3Національний університет “Острозька академія”

Факультет романо-германських мов

Кафедра англійської мови та літератури

ПОСІБНИК-ДОВІДНИК З КУРСУ
“ТЕОРЕТИЧНА ФОНЕТИКА АНГЛІЙСЬКОЇ МОВИ”
(заочна форма навчання)
(АФ-422)

1
 м.Острог, 2012
УДК – 811.111’342 (075.8)
ББК – 81
П – 61

Рекомендовано (затверджено) методичною радою НаУОА

Протокол № 2 від ___2012 р.

Розробник: Пелипенко О.О., ст.викладач кафедри англійської мови та літератури Національного університету
“Острозька академія”.

Рецензенти:
Л.М.Коцюк, кандидат філологічних наук, доцент кафедри англійської мови та літератури факультету романо-
германських мов НаУОА

Л.К.Коляда кандидат філологічних наук, доцент кафедри практики англійської мови Волинського державного
університету імені Л.Українки

О.О.Пелипенко
Посібник-довідник із курсу «Теоретична фонетика англійської мови»: навчальний посібник для студентів
четвертого курсу факультету романо-германських мов НаУОА (заочна форма навчання). –О.О.Пелипенко. –
Острог, НаУОА, 2012 – 83 с.

Посібник-довідник призначений для студентів факультету романо-германських мов НаУОА заочної форми
навчання і містить програму навчального курсу, конспекти лекцій, список питань до підсумкового модульного
контролю та індивідуальні практичні завдання для контрольних робіт, зразки виконання контрольних робіт,
словник і глосарій основних фонетичних термінів. У конспектах лекцій вміщений навчальний матеріал з
основних тем курсу теоретичної фонетики англійської мови: фонетика як наука, звуки англійської мови як
артикуляційні та функціональні одиниці, склад, словесний наголос, просодична організація англійського
мовлення, вимовна норма англійської мови та її варіанти.

ББК
 Національний університет “Острозька академія”, 2012

2
 ПЕРЕДМОВА

Мета посібника-довідника – допомогти студентам заочного відділення, майбутнім вчителям англійської мови
та фахівцям з англійської філології, оволодіти основами теорії фонетики з метою формування бази про звукову
будову англійської мови та її компоненти для кращого розуміння їхньої ролі в усній вербальній комунікації.

При укладанні цього посібника-довідника враховано основні вимоги навчальної програми з теоретичної
фонетики англійської мови в межах виділених годин.

Посібник-довідник складається з:
- програми курсу;
- лекцій до кожного змістовного модуля;
- питань до фінального модульного контролю;
- індивідуальних контрольних робіт;
- тем рефератів;
- додатків із зразками фонетичного розбору слова, речення та тексту;
- списку основної та додаткової літератури.

Наявність текстів лекцій у студентів дасть змогу викладачеві інтенсифікувати навчальний процес,
приділивши більше уваги детальним поясненням та інтерактивним формам навчання під час лекції.

Інструкції та зразки виконання контрольних робіт, словник і глосарій фонетичних термінів допоможуть
студентам краще зрозуміти та засвоїти навчальний матеріал.

Матеріали посібника-довідника апробовано під час викладання теоретичної фонетики на факультеті

романо-германських мов Національного університету «Острозька Академія» в 2008-2011 н.р.

3
 СТРУКТУРА ПРОГРАМИ НАВЧАЛЬНОГО КУРСУ
„ТЕОРЕТИЧНА ФОНЕТИКА АНГЛІЙСЬКОЇ МОВИ - 422”
(за вимогами ESTC)
(заочна форма навчання)

ОПИС ПРЕДМЕТУ НАВЧАЛЬНОЇ ДИСЦІПЛІНИ

Характеристика навчальної
Галузь знань, напрям
Найменування дисципліни
підготовки, освітньо-
показників
кваліфікаційний рівень денна форма заочна форма
навчання навчання
Галузь знань
0305 Філолологія
Нормативна
(шифр і назва)
Кількість кредитів 2 (за вибором)
Напрям підготовки
6.030500 бакалавр
(шифр і назва)
Модулів – 1 Рік підготовки:
Змістових модулів – 5 4-й
Індивідуальне науково-
дослідне завдання Спеціальність (професійне
___________ спрямування): Семестр
_______________
(назва)
Загальна кількість годин - 10-й
72 Лекції
6 год.
Практичні, семінарські
6 год.
Тижневих годин для Лабораторні
денної форми навчання: Освітньо-кваліфікаційний
аудиторних –3 рівень: Самостійна робота
самостійної роботи філолог 56 год.
студента - 4 Індивідуальні завдання:

Вид контролю: конрольна

рбота, тест

Примітка.
Співвідношення кількості годин аудиторних занять до самостійної і індивідуальної роботи
становить:
для заочної форми навчання – 1:5,6

1. Мета та завдання навчальної дисципліни

Мета
- систематизація попередньо вивченого нормативного матеріалу з фонетики;
- вивчення теорії фонеми, варіантів вимови англійської мови;
- визначення складу фонем в англійській мові, проблем словотворення та поділу на
склади;
- вивчення типів класифікації звуків мови;
- снайомство з словесною та фразовою просодією, графікою та орфографією.
4
Завдання
- знайомство студентів з основними лінгвістичними напрямками та школами;
- введення в проблематику сучасної фонології;
- поглибити загально філологічну підготовку майбутніх бакалаврів філології;
- сприяти розумінню структури та системи англійської мови;
- познайомити з основними лінгвістичними напрямками та школами;
- ввести в проблематику сучасної фонології.

У результаті вивчення навчальної дисципліни студент повинен

знати:
- основні методи фонетичного та фонематичного аналізу;
- мати уявлення про основні напрямки в фонетиці та дослідженнях, присвячених їм;
- найбільш важливі аспекти фонетики та фонології;

вміти:
- оперувати основними лінгвістичними поняттями, прийнятими в фонетиці;

2. Програма навчальної дисципліни

Змістовий модуль 1.
Тема 1. Фонетика як наука та її практичне застосування. Розділи фонетики.
Тема 2. Фонема та її функціі. Алофони. Система фонологічних протиставлень.
Тема 3. Фонетика та викладання мови.

Змістовий модуль 2.
Тема 1. Система англійських голосних.
Тема 2. Система англійських приголосних.
Тема 3. Модифікація англійських голосних та приголосних в англійській мові.
Тема 4. Артикуляційна база англійської мови.
Тема 5. Транскрипція та її типи.

Змістовний модуль 3.
Тема 1. Типи складів. Поділ на склади.
Тема 2. Теорії утворення складів.
Тема 3. Акцентна структура англійських слів.
Тема 4. Словесний наголос, типи словесного наголосу та їх функції.
Тема 5.Фразовий наголос, розподіл фразового наголосу у висловленні.
Тема 6. Логічний та емфатичний наголоси.

Змістовний модуль 4.
Тема 1. Інтонаційна система англійської мови.
Тема 2. Інтонаційна група та її функції.
Тема 3. Типи інтонаційних моделей.
Тема 4. Графічне відтворення інтонації.

Змістовний модуль 5.
Тема 1. Фонетичні особливості сучасних діалектів Великобританії.
Тема 2. Розбіжності у вимові Британського та Американського варіантів.
Тема 3. Національні стандарти вимови англійської мови в англомовних країнах.
Тема 4. Інтонаційні стилі.

5
 4. Структура навчальної дисципліни
Назви змістових Кількість годин
модулів і тем денна форма Заочна форма
усього у тому числі усього у тому числі
л п лаб інд с.р. л п лаб інд с.р.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Модуль 1
Змістовий модуль 1. Звукова будова мови
Тема 1. Фонетика 3
як наука та її
практичне
застосування.
Розділи фонетики.
Тема 2. Фонема та 2
її функціі.
Алофони. Система
фонологічних
протиставлень.
Тема 3. Фонетика 2
та викладання
мови.
Разом 2 1 7
Змістовий модуль 2. Звуки в англійській мові як артикуляційні та
функціональні одиниці.
Тема 1. Система 3
англійських
голосних.
Тема 2. Система 3
англійських
приголосних.
Тема 3. 2
Модифікація
англійських
голосних та
приголосних в
англійській мові.
Тема 4. 2
Артикуляційна
база англійської
мови.
Тема 5.
Транскрипція та її
типи.
Разом 2 1 10
Змістовний модуль 3. Склад як фонетична й фонологічна одиниця,
словесний наголос,

Тема 1. Типи 2
складів. Поділ на

6
склади.
Тема 2. Теорії 2
утворення складів.
Тема 3. Акцентна 2
структура
англійських слів.
Тема 4. Словесний 3
наголос, типи
словесного
наголосу та їх
функції.
Тема 5.Фразовий 3
наголос, розподіл
фразового
наголосу у
висловленні.
Тема 6. Логічний 2
та емфатичний
наголоси.
Разом 2 1 14
Змістовний модуль 4. Просодична організація англійського мовлення
Тема 1. 3
Інтонаційна
система
англійської мови.
Тема 2. 2
Інтонаційна група
та її функції.
Тема 3. Типи 2
інтонаційних
моделей.
Тема 4. Графічне 2
відтворення
інтонації.
Разом 2 1 9
Змістовний модуль 5. Особливості сучасної вимовної норми англійської
мови, національні та регіональні варіанти
Тема 1. Фонетичні 4
особливості
сучасних діалектів
Великобританії.
Тема 2. 4
Розбіжності у
вимові
Британського та
Американського
варіантів.
Тема 3. 4
Національні
стандарти вимови
англійської мови в
англомовних

7
 країнах.
Тема 4. Інтонаційні 4
стилі.
Разом 2 1 16
- - -
ІНДЗ
1 6 56
Усього годин 0

5. Індивідуальні завдання
1. Написання рефератів за визначеною тематикою.
2. Написання індивідуальної контрольної роботи.
3. Підготовка до ПМК згідно списку питань.

6. Методи навчання
Лекції із застосуванням Power Point, таблиць за визначеною тематикою.

7. Методи контролю

Письмова контрольна робота, яка виконується самостійно, написання реферату. Підсумкова

контрольна робота, яка включає практичні завдання, теоретичні питання та тестові завдання.

10. Розподіл балів, які отримують студенти

Робота на Фонетичний Фонетичний Фонетичний Захист Підсумковий
лекціях розбір слова розбір розбір тексту реферату Модульний 100
речення контроль
10 10 10 10 10 50

Шкала оцінювання: національна та ECTS

Сума балів за всі Оцінка за національною шкалою
Оцінка
види навчальної для екзамену, курсового для заліку
ECTS
діяльності проекту (роботи), практики
91 – 100 А відмінно
83-90 В
добре
76-82 С зараховано
68-75 D
задовільно
61-67 Е
не зараховано з
незадовільно з можливістю
35-60 FX можливістю
повторного складання
повторного складання
не зараховано з
незадовільно з обов’язковим
обов’язковим
0-34 F повторним вивченням
повторним вивченням
дисципліни
дисципліни

1. Методичне забезпечення
Опорні конспекти лекцій, таблиці, О.О.Пелипенко Посібник-довідник із курсу «Теоретична
фонетика англійської мови»: навчальний посібник для студентів четвертого курсу
факультету романо-германських мов НаУОА (заочна форма навчання). –О.О.Пелипенко. –
Острог, НаУОА, 2012 – 83 с.

8
 +12. Рекомендована література

Базова
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2. Васильев В.А. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка.- М., 1970.
3. Паращук В.Ю. Теоретична фонетика англійської мови. - Нова книга, Вінниця, 2005.
Допоміжна
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3. Борисова Л.И., Метлюк А.А. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка. Учеб.
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курс. – Высшая школа, М., 1980.
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6. Касевич В.Б. Морфонология.- ЛГУ, 1986.
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Теоретичні засади лінгвістичних досліджень.6 (ч.1), 2011.
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9
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2009, - 176 p.
42. Wells J.C. Accents of English. – CUP, 1982.
43. Wells J.C. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. – L.: Longman, 1995.
44. Yanson V. and others. A practical Guide for learners of English. – K., 2002.

13. Інформаційні ресурси

www.moodle.oa.edu.ua
http://www.durov.com/
http://babylonians.narod.ru/
http://englishwell.org/

ЛЕКЦІЇ ДО ЗМІСТОВНИХ МОДУЛІВ

LECTURE I

Module І. Phonetics as a Branch of Linguistics.

1. Phonetics as a branch of Linguistics. Aspects of Phonetics. Branches of Phonetics. Methods of Phonetic Analysis.
2. Phoneme and its functions. Allophones. Articulation basis of English.
3. Phonetics and teaching pronunciation. Transcription and its types.

Phonetics as the science has a long history. It came into being in India and Greece before our era. The term came from
the Greek “phone” – sound. The scientists of that time investigated speech sounds. For a long time Phonetics remained
a science, which treated of the production of sounds, their representation dealing only with articulatory aspects.
Phonetics followed the views and concepts that ruled in linguistics at that time: the investigation of the history of
languages (history of sound changes).
Considerable progress of science caused a revolution in the treatment of many problems and radically changed the
direction of investigation in linguistics. In the present day linguistics make their task to investigate the language as the
system and the system at the given period of its historic development.
Respectively phonetics also confronts new tasks, in other words, the investigation of the sound system of the language.
Today the sphere of phonetics is wider and deeper. New concepts have come into existence, new methods have been
developed, and new branches have arisen. Phonetics like Lexicology, Grammar is a branch of linguistics, which deals
with the investigation and description of all sound means of the language from the point of view of their own in the
speech, their articulation and acoustic qualities.
Respectively there are 3 aspects in the study of the sound means:
1. Articulatory or physiological aspect. It makes the task of physiological phonetics to investigate the work of
the organs of speech in pronouncing sounds; from the articulatory point of view any speech sound is a complex
of definite movements and position of organs. And experimental methods are widely used (the artificial palate,
X-ray photography; recording, reproducing machines).

THE ORGANS OF SPEECH

In learning a foreign language as a specialty it is necessary to know in detail the structure and function of the speech
apparatus. The organs of speech are as follows:

10
 I. The nasal cavity.
II. The mouth cavity.
III. The pharyngeal cavity (the pharynx).
IV. The tongue:
1. The blade of the tongue with the tip;
2. The front of the tongue;
3. The back of the tongue;
4. The root of the tongue.
V. The roof of the mouth:
1. The alveoli (the teeth ridge);
2. The hard palate;
3. The soft palate;
4. The uvula.
VI. The teeth:
1. The upper teeth;
2. The lower teeth.
VII. The lips.
1. The upper lip;
2. The lower lip.
VIII. The larynx.
IX. The vocal cords.
X. The windpipe.
XI. The lower jaw.
The movable speech organs are called active. They are as follows: the tongue, the soft palate, the uvula, the
lower jaw, the lips, the vocal cords. The passive organs of speech are: the teeth, the alveoli, and the hard palate.

2. Acoustic aspect investigates speech sounds as physical phenomena since speech sounds like any other are the
form of sound waves and they have their pitch, intensity, timbre, length. Acoustic phonetics is often termed
experimental since it makes wide use of special operators and instruments, such as: kymograph, an
oscilograph, slow motion films etc. Experimental phonetics is connected with physics and mathematics.
3. Linguistic or social aspect. That section of phonetics, which makes a study of all Phonetic phenomena from
the point of view of social function – is phonology. It must be noted that many scientists abroad propagate it as
a new. According to them, phonetics and phonology are 2 independent branches of science.
Phonetics is a biological science, which is concerned with physical and physiological characteristics of speech
sounds.
Phonology is a linguistic science and is concerned only with the social functions of different phonetic phenomena
ignoring their real historically formed social qualities.
However it doesn’t seem logical to contrast and separate function from phonetic form. So we see that this division
of Phonetics into 3 sections is highly relative and is determined by the methods of investigation.
All the 3 sections are closely linked and are considered only as aspects of one and the same linguistic science,
which deals with the investigation of all sound means of the language in connection with their social significance.
This study of the sound system is very important. One can’t master the language without mastering its sound
system, because the language can perform its function of communication between people mainly as a language of
sounds, in other words by means of the system of signals carrying some information.
11
 In fact spoken language consists of succession of sound, which constitutes the material form of words. The speech
sounds have no lexical meaning in isolation, but they have tremendous force in the combination with other sounds
thus forming words and the word meaning is connected with its sound forms, in other words all lexical and
grammar phenomena are expressed phonetically. And here we again refer to the materialistic theory that language
performs its function mainly as sound language.
We communicate ideas by means of words, which get their proper grammatical and intonation framing in
sentences. But in order to make oneself easily understood, while expressing thoughts orally and understand others
one should pronounce words and sentences correctly, in other words one should have a good pronunciation. It
means to master the phonetic structure of the language.

The main phonetic components are:

1. Phonemic system, in other words the system of its segmental phonemes;
2. Stress or accentual structure;
3. Intonation.
To have a good pronunciation means to master the following things:
1. To articulate correctly all the speech sounds;
2. To pronounce sentences with correct stress, melody, rhythm, pauses.
Wrong pronunciation causes difficulties in the process of communication. It leads to misunderstanding and
misinterpretation. Before the learner of spoken language has acquired a good pronunciation, he must overcome a
number of difficulties. They are:
1. Must recognize various speech sounds occurring in the language when he hears them pronounced;
2. Remember the acoustic qualities of the sounds;
3. Learn to make the language sounds with his organs of speech.
Methods of teaching the pronunciation are:
1. Imitating somebody’s pronunciation
2. Analytical way, which is based on the detailed analysis and description of organs.

PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION AND ITS TYPES

PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION is a sort of phonetic alphabet, a system of symbols in which every phoneme is
supposed to have its own symbol. It helps in learning a foreign language.
It is possible to speak about three types of phonetic transcription.
1. INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION. It was introduced by the International Phonetic
Association in 1887. But the science of phonetics has been considerably developed since then. And now the drawbacks
of that system are quite evident; it suggests the same symbols for different phonemes: [i: - i], [ɔ - ɔ], [u:- u], [ə: - ə ],
which gives the wrong impression that those phonemes differ only in their duration (length).
2. THE PHONEMIC TRANSCRIPTION (broad). In the phonemic transcription every phoneme is given an
individual symbol, the number of which is 44 (according to the number of phonemes in British English). It
introduces four more symbols: /ı/ for /i /; / ʊ / for /u /; / ɒ / for / ɔ/; /ɜ:/ for / ə /.
Words and sentences transcribed with the help of this phonetic script are placed between the slanting brackets.
This type of transcription is used in studying English as a speciality.
3. THE ALLOPHONIC TRANSCRIPTION (narrow). In this type of transcription every allophone has either a
special symbol or a diacritical mark. The brackets are also different.
E.g. dark / ł / - little / lıtł /; Aspiration – pit / phıt /
It is used in doing research work in the field of phonetics.
Note: The elements of the allophonic transcription are used in the phonemic transcription, such as diacritical mark of
long and half long vowels. (i:, u:)

BRANCHES OF PHONETICS

We know that the phonic medium can be studied from four points of view: the articulatory, the acoustic, the
auditory, and the functional.
We may consider the branches of phonetics according to these aspects. Articulatory phonetics is the study of the way
the vocal organs are used to produce speech sounds. Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech
sounds. Auditory phonetics is the study of the way people perceive speech sounds. Of these three branches of
phonetics, the longest established, and until recently the most highly developed, is articulatory phonetics. For this
reason, most of terms used by linguists to refer to speech-sounds are articulatory in origin.
Phoneticians are also interested in the way in which sound phenomena function in a particular language. In other
words, they study the abstract side of the sounds of language. The branch of phonetics concerned with the study of the
functional (linguistic) aspect of speech sounds is called phonology. By contrast with phonetics, which studies all
possible sounds that the human vocal apparatus can make, phonology studies only those contrasts in sound which make
differences of meaning within language.

12
 Besides the four branches of phonetics described above, there are other divisions of the science. We may speak of
general phonetics and the phonetics of a particular language (special or descriptive phonetics). General phonetics
studies all the sound-producing possibilities of the human speech apparatus and the ways they are used for purpose of
communication. The phonetics of a particular language studies the contemporary phonetic system of the particular
language, i.e. the system of its pronunciation, and gives a description of all the phonetic units of the language.
Descriptive phonetics is based on general phonetics.
Linguists distinguish also historical phonetics whose aim is to trace and establish the successive changes in the
phonetic system of a given language (or a language family) at different stages of its development. Historical phonetics
is a part of the history of language.
Closely connected with historical phonetics is comparative phonetics whose aims are to study the correlation
between the phonetic systems of two or more languages and find out the correspondences between the speech sounds of
kindred languages.
Phonetics can also be theoretical and practical. At the faculties of Foreign Languages in this country, two courses
are introduced:
1. Practical, or normative, phonetics that studies the substance, the material form of phonetic phenomena in
relation to meaning.
2. Theoretical phonetics, which is mainly concerned with the functioning of phonetic units in language.
This dichotomy is that which holds between theoretical and applied linguists. Briefly, theoretical linguistics studies
language with a view to constructing theory of its structure and functions and without regard to any practical
applications that the investigation of language might have. Applied linguistics has as its concerns the application of the
concepts and findings of linguistics to a variety of practical tasks, including language teaching.
All the branches of phonetics are closely connected not only with one another but also with other branches of
linguistics. This connection is determined by the fact that language is a system whose components are inseparably
connected with one another.
Phonetics is also connected with many other sciences. Acoustic phonetics is connected with physics and
mathematics. Articulatory phonetics is connected with physiology, anatomy, and anthropology. Historical phonetics is
connected with general history of the people whose language is studied; it is also connected with archaeology.
Phonology is connected with communication (information) theory, mathematics, and statistics.

THE PHONEME

Speech sounds are the smallest units of which words are formed. They have no lexical meaning of their own.
Their linguistic function begins only when they fall into combinations with each other for the formation of words. We
distinguish words of the same language by the differences in their sound framing.
Eg. Bed – bad – bid
Those speech sounds, which are capable to distinguish one word of the language from another, are called
segmental phonemes.
Every language has a limited number of sound types, which are shared by all the speakers of the language and
are linguistically important because they distinguish words in the language. In English there are 20 vowel phonemes
and 24 consonant phonemes.
Phoneme is a language unit, not of speech. In actual speech phonemes exist in the form of variants, in other words
allophones. Depending on the position in the word and on the influence of neighboring sounds one of the same
phoneme may have different varieties, in other words pronounced not quite alike. Allophones (or variants) of a certain
phoneme are speech sounds, which are realizations of one and the same phoneme and which, therefore, cannot
distinguish words. Their articulatory and acoustic distinctions are conditioned by their position and their phonetic
environment. In connected speech sounds are modified. The result: every phoneme displays a vast range of variations.
The number of allophones is unlimited. Analyzing them we see that some features of phonemes are constant (relevant)
and some are incidental, irrelevant (not phonologically important).
Eg. Compare phoneme / p /: pill – slip – slippers
Acoustic and articulatory manners of pronunciation of the phoneme /p/ are different, if one of the various /p/
sounds is substituted for another, the meaning of the word will not change. Only the native speaker will notice it. This
change doesn’t influence the process of understanding.
/p/ - bilabial, occlusive, fortis, plosive (relevant features)
The degree of aspiration varies (aspiration is irrelevant feature).

FUNCTIONS OF PHONEME
1. Constitutive function of the phoneme.
Though the phonemes themselves, in isolation, have no meaning, they are linguistically important, since, in
their material form (i.e. in the form of speech sounds) they constitute morphemes, words, all of which are meaningful.
2. Besides the constitutive function, the phoneme performs the
distinctive function, because phonemes distinguish one word from another.

13
3. The identificatory (or precognitive) function of the phoneme. It appears that when identifying linguistic units the
use of the right phoneme is not the only significant factor, the use of the right allophone is not much less important.
Thus, in English it is the aspiration of /p/ rather than its voicelessness, and the non-aspirated character of /b/, that make
clear the opposition of /p/ and /b/ in words like “pie” and “buy”. This is why an Englishman will often hear “bride” for
“pride” when a foreigner uses a non-aspirated /p/.
We may now summarize by saying that the phoneme is a linguistically relevant unit that exists in speech in the
material form of its allophones. The phoneme is therefore a phonological unit which is represented in speech by
phonetic units (the speech sounds) In analyzing speech we constantly carry out a phonetic and phonological analysis.
The analysis is primary phonetic when we describe articulatory and acoustic characteristics of particular sounds and
their combinations; but when we determine the role of those sounds in communication, it is mainly phonological
analysis. Thus both phonemes and sounds are simply two sides of one and the same phenomenon – the sound substance
of language, which can be analyzed on either the phonemic (functional) level or the allophonic (variational) level.

ARTICULATION BASES OF ENGLISH

The summary of all main principles of articulation in a certain language is called the Articulation Basis of
English.
The main points of difference between the articulation basis of English and Ukrainian / Russian are as follows.
1.The tongue in English is more tense and bulky and has a retracted position for most of the phonemes.
2.The lips are also tenser and less movable than in Ukrainian. They are mostly spread or neutral.
3.Forelingual English consonants have an apical articulation: they are articulated with the tongue tip against the
alveoli, as /t, d, s, z, t∫, d∫/, or against the teeth / θ, ð /. The corresponding Ukrainian ones are articulated with the blade
of the tongue (the tip is lowered), against the teeth (dorsal articulation).
4. All English consonants are hard (except for /∫, ʒ, ʤ, ʧ/) and have no palatalization. Palatalization in English is
a phonetic mistake.
5.The English word final voiced consonants must not be devocalised, as they are weak (bag, sad). The English
word final voiceless consonants are strong (night, weak, tape).
6.The English plosive voiceless / p, t, k / are pronounced with aspiration which is foreign for Ukrainians (Kate,
take, a plate).
7.The English sonorants /m, n, l/ are tenser and longer than the corresponding Ukrainian ones and they are
syllabic when post-tonic and preceded by a consonant /'eı-bļ, 'lı-tļ, 'pʌ-zļ/.
8.English vowels are grouped not only according to the quality but also according to their quantity into long and
short.
9.Some vowels /i:, u: and diphthongs/ are characterized by a gliding articulation from one vowel element to
another while in Ukrainian and Russian no diphthongs could be found.
10. There are back open vowels in English while in Ukrainian and Russian low position of the tongue is
associated only with central vowel.

LECTURE II

Module 2. Phonemes in English as Articulatory and Functional Units.

1. The system of consonant phonemes
2. The system of vowel phonemes. Problems of diphthongs and vowel length
3. Modifications of sounds in English.
4. The system of phonological oppositions.

Articulatory and Physiological Classification of English Consonants and Vowels.

The main principles of division of speech sounds into the vowels and consonants are:
1. the presence or absence of obstruction;
2. the distinction of muscular tension;
3. the force of the air stream coming out of the lungs.

VOWELS are speech sounds based on voice. There is no obstruction in their articulation. The muscular tension is
spread equally throughout the speech organs. The force of the air stream is rather weak. The quality of English vowels
is determined by the main resonator – mouth cavity – it’s size, volume, shape. The resonator is modified by the tongue
and lips.
CONSONANTS are sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction, the removal of which causes noise.
Muscular tension is at the place of obstruction. The air stream is strong.

CLASSIFICATION OF ENGLISH VOWELS

The vowel is a speech sound in the production of which the air stream coming out of the lungs meets no
obstruction on its way.
14
 The English vowel system consists of 20 vowel phonemes. According to the stability of articulation, we
distinguish 12 monophthongs and 8 diphthongs.
They can be classified according to the following principles.
1. According to the position of the tongue (position of the bulk of the tongue in its horizontal and vertical
position). The tongue can move forward and backward, may be raised and lowered in the mouth cavity.
Horizontal: fully back, back advanced, fully front, front retracted
Vertical: high, mid, low.
Each of the subclasses is subdivided into vowels of narrow variation and vowels of broad variation.
2. According to the length. The vowels are divided into historically long and historically short.
Vowel length depends on a number of linguistic factors:
- position of the vowels in the word: /bi:/, /bi:d/, /bit/;
- word stress: a vowel is longer in stressed syllable, /ˈfɔ:kɑ:st/ /fɔ:ˈkɑ:st/;
- the number of syllables in the word. In one syllable word vowel is longer than in a polysyllabic
word: /vɜ:s/ /ˌju:nɪˈvɜ:sɪtɪ/;
- The character of the syllabic structure (in words with open syllables vowel length is longer): /ɜ:/ / ɜ:n/
;
- Sonority: vowels of low sonority are longer than vowels of greater sonority, /ɪ/ is longer than /ɒ/, /i:/ is
longer than / ɑ:/ .
3. According to the degree of tenseness. Traditionally long vowels are defined as tense and short are
lax.
4. According to the position of the lips (rounded, unrounded). The front and low vowels are articulated
with spread or neutral lips while back vowels have rounded lips.
5. According to the stability of articulation. Vowels can be divided into monophthongs (10); diphthongs
(8) (falling – nuclear is stronger, rising – glide is stronger, level – both parts are equal); diphthongoids (2) – (is a vowel
which ends in a different element, they are /i:/, /u:/, in allophonic transcription /ɪj j/ /ʊuw/.

English monophthongs

The monophthong is the vowel in the production of which the organs of speech do not change their position
throughout the whole duration of the vowel.
English monopththongs can be classified according to the following principles:
I. According to the stability of articulation it is monophthong.
II. According to the position of the bulk of the tongue in horizontal position we distinguish:
1. Front vowels with the fully front / i: /, /e/, /æ/ and the front retracted /ɪ/.
2. Central vowels /ɜ:/, /ə/, /ʌ/.
3. Back vowels with the fully back /u:/, /ɔ:/, /ɒ/ and back dvanced/ʊ/, /ɑ:/.
III. According to the tongue height (vertical position) we distinguish:
1. High –narrow /i: /, /u:/, broad /ɪ/, /ʊ/.
2. Mid – narrow /e/, /ɜ:/, broad /ə/, /ɔ:/.
3. Low – narrow /ʌ/, broad /æ/, /ɑ:/.
IV. According to the duration (length) we distinguish long and short vowel phonemes.
V. According to the degree of muscular tension we classify them into tense (all long vowels) and lax (all short vowels).
VI. According to the lip position they are distinguished as labialized (flat lips: /i:/, /ɪ/, /e/, /æ/; rounded lips:
/u:/, /ʊ/, /ɔ:/, /ɒ/) and non labialized (lips are neutral: /ɜ:/, /ə/, /ʌ/, /ɑ:/).
Front vowels

All English front vowels have the following features in common:

1. The bulk of the tongue is pushed forward.
2. Its front is raised in the direction of the hard palate.
3. The tongue-tip is placed at the lower teeth.
4. The lips are spread.

Central vowels

The central vowels have the following features in common:

1. The front and the blade of the tongue are equally raised. They are neither pushed forward nor retracted,
occupying an intermediate position.
2. The tongue-tip is at the lower teeth.
3. The lips are spread or neutral for / ɜ: / and neutral for / ə /, /ʌ/.
15
 Back vowels

All the back vowels are characterized by the following common features:
1. The bulk of the tongue is pushed backward.
2. Its back is raised in the direction of the soft palate to different heights (high, mid, low).
3. The tongue-tip is drown from the teeth.
4. The lips are rounded, except for / ɑ:/.

English diphthongs

Diphthong is the monophonemic unit, which consists of two elements with gliding articulation.
There are 8 diphthongs in British English. The first element of English diphthongs is stronger and longer and it is called
nucleus. The second element is weaker and it is called glide.
Diphthongs can be classified according to the nucleus and according to the glide.
According to the nucleus, they can be classified:
I. According to the stability of articulation it is diphthong.
II. According to the position of the bulk of the tongue;
1. Front /ɪə/; /eɪ/; /eə/
2. Central /əʊ/; /aɪ/; /aʊ/
3. Back /ʊə/
III. According to the height of the tongue:
1. High /ɪə/; /ʊə/
2. Mid /eɪ/; /əʊ/
3. Low /eə/; /aɪ/; /aʊ/
IV. According to the glide, they can be classified as:
1. / ɪ/ glide
2. / ʊ / glide
3. / ə / glide
V*. The length of the diphthong can be defined when it is in the word. At the end of the word, the diphthong is long and
in the middle of the word, it is short.

Table of English Vowels

According to
According to
the position of Front-
the height of the Back-advanced
the bulk of the Front retracted Central Back
tongue
tongue
High (closed) narrow i: u:

broad ɪ ɪə ʊə ʊ

narrow e eı ɜ: əʊ

Mid
broad ə ɔ:

narrow eə ʌ ɒ
Low (open)
broad æ aɪ, aʊ ɑ: ɔɪ

Four Types of Reading of Vowels in Stressed Syllables

Letters
Type of Reading A /eɪ/ O /əʊ/ E /і:/ I /aı/ Y /waɪ/ U /ju:/
I /eı/ /əʊ/ /і:/ /aɪ / / aɪ / /ju:/
open syllable name note be fine my tune
16
 II /æ/ /ɒ/ /e/ /ɪ/ /ɪ/ /ʌ/
Closed syllable flat not pen sit myth cup
III /ɑ:/ /ɔ:/ / ɜ: / / ɜ: / / ɜ: / / ɜ: /
Vowel + r large fork term firm Byrd fur
IV /eə / /ɔ:/ / ɪə / /aɪə/ /aɪə/ /jʊə/
Vowel + r + Mary more here fire tyre during
vowel

CLASSIFICATION OF ENGLISH CONSONANTS

They can be classified according to the following principles:

1. According to the active organ of speech and the place of obstruction.
2. According to the type of obstruction. It may be complete closure (occlusive: plosive or nasal),
incomplete closure (constrictive: fricative or lateral or medial sonorants), the combination of two closures (occlusive-
constrictive or affricates).
3. According to the manner of noise production (or prevalence of the noise over the musical tone).
Plosive and fricative consonants are noise.
Sonorants: are consonants that phoneticians have a lot of arguments about. They are /m, n, ŋ, l, r, w, j /. They occupy an
intermediate position between vowels and consonants. In the articulation of sonorants as in the production of
consonants there is an obstruction and the muscular tension is concentrated at the place of obstruction. Like vowels
sonorants are based on voice, the air stream in their production is wide and the force of the air is weak as in the case of
vowels. Because of their strong vocalic characteristics sonorants /j, l, r, w / are often referred to semi-vowels by British
phoneticians (Johns, Glison). According to the Russian phoneticians sonorants are considered to be consonants from
articulatory, acoustic, phonological point of view. Due to their great sonority some sonorants can be syllabic in some
positions. But generally they don’t perform the function of syllable formation.
4. According to the work of the vocal cords and the force of exhalation. They are voiced and voiceless.
Force of exhalation and muscular tension are greater in the voiceless consonants – they are called “fortis” (strong,
energetic), voiced are called “lenis”(soft, weak).
5. According to the position of the soft palate. They are subdivided into oral and nasal.

Table of English Consonants

Glottal
h

(pharyngeal)
kg

Back-lingual Velar
ŋ

Medio-lingual Palatal
j

Post-alveolar
r
According to the position of the
Lingual

ʧʤ

Palato-alveolar
ʃʒ
Forelingual

tongue tip

Sz

Alveolar
n

l
td

θð

Interdental
fv

Labio-dental
Labial

Pb

Bilabial
m

17
 According to the place
of obstruction

(occlusive-
Sonorants (nasal)

Noise (fricatives)
Noise (plosive)

medial

lateral
According to the active speech organ

constrictive)
affricates
to the manner of the produc-
Sonorants

struction and according

Occlusive Constrictive

to the type of ob-

tion of the noise

According

MODIFICATIONS OF SPEECH SOUNDS IN ENGLISH

Phonemes in actual speech are seldom pronounced in isolation. They are joined together, forming a succession of
sounds. In every language there exists specific mechanism of joining them:
1. every sound pronounced separately has 3 stages:
a. Excursion (the on-glide, зближення) – it is a preparation of organs of speech before the pronunciation.
b. Retention (medial, витримка) – organs of speech are kept in this position some time.
c. Recursion (the off-glide, release, відступ) – the organs come back to the neutral position.
These stages may be represented graphically.

P2
p1 / ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯ \ p3
The transition from 1 sound to another takes the form of penetration of one stage to another in actual speech.

Such type of junction between the phonemes is called merging (злиття). Excursion stage of the following sound begins
during the recursion stage of the previous sound. It usually takes place between sounds of different nature “consonant”
– “vowel” (c-v).

There are instances when the type of junction is closer. The articulation of the following sound begins earlier.
/twais/
t2

This type is called interpenetration. This type is closer type of junction. It takes place between similar groups – cons.
+ cons. (c+c). This type has a result the process of assimilation (reciprocal).
/tækt/ (when 2 plosives come together the first looses its plosion).

Mutual influence of the articulatory stages of sounds lead to different phonetic changes of the sound. The
modifications are observed both within words and word boundaries. There are following types of modification:
assimilation, accommodation, reduction, elision and inserting. The adaptive modification of a consonant by a
18
neighboring consonant in a speech chain is assimilation. Accommodation is used to denote the interchanges of VC or
CV types. Reduction is actually qualitative or quantitative weakening of vowels in unstressed positions. Elision is a
complete loss of sounds, both vowels and consonants. Inserting is a process of sound addition.

ASSIMILATION

Assimilation is a process of alteration of speech sounds as a result of which one of the sounds becomes fully or
partially similar to adjoining sound. (Assimilation is a type of coarticulation. It is the alteration of a speech sound to
make it more similar to its neighbours.)
Assimilation happens because the organs of speech move into position for the second sound while making the first.
Types of assimilation can be distinguished according to the:
1. Direction;
2. Degree of completeness;
3. Degree of stability.
Direction of assimilation.
The influence of the neighbouring sounds in English can act in a progressive, regressive or reciprocal (double)
direction.
When the articulatory features of the following sound are changed under the influence of the preceding sound, which
remains unchanged, assimilation is called progressive.
l. The work of the vocal cords: a voiceless consonant + /l/, /r/, /w/. The sonorants are devoiced.
E.g.: please, try, quick, twenty, sweater, pray, price, tree, place.

When the following sound influences the articulation of the preceding one assimilation is called regressive.
1. The point of articulation:
/ t/, /d /, /n/, /l/, /s/, /z/ + / ð /, / θ /, /t/, /d/ + /r/
E.g.: tenth, in them, read this, all that, try.
The alveolar variants of the phonemes are replaced by their dental variants; post alveolar variants.
2. The point of articulation and the active organ of speech. In the words with the stressed prefix con- + /k/,/g/ - /n/
→ / ŋ /.
The forelingual alveolar sound is replaced by the back-lingual velar sound.
E.g.: congress.
3. The lip position.
/k/, /g/, /t/, /s/, /d/ + /w/. The variants of the phonemes are replaced by their labialized variants.
E.g.: quick, twenty.
4. The manner of the production of noise:
a) Loss of plosion:
/t/, /d/, /p/, /b/ /k/, /g/ + /t/, /d/, /p/, /b/, /k/, /g/.
E.g.: doctor, blackboard, bookcase. There is a complete loss of plosion of the first sound;
b) Nasal plosion: /t/, /d/, /p/, /b/, /k/, /g/ + /n/, /m/.
E.g.: curtain, student;
c) Lateral plosion: /t/, /d/, /p/, /b/, /k/, /g/ + /l/.
E.g.: plan, simple, table;
d) Fricative plosion: /t/, /d/, /p/, /p/, /g/, /k/+ a fricative sound.
E.g.: sets, wants, besides, lamps, rugs, takes.

Reciprocal or double assimilation means complex mutual influence of the adjacent sounds.
Two adjacent consonants influence each other.
E.g.: twenty, try, please, sweater.

Degree of completeness.
According to its degree, assimilation can be complete and incomplete. Assimilation is called complete in the case the
two adjoining sounds become alike or merge into one. It always takes place when the two sounds differ only in one
articulatory feature.
E.g.: cupboard / 'kʌpbəd - 'kʌbəd/.
Assimilation is called incomplete when the likeness of the adjoining sounds is partial as the assimilated sounds retain
its major articulatory features.
E.g.: the sonorants /w, l, r / are partially devoiced when preceded by the voiceless /p, t, k, s, f, θ/.

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Degree of Stability.
Many assimilatory phenomena of older stages in the development of the language have become obligatory in
modern English. They may or may not be reflected in spelling. In modern language obligatory assimilations are
special allophonic variants characteristic of the natives’ speech.
Besides there are a lot of widely spread but non-obligatory cases of assimilation, which can be traced mainly at
word boundaries. Non-obligatory assimilations are characteristic of fluent or careless speech and should be avoided
by public speakers (lecturers, teachers, etc.).
Examples of more frequent changes.
1. t, d, n at the end of the word or syllable can assimilate to the place of articulation of the consonant at the
beginning of the next syllable.
- n can become / m / before p, b, m.
ten men /tem men/
- n can become /ŋ/ before k, g.
fine grade /faiŋ greid/
- d can change to /b/ and /g/ respectively
red paint /reb peint/
bad guys /bæg gaiz/
- It is also possible for t to change to /p/ and /k/ respectively, though a more frequent possibility is for t to be
realized as a glottal stop when followed by plosives and constrictive consonants.
Eight boys /eı? boız/
2. In the same way s and z can change to // and / ʒ / respectively, but only before // or /j/ at the beginning of the
next syllable.
This shape /ðı eıp/
These shoes /ði:ʒ u:z/
This unit /ðı 'ju:nıt/
As you see /æʒ ju si:/
3. Yod coalescence (or coalescent assimilation) is a process which changes t or d plus / j / into /t/ or /dʒ /
respectively. Across word boundaries, in standard accents it mainly affects phrases involving you or your.
Let you out /let ju aʊt  let u aʊt/
Would you try /wʊd ju traı  wʊdʒ u traı/
Within a word these changes happen when vowel is weak.
Factual / 'fækt juəl  'fæktuəl /
Educate / 'ed ju keıt  'edʒukeıt/

REDUCTION
In English as well as in Russian vowels in unstressed syllables are usually reduced. The laws of reduction, in these
languages are not the same.
Reduction is a historical process of weakening, shortening or disappearance of vowel sounds in unstressed syllable.
The neutral sound represents the reduced form of almost any vowel or diphthong in the unstressed position:
E.g. Combine /'kɒmbaɪn/ - combine /kəm'baɪn/
The vowel sounds of the two related words are in contrast because of different stress positions.
Non-reduced unstressed sounds are often retained in:
a. compound words: blackboard /'blækbɔ:d/; oilfield /'ɔɪlfi:ld/;
b. borrowings from the French and other languages.
Reduction is closely connected not only with word stress but also with rhythm and sentence stress. Stress words are
pronounced with great energy of breath. Regular loss of sentence stress of certain words is connected with partial or
complete loss of their lexical significance.
So reduction is realized:
a. in unstressed syllables within words;
b. in unstressed form-words (auxiliary and modal verbs, personal and possessive pronouns, etc.) within
intonation groups and phrases.
Three different types of reduction are noticed in English:
1. Quantitative reduction: shortening of a vowel sound in the unstressed position, affects mainly long
vowels :/ hi: - hɪ/
2. Qualitative reduction: obscuration of vowels towards /ə, ɪ, ʊ/, affects both long and short vowels:
/kæn – kən/.
3. Elision of vowels in the unstressed position: /aɪm ʌp ɔ:l ˎredɪ/

Recommendations:
1. Reduced vowels should be made very weak. Sometimes they are even dropped in fluent speech, /'fæktrɪ/.

20
 2. Unknown words especially compound and borrowed should be looked up in a dictionary to check their
pronunciation. Be sure not to reduce vowels of full value in the unstressed position, unless you are to do so.
3. When practicing reading as well as speaking weaken unstressed form-words, personal and possessive
pronouns, auxiliary and modal verbs whenever it is necessary.

WORD LINKING IN CONNECTED SPEECH

1. Consonant + vowel. (The word ends on the consonant and the following begins with the vowel.) , eg.: The
bank opens at nine o’clock.
2. Linking ‘r’. (The word ends on silent ‘r’ and the following begins with the vowel, ‘r’ links the following word)
, eg.: More or less.
3. Extra sound /j/. (The word ends on sound /ɪ/ or /i:/ and the following one begins with the vowel. Sound /j/
appears. It is very light.), eg.: Here we are.
4. Extra sound /w/. (The word ends on back sound /ʊ/ or /u:/ and the following one begins with the vowel. Extra
sound /w/ appears. It is very light), eg.: Go away.
5. Two similar consonants together. (The word ends on the consonant and the following begins with the same
consonant, only one is pronounced but it is longer), eg.: Some more.
6. Three consonants together. (When three consonants meet, the middle one isn’t pronounced. Sound ‘s ’ as the
ending is never dropped.), eg.: You can expect some rain.
7. Two plosive consonants together. (The word ends on any plosive consonant /t, d, p, b, k, g/ and the following
begins with plosive consonant, only the second is pronounced), eg.: Drop by drop.
8. Plosive consonants before the fricatives /f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ/ are suppressed. A slight pause is heard before the
next consonant is uttered, eg.: Take the pen.
9. ‘N’ before ‘m, p, b’. (Sound /n/ before the bilabial is pronounced as /m/), eg.: Green park.
10. Extra sound /r/. (The word ends on the sound schwa and the following word begins with the vowel. The extra
sound /r/ appears. It is very light.), eg.: Africa and Asia.

OPPOSITIONS
The phonemes of the language form a system of oppositions in which any phoneme is usually opposed to other
phonemes in at least one position, in at least one minimal pair. All the sounds should be opposed in word-initial, word-
medial and word-final positions.
In the system of English consonants there are oppositions based on the
- force of articulation (fortis, lenis)
- on the active organ of speech
- on the type of obstruction.

There are three kinds of opposition:

- single – pen – ben; common: occlusive, labial
differentiating: fortis – lenis.
- double – pen – den; Common – occlusive; Dif. – labial – lingual; fortis voiceless – lenis voiced
- triple – pen – then; dif. – occlusive constrictive, labial dental, fortis voiceless – lenis voiced
Each phoneme is characterized by a certain number of phonologically relevant features, which are its constant
distinctive features (as they distinguish the phoneme from the other phonemes of the language).
Each allophone of a certain phoneme is characterized by definite phonologically relevant features (which are
common to all the allophones) plus a number of irrelevant, or incidental, features (which distinguish the allophone
from all the other allophones of the phoneme).
The phonologically relevant features that characterize the phoneme /p/ are, therefore, bilabial, occlusive and fortis.
Aspiration, plosiveness, labialization, nasalization etc. are phonologically irrelevant features.
The substitution of one of the phonologically relevant feature by any other relevant feature results that the phoneme
becomes a different phoneme (pie-tie). The substitution of one irrelevant feature for another (aspirated-non-
aspirated) results in a different allophone of one and the same phoneme. Such substitution does not affect
communication.
In the system of Englis vowels there are oppositions of:
Monophthong between themselves and diphthongs between themselves (these oppositions are based on
differences in the movements and positions of the tongue and the lips)

Monophthongs and diphthongs (theses oppositions are based on both above mentioned differences and the absence
and presence of a glide).
There are no phonological oppositions in the system of English vowel phonemes based on length alone.

LECTURE III

21
 Module 3. Syllable as the Phonetic and Phonological Unit, Word Stress and Utterance Stress.
1. The syllable as the phonological unit.
2. Theories on the syllable division
3. Types and functions of the syllable.
4. Word stress, its nature and functions.
5. Utterance, logical and emphatic stress.

SYLLABLE
Syllable is the smallest pronounceable unit which forms language units of greater magnitude (morphemes, words).
The syllable can be considered as the phonetic and phonological unit.
As the phonetic unit the syllable is defined in articulatory, auditory and acoustic terms.
Acoustically and auditory the syllables are characterised by prosodic features:
- The force of the utterance
- The pitch of voice
- Sonority
- Length
Phonologically the syllable is regarded and defined in terms of its structural and functional properties. The term
"syllable" denotes something taken together.

PHONETIC ASPECT

There are different points of view on syllable formation.

1. There are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels (but in some languages consonants can be syllabic and
it doesn't explain the boundary of syllable.)
2. Expiratory (chest-pulse or pressure) theory. Syllable is a sound or group of the sounds that are pronounced in one
chest-pulse. There are as many syllables in a word as there are chest-pulses made during the word. (Stetson)
The border line between the syllables is a moment of the weaker expiration (but it is quite possible to pronounce some
syllables in one articulatory effort).
3. The relative sonority theory (гучності) or the prominence theory. It was created by Danish phonetician
O.Jespersen. It is based upon the fact that each sound was a definite carrying power.
Sounds group themselves according to their sonority. There are as many syllables as there are peaks of prominence of
sonority.
O.Jespersen classified sounds according to the degree of sonority. He stayed the scale of sonority of sounds. The most
sonor are vowels. The less sonor are sonorants. The least sonor consonants are voiced and voiceless.
1. Open vowels
2. Closed vowels
3. Sonorants
4. Voiced fricatives
5. Voiced plosives
6. Voiceless fricatives
7. Voiceless plosives
The most sonor sound forms the peak of sonority in a syllable. One peak is separated from another peak by sound of
lower sonority that is consonant.

(It doesn't explain the mechanism) of syllable division and formation and it doesn't state to which syllable the less
sonorant sound at the boundary of two words belongs
an aim a name summer dresses some addresses

4. The muscular tension or the articulatory effort theory.

A syllable is characterised by variations in muscular tension. The energy of articulation increases at the beginning of the
syllable reaches its maximum within a vowel sound and decreases towards the end of the syllable.

22
The syllable is defined as an arc of artificial tension. The boundary is determined by lowest articulatory energy. There
are as many syllables as there are maxes of muscular tension.
Consonants within a syllable are characterised by different distribution of muscular tension.
Scherba advanced the theory about 3 types of consonants:
- Finally strong (initially weak) . The end of the syllable is more energetic. They occur at the beginning of the syllable
/si:/ - cv

- Finally weak (initially strong). The beginning is more energetic, the end is weaker. It occurs at the end of the
syllable. /at/ - vc
- Double peak. The beginning and the end are energetic, while the middle is weak. It occurs at the junction of the words
or morphemes: what time /wɒtaɪm/, unknown /ʌnəʊn/. Acoustically they produce an effect of 2 consonants.
5. Loudness theory. It was worked out by N.I.Zhinkin. It took into consideration Scherba's statement about peaks. It
takes into consideration both levels production and perception. Syllable is an arc of loudness.
The peak of the syllable is louder and higher in pitch than the slopes. Zhinkin proved that the organ which is responsible
for the variation of loudness is pharynx . There are as many syllables in a word as there are arcs of loudness.

STRUCTURAL ASPECT
In English syllable is formed:
- By any vowel (monophthong or diphthong) alone or in the combination with one or more consonants, eg.:
/ɑ:/, /hi:/;
- By a word final sonorant /m, ņ, ļ/ immediately preceded by a noise consonant and post tonic , eg.: /ˈrɪ-ðm/,
/ˈgɑ:-dņ/.
Note: /m, n, l/ may loose their syllabic character when they occur in the middle of the word before a vowel , eg.: /ˈlɪs-
nɪŋ/, /sænd/

There are 4 types of syllable

- open CV
-closed VC
- covered CV(C)
- uncovered V(C)
The fundamental type is closed cvc. Due to the member arrangement the structure of the syllable varies
- v - occurs alone
- cccvcc
- cvccccc
cvc - the most frequent pattern , as to the member of syllable it can vary from 1 to 8 (unintelligibility -/ˌʌnɪntəlɪʤə
ˈbɪlɪtɪ/ - vcvccvcvcvcvcvcv).
The consonant /ŋ / never begins the syllable and /w/ never ends the syllable such clusters as / mh, sr, sʃ, fs, hr, stl,
spw/ can't occur initially either.
The sounds /w, r, j/ despite their strong vocalic characteristics, function as consonants.
The sounds /l, m, n/ normally function as consonants before a vowel, but in unstressed final position when preceded by
a noise consonant they are syllabic.

SYLLABLE DIVISION

The part of phonetics that deals with the aspect of syllable division is called phonotactics. Phonotactics possibilities of
a language determine the rules of syllable division. As the phoneticians point out, in the English language the problem
of syllable division exists in case of intervocalic consonants and their clusters.
When there is one intervocalic consonant the rules are following:

23
 1. The English long monophthongs, diphthongs and unstressed short vowels always occur in a phonetically open
syllables, when they are separated from a following syllabic sound by only one consonant, eg.: /ˈmi:-tɪŋ/, /ˈɑ:-mɪ/, /ˈɔ:-
dɪ-nə-rɪ/, /ˈvɔɪ-sɪz/.
2. A short stressed vowel in the same position (when separated from a following syllabic sound by only one
consonant) always occurs in a closed syllable, eg.:
/ˈsɪt-ɪ/, /ˈspæn-ɪʃ/, /ˈfæm-ɪ-lɪ/.
When there are clusters it is necessary take into consideration that some clusters cannot happen at the beginning of the
syllable. Such clusters should be broken by syllabic boundary. Eg. : agree /ə-ˈgri:/, abrupt /ə-ˈbrʌpt/, admire /ədˈ-maɪə/.
In case when the number of intervocalic consonants is 3 or more as in the word “extra” there several variants of syllabic
division: /ˈek-strə/, //ˈeks-trə /, //ˈekst-rə /.
In some cases we may take into consideration the morphemic structure of words. Eg.: standing consists of two
syllables, on phonetic grounds /ˈstæn-dɪŋ/, on grammatical grounds /ˈstænd-ɪŋ/.
These are phonetic syllables, syllables consisting of actually pronounced speech sounds. These phonetic syllables
should be not confused with the open and closed syllables in writing. Division of words into syllables in writing is
based on morphological principles. The part of the word, which is separated, should be either a prefix, or a suffix, or a
root.
Undivided – un-di-vid-ed
Utterance – utter-ance
Smiling – smil-ing, but puzzling –puzz-ling

It is not an easy matter to describe syllable. Some linguists consider syllable as a purely articulatory unit which lacks
any functions. But majority threats the syllable as a smallest pronounceable unit which can perform some linguistic
functions.

FUNCTIONS OF SYLLABLE

1. Constitutive function. The syllable forms language units of greater magnitude, which are words, morphemes,
and utterances.
2. Distinctive function. The syllable is characterized by its ability to differentiate words and word-forms.
WORD STRESS

I. The stress in the isolated words is termed as word stress. The stress in the connected speech is termed as a
sentence stress.
The auditory impression of word stress is that of prominence. And on the auditory level the effect of prominence is
produced by a greater degree of loudness, greater length of the stressed syllables, some modifications in its pitch and
quality.
On the acoustic level the effect of prominence is achieved by following acoustic parameters.
- Intensity;
- Duration;
- Frequency (fundamental);
- Formed structure.

Word stress (WS) is the singling out of one or more syllables in a word which is accompanied by the change of the
force of utterance, pitch of the voice, qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the sound, which is usually a vowel.
In different languages one of the factors constituting the word stress is usually more significant then the others.
1. Dynamic or force stress – if special prominence in a stressed syllable or syllables is achieved by the greater force
of articulation, which results in greater loudness on the auditory level and greater intensity on the acoustic level.
English, German, French, Russian and all European languages have this stress.
2. Musical or tonic. If special prominence in a stressed syllable is mainly achieved through the change of pitch or
musical tone. It is observed in the oriental languages. The meaning of the words in these languages depends on the
pitch levels of these syllables. In Scandinavian languages the stress is both dynamic and musical
3. Quantitative. If special prominence in the stressed syllables is achieved through the changes in the quantity of the
vowels which are longer in the stressed syllables than in unstressed ones. Ukrainian and Russian WS is considered
to be mainly quantitative. In English the quantitative component of word stress is not very important because of the
non-reduced vowels in the unstressed syllables, which sometimes occur in English words.
4. Qualitative type of stress is achieved through the changes on the quality of the vowel under stress. It is
distinguished because in many languages the quality of vowels in stressed syllables differs greatly of the quality of
vowels in unstressed syllables.

English word stress is of a complex nature

- dynamic
- quantitative
- qualitative
24
Ukrainian word stress is considered to be primarily quantitative and secondary qualitative and dynamic.
II The opinions of the phoneticians differ as to how many degrees of stress are linguistically relevant in word. They are
linguistically relevant because they help to differentiate the meanings of English words.
1. The British linguists (Johns and Kindong) and Russian (Vassiliev) consider that there are 3 degrees of word stress
in English
- primary or strong
- secondary or partial
- weak unstressed syllables

2. American linguists (Glisson, Hill) distinguish 4 degrees of word stress:

- primary
- secondary
- tertiary
- weak
Secondary stress occurs before the primary stress while tertiary stress occurs after the primary stress. The
difference between secondary and tertiary stress is very subtle and subjective. The criteria are very vague. In General
American a tertiary stress effects suffixes of nouns: -ary, -ory, -ony and suffixes of verbs: -ate, -ize, -y which are
considered unstressed in Received Pronunciation.
ˈTerriˌtory, ˈdictioˌnary, ˈorgaˌnize
Tertiary word stress can be taken for a variant of the secondary word stress because there are no words in English the
meaning of which depends on whether they have secondary or tertiary stress. That is why the stress patterns of English
words can be defined as 3 degrees of stress: primary, secondary, weak.
The British conception of 3 degrees is accepted as a teaching law. In Russian and Ukrainian word stressed system there
are only 2 degrees – primary and weak.

III. Stress can be fixed and free. In languages with the fixed stress the place of stress is limited to a particular syllable
in a multi syllable word. In Finnish, Czech and Slovak the stress always falls on the first syllable. In Italian and Welsh it
is on the one but last syllable. In French and Turkish the stress falls on the last syllable.
In languages with a free stress its place is not confined to a specific position in a word.
In English Russian Ukrainian word stress is free. That is it may fall on any syllable in a word.
Besides the word stress in the English, Ukrainian and Russian is not only free but it’s also shifting and it performs the
semantic function of differentiating lexical units, parts of speech and grammatical forms:
The ˈcontrast - to conˈtrast

Though English stress is free there are certain factors or tendencies that determine the place and different degrees of
word stress.
Vassiliev describes them as follows:
- recessive tendency
- rhythmic tendency
- retentive tendency
- semantic factor

1. According to the recessive tendency stress falls on the first syllable which is generally the root syllable. It can be
of 2 subtypes:
Unstriked – is observed in the native English words and in the assimilated French borrowings having no prefix.
(ˈmother, ˈdaughter, ˈcolour, ˈrestaurant).
Restricted – is characterized by placing the word accent on the root of the word if this word has a prefix which has lost
its meaning (beˈcome, beˈgin, aˈway)

2. Rhythmical tendency results in alternating stressed and unstressed syllables. It caused the appearance of the
secondary stress in multy-syllabic words
ˌOrganiˈzation
ˌRevoˈlution
According to the rhythmical tendency primary stress is on the third syllable from the end in 3 and 4 syllable words.
ˈCinema
ˈSituate
Inˈtensity
In words with more than 4 syllables we very often find the influence of both – the rhythmic and recessive tendencies.
ˌIndi'visible
All this variations are accepted in the Johns dictionary.
Under the influence of rhythm the accentual structure of the word can be pronounced with one single stress under the
influence of rhythm. The rhythmic stress affects the stress patterns of a great number of words in English.
ˈPictuˈresque

25
Under the influence of rhythm compounds of 3 elements may have a single stress on the second syllable.

3. Retentive tendency is characteristic by the retention of the primary accent in the derivation on the same syllable on
which it falls in the parent word.
ˈSimilar - ˈsimilarly
More commonly the primary stress is retained on the derivative word as the secondary accent
ˈSimilar – ˌsimiˈlarity
ˈPersonal - ˌpersoˈnality
ˈNation – ˌnatioˈnality

4. According to the semantic tendency words with separate prefixes and compound words have two equally strong
stresses
ˈUnˈknown
ˈTwenty ˈone
Such prominence is given to negative prefix :
- un, in, mis, anti, non
- ex, vice, sub, under, ultra
- teen
- semantically important element in compound word
ˈwell-ˈknown
A special analysis of English stress was made by Torsuev. He worked out the typology of accentual structure. He
distinguishes more then 100 stress patterns, which form 11 main types. (Sokolova M.A. A theoretical course, p.127-
128). He classifies them according to the number of stressed syllables, their degree or character (the primary and the
secondary stress). Accentual types and accentual structures are closely connected with the morphological type of words,
with the number of syllables, the semantic value of the root and the prefix of the word.

The accentual types are:

1. / ┴ ─ /. (74%)This accentual type marks both simple and compound words. The accentual structures of this
type may include two and more syllables, e.g. 'fafher, 'possibly, 'mother-in-law, 'gas-pipe.
2. / ┴ ┴ /. (20%) The accentual type is commonly realized in compound words, most of them are with
separable prefixes, e.g. 'radio-'active, 're'write, 'diso'bey.
3. / ┴ ┴ ┴ / and 4. / ┴ ┴ ┴ ┴ /. The accentual types are met in initial compound abbreviations like 'U'S'A,
'U'S'S'R.
5. / ┴ ┬ ─ /. The type is realized both in simple and compound words, very
common among compound words, e.g. 'hair-,dresser, 'substructure.
6. / ┬ ┴ ─/. (3%) The accentual type marks a great number of simple words and some compound words as
well. In simple words the stresses fall onto:
1. the prefix and the root: ˌmaga'zine;
2. the root and the suffix: ˌhospi'tality;
3. the prefix and the suffix: ˌdisorganiˈzation.
The most widely spread among the enumerated accentual types is supposed to be Type 1, Type 2, Type 5 and
Type 6. Each type includes varieties of definite accentual structures with different numbers of syllables and marks
thousands of words. So the four of them cover the main bulk of most common English words and are therefore most
typical for the English vocabulary.
The variability of the word accentual structure is multiplied in connected speech. The accentual structure of
words may be altered under the influence of rhythm, e.g. An 'unpolished 'stone but: The 'stone was un'polished.
The tempo of speech may influence the accentual pattern of words. With the quickening of the speed the carefulness of
articulation is diminished, the vowels are reduced or elided, the secondary stress may be dropped, e.g. The 'whole
organi'zation of the 'meeting was 'faulty.

FUNCTIONS OF WORD STRESS

1. Constitutive
2. Identificatory or recognative
3. Distinctive

1. Word stress constitutes a word. It organizes the syllables of a word into a language unit. A word doesn’t exist
without the word stress. Word stress performs the constitutive function.
2. Word stress has this function because the stress patterns of words enable people identify definite combinations of
sounds as meaningful linguistic units. A distortion of the stress patterns can hamper understanding or produce the
strange accent.
3. Word stress is capable of differentiation the meaning of words and their forms.

26
 UTTERANCE (SENTENCE) STRESS
In a sentence or in an intonation group some of the words are of greater importance than the others. This
largely depends on the situation or context. Words, which provide most information, are brought out in speech by
means of utterance (sentence) stress.
The special prominence given to one or more words according to their relative importance in an utterance is
called utterance stress. (The term “sentence stress” is not quite precise, as sentence often implies a syntactical structure
only).
The main function of the sentence stress is to single out the communicative center of the utterance, which
introduces new information. The prominence is realized by the variations of pitch, force, length and quality. The most
prominent part of a sentence is the last stressed syllable, which takes the nuclear tone. The second in weight is the first
stressed word, which often has the highest pitch and is fairy loud.

Eg. The ˈdoctor ˈsays it’s ˈnot imˋportant.

The distribution of the stresses in a sentence depends on the semantic value of words and is closely connected
with the lexical and grammatical structure of the sentence. In most languages there is natural tendency to subordinate
form word to content (notional) words in stress. This is especially the case of English.
Types of utterance stress.
We differentiate 3 types of utterance stress.
1. Normal or syntactical (non-nuclear)
2. Logical (nuclear)
3. Emphatic
A separate word, when used as a sentence , is always stressed, eg.: ˎNonsense. ˎListen.
In a sentence consisting of more than one word, some of words are left unstressed, eg.: I should ˎmeet him.

Normal utterance stress is used to arrange words into sentences or intonation groups phonetically. Together
with grammatical and lexical means it expresses the general idea of the sentence and indicates its communicative
center. The nuclear syllable is generally associated with the last content word of the intonation group.

Eg. We have ˈplenty of ˋtime.

The position of the last utterance stress determines the place of the nucleus of the communicative center. By
shifting the position of the last stress we can change the place of the nucleus of the communicative center.
In unemphatic (normal) speech, words essential to the meaning of the utterance are normally stressed (nouns,
adjectives, notional verbs, adverbs, demonstrative and interrogative pronouns, numbers).
Words of smaller semantic value or those with the purely grammatical function (articles, prepositions,
conjunctions, particles, auxiliary, modal and link verbs, personal and possesive pronouns) are usually unstressed.
Spoken English shows a marked contrast between its stressed and unstressed syllables. Words, which bear the
major part of information are generally stressed and are called content (or notional) words. These are nouns, adjectives,
notional verbs, adverbs, numerals, interrogative and demonstrative pronouns. The other words in a sentence are mostly
form (or structural) words, which link the content words and help us in this way to form an utterance. They are: articles,
prepositions, conjunctions, particles, and also auxiliary and modal verbs, personal and possessive pronouns. Form-
words are normally unstressed in a sentence and their weak, reduced forms are generally used. Content words are
normally stressed in a sentence and their strong forms are used. In the strong form the vowels are fully pronounced. In
the weak forms, they are shortened so that we can say the words more quickly. Often the vowel in the weak form is a
schwa / ə / sound.

Auxiliary verbs
spelling do does did shall will should would
strong du: dʌz dɪd ʃæl wɪl ʃʊd wʊd
weak dʊ;də;d dəz - ʃəl; ʃl;l wl; l ʃəd; d wəd; d

To be
spelling be am are is was were
strong bi: æm ɑ: ɪz wɒz wɜ:
weak bɪ əm; m ə s; z wəz wə
To have
spelling have has had
strong hæv hæz hæd
weak həv; v həz; z həd; d

Articles

27
spelling a an the
Strong eɪ æn ðe; ði:
weak ə ən ðə; ðɪ

Modal verbs
spelling can could must
strong kæn kʊd mʌst
weak kən; kn; ŋ kəd məst
Prepositions, conjunctions
spelling that as for from of to at but and
strong ðæt æz fɔ: frɒm ɒv tu: æt bʌt ænd
weak ðət əz fə frəm əv tə, tʊ ət bət ənd

Pronouns
spelling he she we you me her us them your our
strong hi: ʃi: wi: ju: mi: hɜ: ʌs ðem jɔ: aʊə
weak hı ʃı wı jʊ mı hə əs ðəm jə aə

Cases of usage of strong forms of form words

The strong forms of form words are by far rarely used. They are used in their strong form when they are said in
isolation, when they become communicative centers of the utterances. The following cases should be also remembered
as the traditional use of strong forms in the English language.
Prepositions.
- at the very end of an intonation group or phrase; eg. What are you looking at?
- at the end of intonation group or phrase when they are followed by the unstressed pronoun; eg. She wants the
best for me.
- polysyllabic prepositions followed by a pronoun at the end of a phrase are stressed as a rule; eg. He sat
opposite her.
Auxiliary and modal verbs.
- at the end of the intonation group or a phrase whether stressed or not (short answers);
- at the beginning of general and alternative questions in careful colloquial style, while in rapid colloquial style
they are unstressed and reduced;
- in contracted negative forms;

What, where, when, how, which, on, in, with, off, then have no weak forms.
The demonstrative pronoun ‘that’ is never reduced while the conjunction ‘that’ is.
The verb ‘to have’ used as a content verb in the meaning of ‘to possess’ has no weak forms (whether stressed or not)
though often unstressed.
Neither are reduced the absolute forms of possessive pronouns (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs).

The type of utterance stress, which gives special prominence to a new element in a sentence or an intonation
group is called logical stress (special, shifting, corrective). The logical stress is one of the most expressive means of
oral speech.
Eg. ˈNelly ˈspoke to him ˋyesterday.
ˈNelly ˈspoke to ˋhim yesterday.
ˋNelly ˈspoke to him ˈyesterday.
Logically different messages are expressed in the given sentences. Each shifting of the stress modifies the
meaning of the sentence. The words following the logical stress remain unstressed. The examples above show that
logical stress is one of the most expressive means of oral speech. Any word in the sentence including form words,
personal and possessive pronouns, auxiliary and modal verbs may become the nucleus of the communicative centre of
the sentence and may be logically stressed as carrying new information, eg.: ̖You must help him.

Emphatic stress. Most human utterances express not only the speaker's thoughts, but also his feelings and
attitudes to reality and to the contents of the sentence. Both normal and logical stresses can be unemphatic or emphatic.
When the speaker’s aim is to express only the intellectual content of the thought, i.e. when he does not mean to
express his own attitude or emotions, and does not wish to give any particular prominence (emphasis) to any part of the
utterance, his speech may be called unemphatic or normal (emphasis = prominence).
Falling and rising intonation (LF, LR) are most commonly used in unemphatic speech, eg.:
ˈLet’s take a ˎtaxi.
Have you ˈbeen to the ˏZoo?
However, people often desire either to make the whole of the utterance particularly significant or to make one or
more words more prominent than the others do because the speaker is surprised, the speaker wants to correct what the
other person is saying, or the speaker is impatient. Such aims can be achieved in emphatic speech (emotional) in
28
many ways by speech melody, sentence stress, rhythm, tempo and timbre. Emphatic stress increases the effort of
expression. Emphatic stress manifests itself mainly on the High Fall, High Rise or the Rise-Fall of the nuclear syllable.
To emphasize the utterance, one or more separate words we can:
1. Increase the stress on all the stressed words, eg.:
He ˋdoesn’t ˋsound ˋIrish at ˋall!
2. Omit stresses on all the words which are normally stressed in unemphatic speech, leaving stress only on the
nucleus, eg.:
Unemphatic: ˈWhat are you ˈgoing to ˎdo aˈbout it?
Emphatic: What are you going to ˋdo about it?
3. Stress one of the words that are normally unstressed in unemphatic speech (personal pronouns, prepositions,
auxiliary verbs, etc.), eg.:
ˋYou should go there.
4. Use the special rise, eg.:
I ˈsaw ˈclearly eˎnough that I was ↑not ˋwelcome.
This “special” rise can be used more than once in the same utterance.
5. Use one of the main widely-ranged tones (high fall, high rise, rise-fall, fall-rise) on the word to be made
emphatic, eg.:
Unephatic: You ˈcan’t ˎwalk, it’s ˈtoo ˎfar.
Emphatic: You ˈcan’t ˇwalk, it’s ˈtoo ˋfar.
6. Another way of adding emphasis is by modifying the shape of the head. Sliding, scandant and rising heads
are the emphatic variants, eg.:
I ↘hate doing ↘nothing.
7. Sometimes when we want to give extra emphasis, we use full forms instead of contractions. In some cases,
where there is no auxiliary verb, we use the verb ‘do’ to give emphasis. Auxiliary verbs in this case are stressed, eg.:
I am surprised!
I have got a sore throat!
She will be disappointed!
Do have a drink!
I did tell her before she came!

There seemed to be two main motives for giving prominence, i.e. emphasis, in speech; they are intensity and
contrast. (D.Jones)
Intensity emphasis is often used on word, which contain in their lexical meaning a possibility of some degree or
quantity, such as: crowds, tons, miles, hours, enormous, tiny, adore, lovely, awful, wonderful, etc., eg.:
ˋLots!
ˆTerribly ˋfoolish.
Contrast emphasis is possible with any words, including purely grammatical (“empty”) words, eg.:
ˈNow it’s ˋyour turn.
Tempo, pitch of the voice, loudness and pausation also are the means to make the utterance emphatic.

FUNCTIONS OF UTTERANCE STRESS

1. Distinctive function. This function manifests itself in differentiating utterances as to their meaning, which is
conditioned by the position and type of stress, differentiating actual meaning and its syntactical structure
Eg. ˈDon’t you ˈfind it ˊdifficult?
2. Constitutive. Stress form the accentual structure of the utterance, which is the basis of its rhythm.
3. Identificatory. Utterance stress provides the basis for the hearer’s identification of the important parts of the
utterance and for the understanding of the content.

LECTURE IV

Module 4. Prosodic Organization of English Speech.

1. English rhythm, its types and functions.
2. Intonation: definition, approaches, functions.
3. Components of intonation and the structure of English tone-group.
4. Graphical notation.
5. Types of heads (scales).

RHYTHM
Speech rhythm is traditionally defined as recurrence of stressed syllables at more or less equal intervals of
time in a speech continuum. We can also give more detailed definition of speech rhythm as the regular alternation of

29
 acceleration and slowing down, of relaxation and intensification, of length and brevity, of similar and dissimilar
elements within a speech event.
In speech, the type of rhythm depends on the language. Linguists divide languages into two groups: syllable-
timed like French, Spanish and other Romance languages, and stressed-timed languages, such as Germanic languages,
English and German, as well as Russian.
In syllable-timed languages the speaker gives an approximately equal amount of time to each syllable, whether
the syllable is stressed or unstressed.
In stressed-timed languages of which English is a good example, the rhythm is based on a larger unit than
syllable. Though the amount of time given on each syllable varies considerably, the total time of uttering each rhythmic
unit is practically unchanged.
In teaching practice it is essential not only to stress the notional words properly but also to leave conjunctions,
prepositions, auxiliary and modal verbs, personal and possessive pronouns reduced or elided.
The basic rhythmic unit is a rhythmic group, which contains a stressed syllable with preceding or/and
following unstressed syllables attached to it. The stressed syllable is the prosodic nucleus of the rhythmic group. The
initial unstressed syllables preceding the nucleus (stressed syllable) are called proclitic; those following the nucleus are
called enclitics.
In qualifying the unstressed syllables located between the stressed ones there are two main alternative views
among the phoneticians: semantic tendency and enclitic tendency of the division into rhythmic groups.
According to the semantic tendency the unstressed syllables tend to be drawn towards the stressed syllable of
the same word or to the lexical unit according to their semantic connection, concord with other words.
According to the enclitic tendency the unstressed syllables between the stressed ones tend to join the preceding
stressed syllable. Enclitic tendency is more typical for the spoken English.
So the division into rhythmic groups is no an easy matter. It may well be said the speech tempo and style often
regulate the division into rhythmic groups. The enclitic tendency is more typical for informal style whereas the semantic
tendency prevails in accurate, more explicit speech.
A sense group may consist of one or more rhythmic groups. There are as many rhythmic groups in an
intonation group as there are stressed syllables.
The most frequent type of rhythmic group includes 2-4 syllables, one of them stressed, others unstressed.

■▪■■▪■▪ ■▪▪▪■▪▪■▪
THE BASIC RULES OF ENGLISH RHYTHM
(Enclitic Tendency)
1. The stressed syllables in an intonation group follow each other at regular intervals of time; only in very long
rhythmic groups, containing many unstressed syllables, this regularity is not strictly observed.
2. Most non-initial rhythmical groups begin with a stressed syllable; unstressed syllables occurring inside an
intonation group have a tendency to cling to the preceding stressed syllable, forming its enclitics; only initial unstressed
syllables always cling to the following stressed syllable, forming its proclitics.
3. The greater number of unstressed syllables intervening between stressed ones, the more rapidly they are
pronounced.
4. Initial unstressed syllables are always pronounced rapidly, the vowels in them are shortened.
5. The unstressed syllables that follow the stressed ones are pronounced rather quickly. They form a cluster with
stressed syllables. And it takes equal time to pronounce the stressed syllable plus any given number of the following
unstressed syllables before the next stress.
6. Each intonation group has a rhythm of its own, depending on the degree of semantic importance attached to it
in comparison with the other intonation group of the utterance.
In the examples of rhythmical groups of different structures given below, rhythmical groups are marked with a curve
below the line.

30
The influence of rhythm is very important.
1. As it is necessary to pronounce stressed syllables at more or less regular intervals of time and to fit in
unstressed syllables between them, it influence on the length of English sound especially vowels. Stressed
vowels are shorter if followed by unstressed syllables than if followed by another stressed syllable.

2. When there are many unstressed syllables they are pronounced quicker and their vowels are shorter than when
there are few of them.
Eg. She 'thinks you 'came to ˋsee her.

She 'thinks you should have 'come by 'six o’ ˋclock.

3. There is a strong tendency in connected English speech to avoid stressing two syllables in succession. Under
the influence of this peculiarity words normally pronounced with two equally strong stresses or with a primary
or secondary stress in isolation, very often lose one of the stresses in connected speech.

'Un'known: He was an 'unknown ˋpoet.

He was 'quite unˋknown.
'Fif'teen: He is 'fifteen years ˋold.
He is 'just fifˋteen.
'Good-'looking: She is a 'good-looking ˋgirl.
She is 'quite good-ˋlooking.
ˈConver'sation: It was a 'short converˋsation.
The 'conversation ˋstopped.

4. Under the influence of the same tendency of English rhythm, of the alteration of stressed and unstressed
syllables, word with full lexical meaning may loose their stress in a sense-group.
Eg. He 'left ˋLondon. – 'John left ˋLondon.
'Very ˋgood. – 'Not very ˋgood.
'How ˋmany? – 'How many ˋbooks are there on the 'table?
The words with double stress may lose the first stress when preceded by another strongly stressed syllable, or
they may lose the second stress when followed by another strongly stressed syllable, eg.:
1. Numerals, eg.: ˈSevenˈteen; ˈnumber sevenˈteen; ˈseventeen ˈpencils.
2. Years : the –teen numbers are stressed on the first syllable when they come at the beginning of years and on
the second when they come at the end of years, eg.:
1314 – ˈthirteen fourˎteen.
When we pronounce three numbers the sentence stress goes on the first and the last number, eg.: 1603 – ˈsixteen o-
ˎthree; 1776 – ˈseventeen seventy-ˎsix.
3. Time, eg.: 9.25 – ˈnine twenty ˎfive.
4. Compounds having a double stress are influenced by the rhythm in the following way:
 When used finally, preceded by unstressed syllables or when used between unstressed syllables, the compounds
have double stress, eg.: It was ˈfirst ˎclass. It was ˈold -ˎfashioned.
 When preceded by a stressed syllable the compounds are stressed on the second element, eg.: They are ˈall
first-ˎclass. It is ˈtoo old-ˎfashioned.
 When used as attributes before nouns stressed on the first syllable, the stress falls on the first element of the
compound, eg.: It’s a ˈhome-made ˎjam. She is a ˈgood-looking ˎgirl.
 When two nouns occur together, the first being used attributively, the second is not stressed, eg.: ˈfilm star,
ˈmother car. But if the second noun is polysyllabic it must be stressed, eg.: ˈpicture ˈgallery, deˈtective ˈstory.
 Adjectives on – ese have the suffix stressed when goes at the end of the utterunce and preceded by the stressed
syllable, eg.:
ˈJane is chiˎnese.
When it is followed by the stressed syllable or has an opposition the first stress is retained, eg.:
He is a ˈjapanese ˎfilm director.
She is not portuˎguese. She is ˎnepalese.
5.Age and duration as adjectives. The distribution of the sentence stress in such expressions is as follows: the number
and the last word are stressed. The main stress is on the last word, eg.: ˈRuth ˈLawrence is ˈten years ˎold. – She’s a
ˈten-year-old ˎgirl.

31
The eˈxams she ˏtook ∣ ˈlasted three ˎhours. – They were ˈthree-hour eˎxam.
6. Multi-word verbs (compound verbs). Most verbs are notional words in a combination of a verb and a preposition or
an adverb both normally receive stress, eg.: ˈtake ˈup, ˈtake ˈoff, ˈput ˈon. Prepositions/adverbs lose the stress
when preceded by a stressed syllable, eg.: “ˈPut your ˎhat on,” but “ ˈPut it ˎon.” In the second case, the adverb is
stressed because it is preceded by an unstressed syllable.
Some rules for stress in multi-word verbs
Notice some of these multi-word verbs are separated and some are not separated.
e.g.: put smb. up look after smb or smth
make smth up come round
pull smth down look at smb or smth
put smth off listen to smth
bring smb up take after smb
wait for smb or smth
look for smb or smth
take off
1. If they are separated by noun, there is a stress on the verb, noun and adverb/preposition, eg.:
The ˈmanager has ˈput the ˈmeeting ˎoff.
2. If they are separated by pronoun , there is a stress on the verb, and the adverb/preposition, eg.:
The ˈmanager has ˈput it ˎoff.
3. If they are not separated, the adverb/preposition is not normally stressed (in the active form) , eg.:
ˈLook at that ˈman in the ˈfunny ˋhat!
4. If the multi-word verbs have no object, the verb and the adverb/preposition are stressed, eg.:
The ˈplane ˈtook ˎoff.
5. If there is another preposition in the multi-word verb, after the preposition/adverb, the preposition/adverb is
stressed – the second preposition is not stressed, eg.:
I ˈget ˈon with my ˎbrother.
The ˈchildren get ˈon with my ˎbrother.

To acquire a good English speech rhythm one should arrange sentences into intonation groups and then into
rhythmical groups; link every word beginning with a vowel to the preceding word; weaken unstressed words and
syllables, obscuring the vowels in them; making the stressed syllables occur regularly within an intonation group.

FUNCTIONS OF RHYTHM

Rhythm is a complicated language system. This system comprises well organized elements of different
sizes in which smaller rhythmic units are joined into more complex ones: a rhythmic group – an intonation group –
a phrase (a line in poetry) – a phonopassage.
- Rhythm serves to unite elements in speech: smaller units are organized into larger ones, larger units include
smaller ones. So rhythm unites text segments into a whole and at the same time cuts the discourse into
elements. This is integrative and delimitative function.
- Rhythmically organized speech is easily perceived. From the psycholinguistic point of view the regularity in
rhythm seems to be in harmony with his biological rhythms.
- On the linguistic level the pragmatic value of speech rhythm is realized in its volitional function. Rhythm is
capable of expressing different degrees of emotional effect of the listener.
Eg. ˋWill you 'stop that 'dreadful ˋnoise.

INTONATION

The most essential speech unit, complete and independent enough to function as a unit of communication, is a
sentence. It can perform this function not only because it consists of words that are made up of definite sounds, have a
definite meaning, and follow each other in a definite order according to the rules of language, but also because it
possesses definite phonetic features without which the sentence cannot exist. These features are closely connected with
a meaning of the utterance as a whole and carry important information that the words of the utterance do not convey.
Each feature performs a definite task and all of them work simultaneously.
They are:
1. Pitch of the voice: does not stay on the same level while the sentence is pronounced, it fluctuates rising and
falling on the vowels and voiced consonants. These rises and falls are not chaotic but form definite patterns,
typical English. The fluctuations of the voice-pitch are called speech melody.
2. Sentence stress or accent – is a greater prominence of one or more words among other words in the same
sentence.
3. Tempo – is the relative speed with which sentences and intonation group are pronounced in connected speech.
4. Speech timbre / 'tæmbə/ - is a special colouring of voice which shows the speaker’s emotions (pleasure,
displeasure, sorrow, etc).

32
 5. Pauses – sentences are usually separated from each other by pauses. If necessary, the sentence is subdivided
into shorter word-groups, according to sense. These are called sense-groups or syntagms. The pauses between
sentences are characterized by a relative long pause. The pauses between sense-groups (intonation groups) are
shorter, they very in length. There may be no pauses between intonation groups at all.
6. Rhythm. The result of subtle interrelation of stress and time is a peculiar rhythm resembling a drumbeat.
All the phonetic features of the sentence mentioned above (pauses, speech melody, sentence stress, rhythm,
tempo, timbre) form a complex unity called intonation.

FUNCTIONS OF INTONATION
1. Sentence forming.
2. Sentence delimiting.
3. Distinctive.
4. Attitudinal.

1. Intonation serves to form sentences and intonation groups, organizes words into groups.
2. The end of the sentence is always recognized by a pause of different length combined with a moving tone,
delimits one group from another.
3. To define the communicative type of sentences or intonation groups. Communicatively different types of
sentences are distinguished by intonation alone.
4. To express the speaker’s thoughts, to convey attitudinal meaning.
One and the same grammatical structure and lexical composition of the sentence may express different meaning
when pronounced with different intonation.

Eg. →Isn’t it riˊdiculous? (general question)

Isn’t it riˋdiculous! (exclamation)

INTONATION GROUP

Long simple sentences, extended, compound and complex are subdivided into intonation groups. Intonation
group division depends on the meaning of the sentence, the grammatical structure of the utterance and the style of
speech. In writing punctuation marks are sometimes hints for a reader how to split the sentence into intonation groups,
but they are not always dependable. Though there is often some choice in how we divide up phrases into intonation
groups, the speakers should be very particular about intonation group division. There are cases, of course, when
intonation group division is especially important for the meaning.
Each intonation group is characterized by a definite intonation pattern. The number of intonation groups in the
sentence may be different. Each syllable of an intonation group has a certain pitch and bears a larger or smaller degree
of prominence. Consequently, pitch levels are inseparably connected with stress. Intonation patterns consist of one or
more syllables. Intonation pattern consisting of a number of syllables has the following parts.

THE COMPONENNTS OF INTONATION GROUP

Eg.: It was a 'very 'sunny ˋday yesterday.

│    
│   │   
 │  │    
pre-head head (scale) nucleus tail

terminal tone

THE SYSTEM OF NOTATION USED IN THE LECTURE

 - unstressed syllable
 - stressed syllable
 - syllable pronounced with a fall in pitch within that syllable

 - final rise

 - parallel lines represent the upper and lower limits of human voice or the range of the
voice
33

 - two vertical bars denote long pauses which usually occur at the end of a sentence


 - single vertical bar denotes a short pause inside a sentence (punctuation marks)
 delimiting one sense group from another

 - special rise
 - Fall-Rise
 - Rise - Fall


 - rising intonation with unstressed syllables


 - High Fall
 - Mid Fall
 - Low Fall


 - High Rise
 - Mid Rise
 - Low Rise


- Vertical wavy bar, very short optional (facultative) pause. Shows hesitation

when the speaker searches his memory for an appropriate words.



- Two vertical wavy bars within a sense group. Is used for emphasis (to create
 suspense). Such pause is called a caesurae / si:ˈzju:ərə/

THE PRE-HEAD

Pre-head includes unstressed and half stressed syllables before the first stressed syllable.
1. Low pre-head (emotionally neutral or normal) – unstressed syllables are pronounced at a low pitch or
gradually ascending in pitch towards the head (unemphatic speech).

 
 
 

2. High pre-head (emotional) – unstressed syllables are pronounced with high pitch in emphatic speech.






THE HEAD

Head (scale) - stressed syllables and unstressed syllables beginning with the first stressed syllable.

TYPES OF HEADS (SCALES)

34
Head patterns are classified into three major groups: level, descending and ascending.

Level Heads (normal speech)

In the Level Head (high, mid, low) all the syllables are pronounced on the same high pitch. The High Level
Head is commonly used in conversation.

I 'don’t 'want to 'go to the ˋcinema.

Descending Heads

Stepping (normal speech): Our 'classes be'gan at 'three o’ˋclock.

In the Descending Stepping Head there may be two or more fully stressed syllables. Each fully stressed syllable
beginning with the second is lower in pitch than the preceding syllable. Unstressed and partially stressed syllables are
said on the same pitch as the previous fully stressed syllable. The Descending Stepping Head may be used in written texts
being read aloud, formal conversation, lecturing.

Falling (normal speech): Our 'classes be'gan at 'three o’ˋclock.

Sliding (emphatic speech): Our classes be ˋgan at ˋthree o’ˋclock.

The Sliding Head is formed by a sequence of slides. In the Descending Sliding Head each preceding stressed
syllable starts on a higher pitch than the following one. The descent in pitch has a jumpy or wavy character. Unstressed
and partially stressed syllables in this type of head gradually carry the pitch down. The Sliding Head is used in lively
conversation and in reading emotionally colored texts.

Scandant (emphatic speech): Our classes be gan at three o’ˋclock.

The Descending Scandent Head is formed by a sequence of "climbs", i.e. upward pitch changes corresponding to
each of the stressed syllables. The stressed syllables form a descending contour. Unstressed and partially stressed
syllables continue the rise of the voice initiated on the preceding stressed syllable. Utterances pronounced with the
Scandent Head sound lively and expressive.

35
 Ascending Heads (emphatic speech)

Rising:

Climbing:

According to the regularity of their pitch movements, heads can be regular and broken.
Broken: it helps to convey different emotions. It is attitudinal function (special rise or attitudinal rise).
The Descending Stepping Head may have a monotonous effect which can be avoided by making an upward break in the
middle of the head, after which a downward movement of the pitch is resumed. This pattern is described in this case as
the Broken Descending Stepping Head. The upward break is usually made on words of sufficient semantic importance.
They usually express a very great or very small size, quantity, unexpected actions and so on.

He 'promised to 'come in a ↑half an ˋhour.

Nucleus – the last stressed syllable in which the pitch movement changes. The nucleus is usually of a highest
importance: it is on this syllable that the whole pitch pattern centers. There are 8 nuclear tones in English.

Low (medium) Fall ˎNo

High Fall ˋNo
Rise-Fall ˆNo
Low (medium) Rise ˏNo
High Rise ́No
Fall-Rise ˇNo
Rise-Fall-Rise ́ ˋ ˊNo
Mid level  No

The nucleus defines the communicative type of the sentence, determines the semantic value of the intonation group,
and indicates the communicative centre of the intonation group or of the whole sentence. The communicative centre is
associated with the most important word or words of the intonation group or of the sentence. The communicative type
of the whole sentence determines the nuclear tone of the final intonation group. The communicative types of the
sentences are differentiated in speech according to the aim of the utterance from the point of view of communication in
order to show if the sentence expresses a statement of fact, a question, a command or an exclamation. There are 4
communicative types of sentences:
1. Statement: HF – straightforward; LR – friendly; FR, RF – implicatory.
2. Questions: special – HF, LF
General – HR, LR
Alternative – HR/LF;
Disjunctive - HF/LR; LF/LF.
3. Imperatives: HF – commands, order; LR – requests.
4. Exclamatory: HF.
The intonation pattern of the non-final intonation group, mainly its nuclear tone, is determined by its connection
with the following intonation group.
The falling nuclear tone shows that the non-final intonation group is complete, important by itself and is not so
closely connected with the following intonation group.
I’ll tell him ˋall | when he ̀comes.

36
 The rising nuclear tone shows that the non-final intonation group is closely connected in meaning with the
following intonation group and is not important by itself and implies continuation.
Generally ˊspeaking | I pre'fer ˋtennis.
The intonation pattern is also modified by the speaker’s attitude towards his utterance.
In English notional words (nouns, ajectives, verbs, numerals, adverbs) are generally stressed. Form words and most
pronouns (personal and possessive mainly) are generally unstressed. But any part of speech may be stressed if it is
semantically important.

'What ˋhe is 'going to 'do? (he is communicative centre)

Kinetic (nuclear) tone Meaning

The Mid –Level Tone Non-final, incomplete
The High Falling Tone Final, insistent, personally concerned
The Low Falling Tone Final, categorical, calm, serious, reserved, weighty
The High Rising Tone Non-final, questioning, expressing interest, surprise, asking
for repetition
The Low Rising Tone Non-final, non-categorical, encouraging, wandering,
questioning, expressing interest, sceptical, soothing
The Falling-Rising Tone / The Falling-Rising Tone Expressing concern, reproach, hesitation, uncertainty,
Divided (the two elements of the Fall-Rise are realized contradiction, correction, other kinds of implication
on two different words: ˋThat ˏgood)
The Rising-Falling Tone A quizzical tone. What the speaker admits or denies is in
conflict with his own or his interlocutor’s previous opinion.

Intonation contour/tune

Simple Compound Combine

1 intonation group, 1 intonation group, 2 or more intonation groups
1 kinetic tone 2 or more kinetic tones

INTONATION OF DIFFERENT COMMUNICATIVE TYPES

OF UTTERANCES (SENTENCES)

STATEMENTS (DECLARATIVE)
1.* Low Fall. In this case they are final, complete and definite or if it is a grumble (normal speech),
eg.:
I ˈwanted to ˈgo there imˎmediately.
I ˈdidn't exˈpect to ˎsee you here.
2. High Fall. In this case statements sound categoric, concerned and weighty. (emphatic speech) , eg.:
It was ˈnot so ˋeasy.
3. Low Rise. If the statement is intended to be soothing or encouraging, warm and friendly, eg.:

37
 It's ˈall ˏright.
Statements are also used with the low rising tone when they are intended as questions, eg.:
You ˏlike it?
4. Fall-Rise. If the statement is a correction of what someone else has
said or a contradiction to something previously uttered or a
warning, eg.:
E.g. Verbal Context Response
He is ˎthirty. He is ˈthirty ˇfive.

QUESTIONS
General
General question is the type of the question which demands a yes or no answer, it is pronounced with rising
tone. They do not contain question word.
1.* Low Rise. With these patterns they sound generally interested, eg.:
Does he ˈever ˈcome to ˏLondon?
2. High Rise. Is often used in light and casual general questions, eg.: Can I ˈhelp at ˊall?
Elliptical general questions seem to be always pronounced with HR, eg.:
ˊLike it? (for: Do you ˊlike it?)
General questions with the order of a declarative sentence are always pronounced with HR, eg.:
You ˊwanted it back?
3. Low Fall expresses a serious suggestion or a subject for urgent discussion. The question sounds insistent,
detached, phlegmatic, reserved, eg.:
Are you ˈcertain he’ll ˎhelp? Can I ˎcount on that?
4. High Fall shows that the speaker is “willing to discuss the situation, though sometimes impatient that such
discussion should be necessary”, eg.:
Must we ˋtell him about it?

Special
These questions ask for information answers and contain a question word (Who, What, Why, How, etc.) . The
question words are stressed.
1.* Low Fall makes a special question sound rather flat and unsympathetic, eg.:
ˈWhat do you ˎwant for it?
2. High Fall makes a special question sound interested, brisk, business-like, eg.: ˈWhat’s your ˋname?
It expresses a lively and interested reaction to the situation, eg.:
ˋHow? ˈWho’s ˋthat.
3. Low Rise. If one wants to show much interest in the other person or
in the subject and sound friendly and sympathetic, eg.:
ˏWhere do you 'live now?
4. High Rise on the question word is for repeated or echoing special questions, eg.:
Verbal Context Response
I ˈwent with ˎJack. ˊWho did you ˈgo with?

Alternative
Alternative question indicating choice between two homogeneous parts is usually represented by two intonation
groups.
1.* The most usual way of pronouncing alternative question is to use the Low Rise in the first intonation group
and the Low Fall in the second one, eg:
Have you a ˏson or a ˎdaughter?
The final Low Fall in this type of question shows that the choice should be made of the two items expressed.
2. There may be a choice of three or more alternatives. In this case the intonation groups preceding the final one
are pronounced with the Low Rise as they may be treated as items of enumeration. The final intonation group has the
Low Fall, eg.: Would you like ˏmilk, ˏtea, or ˎcoffee?
3. Note: Alternative questions should not be mixed up with general questions which are pronounced with a rising
tone at the end, eg.:
Have you a ˏson or a ˎdaughter?
Have you a ˈson or a ˏdaughter? (Have you any children?)

Disjunctive
Disjunctive questions being simple sentences consist of at least two sense-groups represented by a statement
(affirmative or negative) and a tag question (negative or affirmative), corresponding to two intonation groups. The

38
choice of tones in disjunctive questions depends on the speaker’s certainty of the facts expressed in the first sense-
group.
1.* The most common pattern for a disjunctive question is the Law Fall in the first intonation group (a
statement) followed by the Law Rise in the tag question, eg.:
It is ˈquite ˎsimple, ˏisn’t it?
The pattern with the Law Rise of the tag question implies a mixture of positiveness and doubt, though it is quite
clear that the speaker inclines to one view rather than the other and that the listener’s agreement with that view is
expected. However, the speaker would not be very surprised if he were contradicted.
2.* The Law Fall in the second intonation group shows that the speaker demands agreement from the listener,
eg.:
He is a clever ˎman, ˎisn’t he?
Note: In conversational English, these tags have lost their questioning function and are often used formally. In
these cases they are pronounced with a very short pause and require no answer, eg.:
ˈLovely ˎday, ˎisn’t it?
3. In some cases, the first intonation group can be pronounced with the Law Rise or the Fall-Rise. When the
first intonation group ends with the Law Rise the Law Fall in the second intonation group appeals for confirmation or
support. The Law Fall in the tag is the sort of pattern, which is often used in talking to a child.
4. The second Law Rise may exactly echo the first in the statement. The first intonation group with the Law
Rise sounds protesting, calling the listener to revise his opinion, while the rise in the tag question manifests uncertainty,
eg.:
They will ˏcome, ˏwon’t they?

IMPERATIVES
Commands
1.* Low Fall. Commands are very powerful, intense, serious and strong. The speaker appears to take it for
granted that his words will be heeded, that he will be obeyed, eg.:
ˈTry the ˎother key.
Short commands pronounced with the Low Fall alone sound unemotional, calm, controlled, often cold, eg.:
ˎTake it. ˎStop it.
2. High Fall. Commands with the High Fall (associated with the same types of heads) seem to suggest a course
of action rather than to give an order; the speaker does not seem to be worrying whether he will be obeyed or not, eg.:
ˈPut some more ˋmilk in it.
3. Low Fall-Low Rise. An often heard pattern of an imperative sentence consisting of two intonation groups has
the Low Fall in the imperative itself and the Low Rise in the question tag, eg.:
Sit ˎdown, | ˏwon't you?
The positive tag question with the low rising terminal tone serves to soften the imperative of the first
intonation group, transform an order into something, more request-like, eg.:
Sit ˎdown, | ˏwill you?

Requests
1.* Low Rise. Reguests with the Low Rise sound soothing, encouraging, perhaps calmly patronising, eg.:
ˈDon't ˏmove.
2. Fall-Rise. Requests with the Fall-Rise sound pleading, express an urgent warning with the note of
reproach or concern, eg.:
ˈDon't forˈget to reˎmind ˏme. ˇCareful. ˇHelp me.

EXCLAMATIONS
1.* High Fall. It makes the utterance sound weighty and emphatic, eg.:
What a ˈwonderful ˋnews!
2. Low Fall. For exclamations which refer to something not very exciting or unexpected, eg.:
ˈThat’s ˎnice.
3. Low Rise. Is used to express airy, casual yet encouraging, often friendly exclamations, eg.:
ˈWell ˏdone!
4. Fall-Rise. It may express warmth, appreciation, sympathy or encouragement, eg.:
ˎAll ˏright!
1. Rise-Fall. Is used when the speaker is impressed, eg.:
ˆSplendid! How ˆmarvelous!

THE TAIL

The tail consists of the unstressed and half-stressed syllables that follow the nucleus.
1. A low tail is one in which everything that comes after a falling tone nucleus is pronounced in low pitch.

39
 

 
  

2. A rising tail occurs when all the syllables that come after a rising tone nucleus gradually rise in pitch.




 
LECTURE V

Module 5. Peculiarities of Modern Pronunciation of English Language, National and Regional Variants of
Pronunciation.
1. Types and styles of pronunciation.
2. Classification of pronunciation variants in English.
3. British and American pronunciation models.

PHONETIC STYLES

Phonostylistic is concerned with the study of phonetic phenomena and process from the stylistic point of view.
One of the objectives of phonostylistic is the study of intonation functional styles.
Phonetic functional styles: A person speaks differently on different occasions. The circumstances of reality
cause certain modification in speech. These circumstances or factors are called extra linguistic factors. They are:
- the aim of the utterance (purpose);
- the speaker’s attitude;
- the form of the communication (monologue, dialogue)
- the use of a form of speech (discussion, conversation, lecture)
- the degree of formality (friendly, official)
- the social status of the speakers and their relation to each other;
- the degree of spontaneity (prepared, unprepared, reading aloud);
- speaker’s individuality;
- social prominence;
- range of intelligibility;
- sex and age of the speaker.
Situational pronunciation varieties are called phonetic styles. Different ways of pronunciation caused by extra linguistic
factors and characterized by definite pronunciation features are called phonetic styles or styles of pronunciation.
There is no general accepted classification of phonetic styles.
Scherba distinguished 2 styles:
- the full;
- the colloquial.
Bulanin, Avanesov distinguished 3 styles:
- the full or elevated;
- the neutral (lectures, broadcasting);
- the colloquial.
Daniel Johns distinguished 5 styles:
- the rapid, familiar;
- the slower colloquial;
- the natural;
- the style of the stage;
- the style in singing.
Gaiduchik distinguished 5 styles:
- the solemn;
- the scientific-business;
- the official-business;
- The every day
- the familiar
Dubovskii:
- Formal – Official (public speech, official talks)
Neutral (lecture, business talks)
- Informal – Ordinary (conversation between colleges)
40
 Familiar (everyday conversation between friends or relatives).
- Declamatory.
We shall analyze the styles according to Socolova’s classification.
An intonation style can be defined as a system of integrated intonation means, which is used in a certain social
sphere and serves a definite aim in communication.
1.Informational (formal);
2.Scientific (academic);
3.Declamatory;
4.Publicistic;
5.Familiar (conversational).
The situational context and the speaker’s purpose determine the choice of intonation style. Intonation style
distinction is based on the assumption that there are three types of information present in communication:
- intellectual information
- emotional and altitudinal (modal) information
- volitional and desiderative information
Intonation plays a central role in stylistic differentiation of oral texts.
There are three types of intonation patterns used in oral communication:
- intonation patterns used for intellectual purposes
- intonation patterns used for emotional and attitudinal purposes
- intonation patterns used for volitional desiderative purposes
Informational (formal) style is characterised by the predominant use of intellectual intonation patterns. The
characteristic feature of informational style is the use of Law Pre-Head + Falling Head + Law Fall (Law Rise), normal
or slow speed of utterance and regular rhythm. It occurs in formal discourse where the task set by the sender of the
message is to communicate information without giving it any emotional or volitional evaluation. This intonation style is
used, for instance, by radio and television announcers when reading weather forecasts, news, etc. or in various official
situations. It is considered to be stylistically neutral.
In informational (formal) style intonation never contrasts with lexical and grammatical meanings conveyed by
words and constructions. Pausation is semantically predictable, that is, an intonation group here always consists of
words joined together by sense. Besides, it is important to note that intonation groups tend to be short; duration of
pauses varies from medium to long. Short pauses are rather rare.
In scientific (academic) style intellectual and volitional (or desiderative) intonation patterns are concurrently
employed. Basic intonation patterns are as follows: Law Pre-Head + Stepping Head (High Level Head) + Law Fall
(High Fall, Law Rise). The speaker's purpose here is not only to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose
relations between different phenomena, etc., but also to direct the listener's attention to the message carried in the
semantic component. Although this style tends to be objective and precise, it is not entirely unemotional and devoid of
any individuality. Scientific intonation style is frequently used, for example, by university lecturers, schoolteachers, or
by scientists in formal and informal discussions.
Attention is focused on a lecture on a scientific subject and reading aloud a piece of scientific prose. In speech,
variations and contrasts in the speed of utterance are indicative of the degree of importance attached to different parts of
speech flow. Less important parts are pronounced at greater speed than usual, while more important parts are
characterised by slower speed. Pausation is not always semantically predictable. Some pauses, made by the speaker,
may be explicable in terms of hesitation phenomena denoting forgetfulness or uncertainty (eg. word-searching). The
most widely used hesitation phenomena here are repetition of words and filled pauses. Intentional use of these effects
enables the lecture to obtain a balance between formality and informality.
Reading scientific prose is characteristic by contrastive rhythmic patterns (arhythmic utterance). Pauses are
predominantly short, their placement and are always semantically or syntactically predictable. Hesitation pauses are to
be avoided.
In declamatory style the emotional role of intonation increases, thereby intonation patterns used for intellectual,
volitional and emotional purposes have an equal share. In the pre-nuclear part, the Law Pre-Head may be combined
with the Stepping Head, the Broken Stepping Head. The nuclear tone in final intonation groups is generally the Law
Fall or, less frequently, the High Fall. The speed of utterance in reading descriptive prose in relatively slow and as a
result there are no marked variations in rhythm. Pauses may be different in length but, as distinct from reading scientific
prose, long pauses are more common. When reading aloud a dialogic text, representing the speech of the characters in
drama, novel or story, it should be borne in mind that it is different in the matter of intonation from a descriptive text,
representing the author’s speech (monologue).
The speaker's aim is to appeal simultaneously to the mind, the will and feelings of the listener by image-bearing
devices. Declamatory style is generally acquired by special training and it is used, for instance, in stage speech,
classroom recitation, and verse speaking or in reading aloud fiction.
Publicistic style is characterized by predominance of volitional (or desiderative) intonation patterns against the
background of intellectual and emotional ones. The intonation adequate for political speeches is characterized by Law
Pre-Head + Stepping (Falling) Head. The heads are often broken due to extensive use of accidental rises to make an
utterance more emphatic. The nuclear tone of final intonation groups is generally the Law Fall; the High Fall is much
less common. The speed of utterance is related to the degree of formality. In formal speech is usually slow, less formal

41
situations entail acceleration of speed. Intonation groups tend to be short and as the result, pauses are numerous, ranging
from brief to very long.
The general aim of this intonation style is to exert influence on the listener, to convince him that the speaker's
interpretation is the only correct one and to cause him to accept the point of view expressed in the speech. The task is
accomplished not merely through logical argumentation but through persuasion and emotional appeal. For this reason
publicistic style has features in common with scientific style, on the one hand, and declamatory style, on the other. As
distinct from the latter its persuasive and emotional appeal is achieved not by the use of imagery but in a more direct
manner. Publicistic style is made resort to by political speech-makers, radio and television commentators, participants
of press conferences and interviews, counsel and judges in courts of law, etc.
The usage of familiar (conversational) style is typical of the English of everyday life. It occurs both within a
family group and in informal external relationships, namely, in the speech of intimate friends or well-acquainted people.
In such cases, it is the emotional reaction to a situational or verbal stimulus that matters, thereby the attitude- and
emotion-signalling function of intonation here comes to the fore. Nevertheless, intellectual and volitional intonation
patterns also have a part to play. In informal fluent discourse, there are examples of utterance where the effect of
intellectual intonation is neutralized.
Generally speaking, familiar (conversational) style, unlike other styles, will allow the occurrence of the entire
range of intonation patterns existing in English. This is due to the fact that there seemed to be no social restrictions on
the range of emotions and attitudes, which might be displayed in a conversational situation. It is extremely important for
the participants in conversation to show an active interest in what is going on. The choice of intonation patterns varies
to a certain extent depending on such situational factors as the relationship of the speakers to each other, the chosen
subject-matter, the fluency of an individual, his emotional state and so on.

TYPES OF ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION

1. The orthoepic norm.

2. Variants of English pronunciation.
3. Received Pronunciation.
4. General American. Some differences between RP and GA.

All English speaking nations have their own national variants of pronunciation. They are: British English, Irish English,
Australian English, New Ireland English, and American English.

The English Language

In the British In the USA In Canada In Australia In New Zealand In South Africa
Isles
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓

-Southern -Eastern
English (RP) Am.Pron.; Canadian Australian New Zealand South African
pronunciation; -Southern Pronunciation pronunciation pronunciation Pronunciation
-Nothern English Am.Pron.;
pron.; -Western
-Scottish pron. (General)
Am.Pron.
(GA).

42
And the question is: which variant ought we learn? Not two person of the same nationality pronounce language alike.
The difference arises from:
- Locality;
- Social surrounding;
- Individual peculiarities.
Every national variant has a orthoepic norm. ”Orthoepy” - / 'ɔ:θəʊepɪ/ - орфоепія (зразкова літературна мова) adopted
by native speakers as a right and proper way of speaking.
Orthoepic norm comprises the variants of pronunciation of vocabulary units and prosodic patterns which reflect the
main tendencies in pronunciation that exist in the language. It also includes stylistic variants of pronunciation which are
acceptable only in certain circumstances.
Orthoepic norm is not constant and fixed non-standard prosodic patterns and regional variants of pronunciation
influence the orthoepic norm.
Most of the phonetic changes first occur among the less educated people before they are recognized as acceptable.
Territory, social and stylistic factors influence the orthoepic norm.

In the British Isles the regional types of English are:

I. Southern English (Standard English, Received Pronunciation, Public School Pronunciation) is considered
to be main variant. It has the advantage that it is easily understood in every part where English is spoken
and it is more understood than any other variant. It is mostly heard in every day speech of educated
people, English theatres and radio. This type is recorded, investigated and described for teaching purposes
and because of that it is adopted as a teaching norm in our schools and higher educational establishments.
Gimpson distinguishes 3 varieties of Received Pronunciation (RP).
- The conservative RP – is used by older generation and by certain profession of social groups.
- The general RP – is heard on the radio and TV adopted by the BBC.
- The advanced RP – is used by young people, teachers of English and professors at colleges.
II. Northern English (NE) is spread between Birmingham and Scotland. The difference between RP and
Northern pronunciation may be illustrated by the /æ/ which is heard in “last”, “part”, “after”. On the whole
the NE resembles the London pronunciation in the 16-th – 17-th centuries which was a literary norm at
that time and it is this type which was brought to USA by similarity can be traced between NE and
American Pronunciation.
III. Scottish Pronunciation. The most striking peculiarity is observed in the manner of utterance of the /r/
which resembles here as Russian /r/ rolled. Another peculiarity : initial “wh” is pronounced as /hw/.
Eg. Which /hwɪt∫/.

43
American Pronunciation Standard
English is pronounced on USA in numerous ways and all of them differ from the pronunciation of Great Britain. The
following peculiarities are noticeable in the speech of Americans: there may be distinguished 3 types in the USA of
cultivated speech:
- the Eastern type
- the Southern type
- the Western type (General American)
The 3-rd type (GA) is the most widespread type of educated Americans. The most marked points of difference between
GA and RP are:
Within the vowel system:
- /ɒ/ has completely lost labialization: clock /klʌk/ (exception: dog, fog, long, strong);
- English vowel /ɑ:/ is nearly always replaced by /æ:/ in the words containing nor “r”: ask /æsk/, past /pæst/
(exception: father /'fɑ:ðər/);
- The second element of diphthong /eɪ /, /əʊ/ is strongly reduced which results in complete loss: again /ə'geɪn/
- /ə'gen/; no /nəʊ/ -/no/;
- All vowels and diphthongs are more or less nasalized.
Within consonant system:
- /r/ is retroflexed with protruded lips;
- /l/ is dark in all positions;
- /t/ in words like “20” is often omitted /ˈtwenɪ/;
- /j/ + /u:/ is pronounced like /u:/ : Tuesday /'tu:zdɪ/.
- They keep closer to the reading rules;
Stress in polysyllabic words with primary stress on the fourth syllable from the end of the word (particularly in
words ending –ary, - ory, -ony). There is a weak secondary stress called tertiary:
RP- /ˈsekrət(ə)rɪ/, / ˈterɪtərɪ/
GA - /'sɛkrɛˌtərɪ/, / 'tɛrɪˌtɒrɪ/

In the intonation system American English is more monotonous. The range of the utterance is usually narrower.

These differences as well as in vocabulary give ground for some scientists to claim the existence of the American
language. But the differences in pronunciation, spelling and vocabulary are not so far reaching as to give grounds to
consider that there exists the American language as such.
We say that since English spoken in USA have the same grammar, structure and the same basic word stock, we may
speak of the American English variant of English.

44
 ЗАВДАННЯ ДО ПІДСУМКОВОГОМОДУЛЬНОГО КОНТРОЛЮ

Підсумковий модульний контроль складається з двох частин:

1. Виконання тесту в системі Moodle.

2. Виконання індивідуальної контрольної роботи, яка передбачає виконання фонетичного розбору тексту,
речень, слів, а також написання реферату за вибраною темою.

ВИКОНАННЯ ТЕСТУ В СИСТЕМІ MOODLE

Для підготовки до виконання тесту в системі Moodle нижче наведено список питань, які складені за
матеріалами лекцій і базових підручників.
Кількість питань для підготовки – 237, з них на тест виноситься 100 питань вибірковим методом. Вибір
питань здійснює комп’ютер.
Тип завдань у тесті – множинний вибір. Нижче наведено питання для фінального модульного контролю.

LIST OF THE QUESTIONS ON THEORETICAL PHONETICS

FOR MODULE TEST

THE SOUND STRUCTURE OF THE LANGUAGE

1. What is the largest unit of speech?
2. How many language resources does language consist as a code?
3. How are the people engaged in the study of phonetics called?
4. Variations in pitch, prominence, and tempo are called...
5. The result of an act of verbal communication is called ...
6. The basic component of the phonic-substance of language is called...
7. A unit of spoken message larger than a single sound and smaller than a word is called....
8. Pronunciation features in a foreign language influenced by the mother tongue are called…
9. How many aspects does the problem of word stress have?
10. The process of transmitting a verbal message from a speaker to the listener via a channel is called...
11. Lexicon, phonology, and grammar are called...
12. How many components does the phonic substance of language consist of?
13. A discourse consists of at least one...
14. The amount of perceptual prominence given to particular words/syllables in an utterance is called ..
15. What unit of speech corresponds to the phoneme?
16. What features are superimposed on the segmental chain of sounds?
17. Is the statement true or false? - English makes use of stressed syllables separated by equal number of
unstressed syllables.
18. Give the name of the founder of phonology
19. A process of using language for communication is called
20. A sequence of words spoken in a single breath, a stretch of speech which has describable melody is called.
21. Which of the following organs of speech does not belong to the roof of the mouth?
22. Which of the following organs of speech does not belong to the group of passive organs of speech?
23. Which of the following organs of speech does not belong to the group of active organs of speech?
24. What is the name of transcription that is used in studying English as a specialty?
25. This branch of phonetics is concerned with the study of sound as a result of the activities of speech organs. It
deals with our voice-production mechanism, and the way we produce sounds, and prosodic phenomena. It
studies respiration, phonation (voice-production), articulation and the mental processes necessary for the
mastery of a phonetic system.
26. Arrange the following sounds according to the degree of sonority, from the most sonor to the least sonor.
27. The branch of Phonetics that studies the physical properties of speech sound, as transmitted between mouth and
ear.

45
28. The branch of Phonetics that studies the perceptual response to speech sounds, as mediated by ear, auditory
nerve and brain.

PRONUNCIATION VARIETIES OF ENGLISH

29. A language used as a means of communication by speakers who do not have a native language in common is called
30. How many concentric circles can the spread of English throughout the world be visualized?
31. The situation when speakers can use both literary pronunciation and their native local accent in different situations is
called
32. The first language of the children of Pidgin speakers is called....
33. How many major literary/cultivated accents are there on the British Isles?
34. How many million people speak English as their first language/mother tongue?
35. What is the standard of pronunciation for educated speakers in Great Britain?
36. Teaching English where learners addressed are often immigrants to an English-speaking culture is called
37. A set of pronunciation forms and rules of their usage is called...
38. Is there a World Standard English, a totally uniform, regional, neutral, and prestigious variety at the international
level?
39. The entity of related national variants, dialects and their associated accents is called…
40. What are the two most prestigious accents of English in the world which generally serve as teaching models for
TEFL?
41. How many literary pronunciation accents are there in the USA?
42. A unified entity of pronunciation patterns used for communicative interaction by members of a speech community
sharing a relevant social or geographical attribute and maintaining a set of phonological characteristics, despite
limited phonetic and lexical-incidental variation between the speakers is called...
43. Teaching English to learners of all types is ...
44. What is the geographical localization of the national pronunciation standard in the UK?
45. Reflection/fixing of actual pronunciation forms and patterns in pronunciation dictionaries and other references.
46. Individual speech of members of the same language community is called...
47. What is a striking feature of RP/BBC English and GenAm?
48. Are the majority of Standard English speakers in Britain rhotic or non-rhotic?
49. What accent is currently making a great influence on RP?
50. Name the 2 RP vowels which have the highest text frequency of occurrence
51. What phenomenon can be heard in RP in it's quite good ..., football ,etc?
52. What is RP often identified with in the public mind ?
53. What sound combinations undergo affricatization?
54. Which RP diphthong is becoming a positional allophone of the phoneme /ɔ:/?
55. What scholar fist described RP as a hoped for standard?
56. Give the transcription symbol for a glottalized /t/.
57. What kind of assimilation does affricatization and assibilation belongs to?
58. Which allophone of /l/ is used in American English?
59. Which American accent prevails in New York?
60. How many consonants are there in GenAm?
61. Is Eastern American rhotic?
62. What century English is the starting point for American English?
63. Which diphthongs are not distinguished in GenAm?
64. What is one of the most characteristic allophones in GenAm?
65. Which geographical attribute does GenAm have?
66. How many vowels are there in GenAm?
67. What is the name of American national pronunciation standard?
46
68. A stress on the vowel in the penultimate syllable which is not typically stressed in RP is called ...
69. It is considered to be the main variant of literary pronunciation in Great Britain. Its advantages are that it is
easily understood in every part where English is spoken and it is understood more than any other variant. It is
mostly heard in everyday speech of educated people, at English theatres and on the radio.
70. Which of the types serves as the base for General American pronunciation
71. Which of the accents of English is American based pronunciation standard?
72. Which of the accents of English is English based pronunciation standard?
73. Which of the accents of English is New English based pronunciation standard?
74. How many literary pronunciation accents are there in the USA?
75. What are New Englishes varieties of pronunciation?
76. Read the following abbreviations: ELT, TESL, TEFL.
77. The first language of the children of Pidgin speakers.
78. The language used for the purpose of communication between speakers of mutually unintelligible languages
(usually in the third world) which has been developed out of the mixture of the languages of the communities
concerned.

THE SPEECH SOUNDS

79. How many aspects of speech sounds are distinguished?
80. Grouping speech sounds according to their major articulatory features is called ...
81. From the acoustic point of view, vowels are called the sounds of...
82. Which are the parts of the tongue?
83. Which are the parts of the roof of the mouth?
84. Name the passive organs of speech.
85. Name the active organs of speech.
86. What is the consonant sound?
87. What are the two consonant classes according to the degree of noise?
88. What is the function of vocal cords in the production of voiced and voiceless consonants?
89. Define every type of obstruction.
90. What consonant sounds are called occlusive?
91. What consonant sounds are called constrictive?
92. What consonant sounds are called occlusive-constrictive?
93. Enumerate the consonant groups according to the place of articulation.
94. How are the forelingual consonants classified according to the work of the tip of the tongue?
95. What are the voiced counterparts of / p,t,k /?
96. What is aspiration?
97. What is palatalization?
98. What do the consonants /p, t, k / have in common?
99. What consonant sounds are called “fricatives”?
100. What are the voiced counterparts of / f, s, θ, ∫ / ?
101. Define / ʧ, ʤ/ according to the all principles of articulation.
102. Enumerate the English sonorants.
103. What is the main feature of sonorous consonant?
104. What does the sonorant have in common with and what differs them from other consonants?
105. What is the subdivision of the sonorous consonants according to the direction of the air stream in the mouth
cavity?
106. What is assimilation?
107. What features of the articulation of a consonant may be affected by assimilation?
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108. Name the degrees of assimilation.
109. What is the difference between progressive and regressive assimilation?
110. Which aspect of speech sounds do such properties as frequency, spectrum, intensity, and duration constitute?
111. Which aspect defines every speech sound as a complex of definite coordinated and differentiated movements
and positions of speech organs?
112. Functional differences between Vs and Cs are defined by their role in...
113. Sounds made with a complete obstruction or stoppage of the airflow coming up from the lungs is called…
114. Sounds in the production of which the soft palate is lowered, and the air escapes through the nose are called…
115. Sounds produced as a result of obstruent articulation involving an obstruction of the air stream that produces a
phonetic effect independent of voicing are called...
116. The movements and positions necessary for the production of a speech sound constitute its ...
117. The particular quality of Vowels mainly depends on the volume and shape of the ...
118. Complex sounds which consist of two components that correspond to two phases of articulation- an oral- stop
phase followed with a short friction phase- are called...
119. Realizations of phonemes in definite positions in words are called...
120. How many consonant phonemes are there in RP?
121. How many vowel phonemes are there in RP?
122. The founder of the phoneme theory is...
123. The materialistic conception of the phoneme was originated by...
124. Features of phonemes involved in the differentiation of the words are called...
125. The phoneme is material, real and objective because it really exists in the material form of...
126. What scholar defined the phoneme as a family of sounds?
127. The smallest (i.e. further indivisible into smaller consecutive segments) language unit (sound type) that
exists in the speech of all the members of a given language community as such speech sounds which
are capable of distinguishing one word from another word of the same language or one grammatical form of
a word from another grammatical form of the same word is called...
128. The phonemes of a language form a system of...
129. What is the principal function of the phoneme?
130. The articulatory features which do not serve to distinguish meaning are called
131. Allophones which appear as a result of the influence of the neighboring speech sounds (assimilation,
adaptation, accommodation) are called...
132. Modifications of a consonant under the influence of a neighboring consonant are termed...
133. A deletion of a sound in rapid or careless speech is termed...
134. Connecting of the final sound of one word or syllable to the initial sound of the next one is called...
135. Modifications of a consonant under the influence of the adjacent vowel or vice versa are called.
136. Inserting of a vowel or consonant segment within an existing string of segments is called...
137. According to the degree the assimilating C takes on the characteristics of the neighboring C, assimilation may
be...
138. What is the name of assimilation in which the first consonant and the second consonant in a cluster fuse
and mutually condition the creation of a third consonant with features from both original consonants?
139. What are the most common types of assimilation in English according to the direction?
140. A monophthong, short, lax, unrounded, front, low/open vowel phoneme of the wide variety.
141. A labial, labio-dental, constrictive, fricative, voiceless, fortis consonant phoneme.
142. An alveolar, apical, constrictive, lateral sonant.
143. A monophthong, long, tense, unrounded, central/ mixed, mid vowel phoneme of the narrow variety.
144. A glottal, constrictive, fricative, voiceless, fortis consonant phoneme.
145. A monophthong, long, tense, unrounded, back-advanced, low/open vowel phoneme of the wide variety.
146. A post-alveolar, constrictive, medial sonant.
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147. A monophthong, short, lax, rounded, back advanced, high/open vowel phoneme of the wide variety.
148. A foreligual, palato-alveolar, constrictive, fricative, voiced, lenis consonant phoneme.
149. A monophthong, long, tense, unrounded, front, high/close vowel phoneme of the narrow variety.
150. A lingual, back lingual, velar, occlusive, plosive nasal sonant.
151. A monophthong, short, lax, unrounded, central/ mixed, low vowel phoneme of the wide variety.
152. A labial, bilabial, constrictive, medial sonant.
153. A lingual, backlingual, occlusive, plosive, voiceless, fortis consonant phoneme.
154. A lingual, forelingual, post-alveolar, constrictive, medial sonant.
155. A monophthongs short, lax, rounded, back, low/open vowel phoneme of the wide variety.
156. A foreligual, interdental, constrictive, fricative , voiceless, fortis consonant phoneme.
157. A voiceless affricate.
158. A monophthong, front short, lax, unrounded, central/ mixed, mid vowel phoneme of the wide variety.
159. A monophthong, short, lax, unrounded, front, mid/ half-open vowel phoneme of the narrow variety.
160. Which of the mentioned below features of a consonant is considered irrelevant?
161. So reduction is realized in:
162. Non-reduced unstressed sounds are often retained in:
163. What principles of articulation are not characteristic for the English language?
164. Which of the elements of English diphthong is called nucleus?
165. What is the number of phonemes in British English?
166. The type of junction between the phonemes of different nature (c-v) is called …
167. The type of junction between the similar groups – cons. + cons. is called …
SYLLABLE
168. Syllables in writing are called…
169. The limit for the number of syllables in English is…
170. The universal syllabic structure in the canonical form is…
171. What sounds have the highest degree of sonority?
172. The division of words into syllables is called...
173. What two types of sounds cannot be split during syllabification?
174. What symbol is used to designate a syllabic consonant?
175. Divide in writing the word speaking.
176. Divide into phonetic syllables the word bottle.
177. What is the characteristic feature of the syllabic structure of the words of old English origin.
178. How is the syllable preceding the stressed syllable designated?
179. How is the syllable following the stressed syllable designated?
180. What are the two commonest structural types of the syllable in English (write their canonical forms)?
181. The point of this theory of syllabic structure of the word is that in most languages there is a syllabic phoneme
in the centre of the syllable, which is usually a vowel phoneme or, in some languages, a sonorant. The
phonemes preceding or following the syllable peak are called marginal. The energy, which is the tension of
articulation, increases within the range of prevocalic consonants and then decreases within the range of
postvocalic consonants. Therefore, the syllable can be defined as an arc of articulatory tension.
182. The point of this theory is that the syllable is a sound or group of the sounds that are pronounced in one chest-
pulse . There are as many syllables in a word as there are chest-pulses made during the word.
183. Which is the most common type of syllable in English?
184. Which are syllabic English consonants?
185. This theory is based upon the fact that sounds group themselves according to their sonority. There are as
many syllables as there are peaks of prominence of sonority.

49
186. This theory takes into consideration both levels production and perception. Syllable is an arc of loudness. The
peak of the syllable is louder and higher in pitch than the slopes. The organ which is responsible for the
variation of loudness is pharynx. There are as many syllables in a word as there are arcs of loudness.

WORD STRESS
187. How many factors are important in making the syllable prominent?
188. How many degrees of word stress are singled out in English?
189. What degree of word stress do American phoneticians add to the traditionally recognized degrees in English?
190. What are languages called which allow certain freedom for placement word stress?
191. Which is the oldest of the English lexical stress tendencies?
192. Which tendency regulates the stressing of borrowed polysyllabic words in English?
193. Which is the name of the tendency which defines the placement of word stress on the root of the native
English words with a prefix with no referential meaning?
194. What tendency defines the stress of the derivative word personal as compared with person!
195. Which syllable of a two-syllable verb is stressed if its second syllable contains a long vowel or a diphthong
196. Which syllable of a two-syllable noun is stressed when its second syllable contains a short vowel?
197. English word stress is of a complex nature. It is:
198. Which is the place of secondary stress?
199. Which is the most common accentual type of English words?
200. A stress on the vowel in the penultimate syllable which is not typically stressed in RP is called:
RHYTHM
201. Which is the right order of the rhythmical organization of English prose?
202. What are the adjoining unstressed syllables called when they precede the stressed syllable?
203. What are the adjoining unstressed syllables called when they follow the stressed syllable?
204. Which is English type of rhythm?
205. What is the prosodic nucleus of rhythmic group?
206. The number of the rhythmic groups depends on:
INTONATION
207. Where is the focus /the semantic center of an unmarked/normal utterance located on?
208. What is the force component of intonation made by?
209. Which tone can encourage further conversation, be wondering, mildly puzzled, soothing?
210. One or more words closely connected by sense and grammar, but containing only one strongly stressed
syllable and being pronounced in one breath are called a...
211. Which tone is highly implicatory in English?
212. Spoken English is divided into chunks of talk or...
213. Because they are unstressed in the stream of speech, function words exhibit various forms of...
214. What words are accentuated by pitch, length, loudness or a combination of these prosodic features under
normal or unmarked conditions?
215. What is the core component of intonation?
216. How many rhythmic groups/feet are there in "Thank you for the present'?
217. What tone expresses the speaker's active searching for information?
218. This part of an intonation group determines the semantic value of the intonation group, and indicates the
communicative centre of the intonation group or of the whole sentence.
219. Which of the head patterns is used for normal speech?
220. Where is the semantic centre of an utterance in normal speech located on?
221. What are the emphatic tones?
222. What part of the intonation group goes before the nucleus?
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223. What is the corresponding tone for each of these types of the utterances? (Request, Order, Exclamation,
Statement)
224. What is the corresponding tone to each of these questions?(General, Special, Disjunctive, Alternative)
225. What forms are usually unstressed in the sentence?
226. The type of the utterance stress that is used to arrange words into sentences or intonation groups phonetically.
Together with grammatical and lexical means it expresses the general idea of the sentence and indicates its
communicative center. The nuclear syllable is generally associated with the last content word of the intonation
group.
227. The type of utterance stress, which gives special prominence to a new element in a sentence or an intonation
group.
228. This type of sentence stress increases the effort of expression. It may strengthen the stressed word making it
still prominent. This stress manifests itself mainly on the High Fall or the Rise-Fall of the nuclear syllable.
229. The part of intonation group formed by stressed and unstressed syllables beginning with the first stressed
syllable is called…
230. The part of intonation group that includes unstressed and half stressed syllables before the first stressed
syllable.
231. The last stressed syllable of the intonation group in which the pitch movement changes. It is usually of a
highest importance: it is on this syllable that the whole pitch pattern centers.
232. The unstressed and half-stressed syllables that follow the nucleus in the intonation group are called…
PHONETIC STYLES
233. This style is characterized by the predominant use of intellectual intonation patterns. The characteristic feature
of this style is the use of normal or slow speed of utterance and regular rhythm. It occurs in formal discourse
where the task set by the sender of the message is to communicate information without giving it any emotional
or volitional evaluation.
234. In this style intellectual and volitional (or desiderative) intonation patterns are concurrently employed. The
speaker's purpose here is to direct the listener's attention to the message carried in the semantic component.
This style is frequently used, for example, by university lecturers, schoolteachers, or by scientists in formal and
informal discussions.
235. In this style the emotional role of intonation increases, thereby intonation patterns used for intellectual,
volitional and emotional purposes have an equal share. Pauses may be different in length but long pauses are
more common. This style is generally acquired by special training and it is used, for instance, in stage speech,
classroom recitation, and verse speaking or in reading aloud fiction.
236. This style is characterized by predominance of volitional (or desiderative) intonation patterns against the
background of intellectual and emotional ones. The general aim of this intonation style is to exert influence on
the listener, to convince him that the speaker's interpretation is the only correct one and to cause him to accept
the point of view expressed in the speech.
237. The usage of this style is typical of the English of everyday life. It occurs both within a family group and in
informal external relationships, namely, in the speech of intimate friends or well-acquainted people. Generally
speaking this style, unlike other styles, will allow the occurrence of the entire range of intonation patterns
existing in English.

51
 ВИМОГИ ДО НАПИСАННЯ ІНДИВІДУАЛЬНОЇ КОНТРОЛЬНОЇ РОБОТИ

Індивідуальні контрольні роботи студенти виконують у період між сесіями в письмово в зошиті або на
аркушах формату А4 і здають в деканат не пізніше першого дня занять наступної сесії. Індивідуальна
контрольна робота складається із фонетичного аналізу трьох слів, трьох речень та тексту. Тексти, речення та
слова у всіх роботах рівноцінні за обсягом та складністю. Четвертим завданням контрольної роботи є
написання реферату з теми, наведеної в індивідуальній контрольній роботі. У додатках наведено зразки
фонетичного розбору слова, речення та тексту, а також вимоги до оформлення реферату. Нижче подано
індивідуальні контрольні роботи на вибір.

INDIVIDUAL TESTS

Test 1
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words
Family, curtain, evening
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. The children were at school, my husband was at work, and the house was quiet.
2. There was pastry on my fingers, on the telephone, and on the doorknobs.
3. This time it was a postman, and he wanted me to sign for a registered letter.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
A PRIVATE CONVERSATION
Last week I went to the theatre. I had a very good seat. The play was very interesting. I did not enjoy it. A
young man and a young woman were seating behind me. They were talking loudly. I have got very angry; I could not
hear the actors. I turned around. I looked at the man and at the woman angrily. They did not pay any attention. In the
end I could not bear it. I turned around again.‘I can’t hear a word’, - I said angrily.
‘It’s none of your businesses- the young man said rudely. This is a private conversation.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
Branches of Phonetics.

Test 2
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words
Evening, fridge, twenty
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. Since then, they have been trying to find out how the fire began.
2. Yesterday the firemen examined the ground carefully, but were not able to find any broken glass.
3. We have just moved into a new house and I have been working hard all morning.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
Please, Send me a Card
Postcards always spoil my holidays. Last summer I went to Italy. I visited museums and sat in public gardens.
A friendly waiter taught me a few words of Italian, and then he lent me a book. I read a few lines, but I did not
understand a word. Every day I thought about postcards. My holidays passed quickly, but I did not send any cards to my
friends. On the last day I made a big decision. I got up early and bought thirty seven cards. I spent the whole day in my
room, but I did not write a single card.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
English Speech Rhythm.

52
 Test 3
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words
Joseph, person, garden
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. This has not been easy because I own over a thousand books.
2. A short while ago my sister helped me to carry one of my old bookcases up the stairs.
3. First of all he wrote out a long list of all foods, which were forbidden.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
An Exciting Trip
I have just received a letter from my brother Tim. He is in Australia. He has been there for six months. Tim is
an engineer. He is working for a big firm and he has already visited a great number of different places in Australia. He
has just bought an Australian car and he’s gone to Alice Springs, a small town in a centre at Australia. He was soon
visited Dauvin. From there he will flight to Perth.
My brother has never been abroad before, so he is finding this trip very exciting.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
Received Pronunciation.

Test 4
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words
Destroy, cabbage, world
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. He led me into his room and hurriedly hid a large parcel under his desk.
2. I like travelling in the country, but I do not like losing my way.
3. For the first time in his life he became a private of the bed which had springs on the mattress.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
No Wrong Numbers
Mr. James Scott has a garage in Silbury and now he has just bought another garage in Pinhurst. Pinhurst is
only five miles from Silbury, but Mr. Scott cannot get a telephone for his new garage, so he has just bought twelve
pigeons. Yesterday a pigeon carried the first message from Pinhurst to Sibury. The bird covered the distance in three
minutes. Up to now, Mr. Scott has sent a great many requests for spare parts and other urgent messages from one garage
to the other. In this way, he has begun his own private “telephone” service.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
General American.

Test 5
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words
Camera, worked, journey
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
4. A gust of winds swept the bed off the roof and sent it crashing into the court yard below.
5. The young man did not wake up until the bed had struck he ground.
6. The man sadly picked up the mattress and carried it into his house.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
Percy Buttons
I have just moved to a house in Bridge Street. Yesterday a beggar knocked at my door. He asked me for meal
and a glass of beer. In return for this the beggar stood on his head and sang songs. I gave him a meal. He ate the food
and drank the beer. Then he put a piece of cheese in his pocket and went away. Later a neighbor told me about him:
“Everybody knows him, his name is Percy Buttons. He calls at every house in the street once a month and always asks
for meal and a glass of beer”.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
Syllable Formation Theories.

Test 6
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words
Cupboard, official, hearing
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. Dentists always ask questions, when it is impossible for you to answer.
2. My dentist had just pulled out one of my teeth and had told me to rest for a while.
3. He knew I collected birds eggs and asked me, whether my collection was growing.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
Too Late
The plane was late and detectives were waiting at the airport all morning. They were expecting a valuable

53
parcel of diamonds from South Africa. A few hours earlier someone had told the police that thieves would try to steal
the diamonds. When the plane arrived some of the detectives were waiting inside the main building, while others were
waiting on the airfield. Two men took the parcel off the plane and carried it into the customs house. While two
detectives were keeping guard of the door, two others opened the parcel. To their surprise the precious parcel was full
of stones and sand.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
Word Stress and its Types.

Test 7
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words
Colour, Spain, cheese
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. The villagers have told him that they will not accept the in even if he gives that away.
2. No one could account for the fact that one of the boxes was extremely heavy.
3. He was so surprised at being discovered that he did not even tried to run away.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
The Best and the Worst.
Joe Sanders has the most beautiful garden in our ˎtown. Nearly everybody enters for the nicest garden
competition each year, but Joe wins every time. Bill Fris’ garden is larger than Joe’s. Bill works harder than Joe and
grows more flowers and vegetables, but Joe’s garden is more interesting. He has made neat pumps and has built a
wooden bridge over a pool. I like gardens too, but I do not like hard work. Every year I enter for the garden competition
too and I always win a little prize for the worst garden in the town.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
Intonation Styles.

Test 8
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words
Station, arrival, country
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. The whole village soon learnt that a large sum of money had been lost.
2. Three months passed and then, one morning Sam found his wallet outside his front door.
3. The men got such a fright that they dropped the bag, and ran away.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
A Cold Welcome.
On Wednesday evening we went to the town hall. It was the last day of the year and the large crowd of people
had gathered under the town hall clock. It would strike twelve in twenty minutes time. Fifteen minutes passed and then
at five to twelve the clock stopped. The big minute hand did not move. We waited and waited but nothing happened.
Suddenly someone shouted: “It’s two minutes past twelve. The clock has stopped. I looked at my watch. It
was true. The big clock refused to welcome a New Year. At that moment everybody began to laugh and sing.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
Sentence Stress, Logical Stress, Emphatic Stress.

Test 9
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words
Delicious, sports, card
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. Bird at once ordered his men to throw out two heavy food-sacks.
2. The aircraft was able to fly over the endless white plains without difficulty.
3. I sat down on one of those modern chairs with holes in it and waited.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
Not for Jazz
We have an old musical instrument. It is called clavichord. It was made in Germany in 1681. Our clavichord is
kept in the living room. It has belonged to our family for a long time. The instrument was bought by my grandfather
many years ago. Recently it was damaged by a visitor, she tried to play jazz on it. She struck the keys too hard, and two
of the strings were broken. My father was shocked. Now we are not allowed to touch it. It is being repaired by a friend
of my fathers.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
Intonation Group and its Structure.

Test 10
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words
Forest, cardinal, dirty
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.

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 1. Her eyes were fixed on her plate and in a short time she was busy eating.
2. He had no sooner return than he bought a fine house and went to live there
3. The villagers have told him that they will not accept the in even if he gives that away.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
One Good Turn Deserves Another.
I was having dinner at a restaurant when Harry Steal came in. Harry worked in a lawyer’s office years ago but
he is now working at a bank. He gets a good salary but he always borrows money from his friends and never pays it
back. Harry saw me and came and sat at the same table. He has never borrowed money from me. While he was eating I
asked him to lend me two pounds. To my surprise he gave me the money immediately. “I have never borrowed any
money from you, - Harry said, - so now you can pay for my dinner.”
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
Differences between Received Pronunciation and General American.

Test 11
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words
Force, grain, zipper
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. Jennifer will have to take part in a new play soon.
2. After I had had lunch at the village inn, I looked for my bag.
3. In a few minutes he returned with my bag and gave it back to me.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
A polite Request
If you park your car in a wrong place, a traffic policeman will soon find it. You will be very lucky, if he lets
you go without a ticket. However, this does not always happen. Traffic police are sometimes very polite. During a
holiday in Sweden I found this note on my car. “Sir, we welcome you to our city. This is a no parking area. You will
enjoy your stay here, if you pay attention to our street signs. This note is only a reminder.” If you receive a request like
this, you cannot fail to obey it.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
National Standards of English in English Speaking Countries.

Test 12
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words
Effect, having, young
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. I often fish for hours without catching anything, but this doesn’t worry me.
2. I live near an airport and passing planes can be head night and day.
3. My daughter Jane never dreamed of receiving a letter from a girl of her own age in Holland.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
Shopping Made Easy
People are not so honest as they once were. The tentation to steal is as great as they never before especially in
large shops. A detective recently watched to well-dressed woman who always went into a large store on Monday
mornings. One Monday there were few of people in the shop than usual when the woman came in. So it was easier for
the detective to watch her. The woman first bought a few small articles.
After a little time she chose one of the most expensive dresses in the shop and handed it to an assistant who
wrapped it up for her as quickly as possible.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
Problems of Phonological Classification of English Consonants.

Test 13
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words
Freeze, insult, outlaw
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. Some fishermen are unlucky; instead of catching fish they catch old boots and rubbish.
2. Over a hundred people must have been driven away from their homes by their noise.
3. The Channel and Jane put a piece of paper with her name and address on it, into a bottle.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
Good-bye and Good Luck
Our neighbour captain Charles Alison will sail from Portsmouth tomorrow. We shall meet him in the harbour
early in the morning. He will be in his small boat, “Topsail’. ‘Topsail’ is a famous little boat. It’s sailed across the
Atlantic many times.
Captain Alison will set out at eight o’clock, so we shall have plenty of time. We shall see his boat and then we
shall say ‘good-bye’ to him. He will be away for two months. We are very proud of him. He will take part in an
important race across the Atlantic.

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Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
English Vowels. Problems of Phonological Analysis and Classification.

Test 14
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words
Kingdom, pants, wind
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. Everybody says I must be mad and they are probably right.
2. Both girls write to each other regularly now.
3. In her letter she said that she would come to England next year.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
“Do you Speak English?”
I had an amusing experience last year. After I had left to small village on the South of France, I drove on to the
next town. On the way a young man waved to me, I stopped and he asked me for a lift. As soon as he had got into the
car I said “Good morning” to him in French and he replied in the same language. A part of few words I do not know
any French at all neither of a spoke during the journey. I had nearly reached the town, when the young man suddenly
said very slowly: “Do you speak English?” As I soon learned he was English himself.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
Modification of Consonants in Connected Speech.

Test 15
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words
Ladder, manner, vegetal
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. We are now living in a beautiful new house in the country.
2. It is a very modern house, so it looks strange to some people.
3. .He started to complain about this wicked world, but he was interrupted by a knock at the door.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
Good News
The secretary told me that Mr Hansworth would see me. I felt very nervous when I entered to his office. He did
not look up from his desk when I entered. After I had sat down, he said that business was very bad. He told me that the
firm could not afford to pay such large salaries. Twenty people had already left. I knew that my turn had come.
“Mr Hansworth”,-I said in a weak voice. “Don’t interrupt”, - he said. Then, he smiled and told me I would
receive an extra hundred pounds a year.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
Aspects of Sound Phenomena.

Test 16
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words
Police, stopped, while
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. Once he landed on the roof of the block of flats and on another occasion he landed in a deserted car park.
2. The Veil is a small river that cuts across the park near my home.
3. He called out to the children and threw the ball back to the bank.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
Not for jazz
We have an old musical instrument. It is called clavichord. It was made in Germany in sixteen eighty one. Our
clavichord is kept in the living room. It has belonged to our family for a long time. The instrument was bought by my
grandfather many years ago. Recently it was damaged by a visitor, she tried to play jazz on it. She struck the keys too
hard, and two of the strings were broken. My father was shocked. Now we are not allowed to touch it. It is being
repaired by a friend of my fathers.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
Word Accentual Tendencies and Accentual Types of English Words.

Test 17
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words
Along, young, people
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. But captain Forcid did not take him, because the trip was too dangerous.
2. It was warm last Sunday so I went and sat on the riverbank as usual.
3. But as a boy, he used to work in a small shop.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
The Green Wood Boys

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 The Green Wood Boys are a group of popular singers. At present, they are visiting all parts of the
country. They will be arriving here tomorrow. They will be coming by train and most of the young people in the town
will be meeting them at the station. Tomorrow evening they will be singing at the Worker’s club. The Green Wood
Boys will be staying for five days. During this time, they will give five performances. As usual, the police will have a
difficult time. They will be trying to keep order.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
Prosodic Features of Intonation

Test 18
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words
Money, bright, actress
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. Some children were playing games on the bank and there were some people rowing on the river.
2. By the end of the war, the small workshop had become a large factory
3. Nearly a week passed before the girl was able to explain what had happened to her.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
ALWAYS YOUNG
My aunt Jennifer is an actress. She must be at least thirty-five years old. In spite of this, she often appears on a
stage as a young girl. Jennifer will have to take part in a new play soon. This time, she will be a girl of seventeen. In a
play, she must appear in a bright red dress and long black stockings. Last year in another play, she had to wear short
socks and a bright orange-coloured dress. If anyone ever asks her how old she is, she always answers, “My dear! It must
be terrible to be grown-up!”
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
Received Pronunciation. Changes in the Standard.

Test 19
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words
Became, badly, outside
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. Suddenly one of the children kicked a ball very hard and it went towards a passing boat.
2. One afternoon she set out from the coast in a small boat and was caught in a storm.
3. At the station he was told by a smiling policeman that his bicycle had been found.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
Mad or Not?
Airplanes are slowly driving me mad. I live near an airport and passing planes can be head night and day.
However, for some reason it could not be used then.
Last year, however, it came into use. Over a hundred people must have been driven away from their homes
by their noise.
I am one of the few people left. Sometimes I think this house will be knocked down by a passing plane. I
have been offered a large sum of money to go away, but I am determined to live here. Everybody says I must be
mad and they are probably right.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
Phonological Oppositions.

Test 20
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words
Quickly, modern, began
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. Some people on the bank called out to the man in a boat, but he did not hear them.
2. Towards evening the boat struck a rock and the girl jumped into the sea.
3. Ted was most surprised when he heard the news.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
A Glass Envelope
My daughter Jane never dreamed of receiving a letter from a girl of her own age in Holland. Last year, we
were traveling across The Channel, and Jane put a piece of paper with her name and address on it, into a bottle. She
threw the bottle into the sea. She never thought of it again, but ten months later, she received a letter from a girl in
Holland. Both girls write to each other regularly now. However, they have decided to use the post office. Letters will
cost a little more, but they will certainly travel faster.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
Rhythm in Poetry and Prose.

Test 21
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words

57
Middle, night, stream
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. The ball struck him so hard that he nearly fell into the water.
2. Then she swam to the shore after spending the whole night in the water.
3. It was stolen twenty years ago, when Ted was a boy of fifteen.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
A NEW HOUSE
I had a letter from my sister yesterday. She lives in Nigeria. In her letter, she said that she would come to
England next year. If she comes, she will get a surprise. We are now living in a beautiful new house in the country.
Work on it had begun before my sister left. The house was completed five months ago. In my letter, I told her that she
could stay with us. The house has many large rooms. And there is a lovely garden. It is a very modern house, so it looks
strange to some people. It must be the only modern house in the district.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
Systems of Graphical Notation of Intonation.

Test 22
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words
Because, trouble, stone
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. I turned to look at the children but there weren’t any in sight.
2. During that time, she covered a distance of eight miles.
3. Roy acted quickly and drove the bus straight at the thieves.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
A Wet Night
Late in the afternoon, the boys put up their tent in the middle of a field. As soon as this was done, they cooked
a meal over an open fire. After a wonderful meal, they told stories and sang songs by the campfire. But some time later
it began to rain. The boys felt tired so they put out the fire and crept into their tent. They all slept silently. In the middle
of the night two boys wakeup and began shouting. The tent was full of water. It was raining heavily. And they found
that a stream had formed in the field and flowed right under their tent.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
Methods of phonetic analysis.

Test 23
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words
Drove, along, afraid
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. The man laughed when he realized what had happened.
2. She knew she was near the shore because the light was high up on the cliffs.
3. One of them was carrying a bag full of money.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
No parking
Jasper White is one of those rare people, who believe in ancient myths. He has just bought a new house in the city, but
ever since he moved in he has had troubles with motorists. When he returns home at night he always finds that someone
has parked a car outside his gate. Jasper has put up “No parking” signs outside his gate, but this has not had any effect.
Now he has put on ugly stone head over the gate. Jasper hopes that she will turn motorists to stone, but none of them
has been turned to stone yet.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
Main Phonological Schools.

Test 24
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words.
Plenty, house, wanted
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.

2. I am an art student and I painted a lot of pictures.

3. They all leapt out of their sleeping bags and hurried outside.
4. Now he has put on ugly stone head over the gate.

Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.

Taxi
Captain Den Forcid has bought an unusual taxi and has begun a new service. The taxi is a small Swiss airplane
called a “ Palates Porter “. This wonderful plain can carry seven passengers. The most surprising thing about it,
however, is that it can lend anywhere: on snow, water or even on applaud field.

58
 Captain Forcid’s first passenger was a doctor who flew from Birmingham to a lonely village in the welsh
mountains. Since then captain Forcid has flown passengers to many unusual places.
Once he landed on the roof of the block of flats and on another occasion he landed in a deserted car park.
Captain Forcid is just refused to strange request from a businessman. The man wanted to fly to Rockall, a lonely island
in the Atlantic Ocean. But captain Forcid did not take him, because the trip was too dangerous.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
1. Rhythm and its basic rules.

Test 25
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words.
Wonderful, flown, request
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. We like them in a same way that we like pretty curtain material.
2. Jasper White is one of those rare people, who believes in ancient myths.
3. Frank is now the head of a very large business company.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
Football or Polo?
The Weil is a small river that cuts across the park near my home. I like sitting by the Weil on fine afternoons.
It was warm last Sunday so I went and sat on the riverbank as usual. Some children were playing games on the bank
and there were some people rowing on the river. Suddenly one of the children kicked a ball very hard and it went
towards a passing boat. Some people on the bank called out to the man in a boat, but he did not hear them. The ball
struck him so hard that he nearly fell into the water. I turned to look at the children but there weren’t any in sight. They
had all run away. The man laughed when he realized what had happened. He called out to the children and threw the
ball back to the bank.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
1. Emphatic Speech

Test 26
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words.
Passenger, occasion, field.
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1.The girl gave her mother a free dress once a week.
2.People are not so honest as they once were.
3.The tentation to steal is as great as they never before especially in large shops.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
A Success Story
Yesterday afternoon Frank Hawking was telling me about his experiences as a young man. Frank is now the
head of a very large business company. But as a boy, he used to work in a small shop. It was his job to repair bicycles
and at that time he used to work fourteen hours a day. He saved money for years and in 1938 he bought a small
workshop of his own. During a war, Frank used to make spare parts for airplanes. At that time he had two helpers. By
the end of the war, the small workshop had become a large factory, which employed 728 people.
Frank smiled when he remembered his hard early years and the long road to success. He was still smiling,
when the door opened and his wife came in. She wanted him to repair their son’s bicycle.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
1. Graphical Notation of Intonation by Different Phonological Schools

Test 27
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words.
Landed, island, strange
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. Nearly a week past before the girl was able to explain what had happened to her.
2. When she woke up a day later she found herself in the hospital.
3. Early next morning she saw a light ahead.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
Quick Work
Ted Robinson has been worried all the week. Last Tuesday he received a letter from the local police. In the
letter he was asked to call at the station. Ted wondered why he was wanted by the police, but he went to the station
yesterday and now he is not worried anymore. At the station he was told by a smiling policeman that his bicycle had
been found. “Five days ago”, the policeman told him, “the bicycle was picked up in a small village, four hundred miles
away. It is now being sent to his home by train.” Ted was most surprised when he heard the news. He was amused too,
because he never expected the bicycle to be found. It was stolen twenty years ago, when Ted was a boy of 15.

59
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
1. Peculiarities of Syllabic Structure

Test 28
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words.
Tuesday, smiling, amused
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. Ted Robinson has been worried all the week.
2. Ted was most surprised when he heard the news.
3. Now he has put on ugly stone head over the gate.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
Out of the Darkness.

Nearly a week past before the girl was able to explain what had happened to her. One afternoon she set out
from the coast in a small boat and was caught in a storm. Towards evening the boat struck a rock and the girl jumped
into the sea. Then she swam to the shore after spending the whole night in the water. During that time she covered a
distance of eight miles. Early next morning she saw a light ahead. She knew she was near the shore because the light
was high up on the cliffs. On arriving at the shore the girl straggled up the cliff towards the light she had seen. That was
all she remembered. When she woke up a day later she found herself in the hospital.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
1. Intonation and Its Functions

Test 29
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words.
Nearly, during, distance
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. Everybody will be watching anxiously as the new buildings go up.
2. She will have something to drink, but she will not eat any solid food.
3. So it was easier for the detective to watch her.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
Stop the Thief
Roy Trenton used to drive a taxi. A short while ago, however, he became a bus driver and he has not regretted
it. He is finding his new work far more exciting. When he was driving along Catred Street recently he saw two thieves
rush out of the shop and run towards awaiting car. One of them was carrying a bag full of money. Roy acted quickly
and drove the bus straight at the thieves. The one with the money got such afraid that he dropped the bag. As the thieves
would try to get away in the car, Roy drove his bus into the back of it. While the battered car was moving away, Roy
stopped his bus and telephoned the police. The thieves’ car was badly damaged and easy to recognize. Shortly
afterwards the police stopped the car and both men were arrested.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
1. Utterance Stress and Its Distribution in the Sentence

Test 30
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words.
Atlantic, village, water
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. He had no sooner return than he bought a fine house and went to live there.
2. Haryson had thought of everything, except the weather.
3. The following day the patient asked for a bed-side telephone.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
Across the Channel
Erna Hart is going to swim across the English Channel tomorrow. She is going to set out from the French
coast at five o’clock in the morning. Erna is only fourteen years old and she hopes to set up a new world record. She is a
strong swimmer and many people feel that she is sure to succeed. Erna’s father will set out with her in a small boat. Mr.
Hart has trained his daughter for years. Tomorrow he will be watching her anxiously as she swims the long distance to
England.
Erna intends to take short rests every two hours. She will have something to drink, but she will not eat any
solid food. Most of Erna’s school friends will be waiting for her on the English coast. On Mangham will be Erna’s
mother who swam the channel herself when she was a girl.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
1. Regional types of English in the British Isles.

Test 31
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words.

60
Airplane, service, deserted
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. In the end it was more than he could bear.
2. Then Mr. Millington asked the caller if he was a relative of the patient.
3. In despair I asked her whether she was enjoying her dinner.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
The Olympic Games
The Olympic games will be held in our country in four years’ time. As a great many people will be visiting the
country, the government will be building new hotels, an immense stadium and a fine new swimming pool. They will
also be building new roads and a special railway line. The games will be held just outside a capital and the whole area
will be called “Olympic city”. Workers will have completed the new roads by the end of this year. By the end of next
year they will have finished work on the new stadium. The fine modern buildings have been designed by Kurt Cunter.
Everybody will be watching anxiously as the new buildings go up. We are all very excited and are looking forward to
the Olympic Games because they have never been held before in this country
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
1. Phonotactics.

Test 32
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words.
Operation, patient, another
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. Last week at a dinner party the hostess asked me to sit next to Mrs. Rumbold.
2.If you ate more and talked less , we would both enjoy our dinner.
3.I regretted saying it almost at once.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
Everything Except the Weather
My old friend Haryson had lived in the Mediterranean for many years, before he returned to England. He had
often dreamed of retiring in England and had planned to settle down in the country. He had no sooner return than he
bought a fine house and went to live there. Almost immediately he began to complain about the weather. For even now
it was still summer, it rained continually and it was often bitterly cold. After so many years of sunshine, Haryson got a
shock. He acted as if he had never lived in England before.
In the end it was more than he could bear. He had hardly had time to settle down, when he sold the house and
left the country. The dream he had had for so many years ended there. Haryson had thought of everything, except the
weather.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
1. English Consonant System

Test 33
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words.
England, rained, thought
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1.I sat down on one of those modern chairs with holes in it and waited.
2.A man can newer have too many ties.
3.It obviously could not tell the difference between Indian music and jazz
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
Am I All Right?

While John Guilbert was in hospital he asked his doctor to tell him whether his operation had been successful,
but the doctor refused to do so. The following day the patient asked for a bed-side telephone. When he was alone, he
telephoned to the hospital exchange and asked for doctor Millington. When the doctor answered the phone, Mr.
Guilbert said he was enquiring about a certain patient – a Mr. John Guilbert. He asked if Mr. Guilbert’s operation had
been successful and the doctor told him that it had been. He then asked when Mr. Guilbert would be allowed to go
home, and the doctor told him that he would have to stay in hospital for another two weeks. Then Mr. Millington asked
the caller if he was a relative of the patient. “No”, the patient answered, “I am Mr. John Guilbert”.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
1. English Vowel System.

Test 34
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words.
Charmer, movements, square
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1.Because the weather was very hot he carried the bed onto the roof of his house.
2.The man sadly picked up the mattress and carried it into his house.

61
3.He also said that he had found five empty whisky bottles.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
Over the South Pole
In 1929, three years after his flight over the North Pole, the American explorer R.E.Bird successfully flew over
the South Pole for the first time .Though at first Bird and his men were able to take a great many photographs of
the mountains of Labelow, they soon went into serious trouble. At one point it seems certain
that their plane would crash. It could only get over the mountains if it rose to ten thousand feet. Bird at once ordered his
men to throw out two heavy food-sacks. The plane was then able to rise and it cleared the mountains by four hundred
feet. Bird now knew that he would be able to reach the South Pole which was three
hundred miles away for there were no more mountains inside. The aircraft was able to fly over the endless white plains
without difficulty.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
1. Accents of English Outside the UK and the USA.

Test 35
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words.
Block, mountains, carry
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1.At one point it seems certainthat their plane would crash.
2.The aircraft was able to fly over the endless white plains without difficulty.
3.I’m a hundred per cent honest now”.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
Through The Forest
Mrs. Ann Stalling did not think of the risk she was taken, when she ran through the forest after two men. They
had rushed up to her while she was having a picnic at the edge of the forest with her children and tried to steal her
handbag. In the struggle the strap broke, and with a bag in their position both men started running through the trees.
Mrs. Stalling got so angry that she ran after them, she was soon out of breath, but she continued to run, when she caught
up with them, she saw that they had sat down and were going through the contains of the bag, so she ran straight up
them. The men got such a fright that they dropped the bag, and ran away. “The strap needs mending”, said Mrs. Stalling
later, but they did not steal anything.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
1. Major Accents in the UK

Test 36
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words.
Rushed, anything, edge
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. I was able to tell him, that he had pulled out the wrong tooth.
2. Because the weather was very hot he carried the bed onto the roof of his house.
3. But I do not know where it is
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
Dangerous Descent in Future
Astronauts were required to descent from a spaceship while it is still in space and return to it. The ability to do
this will be necessary in future flights to distant planets. Scientists are trying to discover if this is possible. The
spaceship “Astra”, which left a short time ago, will be traveling three hundred miles into space. At certain point the
“Astra” will stop for a short time and the astronaut will attempt to leave the stationary spaceship and then return to it.
We shall not know if the experiment is being successful until we have received the radio message. The first message is
expected to arrive at seven o’clock this evening. By that time he “Astra” will be flying through space for seventeen
hours and will have circled the great many times. When the first radio message has been received the results of the trip
will be announced immediately.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
1. The System of Phonological Oppositions in English

Test 37
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words.
Angry, taken, position
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.

1.Scientists are trying to discover if this is possible.

2. When the first radio message has been received the results of the trip will be announced immediately.
3. The first message is expected to arrive at seven o’clock this evening.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.

62
 Firemen had been fighting the forest fire for nearly three weeks before they could get it under control. A short time
before great trees had covered the countryside for miles around. Now smoke still rose up from the warm ground over
the desolate hills.
Winter was coming on and the hills threatened the surrounding villages with destruction for heavy rains would not
only wash away the soil but would cause serious floods as well. When the fire had at last been put out, the funniest
authorities ordered several times of a special type of grass seed, which would grow quickly. The seed was spread over
the ground in huge quantities by airplanes. The planes had been planting seed for nearly a month when it began to rain.
By then, however, in many places the grass had already taken root. In place of the great trees, which had been growing
there for months, patches of green had begun to appear in the blackened soil.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
1. Intonation Group and its Structure.

Test 38
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words.
Handbag, struggle, such
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. Now smoke still rose up from the warm ground over the desolate hills.
2. The planes had been planting seed for nearly a month when it began to rain.
3. Firemen had been fighting the forest fire for nearly three weeks
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
She was Not Amused
Jeffrey Hamden has a large circle of friends and is very popular at parties. Everybody knows him for his fine sense
of humour. Everybody – that is except his six-year-old daughter, Jenny.
Recently, one of Jeffrey’s closest friends asked him to make a speech at a wedding reception. This is the sort of
things that Jeffrey loves. He prepared the speech carefully and went to the wedding with Jenny. He had included a large
number of funny stories in the speech and, of course, it was a great success.
As soon as he had finished, Jenny told him she wanted to go home. Jeffrey was a little disappointed but he did as
his daughter asked. On the way home he asked Jenny if she had enjoyed the speech. To his surprise, she said she hadn’t.
Jeffrey asked her why this was so and she told him that she did not like to see so many people laughing at him.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
1. Aspects of Sound Phenomena.

Test 39
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words.
Attempt, space, astronaut
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1.He prepared the speech carefully and went to the wedding with Jenny.
2. As soon as he had finished, Jenny told him she wanted to go home.
3. It contained five large bars of chocolate and three bags of sweets.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
The Channel Tunnel
In eighteen fifty eight a French engineer arrived in England with a plan for a twenty one-mile tunnel across
the English Channel. He said that it would be possible to build a platform in the centre of the channel. This platform
would serve as a port and a railway station. The tunnel would be well-ventilated if tall chimneys were built above sea
level. In eighteen sixty a better plan was developed by an Englishman William Low. He suggested that a double railway
tunnel should be built. This would solve the problem of ventilation. For if a train entered this tunnel it would draw in
fresh air behind it. Forty-two years later a tunnel was actually begun. If at that time the British had no invasion it would
have been completed. Recently there has again been great interest in the idea of a channel tunnel. If it is built it will
connect Britain Europe for the first time in history.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
1. Graphical Notation of Intonation by Different Phonological Schools

Test 40
Task 1. Make the phonetic analysis of the words.
Large, matters, contained
Task 2. Make phonetic analysis of the sentences.
1. Once, however, it failed to give the correct time.
2. Little boys who played truant from school are unimaginative.
3. No one noticed the boy as he crept off.
Task 3. Make phonetic analysis of the text.
Jambo – this is the police

63
 Last Christmas the circus owner Jimmy Gates decided to take some presents to a children’s hospital. Dressed
up as Father Christmas and accompanied by “A God of Honour” of six pretty girls he set off down the main street of the
city riding a baby elephant called Jambo. He should have known that the police would never allow this sort of thing. A
policeman approached Jimmy and told him he ought to move gone along Aside Street as Jambo was holding up the
traffic. Though Jimmy agreed to go at once Jambo refused to move. Fifteen policemen had to push very hard to get him
after Main Street. The police had a difficult time but they were most amused. “Jambo must weight a few tones, - said
the policeman afterwards – so it was fortunate that we didn’t have to carry him, of course, we should arrest him, but as
he has a good record we shall let him off this time”.
Task 4. Prepare the paper between 5 and 10 pages of hand written text on the topic below.
1. Received Pronunciation.

Додаток 1

64
65
 Додаток 2

WORD PHONETIC ANALYSIS MODEL

1. Spell the word.

2. Trancribe the word.
3. Define the number of letters and phonemes.
4. Divide the word into syllables.
5. Define their types.
6. Mark the stressed syllable.
7. Give the definition of the phonemes and orthographical representation.

EXAMPLE
Finger

1. /ef/ /aɪ/ /en/ /ʤi:/ /i:/ /ɑ:/

2. /ˈfɪŋgə/
3. Letters – 6; phonemes – 5
4. /ˈfɪŋ – gə/
5. The first syllable is closed
6. The second syllable is open
7. /ˈfɪŋ – gə/ - the first syllable is stressed.

/f/ /ɪ/ /n/

1. consonant 1. Vowel 1. Consonant
2. labial, labio-dental 2. Monophthong 2. Lingual, forelingual
3. constrictive 3. Front-retracted 3. Alveolar
4. noise, fricative 4. High, broad 4. Occlusive
5. oral 5. Short 5. Sonorant, nasal
6. voiceless 6. Lax 6. Semi nasal
7. represented by the 7. Labialized 7. Voiced
by the letter «f» 8. Represented by the letter “i” 8.represented by the

letter “n”
/ɡ/ /ə/
1. consonant 1. Vowel
2. lingual, back lingual 2. Monophthong
3. velar 3. Central
4. occlusive 4. Mid
5. noise, plosive 5. Short, broad
6. oral 6. Short
7. voiced 7. Lax
8. represented by the letter “g” 8. Represented by the letter combination “er”

66
 Додаток 3

SENTENCE PHONETIC ANALYSIS MODEL

1. Define the communicative type of the sentence.

2. Transcribe the sentence.
3. Show the syntagmatic division of the sentence (divide the sentence into intonation groups)
4. Mark the sentence stress in the intonation groups.
5. Mark the communicative centers in the intonation groups (main stress and a nuclear tone) according to the
meaning and modality expressed in the sentence.
6. Mark weak forms with schwas.
7. Show the rhythmical groups.
8. Mark all types of linking.
9. Draw the 67omogram of the sentence, define the types of scales.

EXAMPLE

After breakfast I sent the children to school, and then I went to the
market.

Declaratrive (or Statement)

/ˈɑ:ftə ðə ˏbrekfəst ┇aɪ ˈsent ðə ˈʧɪldrən tə ˎsku:l ∣ ənd ˏðen ┇aɪ ˈwent tə ðə ˎmɑ:kɪt ∥/

Додаток 4

PHONETIC ANALYSIS OF THE TEXT

1. Define the communicative style of the text.

2. Transcribe the text.
3. Divide the utterances of the text into intonation groups.
4. Mark the sentence stress in the intonation groups.
5. Mark the communicative centers in the intonation groups (main stress and a nuclear tone) according to the
meaning and modality expressed in the sentence.
6. Mark weak forms with schwas.
7. Show the rhythmical groups.
8. Mark all types of linking.

67
68
 Додаток 4

ВИМОГИ ДО НАПИСАННЯ РЕФЕРАТУ

1. Титульна сторінка.
2. Зміст реферату.
3. Викладення матеріалу.
4. Список використаної літератури.
 Сторінки мають бути пронумеровані.
 Реферат пишеться від руки на аркушах А4.
 Листки скріплені або у файлі.

Зразок оформлення титульної сторінки.

Національний університет «Острозька Академія»

Факультет романо-германських мов
Заочне відділення

Реферат на тему :

VARITIES OF ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION

Виконав:
Студент групи ЗА-41
Іваненко Іван Іванович

Викладач:
ст. викладач кафедри
англійської мови
та літератури
Пелипенко О.О.

Острог, 2012

69
 VOCABULARY

term transcription translation

accent /ˈæksənt/ наголос, вимова
accuracy of pronunciation /ˈækjʊrəsɪ əv prəˌnʌnsɪˈeɪʃn/ правильність вимови
acoustic qualities /əˈku:stɪk ˈkwɒlɪtɪz/ aкустичні можливості
adjacent /əˈʤeɪsənt/ суміжний, прилеглий
affricate /ˈæfrɪkɪt/ африкат
allophone /ˈæləfəʊn/ алофон
alveolar /ælˈvɪələ / альвеолярний
alveoli /ælˈvɪəlaɪ/ альвеоли
apical articulation /ˈæpɪkəl ɑ:ˌtɪkjʊˈleɪʃn / апікальна артикуляція
articulation bases /ɑ:ˌtɪkjʊˈleɪʃn ˈbeɪsɪs/ артикуляційна база
aspiration /ˌæspɪˈreɪʃn/ аспірація (придих)
assimilation /əˌsɪmɪˈleɪʃn/ асиміляція
back of the tongue /ˈbæk əv ðə ˈtʌŋ/ спинка язика
back-lingual / ˈbæk vaʊəl / задньоязичний
back vowel /baɪˈleɪbɪəl/ задній голосний
bilabial /baɪˈleɪbɪəl/ губно-губний
blade of the tongue /ˈbleɪd əv ðə ˈtʌŋ / поверхня язика
boundary /ˈbaʊnd(ə)rɪ/ граничний
broad /brɔ:d/ відкритий
bulk of the tongue /ˈbʌlk əv ðə ˈtʌŋ / об'єм язика
bulky /ˈbʌlkɪ/ об'ємний
cacuminal /kəˈkju:mɪnəl/ какумінальний, ретрофлексний
cluster /ˈklʌstə/ група
communicative /kəˈmju:nɪkeɪtɪv/ комунікативний
consonant /ˈkɒnsənənt/ приголосний
constrictive /kənˈstrɪktɪv щілинний
contraction / kənˈtrækʃ(ə)n / скорочення
dark sound /dɑ:k ˈsaʊnd/ темний (твердий) звук
dental /ˈdentl/ зубний
descending /dɪˈsendɪŋ/ нисхідний, падаючий
devoice /dɪˈvɔɪs/ оглушати
diacritical mark /ˌdaɪəˈkrɪtɪk(ə)l ˈmɑ:k/ діакритичний знак
digraph /ˈdaɪgrɑ:f/ диграф
diphthong /ˈdɪfθɒŋ/ дифтонг
diphongoid /ˈdɪfθɒŋgɔɪd/ дифтонгоід
disyllabic /ˈdɪsɪˈlæbɪk/ двоскладовий
dorsal articulation /ˈdɔ:sl ɑ:ˌtɪkjʊˈleɪʃn/ дорсальна артикуляція
elision /ɪˈlɪʒən/ елізія, пропуск
emphasis /ˈemfəsɪs/ виразний наголос
emphatic /ɪmˈfætɪk/ емфатичний, вирпзний, емоційний
enclitic /ɪnˈklɪtɪk/ енклітик
exhale /eksˈheɪl/ видихати
fall /fɔ:l/ падіння
flat /flæt/ рівний тон, монотонний
forelingual /ˈfɔ:lɪŋgwəl/ передньоязичний
fortis /ˈfɔ:tɪs/ сильний
fricative /ˈfrɪkətɪv/ фрикативний
front /ˈfrʌnt/ передній
front of the tongue /ˈfrʌnt əv ðə ˈtʌŋ/ передня частина язика
glide /glaɪd/ глайд
gliding articulation /ˈglaɪdɪŋ ɑ:ˌtɪkjʊˈleɪʃn / перехідна артикуляція
glottal /ˈglɒtl/ горловий
hard plate /ˈhɑ:d ˈpælɪt/ тверде піднебіння
height of the tongue /ˈhaɪt əv ðə ˈtʌŋ / висота підняття язика
inhale /ɪnˈheɪl/ вдихати
interdental /ˌɪntəˈdentl міжзубний
intonation /ˌɪntəʊˈneɪʃ(ə)n/ інтонація
intonation group /ˌɪntəʊˈneɪʃ(ə)n ˈgru:p/ інтонаційна група
70
jaw /ʤɔ:/ щелепа
juncture /ˈʤʌŋkʃə/ з'єднання
kinetic /kaɪˈnetɪk/ кінетичний,рухливий
labial /ˈleɪbɪəl/ губний
labialization /ˌleɪbɪəlaɪˈzeɪʃn / огублення (лабіалізація)
labialized /ˈleɪbɪəlaɪzd огублений(лабіалізований)
labio-dental /ˈleɪbɪə/ губно-зубний
larynx /ˈlærɪŋks/ ларинкс (горло)
lateral /ˈlætərəl/ боковий
lax /ˈlæks/ ненапружений
length /ˈleŋθ/ довгота
lenis /ˈli:nɪs/ слабкий
level /ˈlevl/ рівень
Liaison = linking /li:ˈeɪzɒn/ /ˈlinking/ зв’язок
light sound = clear /ˈlaɪt ˈsaʊnd/ світлий (м’який) звук
lingual /ˈlɪŋgwəl/ мовний
loss /ˈlɒs/ втрата
lower jaw /ˈləʊə ʤɔ:/ нижня щелепа
lungs /lʌŋgz/ легені
medial /ˈmi:dɪəl/ серединний
medio-lingual /ˈmi:dɪə ˈlɪŋgwəl середньо-язичний
monophthong /ˈmɒnəfθɒŋ/ монофтонг
monosyllabic /ˈmɒnəˌsɪləbl/ односкладовий
mouth cavity /ˈmaʊθ ˈkævɪtɪ/ ротова порожнина
narrow /ˈnærəʊ/ закритий
nasal cavity /ˈneɪzl ˈkævɪtɪ/ носова порожнина
neutral /ˈnju:trəl нейтральний
noise /nɔɪz/ шумний
nuclear tone /ˈnju:klɪə ˈtəʊn/ основний наголос
nucleus /ˈnju:klɪəs/ ядро
obscure /əbˈskjʊə/ слабкий, скорочений
obstruction /əbˈstrʌkʃən/ перешкода
onset /ˈɒnset/ приступ, початкові приголосні складу
occlusive /əˈklu:zɪv/ зімкнений
organs of speech /ˈɔ:gənz əv ˈspi:ʧ/ органи мовлення
palatalization /ˌpælətəlaɪˈzeɪʃən/ палаталізація (пом'якшення)
pause /pɔ:z/ пауза
pharyngal cavity (pharynx) /fəˈrɪŋgəl /ˈfærɪŋks/ фарингальна порожнина (фаринкс)
phoneme /ˈfəʊni:m/ фонема
phonemic symbol /fəʊˈni:mɪk фонемний символ
phonetics /fəʊˈnetɪks/ фонетика
pitch /pɪʧ/ висота тону, звуку
palato-alveolar /ˈpælətəʊˈælvɪələ/ палато-альвеолярний
plosion /ˈpləʊʒən/ прорив
plosive /ˈpləʊsɪv/ проривний
polysyllabic /ˈpɒlɪsɪˈlæbɪk/ багатоскладовий
post-alveolar /ˈpəʊst ˈælvɪələ пост-альвеолярний
post-tonic /ˈpəʊstˈtɒnɪk / після наголошеного складу
prehead /prɪˈhed/ ненаголошені склади перед першим
наголошеним
proclitic /prə(ʊ)ˈklɪtɪk/ проклітик
progressive /prəʊˈgresɪv/ поступальний
pronunciation /prəˌnʌnsɪˈeɪʃ(ə)n/ вимова
qualitative /ˈkwɒlɪtətɪv/ якісний
quantitative /ˈkwɒntɪtətɪv/ кількісний
reciprocal /rɪˈsaɪprəkəl/ взаємний
recurrence /rɪˈkʌrəns/ чередування
reduction /rɪˈdʌkʃ(ə)n/ скорочення
regressive /rɪˈgresɪv/ регресивний, зворотній
retracted /rɪˈtræktɪd/ відведений назад
rhyme /raɪm/ рима, римований вірш
71
rhythm /ˈrɪðm/ ритм
rhythmic group /ˈrɪðmɪk/ ритмічна група
roof of the mouth /ˈru:f əv ðə ˈmaʊθ/ верхня частина ротової порожнини
root of the tongue /ˈru:t əv ðə ˈtʌŋ/ корінь язика
rounded /ˈraʊndɪd/ округлений
scale /skeɪl/ шкала
semantics /sɪˈmæntɪks/ семантика, значення
sense group /ˈsensgru:p/ смислова група
sentence stress /ˈsentəns ˈstress/ фразовий наголос
slanting brackets /ˈslɑ:ntɪŋ ˈbrækɪts/ нахилені дужки
sliding scale /ˈslaɪdɪŋ skeɪl/ змінна шкала
soft palate /ˈsɒft ˈpælət/ м'яке піднебіння
sonorant = sonant /ˈsəʊnərənt/ /ˈsəʊnənt/ сонант
sound /saʊnd/ звук
speech apparatus /ˈspi:ʧ ˌæpəˈreɪtəs/ мовний апарат
spread /spred/ розтягнутий
standard pronunciation /ˈstændəd prəˌnʌnsɪˈeɪʃ(ə)n/ загальноприйнята вимова
stepping scale /ˈstepɪŋ skeɪl/ ступінчаста шкала
stop /stɒp/ втрата прориву, проривний звук
stress /stres/ наголос
strong form /ˈstrɒŋ ˈfɔ:m/ сильна форма
syllabic /sɪˈlæbɪk/ силабічний, складотворчий
syllable /ˈsɪləbl/ склад
tail /teɪl/ кінцеві ненаголошені склади
tense /ˈtens/ напружений
teethridge /ˈti:θrɪʤ/ альвеоли
terminal tone /ˈtɜ:mɪnəl ˈtəʊn/ щстанній наголошений склад з кінцевими
ненаголошеними
tip of the tongue /ˈtɪp əv ðə ˈtʌŋ / кінчик язика
tone /ˈtəʊn/ музикальний наголос
tongue /tʌŋ/ язик
tonogram /ˈtəʊnəˌgræm/ тонограма
transcribe /trænsˈkraɪb/ транскрибувати
transcription /trænsˈkrɪpʃən/ транскрипція
transliteration /ˌtrænzlɪtəˈreɪʃən/ транслітерація
tune /ˈtju:n/ мелодія, тон, звук
utterance /ˈʌtərəns/ висловлення
uvula /ˈju:vju:lə/ язичок
vocal cords /ˈvəʊkəl/ голосові зв'язки
voiced /ˈvɔɪst/ дзвінкий
voiceless /ˈvɔɪslɪs/ глухий
vowel /ˈvaʊəl/ голосний
weak form /ˈwi:k/ слабка форма
windpipe /ˈwɪndpaɪp/ дихальне горло
word stress /ˈwɜ:d stres/ словесний наголос

72
 GLOSSARY OF PHONETIC TERMS
A
ACCENT /ˈæksənt/A greater degree of prominence, given to one or more syllables in a word, which singles it
out through changes in the pitch and intensity of the voice and results in qualitative and quantita tive modifications of
sounds in the accented syllable.
ACCURACY OF PRONUNCIATION /ˈækjʊrəsɪ əv prəˌnʌnsɪˈeɪʃn/ correct and distinct pronunciation.
ADJACENT SOUNDS /əˈʤeɪsənt ˈsaʊndz/ that follow each other.
AFFRICATES /ˈæfrɪkɪts/ the sounds formed during the separation of the articulating organs: in their articulation
the complete closure gradually and uninterruptedly opens into a flat-slit narrowing: /ʧ, ʤ/. “A type of consonant
consisting of a plosive followed by a fricative with the same place of articulation. It is often difficult to decide whether
any particular combination of a plosive plus a fricative should be classed as a single affricate sound or as two separate
sounds, and the question depends on whether these are to be regarded as separate phonemes or not.” (P.Roach)
ALLOPHONES /ˈæləfəʊnz/ a phonemic variant, qualitative variants or members of one and the same phoneme,
which never occur in identical positions, but are said to be in complementary distribution. “Central to the concept of the
phoneme is the idea that it may be pronounced in many different ways. In theory, can have an infinite number of
allophones, but in practice, for descriptive purposes, we tend to concentrate on the ones that occur more regularly.”
(P.Roach)
ALLOPHONIC TRANSCRIPTION /æləˈfɒnɪk trænsˈkrɪpʃn/this type of transcription is based on the principle
"one symbol per allophone". This transcription provides a special sign for each variant of each phoneme. A phoneme is
reflected in this transcription as a unity of all its allophones. The symbols of an allophonic transcription are usually
placed between square brackets [].
ALVEOLAR CONSONANTS /ˈælvɪələ ˈkɒnsənənts/ articulated by the tip of the tongue, which makes a
complete obstruction with the alveoles, for example/t,d,s,z/
ALVEOLES /ˈælvɪəʊlz/or ALVEOLI /ælˈvɪəlaɪ/depressions in upper jaw, which socket the upper teeth.
APICAL /ˈæpɪkəl/articulated by the tip and. the front edge of the tongue. This term is usually contrasted with
laminal, the adjective used to refer to tongue-blade articulations.
ARTICULATE /ɑ:ˌtɪkjʊˈleɪt/to pronounce audibly and distinctly.
ARTICULATION / ɑ:ˌtɪkjʊˈleɪʃn /coordinated movements of speech organs in the process of speech.
ASPIRATION /ˌæspɪˈreɪʃn/ a slight puff of breath which is heard after the explosion of /p, t, k/in the initial
position.
ASSIMILATION /əˌsɪmɪˈleɪʃn/ the result of adaptation of one sound to another. It can be progressive, regressive
or reciprocal. Most commonly, the sounds, which undergo assimilation, are immediately adjacent in the stream of
speech. For example in horse-shoe /s/is pronounced as /ʃ/under the influence of /ʃ/ which follows it. “The notion of
assimilation is full of problems: it is often unhelpful to think of it in terms of one sound being the cause of the
assimilation and the other the consequence of it when, in many cases, sounds appear to influence each other mutually; it
is often not clear whether the result of assimilation is supposed to be a different allophone or a different phoneme.
Research on such phenomena in experimental phonetics does not usually use the notion of assimilation, preferring the
more neutral concept of co-articulation.” (P.Roach)
В
BACK /bæk/ the term is used in phonetics to characterise the vowels, which are formed with the bulk of the
tongue in the back part of the mouth cavity, when it is raised towards the junction between the hard and the soft parts of
the palate; back vowels are: /u:, ɒ, ɔ:/and the nuclei of the diphthongs /ɔɪ, ɒ/
BILABIAL /baɪˈleɪbɪəl/articulated by the upper and the lower lip.Bilabial consonants are: /p, b, w, m/.
BODY /ˈbɒdɪ/ the whole.
BODY OF THE TONGUE /ˈbɒdɪ əv ðə tʌŋ/ the whole of it.
BULK /bʌlk/see body.
С
CENTRAL VOWELS /ˈsentrəl ˈvaʊəlz/ vowels formed by the central part of the tongue.
CLEAR SOUND /ˈklɪə ˈsaʊnd/ the sound which is made softer due to additional articulatory work. Eg. the
raising of the middle part of the tongue to the hard palate (front-secondary focus) "softens", or clears /l/in the initial
position, compare: lily, light and bill, hill.
COMMUNICATIVE CENTRE /kəˈmju:nɪkeɪtɪv ˈsentə/it is a word or a group of words which conveys the most
important point of communication in the sense-group or sentence.
COMMUNICATIVE TYPES / kəˈmju:nɪkeɪtɪv ˈtaɪps/the types of sentences which are differentiated according to
the type of intonation. V.A. Vassilyev gives the following communicative types: 1. Categoric and non-categoric
statements. 2. Disjunctive questions. 3. Commands. 4. Exclamations. 5. Special questions. 6. Alternative questions. 7.
General questions and 8. Requests.
COMPLETE ASSIMILATION /kəmˈpli:t əˌsɪmɪˈleɪʃn / assimilation when one of the two adjacent sounds fully
coincides with the other. For example: less sugar /leʃ ˈʃʊgə/.
CONSONANT /ˈkɒnsənənt/ a sound of noise, which is formed by a complete or incomplete obstruction. As a
rule, consonants are non-syllabic.

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 CONSTRICTIVE FRICATIVE SOUNDS /kənˈstrɪktɪv ˈfrɪkətɪv ˈsaʊndz/ in the articulation of these sounds the
air passage is narrowed or constricted to such an extent that the air passing through it pro duces noise or friction. No
resonance is possible in the production of pure fricatives /f, θ, s, ʃ, h/. Voiced fricatives are produced with an admixture
of musical tone, they are /v, ð, z, ʒ/.
CONSTRICTIVE SONANTS /kənˈstrɪktɪv ˈsəʊnənts/(resonants) in the articulation of these sounds the
narrowing for the air passage is not wide enough to eliminate the noise or friction completely; on the other hand it is
wide enough to make the cavity function as a resonator. They are /w, r, l, j/.
D
DARK SOUND /dɑ:k ˈsaʊnd/ the sound which is made harder due to additional articulatory work—the raising of
the back part of the tongue to the soft palate (back secondary focus), /w/and /l/"dark" are pronounced with the back
secondary focus.
DENTAL CONSONANTS /ˈdentl ˈkɒnsənənt / consonants produced with the tip and the blade of the tongue
placed against the upper front teeth. For example: /t, d, n/.
DESCENDING SCALE /dɪˈsendɪŋ ˈskeɪl/gradual lowering of the voice pitch.
DEVOICE /dɪˈvɔɪs/to pronounce with the vocal cords switched out. Voiced consonants are gradually devoiced in
the terminal position and under the influenceofthe adjacent voiceless consonant (not so much as in the Russian
language).
DIGRAPH /ˈdaɪgrɑ:f/combination of two letters equivalent to one phoneme. For example: ее /i:/sh /ʃ/, th /θ, ð/.
DIPHTHONG /ˈdɪfθɒŋ/ a vowel phoneme which consists of two elements: a nucleus and a glide. The first
element of a diphthong is more loud and distinct; the formation of the second element of a diphthong is not
accomplished. English diphthongs can be normal — this term is used because they are similar to the diphthongs
normally occurring in other languages: /eɪ, aɪ, ɔɪ, aʊ, əʊ/and centring: /ɪə, eə, ɔə, ʊə/—they are called so because their
glide /ə/is considered to be a central vowel.
DIPHTHONGOIDS /ˈdɪfθɒŋgɔɪdz/ diphthongized sounds. In English they are /i:/and /u:/. The /i:/articulation
begins with /ɪ/, which glides up to the /i/position and ends up in the /j/position. The /u:/articulation begins with /ʊ/,
which glides up to the /u/position and ends in the /w/position.
DISJUNCTIVE QUESTION /dɪsˈʤʌŋktɪv ˈkwesʧ(ə)n/a question which consists of two parts, characterised by
the succession of falling and rising tones (nuclear or.termlnal), used to express alternative ideas.
DISYLLABIC /ˈdɪsɪˈlæbɪk/ consisting of two syllables.
DORSAL CONSONANTS /ˈdɔ:sl ˈkɒnsənənts / pronounced with the tip of the tongue against the upper or lower
teeth. For example: Ucrainian /т/.
DOUBLE STRESS /dʌbl stres/ two stresses within the same word, eg. disagree /ˈdɪsəˈgri:/
DURATION /djʊəˈreɪʃn/ length.
DYNAMIC ACCENT /daɪˈnæmɪk ˈæksənt/ force accent based mainly on the expiratory effort.
E
ELISION /ɪˈlɪʒən/ dropping off of a vowel in the initial or terminal position. For example: 'tis instead of it is, th'
eternal instead of the eternal.
EMPHASIS /ˈemfəsɪs/combination of the expressive means of the language to single out emphatic words, groups
of words or whole sentences.
EMPHATIC /ɪmˈfætɪk/ that, which refers to emphasis.
ENCLITIC /ɪnˈklɪtɪk/ unstressed word or syllable, which refers to the preceding stressed word or syllable. For
example: be, not in 'may be, 'cannot. Together with the stressed word, enclitics form one phonetic unit.
EXHALE /eksˈheɪl/ to breathe the air out of the lungs and the mouth cavity.
EXPIRATION /ˌekspaɪˈreɪʃn/ breathing the air out.
EXPLOSION /ɪksˈpləʊʒn/, or PLOSION /ˈpləʊʒn / noise made by the air, when it is suddenly released through a
complete obstruction. The sounds /p, t, k/ are pronounced with a plosion, or explosion.
F
FALL /fɔ:l/lowering of the voice pitch within a stressed syllable.
FIXED ORGANS OF SPEECH /ˈfɪkst ˈɔ:gənz əv ˈspi:ʧ/ they are: the upper teeth and the teethridge, the hard
palate and the pharyrgeal wall.
FIXED WORD ACCENT /ˈfɪkst ˈwɜ:d ˈæksənt/ this type of accent is characterized by the fixed position of
stress.
FORELINGUAL /ˈfɔ:lɪŋgwəl/ articulated by the ltipof the tongue raised against the upper teeth or the teethridge.
For example: /t, d, n/ are forelingual consonants.
FORTIS /ˈfɔ:tɪs/ strong.
FORTIS CONSONANTS /ˈfɔ:tɪs ˈkɒnsənənts /voiceless plosives and constrictives, which are pronounced with
strong muscular tension and strong expiratory effort (compare with lenis consonants). The consonants /f, p, t/ are fortis.
FREE WORD ACCENT /ˈfri: ˈwɜ:d ˈæksənt / the type of accent which is characterized by the free accidence of
the word accent: in different words of the language different syllables can be stressed—the first, the second, the third.
Free word accent has two subtypes: a) constant, which always remains on the same morpheme: wonder, wonderfully
and b) shifting, which changes its place: сад, садовод.
FRICATIVE CONSONANTS /ˈfrɪkətɪv ˈkɒnsənənts / produced by friction of the flow of air through the
narrowing formed by articulatory organs. For example: /v, s, z/

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 FRONT OF THE TONGUE /ˈfrʌnt əv ðə ˈtʌŋ/ the blade and the tip of the tongue. The blade and the middle of
the tongue in the terminology of English phoneticians
FRONT-RETRACTED VOWELS /ˈfrʌnt rɪˈtræktɪd ˈvaʊəlz/ produced with the front but a bit retracted position
of the bulk of the tongue. The vowel /ɪ/ is a front-retracted sound. It is retracted in comparison with the vowel /i:/ which
is fully front. The nucleus of the diphthong /aʊ/ is also front-retracted.
FRONT VOWELS /ˈfrʌnt ˈvaʊəlz / they are vowels articulated when the bulk of the tongue moves forward and
its front part is raised highest towards the hard palate: /i:, ɪ, e, æ/ and the nuclei of the diphthongs /ɪə, eɪ, eə, aɪ, aʊ/.
FULLY VOICED /ˈfʊlɪ ˈvɔɪst/ consonants pronounced with the vocal cords vibrating from the first to the last
stage of their articulation.
G
GENERAL AMERICAN, G. A. /ˈʤenərəl əˈmerɪkən/ it is the most widespread type of educated American
speech.
GENERAL QUESTION /ˈʤenərəl ˈkwesʧ(ə)n / the type of a question which demands a yes of no answer, it is
pronounced with the rising tone.
GLIDE /glaɪd/ that part of a diphthong, which constitutes its additional element, the full articulation of which is
not accomplished. For example: /ɪ/and /ə/in /aɪ, eɪ, ɪə, eə/ are glides.
GLOTTAL SOUND /ˈglɒtl ˈsaʊnd / when the glottis is narrowed during exhalation, the air, passing out of the
mouth cavity, produces an /h/ like sound; that is why /h/ is considered by Prof. A. L. Trakhterov and British and
American phoneticians to be a glottal or laryngeal consonant (not a pharyngeal one).
GLOTTAL STOP /ˈglɒtl ˈstɒp/ a sound which reminds a slight cough and is articulated by the vocal cords,
before a vowel sound heard, in cases of emphatic speech.
GLOTTIS /ˈglɒtɪs/ the space between the vocal cords, which is the entrance to the trachea, or the windpipe.
H
HARD PALATE /ˈhɑ:d ˈpælɪt/ the roof of the mouth.
HEAD /hed/ stressed syllables preceding the nucleus together with the intervening unstressed syllables.
HIGH POSITION OF'THE TONGUE /ˈhaɪ pəˈzɪʃən əv ðə ˈtʌŋ/ the position when the dorsum and the front part
of the tongue are raised to the roof of the mouth, but not so high as to produce an audible friction. High narrow
vowels /i:, u:/ are pronounced with the bulk of the tongue raised more higher than for /ɪ, ʊ/, which also belong to the
group of high vowels but to their broad variety.
HEIGHT /haɪt/ the width of the resonating cavity in the articulation of vowels.
HEIGHT OF THE TONGUE /ˈ haɪt əv ðə ˈtʌŋ / the height to which the bulk of the tongue is raised and which
determines the level of the raised bulk of the tongue: high, mid, or low.
HISTORICAL ASSIMILATION /hɪsˈtɒrɪkəl əˌsɪmɪˈleɪʃ(ə)n/ sound changes, which are the repult of the historical
development of the language.
HOMOGRAPHS /ˈhɒməgrɑ:fs/ words that are similar in orthography but different in pronunciation and
meaning. For example: tear /teə/ розривати and tear /tɪə/ сльоза.
HOMOPHONES //ˈhɒməfəʊnz/ words that are similar in pronunciation but different in orthography and
meaning. For example: air—hair повітря—волосся; buy—bye купляти—щось незначне; knight— night лицар—ніч;
not—knot ні—вузол; or—ore або—руда.
HYPHEN /ˈhaɪfən/ a graphic sign which serves to show syllabic boundary.
I
INHALATION /ˌɪnhəˈleɪʃən/ breathing the air in.
INTERDENTAL ARTICULATION /ˌɪntəˈdentl ɑ:ˌtɪkjʊˈleɪt / articulation characterised by the interdental
position of the tip of the tongue in articulating /θ, ð/. In speech, these sounds are often pronounced as dental, with the tip
of the tongue placed behind the upper teeth.
INTONATION/ˌɪntəʊˈneɪʃ(ə)n/ it is a component of the phonetic structure which is viewed in the narrow
meaning as pitch variations or speech melody. It manifests itself in the delimitative function within a sentence and at its
end; see prosodic features.
INTONATION GROUP /ˌɪntəʊˈneɪʃ(ə)n ˈgru:p/ it is an actualized sence group.
INTRUSIVE SOUNDS /ɪnˈtru:stɪv ˈsaʊndz/ alien to the word. For example: /ˈhɪmpjudənt/ instead of
/ˈɪmpjudənt/, /ˈpleɪjɪŋ/ instead of /ˈpleɪɪŋ/; /ˈdræmər ənd ˈmju:zɪk/ instead of /ˈdræmə ənd ˈmju:zɪk/
IRRELEVANT FEATURES /ɪˈrelɪvənt ˈfi:ʧəz/ they are different articulatory and acoustic features of speech
sounds, which do not make them allophones of different phonemes, e. g. partial devoicing of terminal voiced
consonants, variation in the positional length of vowels.
J
JAWS /ʤɔ:z/ parts of the mouth, which bear teeth and by means of which the mouth can be opened and closed.
JUNCTION /ˈʤʌŋkʃən/ the joining of two sounds or words.
JUNCTURE /ˈʤʌŋkʃə/ the place, where two sounds or words are joined together.
JUNCTURE PHONEME /ˈʤʌŋkʃə ˈfəʊni:m/ this is the syllabic boundary at the junction of words or
morphemes that can be characterised by distinctive difference, e. g. a name— an aim. Open or plus juncture is marked
by /+/: a + name, an + aim.
К
KINETIC /kaɪˈnetɪk/ relating to motion, producing motion

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 L
LABIAL /ˈleɪbɪəl/ relating to the lips.
LABIALIZATION /ˌleɪbɪəlaɪˈzeɪʃn / lip rounding.
LABIALIZED VOWELS /ˈleɪbɪəlaɪzd ˈvaʊəlz/ vowels produced with a more or less lip rounding. For
example: /u;, ɔ:, ɒ, ʊ/
LABIAL SOUNDS /ˈleɪbɪəl ˈsaʊndz/ articulated by the lips. For example: /p, b/
LARYNX /ˈlærɪŋks/ an organ of the respiratory tract above the windpipe. It consists of an elaborate arrangement
of cartilage and muscles and contains a pair of vocal cords.
LATERAL /ˈlætərəl/ having to do with the sides of the tongue.
LATERAL SOUNDS /ˈlætərəl ˈsaʊndz/ sounds in the articulation of which the air passages (or passage) are
formed at the lateral sides of the tongue. At the same time, the contact is made by the tip of the tongue pressed against
the teethridge as in /l/ articulation.
LAX VOWELS /ˈlæks ˈvaʊəlz/ vowels in the articulation of which the muscular tension of the tongue, lips, and
the walls of the resonating cavities is not so great as in the articulation of tense vowels. Compare: /ɪ, ʊ, ɒ/ and /i:, u:, ɔ:/.
LENGTH OF THE SOUND /ˈleŋθ əv ðə ˈsaʊndz/ length of the sound waves in the articulation of a sound.
LENIS /ˈli:nɪs/ pl lenes /ˈli:ni:z/ ) pronounced with weak articulation: /b, d, z, g, v, ð, ʒ, ʤ/
LENITION /lɪˈnɪʃən/ gradual weakening in the articulation.
LESSEN /ˈlesn/ to make less. For example, lessen the length, loud-ness or tension of sounds.
LETTERS /ˈletəz/ printed or written symbols of an alphabet used in representing speech sounds.
LEVEL TONE /ˈlevl ˈtəʊn/ tone neutral in its communicative function, which is used mostly in poetry.
LIAISON /li:ˈeɪzɒn/ in the English language cases of liaison are the “intrustiv” /r/ or the pronunciation of /n/ in
an indefinite article when it is followed by a vowel: an apple /ən ˈæpl/.
LIGHT /laɪt/in phoneticslthis term is equivalent to clear.
LINGUAL /ˈlɪŋgwəl/ articulated with the help of the tongue. For example, /t/is a lingual sound because it is
articulated with the tip of the tongue pressed against the teethridge.
LIP POSITIONS /ˈlɪp pəˈzɪʃnz/different positions of lips, which change the articulation of sounds and their
tamber. The main positions of the lips are: rounded, as in /ɔ:/ articulation, unrounded, as in /ɪ/ articulation, protruded, as
in /ʊ/ articulation, ncn-protruded as in /e/articulation, spread as in /i:/articulation, neutral as in /ə/ articulation.
LITERARY PRONUNCIATION /ˈlɪtərərɪ prəˌnʌnsɪˈeɪʃn/: RP pronunciation (received pronunciation) or public
school pronunciation, the pronunciation of educated people in Southern England.
LOCAL DIFFERENCES /ˈləʊkəl ˈdɪfərənsɪz/ dialectal differences in the pronunciation of the same sounds or
words.
LOGICAL STRESS /ˈlɒʤɪkəl ˈstres/ the singling out of the word, which seems to be most important in the
sentence.
LONG VOWELS /lɒŋ ˈvaʊəlz/ in English they are /i:, ɑ:, ɔ:, u:, ɜ:/
LOSS /lɒs/ in phonetics it is absence of some articulatory work. Loss of plosion, sound, etc., eg. act—loss of
plosion in /k/.
LOWER TEETH, LIP, JAW /ˈləʊə ˈti:θ, ˈlɪp, ˈʤɔ:/ all these organs are more active and important in the process
of articulation than the " upper jaw, lip, teeth.
LOW LEVEL TONE /ˈləʊ ˈlevl ˈtəʊn/ сharacterises unstressed but prominent syllables of parenthetic groups or
long tails.
LOW NARROW VOWELS /ˈləʊ ˈnærəʊ ˈtəʊn/ these vowels are /ʌ, ɔ:/.
LOW PITCH /ˈləʊ ˈpɪʧ/ low tone. It is usually used in the narrow range of tone-pitch.
LOW VOWELS /ˈləʊ ˈvaʊəlz/ vowels pronounced with the low position of the bulk of the tongue. For example:
/ɑ:, ɒ, æ, ʌ, ɔ:/.
M
MEDIAL SONANTS /ˈmi:dɪəl ˈsəʊnənts/ sounds articulated with the air-passage through tha middle part of the
tongue. For example: /w, r, j/
MID /mɪd/ neither high nor low position of the bulk of the tongue when it moves in the vertical direction. In
Jones'classification mid corresponds to half-close and half-open. Mid vowels are: /e, ɜ:, ə, əʊ, eə/.
MID BACK VOWELS /ˈmɪd ˈbæk ˈvaʊəlz/ the nucleus of the diphthong /əʊ/.
MID CENTRAL VOWELS /ˈmɪd ˈsentrəl ˈvaʊəlz/ /ɜ:/ and /ə/ in the terminology given by British phoneticians.
Russian authorities define them as mid, mixed.
MIDDLE PART OF THE TONGUE /ˈmɪdl ˈpɑ:t əv ðə ˈtʌŋ/ the central part of the dorsum of the tongue which
is opposite the hard palate, It lies between the blade and the back of the tongue. This term is widely used in our
terminology. The middle of the tongue plays an important role in the process of palatalization. In the terminology given
by some foreign phoneticians the term "middle" is used in reference to the border between the predorsal (that is front)
and dorsal (that is middle and back) part of the tongue; according to their terminology the middle part of the tongue
corresponds to the term "front part of the tongue".
MID FRONT VOWELS /ˈmɪd ˈfrʌnt ˈvaʊəlz/ /e/, the first element of the diphthong /eə/.
MINIMAL PAIR /ˈmɪnɪməl ˈpeə/ it is a pair the distinctive differences between the members of which are based
upon one distinctive difference. The pair pill—bill is minimal, because its members are differentiated due to /p -b/
phonemes, their fortis /p/—lenis /b/ distinctions.

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 MONOPHTHONG /ˈmɒnəfθɒŋ/ a vowel sound in the articulation of which the articulating organs are more or
less stable, which results in the stationary nature of the vowel. English monophthongs are /ɪ, e, æ, ɑ:, ɒ, ɔ:, ʊ, ʌ, ɜ:, ə/.
MONOPHTHONGIZE /ˈmɒnəfθɒŋgaɪz /acquire equal quality.
MONOSYLLABLE /ˈmɒnəˌsɪləbl/ a word consisting of one syllable.
MONOTONE /ˈmɒnətəʊn / equal tone, lacking the necessary variations in the voice pitch.
MONOTONOUS /məˈnɒtənəs / pronounced witb equal tone.
MOUTH CAVITY /ˈmaʊθ ˈkævɪtɪ/ the cavity between the teeth and the pharynx.
MOVABLE ORGANS OF SPEECH /ˈmu:vəbl ˈɔ:gənz əv ˈspi:ʧ/ the organs of speech that move during
articulation: the lips, the lower jaw, the tongue, the soft palate with the uvula, the back wall of the pharynx.
MUTUAL ASSIMILATION /ˈmju:ʧʊəl əˌsɪmɪˈleɪʃ(ə)n / bilateral assimilation, when two assimilating sounds
equally influence each other. For example bilateral assimilation of /s/ + /j/ results in /ʃ/: issue /ˈɪsju: - ˈɪʃʃu: - ˈɪʃu:/.
N
NARROW /ˈnærəʊ/ the variety of high, mid, and low position of the bulk of the tongue when it moves in the
vertical direction. See high-narrow, mid-narrow, low-narrow.
NASAL CAVITY /ˈneɪzl ˈkævɪtɪ/ immovable cavity inside the nose and the nasopharynx; it is separated from the
mouth cavity by the upper jaw with the teethridge and the palate.
NASALIZATION /ˌneɪzəlaɪˈzeɪʃn / nasal twang.
NASAL SONANTS /ˈneɪzl ˈsəʊnənts/ they are articulated with the blocked passage for the flow of air through
the mouth cavity. This is effected by lowering the soft palate. Nasal sonants are /m, n, ŋ/.
NASAL PLOSION /ˈneɪzl ˈpləʊʒən/ plosion formed when the soft palate is separated from the back wall of the
nasal pharynx and the air quickly escapes through the nasal cavity; it takes place in the combinations like /tn, dn/.
NASAL VOWELS /ˈneɪzl ˈvaʊəlz/ vowels articulated when the flow of air is directed from the lungs both
through the mouth and the nasal cavity. Nasal vowels exist in the French language.
NEIGHBOURING SOUND /ˈneɪbərɪŋ ˈsaʊndz/ adjacent sound, that which follows.
NEUTRAL POSITION /ˈnju:trəl pəˈzɪʃn/ the position when the tongue is equally removed from front, back,
high, and low positions.
NOISE /nɔɪz/ characterises consonants, which are formed when the flow of air passes through a narrowing and
produces audible friction. Voiceless consonants are "pure" noises, and voiced consonants are a combination of noise
and voice, produced by the vocal cords, which are drawn together and vibrate.
NUCLEAR TONE /ˈnju:klɪə ˈtəʊn/ the tone associated with the nucleus of a sense-group is a nuclear tone. In RP
they are the following: the high falling, the low falling, the high rising, the low rising, the rising-falling, the falling-
rising, the rising-falling-rising, the level tone.
NUCLEUS OF A DIPHTHONG /ˈnju:klɪəs əv ə ˈdɪfθɒŋ/ /(pl NUCLEI /ˈ nju:klɪaɪ/) that part of the diphthong,
which is more prominent. For example, the nuclei of /aɪ, eɪ/ are /a, e/.
NUCLEUS OF A SENSE-GROUP /ˈnju:klɪəs əv ə ˈsens ˈgru:p/ it is the last stressed syllable of a sense-group.
0
OBSTRUCTION /əbˈstrʌkʃən/ in articulation it is either a narrowing (incomplete obstruction) or a complete
closure of the speech organs (complete obstruction).
OCCLUSION /əˈklu:ʒən/ a complete obstruction made by the speech organs, as in /p/, /t/, /k/.
OCCLUSIVE /əˈklu:zɪv/ the sounds pronounced when the air on its way out breaks up a complete obstruction.
Occlusive consonants are 1) /p, b, t, d, k, g/—stop or plosives and 2) sonorants /m, n, ŋ/— nasals (see plosive
consonants).
OCCURRENCE /əˈkʌrəns/ frequency with which sounds, phonemes, or words are used.
OFF-GLIDE /ˈɔ:fˌglaɪd/ a short and not definite vowel, which is heard after terminal consonants (according to H.
Sweet). Some authors consider that it is a neutral vowel, which is heard between sounds. For example: -ism /ɪz(ə)m/
OPEN /ˈəʊpn/ characterized by the low position of the bulk of the tongue.
OPEN SYLLABLE /ˈəʊpn ˈsɪləbl/ the type of the syllable which ends in a vowel – CV-type.
OPEN VOWELS /ˈəʊpn ˈvaʊəlz/ the group of vowels which are pronounced with the open, or low position of
the bulk of the tongue. Open or low-vowels in English are: /æ, ʌ, ɔ, a(ɪ, ʊ), ɑ:, ɔ:/
OPPOSITION /ˌɒpəˈzɪʃən/ comparison of sounds, words or morphemes along the lines of their qualitative and
quantitative characteristics which results in singling out their minimal distinctive features, that are phonologically
relevant or irrelevant; For example, the opposition between /kæb— kæp/ is based on voiced — lenis voiceless — fortis
distinctions in /p - b/ which is their minimal distinctive relevant feature (other features, which characterise these sounds
are irrelevant).
ORAL SOUNDS /ˈɔ:rəl ˈsaʊndz/ they are the sounds which are produced with the raised soft palate, thus the air
goes out of the mouth cavity.
ORGANS OF SPEECH /ˈɔ:gənz əv ˈspi:ʧ/ the organs that together with biological functions, such as breathing,
feeding, smelling and tasting, serve to carry out intercommunication through the elaborate work of the four
mechanisms: the power, the vibrator, the resonator and the obstructor.
ORTHOGRAPHIC SYLLABLE /ˌɔ:θəˈgræfɪk ˈsɪləbl/ it is a unit into which words are divided in writing or print,
eg. rang—ing, al—ien. They do not always coincide with phonetic syllables.
P

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 PALATALIZATION /ˌpælətəlaɪˈzeɪʃən/ softening of consonants, which results from.the secondary place of
articulation — front-secondary focus. It takes place when the middle part of the tongue is raised to the hard palate and
the air passage is narrowed or constricted, which gives the consonant soft colouring. All consonants, with the exception
of medio-lingual, can be affected by palatalization when they are followed by /i:, ɪ, e or j/. Palatalization is phonemic in
the Ucrainian language (compare: булка - булька). In the English language palatalization is non-phonemic, and when it
takes place in the articulation of sounds other than /l, ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ/ under the influence of the Ucrainian language it is a
mistake.
PALATAL SOUND /ˈpælətlˈ saʊnd/ the sound that is connected with the palate articulatorily.
PALATE /ˈpælət/ the roof of the mouth, separating the mouth cavity from the nasal cavity. In articulatory
phonetics it is divided into the hard palate, the soft palate with the uvula and the teeth ridge.
PALATO-ALVEOLAR CONSONANTS /ˈpælətəʊˈælvɪələ ˈkɒnsənənts/ the consonants articulated by the tip of
the tongue raised against the teethridge (there is a narrowing between them) and the middle part of the tongue, which is
simultaneously raised to the hard palate. Palato-alveolar consonants are /ʃ, ʒ/.
PARENTHESIS /pəˈrenθəsɪs/ a word, phrase or sentence usually having its own complete meaning, inserted into
a sentence which is grammatically complete without this insertion, and marked off from it by punctuation. For example:
"I shall not go there," he replied. "I ask you," she demanded, "to go there immediately." In speech, it is expressed by
lowering the pitch of the voice.
PASSIVE ORGANS OF SPEECH /ˈpæsɪv ˈɔ:gənz əv ˈspi:ʧ/ organs "that are either constantly immovable, such
as the hard palate and the uррег teeth, or such that are fixed but can be movable; for example, the back part of the
tongue in the articulation of /r/ is fixed and in /k, g/ it is active and moving to the soft palate, with which it forms a
complete obstruction
PAUSE /pɔ:z/ a short period of time when sound stops before starting again. Pauses are non-obligatory between
sense-groups and obligatory between sentences.
PEAKS OF PROMINENCE /ˈpi:ks əv ˈprɒmɪnəns/ the points of maximal acoustic activity of tone.
PHARYNGAL(-GEAL) /fəˈrɪŋgəl, færɪnˈʤɪəl/ connected with the pharynx.
PHARYNX /ˈfærɪŋks/ the cavity between the mouth and the oesophagus communicating with the nasal passages
and ears.
PHASES OF ARTICULATION /ˈfeɪzɪz əv ɑ:ˌtɪkjʊˈleɪʃn/ three phases in the articulation of a single sound:
initial, medial (or central), and final. They may be called differently: excursion, stop stage and recursion.
PHONEME /ˈfəʊni:m/ the shortest functional unit of a language. Each phoneme exists in speech in the form of
mutually non-distinctive speech sounds, its allophones. Each speech sound is an allophone of some phoneme.
PHONEMIC COMPONENT /fəʊˈni:mɪk kəmˈpəʊnənt/ this component of the phonetic structure manifests itself
in the system of separate phonemes and their allophones.
PHONEMIC TRANSCRIPTION /fəʊˈni:mɪk trænsˈktrɪpən/ this type of transcription is based on the principle
"one symbol per phoneme". A phoneme is reflected in this transcription as an abstraction and generalization. The
symbols of a phonemic transcription are placed within two slanting lines / /.
PHONETIC PRINCIPLE OF ORTHOGRAPHY /fəʊˈnetɪk ˈprɪnsɪpl əv ɔ:ˈθɒgrəfɪ/ it is a one-to-one
correspondence: one grapheme corresponds to one phoneme, or sequence of phonemes. This principle is realized in
phonemic transcription.
PHONETICS /fəʊˈnetɪks/ the science that studies the sound matter of the language, its semantic functions and
the lines of development.
PHONETIC SYSTEM /fəʊˈnetɪk ˈsɪstɪm/ it is systemic combination of five components of the language, i.e. the
system of segmental phonemes, the phonemic component, the syllabic component, the accentual component, intonation.
PHONIC /ˈfəʊnɪk / acoustic, connected with voice or sounds.
PHONOLOGICAL MISTAKES /ˌfəʊnəˈlɒʤɪkəl mɪsˈteɪks/ mistakes connected with the alteration of the
meaning of words, which prevent communication. For example, mispronunciation of /θ/ may lead to the confusion of
thought—fought, think—sink, mouth—mouse, etc.
PHONOLOGICAL OPPOSITIONS /ˌfəʊnəˈlɒʤɪkəl ˌɒpəˈzɪʃənz/ it is a pair of words in which any one phoneme
is usually opposed to any other phoneme in at least one lexical or grammatical minimal or sub-minimal pair, eg. /t-d/,
/k-g/ in ten—den, coat—goat.
PITCH /pɪʧ/ the degree of highness or lowness varying with the number of vibrations of a note. V. A. Vassilyev
defines it as "perception of the frequency of repeated pressures on the ear-drum".
PLACE OF ARTICULATION /ˈpleɪs əv ɑ:ˌtɪkjʊˈleɪʃn/ the place, where a complete or incomplete obstruction is
formed in the articulation of consonants.
PLOSION /ˈpləʊʒən/ an abrupt separation of speech organs at the place of articulation.
PLOSIVE CONSONANTS /ˈpləʊsɪv ˈkɒnsənənts/ the consonants that are articulated by forming a complete
obstruction which bars the f!ow of air sent from the lungs through the mouth or nasal cavities. The organs of speech that
form the obstruction produce a kind of explosion on their abrupt separation. Plosive consonants are /p, b, t, d, k, g/. See
pure plosives.
POINT OF ARTICULATION /ˈpɔɪnt əv ɑ:ˌtɪkjʊˈleɪʃn / this term is used by American linguists instead of the
term fixed or passive speech organs.
POSITIONAL ALLOPHONES /pəˈzɪʃənl ˈæləfəʊnz/ variants of a phoneme, which are used in definite positions
due to the tradition of a language pronunciation, eg. dark and light /l/.

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 POST-ALVEOLAR CONSONANTS /ˈpəʊst ˈælvɪələ ˈkɒnsənənts/ consonants that are articulated by the tip of
the tongue, which moves behind the back slope of the teethridge, as, for example /t/-/d/in the words tree—dry.
POST-POSITION /ˈpəʊstpəˈzɪʃən/ the position of some phonetic element after a word; when unstressed, this
element may be termed enclitic after a stressed word.
PRACTICAL PHONETICS /ˈpræktɪkəl fəʊˈnetɪks/ teaching to pronounce sounds correctly.
PRIMARY STRESS /ˈpraɪmərɪ ˈstress/ the stress, which is the strongest, compared with the other stresses used in
a word.
PROCLITIC /prə(ʊ)ˈklɪtɪk/ a monosyllabic word or particle with no accent of its own, which is pronounced with
the following pre-tonic or accented syllable as one phonetic unit. For example, articles before nouns, the particle to
before verbs in the infinitive, or cases like forgive /fəˈgɪv/, begin /bɪˈgɪn/.
PROGRESSIVE ASSIMILATION /prəʊˈgresɪv əˌsɪmɪˈleɪʃn/ the process when the first of the two neighbouring
sounds influences the second and makes it similar to itself. For example, the pronunciation of the suffix -ed of regular
verbs is based on progressive voicing and devoicing: it is pronounced /t/ after voiceless consonants (except /t/), /d/ after
vowels and voiced consonants (except /d/), /ɪd/ after /t/, /d/: dropped /drɒpt/, remained /rɪˈeɪnd/, extended /ɪksˈtendɪd/.
PROMINENCE /ˈprɒmɪnəns/ singling out acoustically, which produces the effect of greater loudness.
PRONOUNCE /prəˈnaʊns/ articulate.
PROSODIC FEATURES OF THE SENTENCE /prəˈsɒdɪk ˈfi:ʧəz əv ðə ˈsentəns they are: speech melody, the
pitch (fundamental frequency), accent, tempo, rhythm and pausation, tamber; they constitute intonation in the broad
sense—prosodation or prosodization.
PROTRUDE /prəˈtru:d/ to move forward. In phonetics this term is connected with the protrusion of the lips.
PURE PLOSIVES /ˈpjʊə ˈpləʊsɪvz / voiced and voiceless occlusive consonants pronounced with distinct and
quick separation of the obstruction, they are /p, b, t, d, k, g/. Lax separation of the articulating.
Q
QUALITATIVE /ˈkwɒlɪtətɪv/ connected with the tamber of the sound, which is with its spectral characteristics.
QUANTITATIVE /ˈkwɒntɪtətɪv/ referring to the length of the sound, i.e., its positional and phonemic length.
QUESTION /ˈkwesʧən/ the communicative type of a sentence in which doubt, supposition or want of some
information is expressed in the form of a question: interrogative, alternative, general, or special.
R
RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION /rɪˈsi:vd prəˌnʌnsɪˈeɪʃən/ the type of pronunciation which is the most widely
understood one in England and in English speaking countries. It is the teaching norm in England and in most countries
where English is taught as a foreign language including the Soviet Union.
RECIPROCAL ASSIMILATION /rɪˈsaɪprəkəl əˌsɪmɪˈleɪʃn/ bilateral assimilation, when the neighbouring sounds
are equally affected by assimilation. For example, in the word twice /t/ is labialized under the influence of /w/, and /w/in
its turn is devoiced under the influence of /t/.
RECITE /rɪˈsaɪt/ to repeat outloud something memorized, especially before an audience. In studying a foreign
language recitation plays a very important role.
REDUCE /rɪˈdju:s/ to make smaller or less. For example, to reduce the intensity of a sound, to reduce the
quantity of a sound.
REDUCED FORM /rɪˈdju:st ˈfɔ:m/ a word, which sounds weaker in the process of speech. Thus the verb to do
can be reduced and pronounced /dʊ, də/ or even /d/. The same can be said about the verb to have /həv/, /əv/, /v/.
Articles, conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns are mostly affected by reduction (contraction).
REGRESSIVE ASSlMILATION /rɪˈgresɪv əˌsɪmɪˈleɪʃn/ the process, when the second of the neighbpuring
sounds influenges the first one and makes it similar to itself. For example, in the combination in the /n/ is regressively
assimilated by /ð/ and becomes dental and is pronounced with the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth (its free vari-
ant is pronounced with the tip of the tongue against the teethridge).
RETENTION /rɪˈtenʃən/ the ability to preserve the most stable properties in spite of assimilation or reduction.
RETRACTED POSITION /rɪˈtræktɪd pəˈzɪʃən/ the position of the bulk of the tongue when it is in the front or in
the back part of the mouth cavity but a bit retracted in the horizontal direction, forward— back-advanced, or backward
— front-retracted: /ʊ, ɪ/.
RETROFLEXED VOWELS /ˈretrəʊflekst ˈvaʊəlz/ the vowels that are articulated by the tip of the tongue curled
back behind the back slope of the teethridge irrespective of the articulation of the vowel itself: this results in a special
tembral colouring of the retroflexed vowel, eg. American /r/.
RHYME /raɪm/ the repetition of identical or similar terminal sounds, sound combinations or words.
RHYTHM /ˈrɪðm/: "rhythm is a flow, movement, procedure, etc., characterised by basically regular recurrence of
elements or features, as beat, or accent, in alternation with opposite or different elements or features" (Webster's New
World Dictionary).
RHYTHMIC STRESS /ˈrɪðmɪk ˈstres/ the term refers to the cases when there are equal number of unstressed
syllables between two beats. For example, 'tell them to ' go, there at 'once.
ROLLED CONSONANTS /ˈrəʊld ˈkɒnsənənts/ such consonants are pronounced when the tip of the tongue (or
the uvula) vibrates in the flow of air and interrupts it repeatedly, so that the flow of air is mo mentarily obstructed by the
vibrating organ (or organs). The Russian sonant /p/ is a rolled consonant.

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 ROOF OF THE MOUTH /ˈru:f əv ðə ˈmaʊθ/ for the purposes of consonant analysis and description it is
conventionally divided into 1. the gums, 2. the teethridge, 3. the back slope of the alveolar ridge, 4. the soft palate
(velum), 5. the uvula.
S
SCALE /skeɪl/ the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables of a syntactic whole.
SCHWA VOWEL /ˈʃwɑ: ˈvaʊəlz/ the neutral vowel /ə/.
SECONDARY ACCENT /ˈsekəndərɪ ˈstress/ this type of accent appears in words of five or more syllables. It
falls on the second pre-tonic syllable, eg. ˌhospiˈtality.
SEGMENT /ˈsegmənt/ in phonetics it is the shortest part of speech continuum—a sound or a phoneme.
SEGMENTAL PHONEME /səgˈmentl ˈfəʊni:m/ the shortest part of speech continuum that is capable of
differentiating words.
SEMI-VOWELS /ˈsemɪˈvaʊəlz/ the term is almost out of use nowadays. It refers to /w, r, j/.
SENSE-GROUP /ˈsensgru:p/ a word or a group of words that conveys some idea.
SENTENCE ACCENT /ˈsentəns ˈæksənt/ it is a constituent part of the phonetic structure of the spoken sentence
and one of the components of intonation in the broad sense of the term.
SENTENCE STRESS /ˈsentəns ˈstress/ the greater degree of prominence given to certain words in a sentence
These words are usually nouns, adjectives, notional verbs and adverbsinle, interjections, numerals, demonstrative,
possessive, emphasizing pronouns, interrogative words and two-syllable prepositions. Articles, particles to and there,
auxiliary, modal, and link verbs, personal, reflexive, and reciprocal pronouns, one-syllable prepositions, conjunctions
and conjunctive words — are, as a rule, unstressed. The distribution of sentence stress is determined by the semantic
factor.
SHADE /ʃeɪd/ a slight variation.
SHORT VOWELS /ˈʃɔ:t ˈvaʊəlz/ the vowels having a relatively smaller length, or quantity in comparison with
the long vowels (other conditions remaining the same). Short English /ɪ/and /ʊ/ differ from the long /i:/and /u:/ also in
quality.
SILENT LETTERS /ˈsaɪlənt ˈletəz/ letters that are spelt but not pronounced.
SILENT STOP /ˈsaɪlənt ˈstɒp/ the medial stage in /p, t, k/ articulation that is characterised by the "loss of
plosion" in cases like past perfect, blackboard, eight days.
SINGLE STRESS /ˈsɪŋgl ˈstress/ only stress in a word.
SLIP OF THE TONGUE /ˈslɪp əv ðə tʌŋ/ a small unintentional mistake.
SOFT CONSONANTS /ˈsɒft ˈkɒnsənənts/ palatalized consonants.
SOFT PALATE /ˈsɒft ˈpælət/ the back, soft part of the hard palate.
SONANTS /ˈsəʊnənts/ the sounds in the production of which prevails over noise. Sonants in English are /m, n, ŋ,
l, w, r, j/.
SONORITY /səˈnəʊrɪtɪ/ a degree of loudness.
SOUND /saʊnd/ a material unit, produced by speech organs. A sound can be viewed from the articulatory,
acoustic, auditory and functional points of view.
SPECIAL QUESTION /ˈspeʃəl ˈkwesʧən/ the type of a question which begins with the interrogative; words who,
what, where, why, etc., depending on information required. Special questions refer to any part of the sentence. They are
pronounced with the falling tone.
SPEECH MELODY /ˈspi:ʧ ˈmelədɪ/ variations in the pitch of the voice in connected speech.
STABILITY OF ARTICULATION /stəˈbɪlɪtɪ əv ɑ:ˌtɪkjʊˈleɪʃn/ it is the state when the shape, volume and orifice-
size of the mouth resonator are stable. According to the stability of articulation English vowels are divided into:
monophthongs, diphthongs and diphthongoids.
STRONG FORMS /ˈstrɒŋ ˈfɔ:mz/ the forms that can be observed in accented words.
STRONG VOWELS IN WEAK POSITIONS /ˈstrɒŋ ˈvaʊəlz ɪn wi:k pəˈzɪʃənz/ vowels the quantity of which is
not reduced in unstressed positions. For example, /ɔ:/in blackboard /ˈblælbɔ:d/, /æ/ in climax /ˈklaɪmæks/.
SYLLABIC SOUNDS /sɪˈlæbɪk ˈsaʊndz/ sounds that can form the peaks of prominence, they are: vowels and
sonants /m, n, l/.
SYLLABLE /ˈsɪləbl/ shortest segment of speech continuum. Syllables are material carriers of words. They
constitute words and their forms, phrases and sentences. According to J. Kenyon the syllable is one or more speech
sounds, forming a single uninterrupted unit of utterance, which may be a word, or a commonly recognized and
separable subdivision of a word.
SYLLABLE DIVISION /ˈsɪləbl dɪˈvɪʒən/ division of the word into "arcs of articulatory effort" (N. I. Zhinkin's
theory). A strong-end consonant begins the arc of loudness and a weak-end consonant terminates it. Compare day, aid;
in the first word, /d/constitutes the beginning of the arc of loudness, or the beginning of a syllable, it is progres sively
voiced. In the second word, /d/ constitutes the end of the arc of loudness, or the end of the syllable, it is progressively
devoiced.
T
TABLE OF CONSONANTS, TABLE OF VOWELS /ˈteɪbl əv ˈkɒnsənənts, ˈteɪbl əv ˈvaʊəlz/ an orderly
arrangement of consonants or vowels in vertical and horizontal columns. It helps to visualize the system of vowels and
consonants and to compare them with the similar systems of the mother tongue.
TAIL /teɪl/ unstressed or partly stressed syllables (or syllable) that follow the nucleus of the intonation group.

80
 TAMBER /ˈtæmbə/ the quality of a musical sound, depending on what overtones are present and their respective
amplitudes.
TEETHRIDGE /ˈti:θrɪʤ/ see alveoles.
TEMPO OF SPEECH /ˈtempəʊ/ the rate of utterance.
TENSE VOWELS /ˈtens ˈvaʊəlz/ these vowels are articulated with the muscles of the lips, tongue, cheeks and
the back wall of the pharynx made harder by tensing. Traditionally they are long vowels: /i:, ɑ:, ɔ:, u:, /, all short vowels
are considered to be lax.
TERMINAL TONE /ˈtɜ:mɪnəl ˈtəʊn/ it is a change of pitct at the junction of two sense-groups. The American
descriptivists use the term: "clause terminal".
TIMBRE /ˈtɪmbə/ = tamber, tambre.
TONE /ˈtəʊn/ sounds may be periodical and non-periodical. If the vibrations of a physical body are rhythmical,
the auditory impression of periodic waves is a musical tone, or in speech—a speech-tone.
TONEME /ˈtəʊni:m/ the toneme of a sentence or of a sense-group is a separate phonological unit, because it
performs distinctive function, eg. "not ↘once—never, not ↗once—many times.
TONETIC TRANSCRIPTION /təʊˈnetɪk/ tone and stress indicators shown by placing special signs on an inlined
scale, or stave, between or beside the line of the text. These symbols are differ ent: dashes and dots, small and big dots,
wedge-like signs, etc.
TONGUE /tʌŋ/ the most important and movable articulatory organ.
TONOGRAM /ˈtəʊnəˌgræm/ graphic representation of intonation.
TRANSCRIPTION /trænsˈkrɪpʃən/ the system of signs in which sounds are symbolized. Transcription represents
sounding speech. A phonemic, or linguistically broad, transcription is based on the principle "one symbol per
phoneme". The symbols of phonemic transcription are placed between slanting lines / /.
An allophonic, or linguistically narrow, transcription is based on the principle "one symbol per allophone". The
symbols of an allophonic transcription are usually placed between square brackets [ ]. In language teaching a phonemic
transcription is more convenient. An allophonic transcription is indispensable to scientific phonetic work.
TRANSLITERATION /ˌtrænzlɪtəˈreɪʃən/ the representation of the sounds of one language as nearly as possible
by the letters and letter combinations of another language. For example, the Ucrainian ж is represented in English by
the letter combination zh.
TRIPHTHONG /ˈtrɪfθɒŋ/ a vowel sound that consists of three elements, the first element is a diphthong and the
second — a neutral vowel /ə/. In slow style, they are pronounced as a two-syllable unit: /aʊə/ - /aʊ/ + /ə/.
U
UNROUNDED VOWELS /ˈʌnˈraʊndɪd ˈvaʊəlz / vowels in the articulation of which the lips are not rounded /ɑ:,
e, i:, æ/.
UTTERANCE /ˈʌtərəns/ vocal expression of some idea.
UVULA /ˈju:vju:lə/ a fleshy conical body suspended from the soft palate over the back of the tongue.
V
VELAR /ˈvi:lə/ the term is used in the classification of consonants which are articulated with the help of the soft
palate: velar nasal sonorant /ŋ/, velar stops /k, g/.
VELUM /ˈvi:ləm/ the soft palate. When the soft palate is raised the air passes out of the mouth cavity, when the
soft palate is lowered the flow of air is directed through the nasal cavity.
VOCALISM /ˈvəʊkəlɪzm/ the system of vowel phonemes.
VOICED CONSONANTS /ˈvɔɪst ˈkɒnsənənts/ the consonants which are produced with the vocal cords brought
together and vibrating.
VOICELESS CONSONANTS /ˈvɔɪslɪs ˈkɒnsənənts/ consonants, which are produced with the vocal cords taken
apart and not vibrating.
W
WEAK VOWELS /ˈwi:k ˈvaʊəlz/ the vowels which are shorter and less distinct, sometimes they are reduced to
the neutral vowel /ə/. Weakening or reduction of vowels is a characteristic feature of Russian and English. There are
languages where vowel reduction does not take place (Japanese, Italian, Polish).
WINDPIPE /ˈwɪndpaɪp/ trachea or air passage.
WORD-STRESS /ˈwɜ:d stres/ the term deals with the place of accentuation in words and its linguistic functions.

ЛІТЕРАТУРА
Основна
4. Соколова М.А. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка. Практикум. – М., 2001.
5. Васильев В.А. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка.- М., 1970.
6. Паращук В.Ю. Теоретична фонетика англійської мови. - Нова книга, Вінниця, 2005.

Додаткова
45. Антипова А.М. Система английской речевой интонации. - М., 1979.
46. Бондарко Л.В. и др. Основы общей фонетики.-С.-П., 1991

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Зміст

1. Структура навчального курсу.

2. Програма та структура залікового кредиту.
3. Лекції до змістовних модулів.
 Лекція 1. Звукова будова мови.
 Лекція 2. Звуки в англійській мові як артикуляційні та функціональні одиниці.
 Лекція 3. Склад як фонетична й фонологічна одиниця, словесний та фразовий наголос.
 Лекція 4. Просодична організація англійського мовлення.
 Лекція 5. Особливості сучасної вимовної норми англійської мови, національні та регіональні
варіанти.
4. Список питань до підсумкового модульного контролю.
5. Індивідуальні контрольні завдання.
6. Додаток1. Зразок фонетичного розбору слова.
7. Додаток 2. Зразок фонетичного розбору речення.
8. Додаток 3. Зразок фонетичного розбору тексту.
9. Додаток 4. Вимоги до написання реферату.
10. Словник фонетичних термінів.
11. Глосарій фонетичних термінів.
12. Література.

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