PAVEMENT DESIGN

History: In the 1950-s it was based on the CBR test. Later two similar “catalogue” methods were used with reference to UK and SA.
Soils in Zimbabwe are residual mostly, but there are alluvium and in west parts Kalahari sands. Geography: 1000 to 1500m above sea
level generally, 00 to 400C temperatures; continental plateau and the Zambezi valley, rainfall from 600 to 1200mm per annum.
Basic terms in design:
Base: Imported pavement layers, numbered consecutively from the top layer as Base 1 to the bottom.
Design CBR: (California Bearing Ration) Values and various moisture conditions at specified test, assigned to the sub-grade and
materials. It is a result of loading causing certain penetration in test (the ratio of force per unit area to penetrate a soil mass).
Sub-grade: An in-situ material, from which the road is formed up, compacted and has the base layers constructed on top of it.
Compactive effort: Specified for pavement layers and respective traffic (AASHTO).
Design life: The period within which the pavement must not fail – usually 20 years.
Design traffic: Estimated number of equivalent 80kN axle passes to be carried by the heaviest trafficked lane during the design life.
Equivalent 80kN axles: Axles, which produce the same damaging effects as the standard 80kN axle (ESA) or design axles – E80.
Heavy vehicles: Having a net mass exceeding 2300kg and having reflecting rear chevron marking.
PSI (Present Serviceability Index): Measure of roughness for riding qualities on scale 0 to 5: 20mm depth of routes having PSI of 2,0.
Climatic effect: It is to the account of rainfall, temperature and evaporation.
Roadbed: Ground surface uncovered by vegetation topsoil, rock and unstable soil prior to formation of the road structure.
Surfacing: Bituminous layers to provide wearing or strengthening – surface dressing as spray and chip type or asphaltic concrete.
Design inputs:
(i) Determine what E80 traffic is expected during the design life of the road – say 20 years.
(ii) How many lanes and what the distribution of heavy vehicles is on each lane
(iii) The strength of the sub-grade measured by CBR
(iv) What surfacing type is to be used
(v) The availability and strength of pavement materials in the area.
Design procedures:
1. Study for determination of distribution of axle loading: For dual carriageway multilane highway to find the greatest proportion of
heaviest and slowest vehicles using the outside lane – or study of similar loads. This means axle loading and growth rate.
2. Climate input: For dry west areas traffic multiplied by a factor of 0,8; for wet east areas (Eastern Highlands) multiply by factor 1,2,
but considered as unnecessary sophistication. Positive steps to ensure that in doubtful areas the top of sub-grade is kept well drained.
3. Estimation of heavy vehicle equivalents – three methods:
(i) To weigh a sample of traffic using the Axle Weight Analyzer (or similar instrument) by direct weighting of axles using portable
scales in the manner normally used for enforcement (W/8,2)n , n=exponent 4,5, 4,2 or 4,0 (for Zimbabwe).
(ii) Visual survey of trucks (empty, partly or fully loaded) based on contact length of tyre on the road.
Empty trucks: E80 equivalent of 0,1 per axle; Partly loaded – 0,3 E80/axle; Fully loaded – 1,0 E80/axle; Steering axle – E80 of 0,1.
(iii) To use the countrywide truck axle E80 equivalent taken from routine axle weight survey.
Traffic studies give daily average number of axle using the road. Truck traffic growth rates are greater than mixed traffic growth rates.
4. The worst lane E80 traffic is calculated once the average daily E80 is determined. It is multiplied by the growth factor. If the daily
ESA is 1 (one E80 load per day) the factor represents the number of times this load is likely to move on the road during its design life.
5. The design traffic is = daily ESA x f x 100.
6. The design is based on the cumulative number of standard axles. The design equivalent axles are calculated for the design life:
D=365xAADT x [(1+r)n – 1] / r where D=design equivalent axles; AADT=Average Annual Daily Traffic; n=design life; r=growth rate

Four groups of factors that affect the pavement design in general:

1. Traffic factors: Volume and type as wheel load causing stress and strain in layers and sub-grade related to tyre pressure – E80, ESA;
impact in surface imperfections; heavy vehicles; slow vehicles; repetition/passes of wheel load for plastic and elastic deformation;
number of passes; position across the width; percentage using outside lane; design based on worst lane.
2. Climatic factors: Rainfall affects drainage; temperature variations; frost if any, not in Zimbabwe.
3. Road geometry: Curvature - extra stress; junctions; vertical profile, grades, extra forces due to acceleration, deceleration and braking.
4. Soil and drainage: Soil types, sub-grade classification, grain distribution, density, thickness, water table, drainage, adjoining land.

Design methods:
Zimbabwean method - Road Manual, Ministry of Transport. The design is carried out using the inputs of sub-grade class and traffic
class to make suitable choices from the catalogue.
It is mainly concerned quantitatively on CBR. It offers choices of soils and 4 traffic groupings with variations for expansive soils and
too expensive to compact. Base layers are standardized in units of 120 and 150mm.
Sub-grade classification: On the base of CBR this is an indirect indicator for the bearing capacity of sub-grade soil and other coarse
materials passing through a 26,5mm sieve. The specification according to the Road Manual is as follows:
SG3 – Soils used for fills up to 3m in height compacted to 90% density (mod AASHTO) – 5≥CBR≥3
SG5 – Maybe used for all fills – the upper layer of 150mm compacted to 93% density - 9≥CBR≥5
SG9 – Preferred in all fills, the upper 150mm layer usually compacted to 93% density - CBR≥9
SGE – Expansive soils – materials cannot be control compacted and should be removed or given specialized treatment – liquid limit
55%, clay fraction20%, free swell exceeds 60% - CBR≤3. (Eng. Mitchell has introduced: SG1 – very similar to SGE)

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SG15 – when soaked CBR≥15 – gravel and non-plastic sands – compacted to SG9.
Density specification – fill compacted to 90% AASHTO, sub-grade to 90-95%, bases to 98% for 0,1 to 1M and to 100% for 3M traffic.
Determination of CBR: Soaked CBR test for design CBR – recommended to construct S-curve and the lower quartile or lowest decile
value to be read directly. The lower quartile is used only for 0,1M and 0,3M roads.
Construction materials: The materials should be tested in laboratory.
Sub-grade: Adequate roadbed and sub-grade density should be achieved. First action is clearing the site and grubbing, in urban areas
installation of underground utilities to standards; next step is compaction and following regulations about use of waste materials. It is
recommended to use SAPR (Single Axle Pneumatic Roller) with axle load of 50 tone to roll the roadbed and to get the required density.
Treatment of sub-grade: TE, TE(S), T3, T5, T15 according to soils and traffic groups, mandatory and optional treatments, including
excavation of some soils, removal of humic topsoil, fills with recommended soils and compactions, thickness is recommended/required.
Surfacing: Suitable black top surface of high standard and design for maintenance.

Overseas Road Note (OTR) 31, TRL: A Guide to the Structural Design of Bitumen-surfaced Roads in Tropical and Sub-tropical
Countries, 1993: applicable to road with traffic load up to 30 million cumulative equivalent standard axles in one direction during the
design life. It may require calibration to particular tropical conditions. Sub-grade strength is assessed in terms of CBR. The method
deals with the influence of water on the sub-grade strength and the moisture conditions are classified in 3 categories. The method offers
key to the design chart, which includes: Double surface dressing; asphalt concrete; granular base, granular sub-base and capping layer.
Key to design: Traffic Class: T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
106 CNesa: < 0,3 0,3-0,7 0,7-1,5 1,5-3,0 3,0-6,0 6,0-10 10-17 17-30
Sub-grade class: S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
CBR %: 2 3-4 5-7 8-14 15-29 30+

TRH 4 design method: to produce structurally balanced pavement of sufficient bearing capacity under prevailing conditions. The sub-
grade classification is based on soaked CBR at a representative density. Material depth for determining the design CBR of the in-situ
sub-grade is specified from 1200mm to 700mm. Classes of design as to sub-grade CBR are determined on 4 days soaked specimens.
Class: SG1 SG2 SG3 SG4
Sub-grade design CBR %: > 15 7 – 15 3–7 < 3 (special treatment required)
The preparation of sub-grade and required selected layers for different sub-grade design CBRs are shown below:
CLASS ADD SELECTED LAYERS TREATMNET OF IN-SITU SUBGRADE
UPPER LOWER________________________________
SG1 - - Rip and re-compact to 150mm G7
SG2 150mm G7 - Rip and re-compact to 150mm G9
SG3 150mmG7 150mm G9 Rip and re-compact to 150mm G10
SG4 Not applicable Special equipment required
The required selected layers vary according to the design CBR of the sub-grade. Normally in-situ soils are prepared through proof
rolling or ripped and re-compacted to a depth of 150mm. On top of this layer one or two selected layers will be added. Compaction has
a major effect on bearing capacity. High compaction density gives high strength and resistance to permanent deformation and restricts
ingress of water. Well-graded granular materials are easy to compact and economical to get the gradation before wasting time and
energy with excessive rolling. The layer below the compacted one should be of sufficient density and strength to facilitate compaction.
Structural design of pavement: The TRH4 makes use of catalogue of design. Best results will be obtained if used as guideline together
with other existing methods, such as the South African Mechanistic Design Method (SAMDM), the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
Method (DCM), the California Bearing Ration – based Method (CBR) and AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures, 1993.
Comparison: Zimbabwean method is economical and makes use of local materials. It can be easily applied to any situation in
Zimbabwe, very practical in details for expansive soils. Disadvantage is that is applicable only to 3M axles, for greater requires update.
The standardization of base layers to units of 120mm and 150mm tends to result some time in overdesigns. The TRH4 is very easy and
quick in application, covers range of pavement types and materials (interurban, freeways), makes combination of existing methods and
have options to choose from. Disadvantage is does not cater in detail for drainage and surfacing. Needs use in conjunction with others.

The DCP method: This methodology is a practical alternative for evaluating existing pavements, which indicate problems as moisture
ingress and weak layers. The use of DCP (an inexpensive portable instrument) is easy, an advantage is the minimum use of laboratory
tests and the results are highly correlated to the field performance. The instrument is a 10kg hammer, sliding on 16mmrod, dropping
distance of 460mm and striking an anvil at the lower end, where a hardened steel cone of 20mm diameter and 60 0 penetrates.
Penetration driven by blows is measured and recorded. DCP shows correlation with CBR values. DN number is penetration rate
(mm/blow) correlated to CBR. DN values decrease as material strengths increase. DCP structural number (DSN) represents the
structural value of a layer of material. DSN is a function of specific layer thickness ( d in mm) and its average material strength (DN) or
DSN = d/DN. DSN is expressed in hammer blows to penetrate a specific layer of materials To obtain the total structural value of
pavement the structural numbers are summarized to give DSN p (the pavement DCP structure number). It is customary to consider a
depth of 800mmm for general purpose. In evaluating pavement, the DCP structure number is written as DSN 800 and correlated with
bearing capacity of the pavement in terms of 80kN axle repetitions. The cumulative DSNd for depth at any pavement point is expressed
as a percentage of the DSN 800. When related to pavement depth provides a function that would typify the general in-situ strength
balance of the pavement. Pavement-strength balance curve can be constructed with percentages of DSN 800 on X-axis (0, 20, 40, 60, 80
and 100%) and vertically as depth in mm (0,100, 200, 300, 400, 500 and 600mm). The curve in shallow pavement shows one or two
relatively strong rigid layers and diminishing support for underlying material. “Deep” pavement composition is different. Limitation of
DCP is that pavements are not always strength-balanced, but sensitive to overloading. DCP does not evaluate materials as to behaviour.