Master Course „Maritime Operations“

„Ship Propulsion Systems“

Lecture 3
Summer Semester 2023

Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Freerk Meyer

University of Applied Sciences Emden-Leer

Today`s Ship Propulsion Systems (2)

3.4 Thermodynamics Diesel Engines
3.5 Today´s Fuels
3.6 Combustion
3.7 Solutions for an Optimised Engine
Operation: Turbocharger, Fuel injection

3.8 Conclusion
Today`s Ship Propulsion Systems (2)
3.4 Thermodynamics Diesel Engines
The conversion processes in an internal combustion engine are very complex during the
combustion of fuel as well as during the energy-matter exchange processes. The heat transfer
processes from the gas to the engine components adjacent to the combustion chamber and
the coolant or oil can only be recorded approximately with great effort.
If the combustion and heat exchange processes are considered locally multi-dimensionally,
transiently, with all transport mechanisms present in the gas in reality, complex mathematical
models result, which nevertheless only reflect reality with a certain degree of fuzziness.
In order to obtain qualitative statements regarding the dependence of certain process
variables on given parameters, more or less simple model calculations are therefore used.
Thermodynamics brings together variables such as pressure, volume, heat, work done and
energy.
Thermodynamic Cycle Processes

To obtain fundamental statements about the energy conversion processes in power engines,
simplified models are formed and described as circular processes.

Circular processes are successive changes of state of a working medium, in which it is returned
to its original state. They are called closed cycles with heat input and heat output.

This model concept neglects the material turnover from the initial products of combustion.

The four strokes of the combustion engine are carried out by compression, heat supply (as a
"substitute" for the combustion process) expansion, and heat dissipation. The condition of the
medium remains identical during the process.

The representation of the cyclic processes is done by means of state diagrams:

1. the pressure-volume diagram (p-v diagram)

The area it contains represents a work that is called an indexed work.

2. the temperature entropy diagram (T-s diagram)

The surfaces represent heat. The cycle work is the difference between the supplied
and heat dissipated. Thus, the lines of change of state enclose-
This area is a measure for the useful work of the cycle.

The processes are described with the help of

- Isotherms (lines with equal temperature T)
- Isobars (lines with equal pressure P)
- Isochors (lines with equal volume V)
- Isotopes (lines with equal entropy s)
Central statements that can be made about the motor process with such circular processes
are those about the process efficiency.

The Carnot Process

The French officer Sadi Carnot (1796-1832) recognized that to convert heat into work, a
temperature gradient must exist and that the higher the temperature at which heat is supplied
and the lower the temperature at which it is removed, the higher the thermal efficiency of a
thermal engine.

This is described in the (Carnot named) optimal cycle process (Carnot process):

The state changes of the Carnot process are:

• Isothermal compression
• Isentropic compression
• Isothermal expansion
• Isentropic expansion

In the T-s diagram the Carnot process is represented as a rectangle. The thermal efficiency is
the ratio of useful energy to the heat supplied:

ηth = (qzu - qab) /qzu = 1 - qzu/qab

ηthCarnot = 1 - Tmin/Tmax

For a given temperature ratio, the thermal efficiency of the Carnot process assumes the
highest value that can be achieved.

In the p-v diagram, however, the diagram area of the Carnot process is so small that - in order
to achieve an acceptable useful work (corresponding to the area in the p-v diagram) - the
temperatures and pressures would have to be driven to technically unacceptable levels.
Rudolf Diesel had to make this experience when he wanted to realize the Carnot process with
his heat engine.

Conversely, a process running as a rectangle in the p-v diagram would also be technically not
usable. Although the rectangle in the p-v diagram provides the highest energy yield, the
process has a very low efficiency due to the small area in the T-s diagram.

Processes running as rectangles are therefore not suitable for practical use.

The circular processes that can be technically implemented with a heat engine are subject to
the specifications of the geometry and kinematics of the respective type of machine,
conditions of energy conversion and the state of the art.
Comparison cycle processes of today´s combustion engines

In the following, the ratio of the supplied energy (by the fuel) to the mechanical energy PE,
which the motor gives off at its shaft flange, is to be determined. The losses are emitted as
heat.
Procedure:
1. determination of the thermal efficiency in the ideal comparison process
2. determination of the quality level (comparison of the ideal process with the real
process)
3. determination of the mechanical efficiency (in the motor)
4. summary of the partial efficiencies
5. preparation of the energy balance Qzu (t) => PE

Thermodynamic comparison processes

The aim of every motor work process is to convert the energy supplied with the fuel into
mechanical work to the greatest possible extent. The actual result, however, depends very
much on the course of the thermodynamic process (theoretical circular processes). To
describe the processes in the different working machines, comparison processes were defined
as closed internally reversible circular processes with idealized assumptions ("perfect
engine").
Otto Process
The processes in gasoline engines are described with the so-called constant space process.
The combustion of the fuel in the cylinder proceeds very rapidly, so that the change in volume
due to the piston movement during this time is neglected => isochor.
The constant space process has the thermodynamically most favourable process course,
which can be realised in a machine under periodically changing working space, with technically
justifiable effort. The efficiency depends on the gas type (isentropic exponents) and the
compression ratio.
Diesel process
For diesel engines the equal pressure process is a suitable comparison process. According to
this, combustion of the (controlled) injected diesel takes place without a strong pressure
increase at the start of combustion.
In the diesel cycle process, air is compressed adiabatically (i.e. without exchanging thermal
energy) in the first step and the fuel is injected when the ignition temperature of the diesel
fuel is reached. The fuel burns relatively slowly, an isobaric expansion takes place with heat
input through the burning mixture. An adiabatic expansion follows. The piston moves back,
the gas cools down and work is done. The cooling of the piston is noticeable in the gas, the
gas cools down isochorically. However, this step is replaced by the expulsion of the
combustion gases and the intake of new air.
A more detailed description of the thermodynamic changes of state in the diesel engine is
provided by the so-called Seiliger process, in which the equal space process is combined with
the equal pressure process. The Seilinger process can be used to describe the pressure
increase on ignition of the gas in the area of the TDC of the piston and the isobaric expansion.
With these comparison processes it can be shown that the thermal efficiency ηth of the
engines increases with increasing compression ε.
Diesel engines are characterized by compression approximately twice as high as gasoline
engines ε and therefore achieve a higher thermal efficiency ηth.
The working process in engines with internal combustion basically consists of two sub-
processes:
- The high-pressure process with a closed system, in which the cylinder charge is
compressed and ignited, burns and expands.

- Charge exchange with an open system in which the combustion gases are replaced
by fresh air (diesel) or fresh gas mixture (petrol).

The thermal efficiency ηth is defined as:

Mechanical work gained AV
ηth = -----------------------------------------
Heat applied Qzu

The thermal efficiency of the comparison processes depends largely on the compression ratio
ε. The values of the Seiliger process lie between the values of the equal space process and the
equal pressure process.
By limiting the peak pressure of an engine (=> to limit the maximum temperature during
combustion with the aim of reducing NOx emissions) and increasing the compression ratio,
high thermal efficiencies can be achieved, which today are in the range of ηth = 0.7 for modern
engines.
This positive development is made possible by the use of high-pressure injection systems with
controlled fuel injection. This controlled, very finely distributed fuel injection shortens the
combustion period and therefore ensures that combustion takes place relatively late and
evenly.
Seiliger comparison process for an exhaust gas turbocharged diesel engine
In principle, charging does not change the motor process; only the pressure level is raised.
Compression in the engine is preceded by compression in the turbocharger and after
expansion in the engine and expansion in the exhaust pipe, expansion takes place in the
turbine.
Real processes
Real engine processes show further losses compared to the comparison processes considered
so far, the exact knowledge of which is necessary for process improvement.
The less idealizations are made, the more accurate the result of the real process calculation
becomes. In detail, the following losses must be taken into account:
- Losses in the ideal process (actual cylinder charge)
- losses due to non-ideal combustion (incomplete, delayed combustion)
- Leaks
- Heat losses
- Charge exchange losses (degree of delivery)
- Friction losses (in the piston drive, crankshafts and the attached engine
components => depending on the engine speed)

The indicated power Pi

The indicated power Pi or internal power of an engine is the energy released by the gas during
combustion. It is always smaller than the theoretically possible power of the idealized engine
(=> comparison process).
The indicated power Pi cannot be measured at the crankshaft, but is measured by means of a
pressure measurement in the cylinder (indexing) over the crank stroke and recorded as an
indicator diagram. From this measurement the area (pressure p(t) over the cylinder stroke
volume Vh (t)) = indexed work Ai can be determined. The indicated mean pressure pmi
(theoretical value) results from the indicated work Ai/t (equation see PP file).

The net power Pe of the engine

At the crankshaft the effective power, i.e. the effective power Pe, can be measured directly.
Pe = M · ω = M ·2 π · f
M = torque at motor flange (Nm), f = rotational frequency (1/s) = n / 60

According to the above equations, the effective power Pe:

Pe = pme · Vh · z · f · i = M · 2 π · f
The effective mean pressure pme (also called "load" in motor construction) is directly
proportional to the torque M.
The mechanical (friction) losses occur in the motor e.g:
- at the piston ring / bushing
- in the crankshaft bearing
- in the big end bearing
- (in cross-head bearing)
- at the valve drive
- on attached pumps/units (e.g. injection pump/nozzle)

The heating value in the fuel

The quantity of heat Qzu supplied is calculated by multiplying the quantity of fuel mk supplied
by the calorific value of the fuel. The calorific value Hi is the maximum amount of heat that
can be used during combustion, based on the amount of fuel mk [J / kg]:
Qzu = Hi · mk

Summary of the heat/power considerations in the engine:

100% energy is supplied to the diesel engine with the fuel. During combustion, heat is
generated, which can be partially converted into mechanical work.
The ratio of the amount of heat supplied Qzu to the effective power Pe is given by zu:
Qzu(t) = 1/ηv · 1/ηG · 1/ ηm · Pe
The overall efficiency ηe of the motor summarizes the individual partial efficiencies:
ηe = ηv · ηG · ηm
it then follows:
Qzu(t) = 1/ηe · Pe
The amount of heat not converted into mechanically usable power must be dissipated as
heat loss. Qzu(t) = Pe + Qloss(t)

Very good, (large) modern diesel 2-stroke engines achieve an (overall) efficiency ηe of just over 50%.
This makes them the most effective internal combustion engines.

Overall efficiency of
- Gasoline engines (4 stroke engines)
with external mixture formation = up to approx. 35%
with injection = up to approx. 37%
- Diesel engines
4 stroke = up to approx. 45%
2 cycle = up to approx. 52 %
The non-usable heat (heat loss) Qloss(t) is released with the exhaust gas, with the cooling water,
in the lubricating oil and as radiant heat. The distribution of these heat flows is shown in the
so-called Shankey diagram.

3.5 Today`s Fuels

In shipping, products made from crude oil are almost exclusively used as fuel for the drive
machines. Kerosene and petrol play no role as fuel for ships. It is diesel fuel in different
qualities and heavy oil.
Heavy oil is by far the cheapest fuel for engines. As a production residue in the refining of
crude oil, heavy oil has physical properties (e.g. the state of aggregation) and chemical
properties (mix of different hydrocarbons with various contaminants), which on the one hand
complicate the operation of engines with heavy oil and on the other hand result in critical
exhaust gas compositions. This is a major reason why heavy oil can no longer be used
everywhere as a fuel.
Marine fuels
The main components of the diesel fuel are mainly alkanes, cycloalkanes and aromatic
hydrocarbons with about 9 to 22 carbon atoms per molecule and a boiling range between 170
° C and 390 ° C.
Basically, ship fuels differ in whether they consist of distillate or residual oil. In addition, there
are marine fuels that are referred to as “intermediate” and represent a mixture of distillate
and residual oil, the so-called intermediate fuel oil (IFO), which depending on its composition
can also be rated as heavy oil.

The basic type of fuel can be read from the three-letter variety designations:

• "M" stands for "Marine", "F" for "Fuel" in general

• "D" stands for distillate, "I" for "intermediate" and "R" for "residual"
• The third letter identifies quality, with A generally denoting the highest quality
fuels.
The numbers behind the three letters contain information on viscosity, which is particularly
relevant for intermediate and residual.

Distillates

Distillates are commonly referred to as "Marine Gas Oil" (MGO) in shipping and have among
other things the quality marks DMX, DMA, DMB and DMC.

In this context, the abbreviation LS-MGO stands for "Low Sulfur Marine Gas Oil" and, due to
its sulfur content of less than 0.1 percent, is prescribed, among other things, for use in ports
in the European Union.

Incidentally, the name "Gas Oil" refers to the manufacturing process: the heating process in
the refinery first creates a gas that then condenses again into a liquid. These fuels are very
similar to heating oil.

Ingredients and properties for marine diesel oil are regulated by the ISO 8217 standard. It is a
denser diesel than that for motor vehicles.

Four qualities are specified for maritime shipping:

• DMX: a very light gas oil with excellent cold properties (cloud point), is used almost
only as an "emergency fuel".
• DMA: also known as Marine Gasoil (MGO), a medium-heavy gas oil
• DMB: also known as Marine Diesel Oil (MDO), a relatively heavy gas oil
(with vacuum gas oil components)
• DMC: a fuel consisting of heavy gas oils. Some residues can also be mixed in.

The main components of the marine distillate fuel are, as with the "standard diesel": alkanes,
alkenes, cycloalkanes and aromatic hydrocarbons with about 16 to 40 (DMC: 70) carbon atoms
per molecule and a boiling range between 200 ° C and ~ 450 ° C (DMC: ~ 700 ° C). In addition,
nitrogen and sulfur compounds also appear in the fuel.

Distillate with admixtures

With DMB and DMC, a certain admixture of residual is already possible, whereby the residual
portion of DMB only arises from storage in tanks in which residual was previously stored - in
other words, due to contamination. DMB and DMC are known as Marine Distillate Oil or,
confusingly, also as Marine Diesel Oil, abbreviation "MDO". In fact, MDO can actually be
assigned to the "Intermediate" category, but still has the quality designation "D" for distillate.
How much residual is contained in DMC depends on the viscosity, density and sulfur content
of the added residual.

At MDO there is also a conceptual trap: "Diesel" for trucks and cars on land is pure distillate,
whereas in the shipping industry "diesel" means a mixture of distillate and residual. This
mixture is created either by special refinery processes or an actual blending of different fuels
after refining.

Intermediate

Intermediate fuels are called "Marine Diesel Fuel" or Intermediate Fuel Oil (IFO) or IFO 180 or
IFO 380. This category also includes LS-180 and LS-380, which are a low-sulfur variant of IFO-
180 and IFO-380, with a sulfur content of less than 1.0 percent.

These intermediate fuels have the quality designations RME and RMF as well as RMG and RMH
and are therefore strictly considered to be residual fuels. One of the most common fuels used
in shipping is RMG (IFO 380), which according to the MARPOL definition is one of the heavy
oils (heavy grade oil).
As with the distillates, the inferior versions of the intermediates have to be rated lower,
namely as residuals.

Residual ("heavy oil")

Residual oil, or "heavy oil". Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO), also known as "Marine Fuel Oil" (MFO) or
"Residual Fuel Oil" (RFO). As a marine fuel, it bears the quality designations RMA to RML. The
different quality levels result from the fact that the refining is distilled at different intensities,
so that different proportions of higher quality fuel remain in the residual.

The international MARPOL convention defines heavy oil as crude oil with a density of more
than 900 kg / m3 at 15 degrees Celsius and other oils with the same density and a kinematic
viscosity (viscosity) of more than 180 mm2 / s at 50 degrees Celsius. Basically, this includes
intermediates and heavy oils beyond IFO-180, especially IFO-380.

In the United States, "bunker fuel" is a common term that is actually a collective term for all
marine fuels, but usually refers to the lowest quality "Bunker no. 6" and is referred to in the
US Navy as "Bunker C".

Heavy fuel oil (HFO) is a residual oil from distillation and / or from cracking plants in petroleum
processing and serves mainly as a fuel for marine diesel engines. Residue here means that this
component was created as a part of a petroleum-processing process that is no longer
evaporable. All of these components contain the “heaviest” components of petroleum, the
so-called asphaltenes, highly condensed aromatic compounds, some of which are complexed
with metals. These compounds are responsible for the black color of these heavy oils.
The heavy oil operation is associated with peculiarities in terms of combustion.
The vanadium and sodium content of the heavy oil can lead to deposits in the combustion
chamber during combustion. The consequence of this is the so-called High temperature
corrosion, which reduces the life of the engine components (especially the exhaust valves). In
order to reliably avoid hot corrosion, the exhaust gas temperature after the cylinder should
not exceed 450 ° C (e.g. due to a large excess of air).
The sulfur content of the heavy oil leads to the formation of sulfuric acid or sulfuric acid and
thus the formation of low-temperature corrosion if the temperature falls below the dew point
in connection with the water produced during combustion. As a result, the cooling systems
must be designed so that the critical temperatures are not reached in the entire operating
range of the engine.
Heavy Fuel Oil processing

The setting tank is the first treatment stage for heavy fuel oil (IF fuels). Filling takes place with
the transfer pump from one of the fuel bunkers. The heating of the fuel in the tank from the
pump temperature (approx. 50 ° C) to approx. 70 ° C increases the density difference between
the fuel and the foreign substances. This allows the foreign substances to be separated using
gravity. Water in the fuel also settles on the bottom of the settling tank. The bottom of the
settling tanks is equipped with a drainage valve from which the water and solids can be
drained. one basically applies:
- The temperature in the placement tank should be as high as possible
- The fuel should remain in the settling tank for as long as possible.
Separators are used in the second cleaning stage. Depending on the viscosity, the fuel is
heated to around 98 ° C before entering the separator. In the rotating separators, solids and
water are thrown against the outer wall by centrifugal force and can be removed. The fuel
cleaned in this way is pumped into the day tank. To achieve good cleaning results, more fuel
is passed through the separators than is currently consumed. This fuel is returned from the
day tank to the set tank.
The feed pump pumps the fuel from the day tank through a fine filter and a consumption
meter into the mixing tank. The freshly delivered fuel is mixed in the mixing tank with the hot
fuel, which comes back from the injection nozzles as a return. The fuel now has a temperature
of well over 100 ° C. This evaporates the remaining water in the fuel. There is a gas / steam
vent in the mixing container. There is a pre-pressure of 4-6 bar in the container to avoid gas
or foam formation.

The circulation pump delivers the fuel from the mixing tank via a final preheater and a viscosity
measuring device to the injection pumps of the engines. The excess fuel is returned to the
mixing tank. The delivery rate of the circulation pump is between 300 - 600% of the amount
of fuel required at nominal output at a delivery pressure of 6 - 14 bar.
MDO fuel preparation
MDO fuels are easier to trade because it can be assumed that these fuels are clean. The fuel
is pumped directly from the day tanks to the engine via a fine filter system. Nevertheless,
many machine systems offer the option of cleaning the fuel with a separator. This fuel is
pumped out of the settling tank, cleaned and pumped into the day tanks. From there, the fuel
reaches the lower mixing tank by gravity. A circulation pump delivers the fuel to the connected
consumers via a ring line with a pre-pressure of around 3 bar.

3.6 Combustion

Definition:
"Combustion is understood to mean chemical reactions in which a substance combines with
the release of heat (exothermic) with molecular oxygen (oxidation)."

Combustion is initiated by ignition.

Fuels for petrol and diesel engines are made from mineral oil and consist of hundreds of
individual components with different chemical structures and molecular structures. This
composition decisively determines the physical and chemical and thus the motor properties
of the fuels.
Alternatives to today's fuels will be discussed later in this series of lectures. The combustion
processes of "classic fuels" are described below.

Chemical basis of combustion

The components of today's fuels have in common that they may consist of differently shaped
carbon-hydrogen chains. with oxygen atoms or impurities such as sulfur.

During combustion, the hydrocarbons react with the oxygen in the air. This creates exhaust
gas, which mainly contains carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) in addition to atmospheric
nitrogen. Depending on the type of combustion, various other substances can be contained in
the exhaust gas, the most common components being carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides
(NOx) and unburned hydrocarbons. Soot can result from rich combustion (excess fuel).

Oxidation can only occur with combustible material if a single atom or molecule of the fuel
comes into direct contact with oxygen. The speed of the reaction is an important factor in
combustion. The oxidation of the fuel should take place quickly and specifically in the
combustion chamber. The availability of oxygen and the intimate contact with the fuel are
decisive for the combustion rate (burn rate).

Complete (ideal) combustion

During combustion, air takes part in the reaction as a combustion partner in addition to the
fuel. Dry air mainly consists of the two gases nitrogen (around 78 volume%) and oxygen
(around 21 volume%). There are also the components argon (0.9%), carbon monoxide (0.04%),
hydrogen and other gases in small amounts.
The complete combustion of a fuel consisting only of hydrocarbon and sulfur (composition:
CxHySz) produces the products: carbon dioxide CO2, water H2O and sulfur dioxide SO2
according to the reaction equation:
CxHySz + (x + ¼ y + z) O2 => x CO2 + ½y H2O + z SO2

The combustion of fuel is an exothermic reaction. That is, heat is released during this
process.

The maximum laminar flame speed of the liquid fuel components in air at 1 bar is about 2
m/s. When these components are burned in the engine, turbulent flame speeds of up to 25
m/s occur.

The amount of heat that a defined amount of fuel can deliver is defined as "calorific value”.

In fact, the combustion does not proceed according to this gross reaction equation, but
according to a very complex reaction scheme based on elementary reactions, which is only
broadly understood today.
The air requirement for combustion

Taking into account the mass fraction of 23.2% of oxygen (volume fraction 20.94%, 78%
nitrogen, + noble gases) in the air and the atomic weights of the other reactants, the minimum
air requirement for complete combustion can be calculated.

Diesel engine combustion must always be operated with an excess air λ = m luft / mlmin. D.H.
there must be more oxygen molecules available in the combustion chamber than are required
for combustion.

Combustion air ratio λv

In the case of engine combustion, the ratio of the air mass mLZ actually present in the cylinder
to the stoichiometric air mass mLst is referred to as the combustion air ratio λv. The
stoichiometric air mass is the minimum air requirement for complete combustion, which
results from the chemical composition of the fuel. The mLst value is 13.8 - 14.6 kg air per kg
fuel.
The combustion air ratio λv is around 2.0 for 4-stroke engines and 2.2 for slow-running 2-
stroke engines.
Incomplete combustion

Despite the excess air, part of the combustion in the combustion chamber will always remain
incomplete. Then carbon monoxide CO as well as partially oxidized and unburned
hydrocarbon compounds (=> HC emissions) will result as combustion products. Soot occurs
when there is an extreme lack of oxygen. Carbon black is a black, powdery solid that,
depending on its quality and use, consists of 80 to 99.5 percent carbon (or carbon
compounds).

In addition to oxygen, the air consists of more than ¾ nitrogen. In areas with high combustion
temperatures, nitrogen oxide NOx is created as an additional combustion product. The
development of undesired combustion products can be minimized by internal engine
measures.

Ignition
Ignition is the transition from a non-reactive fuel-air mixture to combustion. This is only
possible under certain conditions:

- The reactants must have a minimum energy level (activation energy)

- The reaction mixture must have a certain composition (air-fuel mixture).

The short-chain hydrocarbons, gasoline, have a low specific vapor pressure, are highly volatile,
so they form a flammable vapor layer above the surface even at low temperatures. The longer
chain diesel ignites harder because the vapor pressure is lower.

In the diesel engine, the fuel is injected and atomized at high pressure directly into the
combustion chamber. Liquid diesel fuel can hardly be ignited at room temperature. Due to the
injection system and an abrupt compression with the resulting heating in the combustion
chamber, diesel ignites and burns itself.

Too rapid an increase in pressure in the cylinder damages the engine (=> knocking in a gasoline
engine) and is just as undesirable as combustion that is too slow and then necessarily
incomplete. The combustion process can be influenced very well today with controllable
injection systems.

The reaction rate depends on the chemical composition of the fuel. The fuel must not
suddenly fizzle out in the combustion chamber so that there are no impermissible pressure
rises in the engine, but should burn in a targeted manner.

3.7 Solutions for an Optimised Engine Operation:

Combustion Air – Compressor/Charger Systems

Charging is the increase in air pressure before entering the engine's combustion chamber.
Today's engines are charged between 0.5 bar and approx. 3 bar. The ratio of the air pressure
behind the compressor p1 to the intake air pressure pE is called the compressor pressure ratio:
πV = p 1 / p E
2 stroke engines must be actively supplied with air in any case. To flush the combustion
chamber, air is pressed into the combustion chamber through the flushing slots using a blower
/ charger (in the case of small 2-stroke engines, the motor housing with the piston underside
is used as a blower for the motor).
Regardless of whether it is a 2-stroke or 4-stroke engine, charging is basically used to increase
performance without changing the speed for a given engine size. This increase in performance
is achieved by supplying a larger amount of air to the combustion chamber.
Charging has several positive effects on engine operation:

- The gas exchange work is always negative when the engine is not charged, at
charged engines, it can be positive.
- The increase in performance with the same motor and the same speed reduces the
proportion of mechanical losses in the overall performance.
(The overall efficiency increases)
- The heat losses of the engine depend heavily on its geometry. With higher output
and the same engine size, the overall efficiency also increases in this regard.
- The positive effects of charging on the delivery rate of the engine are relatively
small.

However, more important than these positive effects of charging is the indirect influence that
the charging system has on the performance and efficiency of the work process. It determines
the pressure, the temperature and the purity of the cylinder charge at the beginning of the
compression stroke. This applies in particular to engine operation outside of the design point.

By far the greatest influence is achieved by increasing the density and thus the mass of the
fresh air charge in the cylinder in order to convert a larger amount of fuel and thus to be able
to increase the mechanical useful output. The primary task of charging is to increase the
density of the charge air.

In principle, this can be achieved by increasing the pressure or lowering the temperature. The
combination of the two is most effective: the charger / compressor compresses the air, a
charge air cooler lowers the temperature of the compressed air.

Exhaust gas turbocharger

An exhaust gas turbocharger consists of a turbine and a compressor, which can be constructed
very similarly and are mounted on a common shaft. The exhaust gas stream rotates the
turbine wheel on the exhaust side. Its torque is then transmitted via the shaft to the
compressor wheel in the intake tract. There is overpressure on the intake side => more air
flows into the engine.
In exhaust gas turbocharging, the required fan power is generated by an exhaust gas turbine.
The technical output of the exhaust gas turbine PTs must in any case be greater than the
turbine output PVs in order to cover the mechanical losses in the turbocharger (exhaust gas
turbocharger efficiency ηAtl). In the case of equilibrium ("self-running condition"):
PTs · ηAtl = PVs
The piston engine "Diesel engine" and the combined fluid machine (compressor and turbine)
"ATL" are not mechanically linked. These very different machines, whose operating behavior
is also very different, are only connected via the exhaust pipe and the combustion air pipe.
In order for these machines to work effectively together under the different operating
conditions (power output and speed of the engine, ambient temperatures, etc.), they must be
well coordinated.

Fuel Injection systems

In addition to the combustion chamber shape, air movement and nozzle position, which are
specified on the engine side, the combustion process in the diesel engine depends on a large
number of injection system parameters. These include the type of nozzle and the associated
nozzle hole position, number of holes, and hole length for atomizing the fuel while at the same
time being introduced into the combustion chamber, as well as the amount and time course
of the injection pressure. The latter is very different in conventional systems and depends to
a large extent on the choice of the respective injection system.

The injection system includes a pressure generator (pump), possibly a pressure accumulator,
a high-pressure line and an injection valve as well as the associated control elements. These
components can be constructed as individual components or combined.

The tasks of the injection system are:

- High pressure generation and fuel delivery

- Injection timing

- Regulation of the injection quantity

 - Same quantity supply to the individual cylinders

The injection pressures for modern marine diesel systems are between 1000 and 2000 bar. The
injection nozzle in the cylinder head / cover atomizes and distributes the fuel in the combustion
chamber. It also affects the injection process.

3.8 Conclusion: Today´s Ship Propulsion Systems

See PP slides.