvantages:

 Sample may be biased if hidden periodicity in population coincides with that of selection.
 Difficult to assess precision of estimate from one survey.

Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is superior to random

sampling because it reduces sampling error. A stratum is a subset of the population that share
at least one common characteristic. Examples of stratums might be males and females, or
managers and non-managers. The researcher first identifies the relevant stratums and their
actual representation in the population. Random sampling is then used to select a sufficient
number of subjects from each stratum. "Sufficient" refers to a sample size large enough for us
to be reasonably confident that the stratum represents the population. Stratified sampling is
often used when one or more of the stratums in the population have a low incidence relative
to the other stratums.

Where population embraces a number of distinct categories, the frame can be organized into
separate "strata." Each stratum is then sampled as an independent sub-population, out of
which individual elements can be randomly selected.

 Every unit in a stratum has same chance of being selected.

 Using same sampling fraction for all strata ensures proportionate representation in the
sample.
 Adequate representation of minority subgroups of interest can be ensured by stratification
& varying sampling fraction between strata as required.
 Finally, since each stratum is treated as an independent population, different sampling
approaches can be applied to different strata.

Drawbacks to using stratified sampling.

 First, sampling frame of entire population has to be prepared separately for each stratum
 Second, when examining multiple criteria, stratifying variables may be related to some,
but not to others, further complicating the design, and potentially reducing the utility of
the strata.
 Finally, in some cases (such as designs with a large number of strata, or those with a
specified minimum sample size per group), stratified sampling can potentially require a
larger sample than would other methods

Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage sampling' .

 First stage a sample of areas is chosen;

 Second stage a sample of respondents within those areas is selected.
 Population divided into clusters of homogeneous units, usually based on geographical
contiguity.

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 Sampling units are groups rather than individuals.
 A sample of such clusters is then selected.
 All units from the selected clusters are studied.

Identification of clusters

 List all cities, towns, villages & wards of cities with their population falling in target area
under study.
 Calculate cumulative population & divide by 30, this gives sampling interval.
 Select a random no. less than or equal to sampling interval having same no. of digits. This
forms 1st cluster.
 Random no.+ sampling interval = population of 2nd cluster.
 Second cluster + sampling interval = 4th cluster.
 Last or 30th cluster = 29th cluster + sampling interval

Two types of cluster sampling methods.

 One-stage sampling. All of the elements within selected clusters are included in the
sample.
 Two-stage sampling. A subset of elements within selected clusters are randomly selected
for inclusion in the sample.

Advantages:

 Cuts down on the cost of preparing a sampling frame.

 This can reduce travel and other administrative costs.

Disadvantages:

 sampling error is higher for a simple random sample of same size.

 Often used to evaluate vaccination coverage in EPI

Multistage Sampling

Complex form of cluster sampling in which two or more levels of units are embedded one in
the other.
 First stage, random number of districts chosen in all states.
 Followed by random number of talukas, villages.
 Then third stage units will be houses.
 All ultimate units (houses, for instance) selected at last step are surveyed.
 This technique, is essentially the process of taking random samples of preceding random
samples.
 Not as effective as true random sampling, but probably solves more of the problems
inherent to random sampling.
 An effective strategy because it banks on multiple randomizations. As such, extremely
useful.
 Multistage sampling used frequently when a complete list of all members of the
population not exists and is inappropriate.

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 Moreover, by avoiding the use of all sample units in all selected clusters, multistage
sampling avoids the large, and perhaps unnecessary, costs associated with traditional
cluster sampling.

Quota Sampling

The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups, just as in stratified
sampling.

 Then judgment used to select subjects or units from each segment based on a specified
proportion.
 For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300 males between
the age of 45 and 60.
 It is this second step which makes the technique one of non-probability sampling.
 In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-random.
 For example interviewers might be tempted to interview those who look most helpful.
The problem is that these samples may be biased because not everyone gets a chance of
selection. This random element is its greatest weakness and quota versus probability has
been a matter of controversy for many years

Convenience sampling is used in exploratory research where the researcher is interested in

getting an inexpensive approximation of the truth. As the name implies, the sample is
selected because they are convenient. This nonprobability method is often used during
preliminary research efforts to get a gross estimate of the results, without incurring the cost or
time required to select a random sample.

 Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling or accidental or haphazard

sampling.
 A type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being drawn from that part
of the population which is close to hand. That is, readily available and convenient.
 The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically make generalizations about the
total population from this sample because it would not be representative enough.
 For example, if the interviewer was to conduct a survey at a shopping center early in the
morning on a given day, the people that he/she could interview would be limited to those
given there at that given time, which would not represent the views of other members of
society in such an area, if the survey was to be conducted at different times of day and
several times per week.
 This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.
 In social science research, snowball sampling is a similar technique, where existing study
subjects are used to recruit more subjects into the sample.

Snowball sampling is a special nonprobability method used when the desired sample
characteristic is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate respondents in
these situations. Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate
additional subjects. While this technique can dramatically lower search costs, it comes at the
expense of introducing bias because the technique itself reduces the likelihood that the
sample will represent a good cross section from the population.

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Judgment sampling is a common nonprobability method. The researcher chooses the sample
based on who they think would be appropriate for the study. This is used primarily when
there is a limited number of people that have expertise in the area being researched

The researcher selects the sample based on judgment. This is usually and extension of
convenience sampling. For example, a researcher may decide to draw the entire sample from
one "representative" city, even though the population includes all cities. When using this
method, the researcher must be confident that the chosen sample is truly representative of the
entire population.

Quota sampling is the nonprobability equivalent of stratified sampling. Like stratified

sampling, the researcher first identifies the stratums and their proportions as they are
represented in the population. Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the
required number of subjects from each stratum. This differs from stratified sampling, where
the stratums are filled by random sampling.

What sampling method you recommend?

 Determining proportion of undernourished five year olds in a village.
 Investigating nutritional status of preschool children.
 Selecting maternity records for the study of previous abortions or duration of postnatal
stay.
 In estimation of immunization coverage in a province, data on seven children aged 12-23
months in 30 clusters are used to determine proportion of fully immunized children in the
province.
 Give reasons why cluster sampling is used in this survey.

DATA ANALYSIS

Data analysis is a process of inspecting, cleansing, transforming, and modeling data with
the goal of discovering useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision-
making. ... The term data analysis is sometimes used as a synonym for data modeling.

Data Analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical techniques
to describe and illustrate, condense and recap, and evaluate data. According to Shamoo and
Resnik (2003) various analytic procedures ―provide a way of drawing inductive inferences
from data and distinguishing the signal (the phenomenon of interest) from the noise
(statistical fluctuations) present in the data‖..

While data analysis in qualitative research can include statistical procedures, many times
analysis becomes an ongoing iterative process where data is continuously collected and
analyzed almost simultaneously. Indeed, researchers generally analyze for patterns in
observations through the entire data collection phase (Savenye, Robinson, 2004). The form of
the analysis is determined by the specific qualitative approach taken (field study, ethnography
content analysis, oral history, biography, unobtrusive research) and the form of the data
(field notes, documents, audiotape, videotape).

An essential component of ensuring data integrity is the accurate and appropriate analysis of
research findings. Improper statistical analyses distort scientific findings, mislead casual

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readers (Shepard, 2002), and may negatively influence the public perception of research.
Integrity issues are just as relevant to analysis of non-statistical data as well.

Considerations/issues in data analysis

There are a number of issues that researchers should be cognizant of with respect to data
analysis. These include:

1. Having the necessary skills to analyze

2. Concurrently selecting data collection methods and appropriate analysis
3. Drawing unbiased inference
4. Inappropriate subgroup analysis
5. Following acceptable norms for disciplines
6. Determining statistical significance
7. Lack of clearly defined and objective outcome measurements
8. Providing honest and accurate analysis
9. Manner of presenting data
10. Environmental/contextual issues
11. Data recording method
12. Partitioning „text‟ when analyzing qualitative data
13. Training of staff conducting analyses
14. Reliability and Validity
15. Extent of analysis

Why Do We Analyze Data

The purpose of analysing data is to obtain usable and useful information. The analysis,
irrespective of whether the data is qualitative or quantitative, may:
• describe and summarise the data
• identify relationships between variables
• compare variables
• identify the difference between variables
• forecast outcomes

What is data presentation and analysis?

Data presentation and analysis forms an important part of all academic studies,
commercial, industrial and marketing activities as well as professional practices. It is
necessary to make use of collected data which is considered to be raw data which must be
processed to put for any use. Data analysis helps in interpretation of data and take a decision
or answer the research question. Data analysis starts with the collection of data followed by
sorting and processing it. Processed data helps in obtaining information from it as the raw
data is non comprehensive in nature. Presenting the data includes the pictorial representation
of the data by using graphs, charts. maps and other methods. These methods help in adding
visual aspect to data which makes it much easier and quick to understand.

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Significance of data presentation and analysis

Data presentation and analysis plays an important role in every field. A great presentation can
be a deal maker or deal breaker. Some people make extremely effective presentation with the
same set of facts and figures which are available with others. At times people who did all the
hard work but failed to present it present it properly have lost important contracts, the work
which they did is unable to impress the decision makers. So in order to get the work done
especially while dealing with clients or higher authorities presentation matters! No one is
willing to spend hours in understanding what you have to show and this is exactly why
presentation matters!

Data analysis helps people in understanding the results of surveys conducted, makes use of
already existing studies to obtain new results. Helps in validating the existing study or to
add/expand existing study.

Data presentation and analysis or data analysis and presentation?

These two go hand in hand and it will be difficult to provide a complete differentiation
between the two. Adding visual aspect to data or sorting it by means of grouping and
presenting it in form of table is a part of presentation which further helps in analyzing data.
During a study with an aim and multiple objectives, data analysis will be required to
complete the required objectives and compiling or presenting the analysed data will help in
overall analysis and concluding the study.

You can have variety of data which can be used in presentations. Some of these type include :

 Time Series Data

 Bar Charts
 Combo Charts
 Pie Charts

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  Tables
 Geo Map
 Scorecard
 Scatter Charts
 Bullet Charts
 Area Chart
 Text & Images

Some of these have been described in brief with example in the end of this article.

Steps for presenting and analysis data:

1. Frame the objectives of the study and make a list of data to be collected and its
format.
2. Collect/obtain data from primary or secondary sources.
3. Change the format of data i.e. table, maps, graphs etc in desired format
4. Sort data by means of grouping, discarding the extra data and deciding the required
format to make data comprehensible
5. Make charts and graphs to help adding visual part and analyse trends.
6. Analyse trends and relate the information to fulfill the objectives.

Presenting the result:

1. Presentation should have a predefined sequence of arguments being made to support

the study. Start with stating the Aim of study and the objectives required to reach the
aim.
2. Break the objectives in multiple parts and make a list of data to be collected, the
sources of data. form in which data exist and needs to be obtained, conducting
primary survey for information which does not exist.
3. Form and explain the methodology adapted to carry out study.
4. Data collection by means of primary survey need to have well thought of sampling
methods. This will help in reducing the efforts and increasing efficiency.
5. Present only the required information and skip the background research to make your
point more clear.
6. Do not forget to give credits and references in the end and where ever required.

The presentation can be done by means of softwares such as Microsoft Powerpoint, Prezi,
Google Analytics and other analytic softwares. It can also be done by making models,
presenting on paper or sheets, on maps or by use of boards. The methods selected depends on
the requirement and the resources available.

How to present different type of data

Secondary surveys forms major part of data research and primary means of data collection
by conducting various surveys and making use of existing data from various sources. The
data thus obtained from various sources like Census department, Economics and Statistics
department, Election Commission, Water Board, Municipal Bodies, Economic surveys,
Website feedbacks, scientific research etc. is compiled and analyzed. Data is also required to
forecast and estimate the change in requirement of various resources and thus provide them

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accordingly. Phasing and prioritization forms another important part for effective
implementation of the proposals.

Different types of charts which can be used for data presentation and analysis.

Bar Charts/Bar Graphs: These are one of the most widely used charts for showing the
grown of a companies over a period of time. There are multiple options available like stacked
bar graphs and option of showing change in multiple entities. These look as shown in image
below:

Line Chart: These are best for showing the change in population i.e for showing the trends.
These also work well for showing the growth of multiple areas at the same time.

Pie Charts: These work best for representing the share of different components from a total
100%. For eg. contribution of different sectors to GDP, population of different states in a
country etc.

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Combo Chart: As the name suggest it is a combination of more than one chart type. The one
shown in the figure below is a combination of line and bar graph. These saves space and are
at times more effective then using 2 different charts. There can even be 3 or more charts
depending on the requirement.

Missing Data

Two potential problems with missing data:

1. Large amount of missing data – number of valid cases decreases – drops the statistical
power
2. Nonrandom missing data – either related to respondent characteristics and/or to
respondent attitudes – may create a bias

If no problem found, go directly to your analysis

If a problem is found:
Delete the cases with missing data
Try to estimate the value of the missing data

Amount of missing data by variable

Use Analyze > Descriptive Statistics >

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Frequencies
Look at the frequency tables to see how much missing
If the amount is more than 5%, there is too much. Need analyze further.

Missing data by respondent

1. Use transform>count
2. Create NMISS in the target variable
3. Pick a set of variables that have more missing data
4. Click on define values
5. Click on system- or user-missing
6. Click add
7. Click continue and then ok
8. Use the frequency table to show you the results of NMISS

What to do about the missing data?

Proceed anyway
In SPSS Options:
◦ Exclude case listwise – include only cases that have all of the variables
◦ Exclude cases pairwise – excludes only if the variables in the analysis is missing
◦ Replace with mean – use at your own risk

Assessing Normality

Skewness and kurtosis

Using Explore:
◦ Dependent variable
◦ Label cases by – id variable
◦ Display – both
◦ Statistics – descriptives and outliers

Descriptive statistical data analysis

Categorical data: Frequencies
Numerical: Descriptives:
mean
standard deviation
minimum
maximum
skewness (symmetry)
kurtosis (peakness)

Outliers
◦ Plots – descriptive: histogram, normality plots with test

Outliers

1. histogram
2. boxplot

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Other graphs

Bar charts
Scatterplots
Line graphs

Analysis

Explore
Relationships among variables

• Crosstabulation/Chi Square
• Correlation
• Regression/Multiple regression
• Logistic regression
• Factor analysis

Compare
Groups

Non-parametric statistics
• T-tests
• One-way analysis of variance ANOVA
• Two-way between groups ANOVA
• Multivariate analysis of variance MANOVA

Crosstabulation
Aim: for categorical data to see the relationship between two or more variables
Procedure:
◦ Analyze>Descriptive statistics>Crosstab
◦ Statistics: correlation, Chi Square, association
◦ Cells: Percentages – row or column
◦ Cluster bar charts

Correlation

Aim: find out whether a relationship exists and determine its magnitude and direction
Correlation coefficients:
Pearson product moment correlation coefficient
Spearman rank order correlation coefficient
Assumptions:
Relationship is linear
Homoscedasticity: variability of DV should remain constant at all values of IV

Regression

Aim: use after there is a significant correlation to find the appropriate linear model to predict
DV (scale or ordinal) from one or more IV (scale or ordinal)
Assumptions:

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  sample size needs to be large enough
 multicollinearity and singularity
 outliers
 normality
 linearity
 homoscedasticity
Types:
 standard
 hierarchical
 stepwise

Logistic regression

Aim: create a model to predict DV (categorical – 2 or more categories) given one or more IV
(categorical or numerical/scale)
Assumptions:
 sample size large enough
 multicollinearity
 outliers
Procedure note:
use Binary Logistic for DV of 2 categories (coding 0/1) use Multinomial Logistic for DV for
more than 2 categories

Factor analysis

Aim: to find what items (variables) clump together. Usually used to create subscales.
Data reduction.
Factor analysis:
exploratory
confirmatory
SPSS -> Principal component analysis

Three steps of factor analysis

1. Assessment of the suitability of the data for factor analysis

2. Factor extraction
3. Factor rotation and interpretation

1. Assessment of the suitability

1. Sample size: 10 to 1 ratio

2. Strength of the relationship among variables (items) – Test of Sphericity
3. Linearity
4. Outliers among cases

Nonparametric tests

Non-parametric techniques Parametric techniques

Chi-square test for goodness of fit None
Chi-square test for independence None

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Kappa measure of agreement None
Mann-Whitney U Test Independent samples t-test
Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test Paired samples t-test
Kruskal-Wallis Test One-way between groups ANOVA
Friedman Test One-way repeated measures ANOVA

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

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tell your reader what your results mean and what actions should be taken as a result of your
findings.

Have the writers at Paper Masters custom write your thesis for you, including the conclusions
and recommendations section. Simply place your order here.

There are generally three sections in the Conclusions and Recommendations Chapter

Section 1: Conclusions

This section gives you the opportunity to discuss the meaning of your results beyond what
they mean statistically; that is, you interpret the findings and indicate what can be concluded
from them. In your discussion, indicate whether the results confirm, totally or in part, your
original expectations or predictions. For each hypothesis, indicate whether it was supported
and why. Discuss any limitations inherent in your research procedures. What implications do
these limitations have for the conclusions drawn from the results? You should also discuss
the relationship of your results to the original problem description:

1. Will any of the alternatives make a difference, help solve the problem, or improve the
situation?
2. What are the long-term as well as the short-term implications of your findings?
3. How do your findings relate to those of other researchers cited in the Literature
Review?

In some cases, the findings of several hypotheses may be interrelated. In that situation, you
might choose to discuss those findings together and explain the interrelationships.

Section 2: Policy Recommendations

Other recommendations may also be appropriate. When preparing this section, remember that
in making your recommendations, you must show how your results support them. A
recommendation for a preferred alternative should include:

1. Specifically stating what should be done, the steps required to implement the policy,
and the resources needed;
2. Discussion of the benefits to the organization and what problems would be corrected
or avoided;
3. Discussion of the feasibility of the proposed policy;
4. General statement about the nature and timing of an evaluation plan that would be
used to determine the effectiveness of the proposed policy.

Section 3: Recommendations for Further Research

In this section, you finally have the opportunity to present and discuss the actions that future
researchers should take as a result of your Project. A well-thought-out set of
recommendations makes it more likely that the organization will take your recommendations
seriously. Ideally you should be able to make a formal recommendation regarding the
alternative that is best supported by the study. Present and discuss the kinds of additional
research suggested by your Project. If the preferred alternative is implemented, what
additional research might be needed?

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Ethics in Business Research
What are Ethics?

Ethics are norms or standards of behavior that guide moral choices about our behavior and
our relationship with others. As in other aspects of business, all parties in research should
exhibit ethical behavior. The goal of ethics in research is to ensure that no one is harmed or
suffered adverse consequences from research activities.

This objective is usually achieved. However, unethical activities are pervasive and include
violating non disclosure agreement, breaking respondent confidentiality, misrepresenting
results, deceiving people, invoicing irregularities, avoiding legal liability, and more.

As research is designed, several ethical issues must be balanced.

Ethics are norms or standards of behavior that guide moral choices about our behavior and
our relationships with others. Ethics differ from legal constraints, in which generally accepted
standards have defined penalties that are universally enforced. The goal of ethics in research
is to ensure that no one is harmed or suffers adverse consequences from research activities.

As research is designed, several ethical considerations must be balanced:

• Protect the rights of the participant or subject.

• Ensure the sponsor receives ethically conducted and reported research
• Follow ethical standards when designing research
• Protect the safety of the researcher and team
• Ensure the research team follows the design

In general, research must be designed so a respondent does not suffer physical harm,
discomfort, pain, embarrassment, or loss of privacy. Begin data collection by explaining to
respondent the benefits expected from the research. Explain that their rights and well being
will be adequately protected and say how that will be done. Be certain that interviewers
obtain in the inform consent of the respondent. The use of deception is questionable; when it
is used, debrief any respondent who has been deceived.

Many sponsor wishes to under take research without revealing themselves.

Sponsors have the right to demand and receive confidentiality between themselves and the
researchers. Ethical researcher provides sponsors with the research designed needed to solve
the managerial question.

The ethical researcher shows the data objectively, despite the sponsors preferred outcomes.

The research team‘s safety is the responsibility of the researcher. Researcher should require
ethical compliance from team members in following the research design, just as sponsors
expect ethical behavior from the researcher.

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Many companies and research firms have adopted a code of ethics. Several professional
associations have detailed research provisions. Of interest are the American Association for
Public Opinion Research, the American Marketing Association, the American Political
Science Association, the American Psychological Association, and the American
Sociological Association. Federal, state, and local governments have laws, policies, and
procedures in place to regulate research on human beings.

Ethical issues arise at a variety of stages in business and management research. Ethical issues
cannot be ignored, in that they relate directly to the integrity of a piece of research and of the
disciplines that are involved.

Bryman A. and Bell E. (2011) Business Research Methods Oxford University Press.

Ethical issues revolve around such concerns as the following:

• How should we treat the people on whom we conduct research?
• Are there activities in which we should or should not engage in our relations with them?

Discussions about ethical principles in business research, and perhaps more specifically
transgressions of them, tend to revolve around certain issues that recur in different guises.
However, they have been usefully broken down into eight main areas:
 Harm to participants;
 Lack of informed consent;
 Invasion of privacy;
 Deception.
 Data management
 Copyright
 Reciprocity and trust
 Affiliation and conflicts of interest

Harm to participants - Harm can entail a number of facets: physical harm; harm to
participants‘ development or self-esteem; stress; harm to career prospects or future
employment; and ‗inducing subjects to perform reprehensible acts‘, as Diener and Crandall
(1978: 19) put it.

Lack of informed consent - The bulk of the discussion tends to focus on what is variously
called disguised or covert observation. Such observation can involve covert participant
observation (see Key concept 17.5), or simple or contrived observation (see, for example,
Thinking deeply 11.9 and Research in focus 11.10), in which the researcher‘s true identity is
unknown.

It is the duty of Academy members to preserve and protect the privacy, dignity, well-being,
and freedom of research participants. This duty requires both careful research design and
informed consent from all participants . . . Informed consent means explaining to potential
participants the purposes and nature of the research so they can freely choose whether or not
to become involved. Such explanations include warning of possible harm and providing
explicit opportunities to refuse to participate and to terminate participation at any time.
Because students and employees are particularly subject to possible coercion, even when
unintended, special care must be taken in obtaining their informed consent.
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Invasion of privacy - The MRS guidance is clear: ‗the objectives of any study do not give
researchers a special right to intrude on a respondent‘s privacy nor to abandon normal respect
for an individual‘s values‘.
Privacy is very much linked to the notion of informed consent, because, to the degree that
informed consent is given on the basis of a detailed understanding of what the research
participant‘s involvement is likely to entail, he or she in a sense acknowledges that the right
to privacy has been surrendered for that limited domain.

Covert methods are usually deemed to be violations of the privacy principle on the grounds
that participants are not being given the opportunity to refuse invasions of their privacy. Such
methods also mean that they might reveal confidences or information that they would not
have revealed if they had known about the status of the confidant as researcher. The issue of
privacy is invariably linked to issues of anonymity and confidentiality in the research process,
an area that has already been touched on in the context of the question of whether or not harm
comes to participants.

Deception - Deception occurs when researchers represent their research as something other
than what it is.
Deception should be minimized, and, when necessary, the degree and effects must be
mitigated as much as possible.
Researchers should carefully weigh the gains achieved against the cost in human dignity. To
the extent that concealment or deception is necessary, the researcher must provide a full and
accurate explanation to participants at the conclusion of the study, including counselling, if
appropriate.
Code of Conduct states that respondents should be told at the beginning of an interview if
observation techniques or recording equipment are to be used. However, if it is felt that this
knowledge might bias the respondent‘s subsequent behaviour, the respondent may be told
about the recording at the end of the interview. They should then be given the opportunity to
see or hear the relevant section of the record, and, if they so wish, ‗the record or relevant
section of it must be destroyed or deleted‘.

It remains the duty of social researchers and their collaborators, however, not to pursue
methods of inquiry that are likely to infringe human values and sensibilities. To do so,
whatever the methodological advantages, would be to endanger the reputation of social
research and the mutual trust between social researchers and society which is a prerequisite
for much research.

Data management - The routine collection and storing of digital data and the practices of
data sharing raise new concerns about confidentiality and other ethical issues.

In addition to the four main ethical principles that we have already discussed. These relate to:
• The impact of data protection legislation;
• The role of reciprocity in determining the relationship between the researcher and research
participants;
• The need to declare sources of funding and support that may affect the affiliations of the
researcher, causing conflicts of interest.

However, it is worth highlighting three of the recommendations that the authors of the report
make. These include:

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• that researchers draft an outline of the processing operations (this is not limited to electronic
processing) involved in their use of the data before they start to process it, so they can assess
the legality of their usage in advance, rather than perform the operations and then find out
afterwards whether or not they are permitted to use the data in this way. This point highlights
the potential seriousness of using data unlawfully, for which criminal or administrative
sanctions may be applied;
• That researchers should decide who is the controller of the data and thus responsible for its
usage, and on the basis of this determine which national legislation applies to their study.
This is a particular issue in situations involving a group of researchers working together on a
research project but based in different countries. This decision also depends on where the
data processing will be carried out;
• That prior to the processing the researcher should define who will be the data subjects and
take precautions to respect their rights in relation to the data.

Copyright- Copyright is an intellectual property right that protects the owner of copyright
from unauthorized copying.
Most research publications, reports, and books, as well as raw data such as spreadsheets and
interview transcripts, are protected by copyright. For employed researchers, the first owner of
copyright is usually the employer.
However, many universities waive this right in relation to research data and publications and
give it to the researcher.
In the case of interviews, the interviewee holds the copyright in the spoken word. If a
transcription is a substantial reproduction of the words spoken, the speaker will own
copyright in the words and the transcriber will have separate copyright of the transcription.

Reciprocity and trust - openness and honesty in communicating information about the
research to all interested parties. Although this issue is related to the ethical principles of
informed consent and avoiding deception discussed above, it goes further than these existing
principles in placing the responsibility on researchers for taking action that helps to overcome
the power inequalities between themselves and research participants, and for ensuring that the
research has benefits for them both.
For example, the ESRC Research Ethics Framework makes frequent mention of the need to
communicate benefits to research participants. At its most advanced, this incorporates the
concept of reciprocity, the idea that the research should be of mutual benefit to researcher and
participants and that some form of collaboration or active participation should be built into
the research project from the outset.

Affiliation and conflicts of interest - In all areas of scientific study, it is recognized that
affiliations, particularly those related to funding, have the potential to influence the way that
research issues are defined and findings presented. The Missenden Code aims to address the
challenges posed by the increased commercialization in universities and shifts in the source
of research funding. The code, which was set up following a number of high-profile ethical
controversies, recommends that universities set up ethics committees to monitor the sources
of sponsorship and funding, and to ensure that the source of funding is acknowledged in any
publication. The code claims that ethical implications arise when research is financially
underwritten by a source that has a vested interest in the results.

ACADEMIC WRITING

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Academic writing refers to a style of expression that researchers use to define the intellectual
boundaries of their disciplines and their specific areas of expertise. Characteristics of
academic writing include:
 a formal tone,
 use of the third-person rather than first-person perspective (usually),
 a clear focus on the research problem under investigation, and
 precise word choice.

Like specialist languages adopted in other professions, such as, law or medicine, academic
writing is designed to convey agreed meaning about complex ideas or concepts for a group of
scholarly experts.

Importance of Good Academic Writing

Although the accepted form of academic writing in the social sciences can vary considerable
depending on the methodological framework and the intended audience. However, most
college-level research papers require careful attention to the following stylistic elements:

 The Big Picture

 The Tone
 Diction
 The Language
 Punctuation
 Academic Conventions
 Evidence-Based Arguments
 Thesis-Driven
 Complexity and Higher-Order Thinking
1. The Big Picture

Unlike fiction or journalistic writing, the overall structure of academic writing is formal and
logical. It must be cohesive and possess a logically organized flow of ideas; this means that
the various parts are connected to form a unified whole. There should be narrative links
between sentences and paragraphs so the reader is able to follow your argument and all
sources are properly cited. The introduction should include a description of how the rest of
the paper is organized.

2. The Tone

The overall tone refers to the attitude conveyed in a piece of writing. Throughout your paper,
it is important that you present the arguments of others fairly and with an appropriate
narrative tone. When presenting a position or argument that you disagree with, describe this
argument accurately and without loaded or biased language. In academic writing, the author
is expected to investigate the research problem from an authoritative point of view. You
should, therefore, state the strengths of your arguments confidently, using language that is
neutral, not confrontational or dismissive.

3. Diction

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Diction refers to the choice of words you use. Awareness of the words you use is important
because words that have almost the same denotation [dictionary definition] can have very
different connotations [implied meanings]. This is particularly true in academic writing
because words and terminology can evolve a nuanced meaning that describes a particular
idea, concept, or phenomenon derived from the epistemological culture of that discipline.
Therefore, use concrete words [not general] that convey a specific meaning. If this cannot be
done without confusing the reader, then you need to explain what you mean within the
context of how that word is used within a discipline.

4. The Language

The investigation of research problems in the social sciences is often complex and multi-
dimensional. Therefore, it is important that you use unambiguous language. Well-structured
paragraphs and clear topic sentences enable a reader to follow your line of thinking without
difficulty. Your language should be concise, formal, and express precisely what you want it
to mean. Avoid vague expressions that are not specific or precise enough for the reader to
derive exact meaning ["they," "we," "people," "the organization," etc.], abbreviations like
'i.e.' ["in other words"] or 'e.g.' ["for example"], and the use of unspecific determinate words
["super "very" "incredible"].

5. Punctuation

Scholars rely on precise words and language to establish the narrative tone of their work and,
therefore, punctuation marks are used very deliberately. For example, exclamation points are
rarely used to express a heightened tone because it can come across as unsophisticated or
over-excited. Avoid using dashes and hyphens because they give the impression of writing
that is too informal. Dashes should be limited to the insertion of an explanatory comment in a
sentence while hyphens should be limited to connecting prefixes to words [e.g., multi-
disciplinary] or when forming compound phrases [e.g., commander-in-chief]. Finally,
understand that semi-colons represent a pause that is longer than a comma, but shorter than a
period in a sentence. In general, there are four grammatical uses of semi-colons: when a
second clause expands or explains the first clause; to describe a sequence of actions or
different aspects of the same topic; placed before clauses which begin with "nevertheless",
"therefore", "even so," and "for instance‖; and, to mark off a series of phrases or clauses
which contain commas. If you are not confident about when to use semi-colons [and most of
the time, they are not required for proper punctuation], rewrite using shorter sentences or
revise the paragraph.

6. Academic Conventions

Citing sources in the body of your paper and providing a list of references as either footnotes
or endnotes is a very important aspect of academic writing. It is essential to always
acknowledge the source of any ideas, research findings, data, or quoted text that you have
used in your paper as a defense against allegations of plagiarism. The scholarly convention of
citing sources is also important because it allows the reader to identify the sources you used
and to independently verify your findings and conclusions. Examples of other academic
conventions to follow include the appropriate use of headings and subheadings, properly
identifying acronyms, avoiding slang or colloquial language, avoiding emotive language,
avoiding contractions, and using first person and second person pronouns only when
necessary.

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7. Evidence-Based Arguments

Assignments often ask you to express your own point of view about the research problem.
However, what is valued in academic writing is that opinions are based on a sound
understanding of the pertinent body of knowledge and academic debates that exist within, and
often external to, your discipline. You need to support your opinion with evidence from
scholarly sources. It should be an objective stance presented as a logical argument. The
quality of your evidence will determine the strength of your argument. The challenge is to
convince the reader of the validity of your opinion through a well-documented, coherent, and
logically structured piece of writing. This is particularly important when proposing solutions
to problems or recommended courses of action.

8. Thesis-Driven

Academic writing is ―thesis-driven,‖ meaning that the starting point is a particular

perspective, idea, or position applied to the chosen research problem, such as, establishing,
proving, or disproving solutions to the questions posed for the topic; Note that a problem
statement without the research questions does not qualify as academic writing because simply
identifying the research problem does not establish for the reader how you will contribute to
solving the problem, what aspects you believe are most critical, or suggest a method for
gathering data to better understand the problem.

9. Complexity and Higher-Order Thinking

Academic writing addresses complex issues that require high-order thinking skills to
comprehend [e.g., critical, reflective, logical, and creative thinking]. Think of your writing
this way: One of the most important attributes of a good teacher is the ability to explain
complex ideas in a way that is understandable and relatable to the topic being presented. This
is also one of the main functions of academic writing--describing and explaining the
significance of complex ideas as clearly as possible. Often referred to as higher-order
thinking skills, these include cognitive processes that are used to comprehend, solve
problems, and express concepts or that describe abstract ideas that cannot be easily acted out,
pointed to, or shown with images. As a writer, you must take on the role of a good teacher by
summarizing a lot of complex information into a well-organized synthesis of ideas, concepts,
and recommendations that contribute to a better understanding of the research problem.

Understanding Academic Writing and Its Jargon

The very definition of jargon is language specific to a particular sub-group of people.

Therefore, in modern university life, jargon represents the specific language and meaning
assigned to words and phrases specific to a discipline or area of study. For example, the idea
of being rational may hold the same general meaning in both political science and
psychology, but its application to understanding and explaining phenomena within the
research domain of a discipline may have subtle differences based upon how scholars in that
discipline apply the concept to the theories and practice of their work.

Given this, it is important that specialist terminology [i.e., jargon] must be used
accurately and applied under the appropriate conditions. Subject-specific dictionaries are
the best places to confirm the meaning of terms within the context of a specific discipline.
These can be found by searching in the USC Libraries catalog by entering the disciplinary

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and the word dictionary [e.g., sociology and dictionary]. It is appropriate for you to use
specialist language within your field of study, but you should avoid using such language
when writing for non-academic or general audiences.

Problems with Opaque Writing

Traditional academic writing can utilize needlessly complex syntax or overly expansive
vocabulary that is stated out of context or is not well-defined. When writing, avoid problems
associated with opaque writing by keeping in mind the following points:

1. Excessive use of specialized terminology. Yes, it is appropriate for you to use specialist
language and a formal style of expression in academic writing, but it does not mean using
"big words" just for the sake of doing so. Overuse of complex or obscure words or writing
complicated sentence constructions gives readers the impression that your paper is more
about style than substance; it leads the reader to question if you really know what you are
talking about. Focus on creating clear and elegant prose that minimizes reliance on
specialized terminology.

2. Inappropriate use of specialized terminology. Because you are dealing with the
concepts, research, and data within your discipline, you need to use the technical language
appropriate to that area of study. However, nothing will undermine the validity of your study
quicker than the inappropriate application of a term or concept. Avoid using terms whose
meaning you are unsure of--don't just guess or assume! Consult the meaning of terms in
specialized, discipline-specific dictionaries by searching the USC Libraries catalog. [see
above]

Other Problems to Avoid

In addition to understanding the use of specialized language, there are other aspects of
academic writing in the social sciences that you should be aware of. These include:

 Personal nouns. Excessive use of personal nouns [e.g., I, me, you, us] may lead the
reader to believe the study was overly subjective. Using these words may be
interpreted as being done only to avoid presenting empirical evidence about the
research problem. Limit the use of personal nouns to descriptions of things you
actually did [e.g., "I interviewed ten teachers about classroom management
techniques..."]. Note that personal nouns are generally found in the discussion section
of a paper because this is where you as the author/researcher interpret and describe
your work.
 Directives. Avoid directives that demand the reader to "Do this" or "Do that."
Directives should be framed as evidence-based recommendations or goals leading to
specific outcomes.
 Informal, conversational tone using slang and idioms. Academic writing relies on
excellent grammar and precise word structure. Your narrative should not include
regional dialects or slang terms because they can be open to interpretation; be direct
and concise using standard English.

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  Wordiness. Focus on being concise, straightforward, and writing that does not have
confusing language. By doing so, you help eliminate the possibility of the reader
misinterpreting the design and purpose of your study.
 Vague expressions (e.g., "they," "we," "people," "the company," "that area,"
etc.). Being concise in your writing also includes avoiding vague references to
persons, places, or things. While proofreading your paper, be sure to look for and edit
any vague statements that lack context.
 Numbered lists and bulleted items. The use of bulleted items or lists should be used
only if the narrative dictates a need for clarity. For example, it is fine to state, "The
four main problems with hedge funds are:" and then list them 1, 2, 3, 4. However, in
academic writing this must then be followed by detailed explanation and analysis of
each item. Given this, the question you should ask yourself while proofreading is:
why begin with a list in the first place rather than just starting with systematic analysis
of each item arranged in separate paragraphs? Also, be careful using numbers because
they can imply a ranked order of priority or importance. If none exists, use bullets or
other symbols.
 Descriptive writing. Describing a research problem is an important means of
contextualizing a study and, in fact, some description or background information may
be needed because you can't assume the reader knows everything about the topic.
However, the content of your paper should focus on methodology, the analysis and
interpretation of findings, and their implications as they apply to the research problem
and not background information and descriptions of tangential issues.
 Personal experiences. Drawing upon personal experience [e.g., traveling abroad;
caring for someone with Alzheimer's disease] can be an effective way of engaging
your readers in understanding the research problem. Use personal experience only as
an example, though, because academic writing relies on evidence-based research. To
do otherwise is simply story-telling.

Improving Academic Writing

To improve your academic writing skills, you should focus your efforts on three key areas:

1. Clear Writing. The act of thinking about precedes the process of writing about. Good
writers spend sufficient time distilling information and reviewing major points from the
literature they have reviewed before creating their work. Writing detailed outlines can help
you clearly organize your thoughts. Effective academic writing begins with solid planning, so
manage your time carefully.

2. Excellent Grammar. Needless to say, English grammar can be difficult and complex;
even the best scholars take many years before they have a command of the major points of
good grammar. Take the time to learn the major and minor points of good grammar. Spend
time practicing writing and seek detailed feedback from professors. Take advantage of the
Writing Center on campus if you need a lot of help. Proper punctuation and good
proofreading skills can significantly improve academic writing

Invest in and refer to these three basic resources to help your grammar and writing
skills:

 A good writing reference book, such as, Strunk and White‘s book, The Elements of
Style or the St. Martin's Handbook;

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  A college-level dictionary, such as, Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary;
 The latest edition of Roget's Thesaurus in Dictionary Form.

3. Consistent Stylistic Approach. Whether your professor requires you to use MLA, APA
or the Chicago Manual of Style, choose one style manual and stick to it. Each of these style
manuals provide rules on how to write out numbers, references, citations, footnotes, and lists.
Consistent adherence to a style of writing helps with the narrative flow of your paper and
improves its readability. Note that some disciplines require a particular style [e.g., education
uses APA] so as you write more papers within your major, familiarity will improve.

II. Evaluating Quality of Writing

A useful approach for evaluating the quality of your academic writing is to consider the
following issues from the perspective of the reader. While proofreading your final draft,
critically assess the following elements in your writing.

 It is shaped around one clear research problem, and it explains what that problem is
from the outset.
 Your paper tells the reader why the problem is important and why people should
know about it.
 You have accurately and thoroughly informed the reader what has already been
published about this problem or others related to it and noted important gaps in the
research.
 You have provided evidence to support your argument that the reader finds
convincing.
 The paper includes a description of how and why particular evidence was collected
and analyzed, and why specific theoretical arguments or concepts were used.
 The paper is made up of paragraphs, each containing only one controlling idea.
 You indicate how each section of the paper addresses the research problem.
 You have considered counter-arguments or counter-examples where they are relevant.
 Arguments, evidence, and their significance have been presented in the conclusion.
 Limitations of your research have been explained as evidence of the potential need for
further study.
 The narrative flows in a clear, accurate, and well-organized way.

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