DISCRETE

MATHEMATICS

JEMSHEENA P S
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
Module I

Set The y
 Introduction
Concept of set e y
A set is a well-defined collection of objects.which may
or may not be of a mathematical nature, such as
numbers or functions.
The theory of sets was given by German
mathematician Georg Cantor (1845-1918).
It is usually represented in flower braces.
For example:
Set of natural numbers = {1,2,3,…..}
Set of whole numbers = {0,1,2,3,…..}
Each object is called an element or member of the set.
Let A={4,5} then we can write 4 ∈A and 5∈A .Here
2∉A
The number of elements present in a set
is known as cardinality or cardinal number of the
set.It is denoted by n(A)or |A|
 Sets can be represented by two ways

Roster or Tabular Form

All the elements of a set are listed Separated by
commas and are enclosed within braces {}. Set Builder Form
Elements are not repeated generally. In set builder form ,set is denoted by stating the properties
For example: that its members satisfy.
A= {1,2,3,.......} For example:
A={x/x is a natural number}
 On the basis of cardinality Sets are of two types

Finite Set
Finite set is a set in which there are definite
number of elements. Infinite Set
For example: Infinite set is a set in which there are infinite number of
A= {1,2,3} elements.
For example:
A={x/x is a real number}
 Null Set and Universal Set

Null Set
Universal Set
A Set having no elements is called Null Set.It is
The set that contains all the elements of a given collection is
denoted by ∅ or { }.Null Set is a finite Set.
called the universal set and is represented by the symbol 𝗨 or
For example:
𝗦 or E
A= {x/ x is an even natural number between 6 and 8}
For example:
if we discuss natural number,then

A={x/x is a real number} is the Universal set.

 Equal Sets and Equivalent Sets

Equal Set
Two sets are equal if they have exactly same Equivalent Sets
elements. Two sets are said to be equivalent if they have the
For example: same number of elements.
A= {2,3,4} and B={3,4,2} , Here A and B are equal For example:
sets
A={1,2,3} and B={a,c,d } , Here A and B are equivalent

sets.
 Disjoint Set and Singleton Set

Disjoint Set
Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint sets if no
element of A is in B and no element of B is in A ,i.e.,
Singleton Set
They have no common elements
A Set having only one element .
For example:
For example:
A= {2,3} and B = {4,5}
A={3}
 SubSet and Super Set

SubSet
A set A is said to be a sub set of a set B Super Set

if each element of A is also an element A set B is said to be a super set of a set A

of B.we represent this by A ⊂ B if each element of A is also an element of B.we

For example: represent this by B ⊃ A
A= {2,3,4} and B={3,4,5,6,2} , Here A⊂ B For example:
A={1,2,3} and B={1,2,3,4 } , Here B⊃ A
EXAMPLES
PProperties of set inclusion
 Proper SubSet and Proper Super Set

Proper Sub Set

Proper Super Set
A set A is said to be a Proper sub set of a set B
A set B is said to be a super set of a set A
if each element of A is also an element of B and A and B are
if each element of A is also an element of B and A≠ B.We represent
not equal.We represent this by A ⊂ B.Proper inclusion is not
this by B ⊃ A
reflexive. But transitive.
For example:
For example:
A={1,2,3} and B={1,2,3,4 } , Here B⊃ A
A= {2,3,4} and B={3,4,5,6,2} , Here A⊂ B
 POWER SET

In set theory, the power set (or powerset) of a

Set A is defined as the set of all subsets of
the Set A including the Set itself and the null
or empty set. It is denoted by P(A). Basically,
this set is the combination of all subsets
including null set, of a given set.
If the given set has n elements, then its
Power Set will contain 2ⁿ elements. It also
represents the cardinality of powerset.
ie., |P(A)|=2ⁿ.
EXAMPLES POWER SET
 Problems and Solutions

Find the power set of Z = {2,7,9} and total number of elements. How many elements are there for power set of empty set?
Solution: Given, Z = {2,7,9}
Solution: An empty set has zero elements.
Total number of elements in powerset = 2ⁿ
Therefore, no. of elements of powerset = 2⁰= 1
Here, n = 3 (number of elements in set Z)
So, 2³= 8, which shows there are eight elements of power set of Z
Hence, there is only one element of the powerset which is the empty

Therefore, set itself.

P(Z) = {{}, {2}, {7}, {9}, {2,7}, {7,9}, {2,9}, {2,7,9}} P(E) = {}
 Venn Diagram

A diagram representing mathematical or logical sets

pictorially as circles or closed curves within an enclosing
rectangle (the universal set).
A Venn diagram shows all possible logical relations
between a finite collection of different sets.
For Example,
Let A and B are two sets
Then venn diagram is
02 Operation on Sets
Intersection of two sets
The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by A∩B, consists of all
elements that are both in A and B.Here we can write x∈(A∩B) if and only
if (x∈A) and (x∈B).
For example:
A= {2,3} and B={3,4,2} , Then A∩B ={2,3}
Intersection is commutative
Intersection is associative
Union of two sets
The union of two sets A and B ,denoted by A∪B is a set containing all elements that are
in A or in B (possibly both).Here we can write x∈(A∪B) if and only if (x∈A) or (x∈B).
For example:
A={1,2,3} and B={a,c,d } , Then A∪B= {1,2,3,a,c,d}
 Difference of two sets

ie.
The difference (subtraction) of two sets,denoted by A−B , is a set consists of elements that are in A but
not in B.

For example:
A= {2,3,4,5} and B={3,4,2} , Then A-B ={5}
 Complement of a set

ie.The complement of a set A, denoted by Aᶜ or A′ is

the set of all elements that are in the universal set S
but are not in A.
 Symmetric difference of two sets

ie.
symmetric difference( disjunctive union) of two sets is the set of elements which are in either of the sets
and not in their intersection. It is denoted by A⊕B or AΔB or A+B
For example,
A={1,2,3} and B={ 3,4} ,then A⊕B={1,2,4}.
The Intersection and Union of Two sets A and B is shown by the
shaded area using a Venn diagram.

The shaded area shows the The shaded area shows the
set B∩A. set B∪A.
The Difference and Symmetric Difference of Two sets A and B is
shown by the shaded area using a Venn diagram.

The shaded area shows the set

A−B.
The Complement of a set A and Disjoint sets A , B and C are shown
by the shaded area using a Venn diagram.

The shaded area shows the set Sets A,B, and C are disjoint.
Aᶜ
 Important Laws of Set Operation
Commutative Laws:
01 Associative Laws:
For any two finite sets A and B;
(i) A U B = B U A
02 For any three finite sets A, B and

(ii) A ∩ B = B ∩ A C;
(i) (A U B) U C = A U (B U C)
(ii) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

Distributive Laws:
03 For any three finite sets A, B and C; De Morgan’s Laws:
(i) A U (B ∩ C) = (A U B) ∩ (A U C) 04 For any two finite sets A and B;
(ii) A ∩ (B U C) = (A ∩ B) U (A ∩ C) (i) (A U B)’ = A' ∩ B'
(ii) (A ∩ B)’ = A' U B′
Prove That
Prove That A∪(B∩C)⇔ (A∪B)∩(A∪C)
Prove That A∪(A∩B)=A
Proof by venn diagram - Commutative law
For any two finite sets A and B;
(i) A U B = B U A
(ii) A ∩ B = B ∩ A
Proof by venn diagram - Associative law
For any three finite sets A, B and C;
(i) (A U B) U C = A U (B U C) (ii) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

For the given sets A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, For the given sets A = { a, b,

5 }, B = { 3, 4, 5, 6 } and C = { 5, 6, c, d }, B = { a, c, e } and C = {
7, 8 }, verify it by using Venn a, e },verify it by using Venn
diagram. diagram.
Proof by venn diagram - Distributive law
For any three finite sets A, B and C;
(i) A U (B ∩ C) = (A U B) ∩ (A U C)
(ii) A ∩ (B U C) = (A ∩ B) U (A ∩ C)
 Proof by venn diagram - De morgan's laws
Let U be the universal set containing sets A and B. Then

(i) (A u B)' = A' n B'

(ii) (A n B)' = A' u B'

PROBLEMS
Question: Consider the sets:
A = {red, green, blue}
B = {red, yellow, orange}
C = {red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple}
Find the following:
1. Find A ⋃ B
2. Find A ⋂ B
3. Find Aᶜ ⋂ C

Solution:

1. The union contains all the elements in either set: A ⋃ B = {red, green, blue, yellow, orange} Notice w
only list red once.
2. The intersection contains all the elements in both sets: A ⋂ B = {red}
3. Here we’re looking for all the elements that are not in set A and are also in C. Aᶜ ⋂ C = {orange, yel
purple}
Question:
Question:
Question:For the given sets A = { -10, 0, 1, 9, 2, 4, 5 } and B = {-1, -2, 5, 6, 2, 3, 4 }, verify that
(i) Set union is commutative.
(ii) Set intersection is commutative.

Solution :
(i) Let us verify that union is commutative.
A u B = { -10, 0, 1, 9, 2, 4, 5 } u {-1, -2, 5, 6, 2, 3, 4 }
A u B = { -10, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9 } ---------(1)
B u A = {-1, -2, 5, 6, 2, 3, 4 } u { -10, 0, 1, 9, 2, 4, 5 }
B u A = { -10, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9 } ---------(2)
From (1) and (2), we have
AuB = BuA

(ii) Let us verify that intersection is commutative.

A n B = { -10, 0, 1, 9, 2, 4, 5 } n {-1, -2, 5, 6, 2, 3, 4 }
A n B = { 2, 4, 5 } ---------(1)
B n A = {-1, -2, 5, 6, 2, 3, 4 } u { -10, 0, 1, 9, 2, 4, 5 }
B n A = { 2, 4, 5 } ---------(2)
From (1) and (2), we have
AnB = BnA
Question:For the given sets A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 },
B = { 3, 4, 5, 6 } and C = { 5, 6, 7, 8 }, verify that
A u (B u C ) = (A u B) u C.
Solution :
Let us verify that set union is associative.
B u C = { 3, 4, 5, 6 } u { 5, 6, 7, 8 }
B u C = { 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 }
A u (B u C) = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } u { 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 }
A u (B u C) = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 } ---------(1)
A u B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } u { 3, 4, 5, 6 }
A u B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 }
(A u B) u C = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 } u { 5, 6, 7, 8 }
(A u B) u C = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 } ---------(2)
From (1) and (2), we have
A u (B u C) = (A u B) u C
Question: For the given sets A = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 }, B = { 1, -2, 3, 4, 5, 6 } and
C = { 2, 4, 6, 7 }, verify that A u (B n C ) = (A u B) n (A u C).
Solution :

Let us verify that union distributes over intersection.

B n C = { 1, -2, 3, 4, 5, 6 } n { 2, 4, 6, 7 }
B n C = { 4, 6 }
A u (B n C) = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 } u { 4, 6 }
A u (B n C) = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 } ---------(1)
A u B = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 } u { 1, -2, 3, 4, 5, 6 }
A u B = { -2, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 }
A u C = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 } u { 2, 4, 6, 7 }
A u C = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7 }
(A u B) n (A u C) = { -2, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 } n { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7 }
(A u B) n (A u C) = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 } ---------(1)
From (1) and (2), we have
A u (B n C) = (A u B) n (A u C)
Question:Verify Demorgan′s law with the help
of an example
Solution :
Question:Create Venn diagrams to illustrate A ⋃ B, A ⋂ B, and Aᶜ ⋂B
Solution:
A ⋃ B contains all elements in either set. A ⋂ B contains only those elements in both sets—in the
overlap of the circles.

Aᶜ will contain all elements not in the set A. Aᶜ ⋂ B will contain the elements in set B that are not in set A.
Question: Use a Venn diagram to illustrate (H ⋂ F)ᶜ ⋂W

We’ll start by identifying everything in the set H ⋂ F

Now, (H ⋂ F)ᶜ ⋂ W will contain everything not in the set identified above that is also in set W.
Question:
THANK YOU