1.

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

Electricity:
It is the branch of physics which deals with the study of electric charges. It is divided in to two
branches. They are
1. Electrostatics (or) static electricity: which deals with the study of charges at rest.
2. Current electricity: which deals with the study of charges in motion.
Historical development of electricity:
One of the Greek scientist Thales of Miletus (600 B.C) discovered that, when the amber rubbed with
fur, the amber acquires the property of attracting light objects like dust, light feather, lint etc.
William Gilbert (1544-1603) made a systematic study on this phenomenon. His study showed
that, many other substances behaved in this manner when they rubbed suitably. He named this phenomenon
as electrification. He introduced the word “electricity” which
is derived from Greek word ‘elektron’, meaning is amber.
Amber is a fossilized resin found near the seashore and fur is a
kind of wool.
Modern concept of matter:
1. A matter is made up of atoms. The atom consists of
positively charged nucleus at the centre and negatively
charged electrons revolving around the nucleus in
different orbits.
2. The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. They together called as nucleons.
3. Mass of proton mp=1.673×10-27kg, mass of neutron, mn=1.675×10-27 kg and mass of the electron
me= 9.1×10-31kg.
4. The smallest charge available in the nature is charge on the electron. It is equal to -1.6×10-19C. This
was experimentally determined by Millikan.
5. The magnitude of charge on proton is same as that on the electron but opposite in sign.
6. In an atom number of electrons is equal to the number of protons and hence an atom is said to be
electrically neural.
7. The neutrons have no charge.
8. A body is said to be charged if it has less (deficiency or shortage) electrons or more (surplus or excess)
electrons.
9. A body is said to be positively charged if it has less number of electrons.
10. A body is said to be negatively charged if it has more number of electrons.
11. Two identical bodies, one with positively charged and the other with negatively charged have different
masses.
12. Mass of the body with positive charge is slightly less than the mass of a body with negative charge.
Showing two kinds of charges:
Experiment -1:
1. When two glass rods rubbed with a piece of
silk cloth are brought close to each other,
they repel each other.
2. When two ebonite rods (plastic rods) rubbed
with a fur (wool) are brought close to each
other, they repel each other.
3. When a glass rod rubbed with a piece of silk cloth and a ebonite rod rubbed with a fur are brought
close to each other, they attract each other.
Experiment -2:
1. When a glass rod rubbed with a piece of silk
is made to touch with two pith balls suspended
by silk threads, the balls repel each other.

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 1

 2. When a ebonite rod rubbed with fur is made to touch with two pith balls suspended by silk threads, the
balls repel each other.
3. When one pith ball is touched with charged glass rod and the other pith ball is touched with a charged
ebonite rod, the balls attract each other.
Conclusion of the above experiments:
One kind of electric charge is produced on glass rod when rubbed with silk and other kind of electric
charge is produced on the ebonite rod when rubbed with fur. Benjamin Franklin named the charge on the glass
rod and fur as positive charge and that on the ebonite rod and silk as negative charge. The same convention is
used even today. From above observations it is found that the like charges repel each other and unlike charges
attract each other.
Electrification:
It is the process of making a body to lose or gain the electrons.
Electrification is according to the law conservation of charge. When two suitable substances are rubbed one
against another, due to friction, the transfer of electrons takes place from one substance to another. The
substance that loses the electrons is said to be positively charged and the substance that gains the electrons is
said to be negatively charged.
A substance is said to be charged if there is shortage or excess of electrons. For example, when a plastic
comb is run through the dry hair, the comb acquires charge by friction.
Lightning:
It is the heavy electric discharge between the clouds or clouds and the ground.
Note: During lightning you are safer inside a house than under a tree. When we stand under a tree, we provide
an easy path for the lightning to pass through our body. But when we are in the house, discharge due to
lightning may be conducted to the ground through iron pipes or walls etc. Therefore we are safer.
Conductors and insulators:
The substances are divided into three types based on their ability to conduct electric charges.
They are 1. Conductors, 2. Insulators and 3. Semiconductors.
Conductors:
These are the substances which allow electric charges to pass through them easily.
Examples: gold, silver, copper, iron, earth, human body, mercury, etc.
The electrons revolving in the outer most orbit of an atom are called valence electrons. The valence
electrons are loosely bound to the nucleus in metallic conductors. Even for small raise in temperature, the
valence electron detaches from the atom and they can jump from atom to atom inside the metal. These detached
electrons are called free electrons or conduction electrons. In metals, there is very large number of free
electrons which act as carriers of charge. In electrolytes, the charge carriers are both positive and negative
ions.
Insulators
These are the substances which do not allow electric charges to pass through them easily.
Examples: glass, plastic, nylon, ebonite, rubber, dry wood, etc.
In insulators, each electron is strongly bound (attached) to a particular atom and is not free to move in
the body of insulator. Hence, insulators do not allow charges to pass through them. If some charge is put on
an insulator, the charge stays at the same place. But when some charge is put on conductor, it gets distributed
over the surface of the conductor.
Electric charge:
It is the property possessed by the material objects by virtue of which electrical and other related effects
are produced.
Properties of electric charges:
1. Charge is conserved.
2. Charge is quantized.
3. Charge is additive.
4. Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attracts each other.
5. A charged body attracts light uncharged bodies.
6. Charges always reside on the outer surface of the conductor.

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 7. Charges always accumulate at the sharp edges on the conductor.
8. Magnitude of charges does not depend on its motion.
9. Charges produce magnetic field when they are in motion.
Conservation of charge:
Total charge of an isolated system always remains constant. This is known as conservation of charge.
We know that the charge on the neutron is zero. When it decays into a proton and an electron, the total charge
is zero. This is because, the proton and an electron have equal and opposite charges. Therefore, the total charge
of a system remains constant.
Quantization of charge:
All free charges are the integral multiple of charge on an electron or proton. This is known as
quantization of charge.
A charge q on the body is given by, q =  ne where n =1,2,3, e = charge on an electron or proton.
Note: To understand the quantization of charge
When 1 electron is removed from, a body, the charge on the body, q = 1e = 1  1.6  10 −19 C
When 2 electrons are removed from a body, the charge on the body, q = 2e = 2  1.6  10 −19 C
When n electrons are removed from a body, the charge on the body, q = ne = n  1.6  10 −19 C
That, is, the charge takes only discrete values but not continuous values. This is nothing but the
quantization of charge. The numbers 1,2, 3, ....... are not continuous values.
Quantization of charge was experimentally, demonstrated by Millikan in 1912.
6.25  1018 electrons together constitute -1C of charge.
Additivity of charge:
The total charge of system of point charges is the algebraic sum of all the charges in the system. This
is known as additivity of charge.
If a system contains n charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 … … … , 𝑞𝑛
Then the total charge of the system, 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3 … … … + 𝑞𝑛
Grounding or earthing:
It is the process oi sharing the charges with the earth.
Grounding provides the safety measure for electrical circuits and appliances.
Note: A thick metal plate is buried deep into the earth and thick wires are drawn from this plate. These wires
are used in the buildings near the main supply for earthing. The electrical wiring in houses has three wires.
They are live, neutral and earth. The live and neutral carry electric current from the power station and the earth
wire is connected to the buried metal plate. Metallic bodies of appliances like refrigerator, electric iron, TV
etc. are connected to the earth wire. If a live wire touches the metallic body, the charges flow to the earth
without damaging the appliance and without causing any injury to the persons who touches them.
Polarity of charge:
It is the property which differentiates the two kinds of electric charges. (i.e  sign of charges)
Gold leaf electroscope (GLE):
It is an instrument used to detect electric charge and its polarity.
Construction and working:
It consists of a metal rod fitted in a glass bottle through
a rubber cork. A small metal sphere is attached to upper end-of
the rod. L1 and L2 are the extremely thin gold foils (gold leaves)
attached to the lower end of rod. Gold foils have very low mass
per unit area and are flexible. Therefore, they respond very
quickly to small electrostatic forces' when a charged rod is
touched with the metallic sphere, the charge is transferred to the
gold leaves through the rod. The leaves repel each other due to
the same kind of charge and diverge as shown in the figure. The
divergence in the leaves depends on the amount of charge on
them. By measuring the divergence of leaves, the amount of
charge on the body can be estimated.

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 3

Reason for a charged glass rod attracts a piece of paper:
Paper is a dielectric. When a positively charged glass rod is brought near it, atoms of paper get
polarised, with centre of negative charge of atoms coming closer to glass rod. Therefore, force of attraction
between glass rod and piece of paper becomes greater than the force of repulsion between the glass rod and
the piece of paper. This results in attraction of the piece of paper towards the glass rod.
NP1. If 109 electrons move out of a body to another body every second, how much time is required to get a
total charge of 1 C on the other body?
In one second 109 electrons move out of the body.
Therefore the charge given out in one second is
1.6 ×10–19 Å× 109 C = 1.6 ×10–10 C.
The time required to accumulate a charge of 1 C can then be estimated
to be 1 C ÷ (1.6 ×10–10 C/s) = 6.25 ×109 s = 6.25 ×109 ÷ (365 ×24 × 3600) years = 198 years.
Thus to collect a charge of one coulomb, from a body from which 109 electrons move out every second, we
will need approximately 200 years. One coulomb is, therefore, a very large unit for many practical purposes.
It is, however, also important to know what is roughly the number of electrons contained in a piece of one
cubic centimetre of a material. A cubic piece of copper of side 1 cm contains about 2.5 ×1024 electrons.
NP2. How much positive and negative charge is there in a cup of water?
Let us assume that the mass of one cup of water is 250 g. The molecular mass of water is 18g. Thus, one mole
(= 6.02 ×1023 molecules) of water is 18 g.
Therefore the number of molecules in one cup of water is (250/18) ×6.02×1023.
Each molecule of water contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, i.e., 10 electrons and 10 protons.
Hence the total positive and total negative charge has the same magnitude. It is equal to
(250/18) × 6.02× 1023 × 10× 1.6×10–19 C = 1.34× 107 C.
TP 11: A polythene piece rubbed with wool is found to have a negative charge of 3×10–7 C. (a) Estimate the
number of electrons transferred (from which to which?) (b) Is there a transfer of mass from wool to polythene?
Coulomb’s Law in Electrostatics:
Statement:
The force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of magnitudes of charges
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The direction of this force is along the
line joining the two charges.
Explanation:
Let 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 be the magnitudes of two charges
separated by a distance r. Let F be the force between them.
qq
From Coulomb's Law, F  1 2 2
r
1 q1 q 2
F= where  o is the absolute
4 o r 2
permittivity of free space.
 1 q1 q 2 
In vector form F = rˆ where r̂ is the unit vector in the direction of F
4 o r 2
Limitations of Coulomb’s Law:
1. Coulomb's law is applicable only for point charges.
2. It is applicable when the distance between the point charges is greater than 10-15m.
Coulomb:
'Coulomb' is the SI unit of charge. Its symbol is C.
One coulomb is the charge which repels another identical charge with a force of 9  10 9 N when placed
at a distance of one metre in free space.
1 q1 q 2 qq  1 
i.e. F =  F = 9  10 9 1 2 2  = 9  10 9 
4 o r 2
r  4 o 
if q1 = q 2 = 1C , r =1m, then F = 9  10 9 N
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Coulomb is very big unit so smaller unit have to use i.e. micro coulomb, nano coulomb and pico coulomb etc.
Coulomb’s Law in dielectric medium:
qq 1
We have F = k 1 2 2 when charges are placed in free space k = = 9  10 9 Nm 2 / C 2
r 4 o
Where  o is the absolute permittivity of free space. Its value is 8.85  10 −12 C 2 / Nm 2
qq qq
 F = k 1 2 2  F = 9  10 9 1 2 2
r r
1
When charges placed in a dielectric medium other than free space and in SI system, k =
4
where  is the absolute permittivity of the medium It is different for different dielectric media.

Coulomb's law is valid for any sign of 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 . If 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 are of same sign (either both positive or
both negative), then the product 𝑞1 𝑞2 > 0 and the force is repulsive force. If 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 are of opposite sign,
then the product 𝑞1 𝑞2 < 0 and the force is attractive force.
NP3. Coulomb’s law for electrostatic force between two point charges and Newton’s law for gravitational
force between two stationary point masses, both have inverse-square dependence on the distance between the
charges and masses respectively. (a) Compare the strength of these forces by determining the ratio of their
magnitudes (i) for an electron and a proton and (ii) for two protons. (b) Estimate the accelerations of electron
and proton due to the electrical force of their mutual attraction when they are 1 Ao (= 10-10 m) apart? (mp =
1.67×10–27 kg, me = 9.11× 10–31 kg)

(a) (i) The electric force between an electron and a proton at a distance r apart is:
1 𝑒2
𝐹𝑒 = −
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟 2
where the negative sign indicates that the force is attractive. The corresponding gravitational force (always
attractive) is:
𝑚𝑝 𝑚𝑒
𝐹𝐺 = −𝐺
𝑟2
where mp and me are the masses of a proton and an electron respectively.
𝐹 𝑒2
|𝐹𝑒 |= 𝐺 4𝜋𝜖 = 2.4× 1039
𝐺 𝑜 𝐺𝑚𝑝 𝑚𝑒
(ii) On similar lines, the ratio of the magnitudes of electric force to the gravitational force between two
protons at a distance r apart is:
𝐹 𝑒2
|𝐹𝑒 |= 𝐺 4𝜋𝜖 = 1.3 × 1036
𝐺 𝑜 𝐺𝑚𝑝 𝑚𝑒
However, it may be mentioned here that the signs of the two forces are different. For two protons, the
gravitational force is attractive in nature and the Coulomb force is repulsive. The actual values of these forces
between two protons inside a nucleus (distance between two protons is ~ 10-15 m inside a nucleus) are Fe ~
230 N, whereas, FG ~ 1.9×10–34 N.
The (dimensionless) ratio of the two forces shows that electrical forces are enormously stronger than the
gravitational forces.

(b) The electric force F exerted by a proton on an electron is same in magnitude to the force exerted by an
electron on a proton; however, the masses of an electron and a proton are different. Thus, the magnitude of
force is
1 𝑒2
|F| = 4𝜋𝜖 = 8.987 ×109 Nm2/C2 × (1.6×10–19C)2 / (10–10m)2 = 2.3 ×10–8 N
𝑜 𝑟2
Using Newton’s second law of motion, F = ma, the acceleration that an electron will undergo is
a = 2.3×10–8 N / 9.11×10–31 kg = 2.5× 1022 m/s2
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Comparing this with the value of acceleration due to gravity, we can conclude that the effect of gravitational
field is negligible on the motion of electron and it undergoes very large accelerations under the action of
Coulomb force due to a proton.
The value for acceleration of the proton is
2.3 × 10–8 N / 1.67×10–27 kg = 1.4 ×1019 m/s2
NP.4 A charged metallic sphere A is suspended by a nylon thread. Another charged metallic sphere B held by
an insulating handle is brought close to A such that the distance between their centres is 10 cm, as shown in
Fig. (a). The resulting repulsion of A is noted (for example, by shining a beam of light and measuring the
deflection of its shadow on a screen). Spheres A and B are touched by uncharged spheres C and D respectively,
as shown in Fig. (b). C and D are then removed and B is brought closer to A to a distance of 5.0 cm between
their centres, as shown in Fig.(c). What is the expected repulsion of A on the basis of Coulomb’s law? Spheres
A and C and spheres B and D have identical sizes. Ignore the sizes of A and B in comparison to the separation
between their centres.

Solution
Let the original charge on sphere A be q and that on B be q’. At a distance r between their centres, the
magnitude of the electrostatic force on each is given by
1 𝑞𝑞′
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟 2
neglecting the sizes of spheres A and B in comparison to r. When an identical but uncharged sphere C touches
A, the charges redistribute. on A and C and, by symmetry, each sphere carries a charge q/2. Similarly, after D
touches B, the redistributed charge on each is q’/2. Now, if the separation between A and B is halved, the
magnitude of the electrostatic force on each is
𝑞𝑞′
′ 1 22 1 𝑞𝑞′
𝐹 = 4𝜋𝜖 𝑟 2
= 4𝜋𝜖 =F
𝑜( ) 𝑜 𝑟2
2
Thus the electrostatic force on A, due to B, remains unaltered.
TP1: What is the force between two small charged spheres having charges of 2×10–7C and 3×10–7C placed
30 cm apart in air?
TP2: The electrostatic force on a small sphere of charge 0.4 𝜇C due to another small sphere of charge – 0.8
𝜇C in air is 0.2 N. (a) What is the distance between the two spheres? (b) What is the force on the second sphere
due to the first?
TP7: Four point charges qA = 2 𝜇C, qB = –5 𝜇C, qC = 2 𝜇C, and qD = –5 𝜇C are located at the corners of a
square ABCD of side 10 cm. What is the force on a charge of 1 𝜇C placed at the centre of the square?
TP8: Two point charges qA = 3 𝜇C and qB = –3 𝜇C are located 20 cm apart in vacuum.(a) What is the electric
field at the midpoint O of the line AB joining the two charges? (b) If a negative test charge of magnitude
1.5×10–9 C is placed at this point, what is the force experienced by the test charge?
TP 12: (a) Two insulated charged copper spheres A and B have their centres separated by a distance of 50 cm.
What is the mutual force of electrostatic repulsion if the charge on each is 6.5×10–7 C? The radii of A and B
are negligible compared to the distance of separation. (b) What is the force of repulsion if each sphere is
charged double the above amount, and the distance between them is halved?
Coulomb's law in vector form in terms of position vectors of two charges.(or) Coulomb's law agrees
with the Newton’s third law of motion:
 
Consider two point charges q1 and q2 located at two points in vacuum. Let r1 and r2 be the position
vectors of q1 and q2 respectively with reference to the origin O of the three-dimensional co-ordinate system.
     
From triangle law of vector addition, r21 = (r2 − r1 ) and r12 = (r1 − r2 )
From coulomb's law,

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  1 q1 q 2
Force exerted on q1 by q2 is given by, F12 = rˆ12 ---- (1)
4 o r122
Force exerted on q2 by q1 is given by,

F21 =
1 q1 q 2
rˆ21 =
1 q1 q 2
(− rˆ12 ) ---- (2) ( rˆ21 = −rˆ12 )
4 o r21 2
4 o r212
 
On comparing equations (1) and (2), we get F21 = − F12
The forces exerted by two charges on each other are equal and opposite.
Therefore Coulomb's law agrees with the Newton's third law.
Importance of Coulomb’s law:
1. The forces exerted by two charges on each other are equal and opposite.
2. Coulomb’s law agrees with the Newton’s third law.
3. The forces act along the line joining the two charges and hence these are central forces.
Permittivity of a medium:
Permittivity is the ability of the medium to allow the electric field lines to pass through it. Permittivity
is defined only for dielectrics (insulators).
Relative permittivity (or) Dielectric constant (  r or K):
Consider two charges 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 are placed in free space (air or vacuum) and separated by a distance of r.
1 q1 q 2
From Coulomb's Law, Fa = ------ (1)
4 o r 2
When the charges are placed in a dielectric medium other than free space at the same distance,
1 q1 q 2
Fm = ------ (2)
4 r 2
(1)  Fa =  =  is Relative permittivity.
(2) Fm  o r
So, it is the ratio of permittivity of the medium to the permittivity of free space
(or)
It is the ratio of force between two point charges separated by some distance in free space to the force
between the same two charges separated by the same distance in a dielectric medium other than free space.
1. Dielectric constant (relative permittivity) has no unit and dimensions. It is a pure number.
2. The value of dielectric constant depends upon the temperature.
3. Dielectric constant is also called specific inductive capacity of the medium.
Differences between the mass and charge:
Charge Mass
1 The charge may be positive or negative The mass is always positive
2 It does not vary with velocity It increases with increase in velocity
3 It is conserved It is not conserved (because, mass can be converted
in to energy and vice-versa)
4 It is quantized It is not considered to be quantized.
5 It plays an important role in electricity. It plays an important role in gravitation.
6 Charge does not exist without mass Mass can exist without net charge.
7 In SI system, it is a derived physical quantity In SI system, it is a fundamental physical quantity.
8 Its SI unit is coulomb. Its SI unit is Kg.
Differences between the Coulomb force and gravitational force:
Coulomb force Gravitational force:
1 It depends on the magnitude of charges. It depends on the magnitude of masses.
2 It may be attractive or repulsive It is always attractive.
3 Net force may be zero. Net force never be zero

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 4 It depends on the nature of the medium It does not depend on the nature of the medium
between the charges between the charges.
5 It is much stronger than the gravitational force. It is weakest force in nature.
Examples which illustrate that electrical forces are very stronger than gravitational force:
1. When a plastic comb is run through the dry hair, the comb acquires charge by friction. This charged
comb lifts a piece of paper upwards. The electrostatic attraction between the comb and the piece of
paper overcomes the force of gravity exerted by the entire earth on the paper.
2. When we hold a book in our hand, the electric (frictional) forces between the palm of our hand and the
book easily overcome the gravitational force on the book due to the entire earth.
Superposition principle for forces and the force on a point charge due to system of 'n' point charges:
Statement:
The resultant force on any charge due to a number of charges is the vector sum of all the forces due to
number of charges.
Consider a system (group) of n point charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 … … … , 𝑞𝑛 at distances 𝑟12 , 𝑟13 , 𝑟14 … 𝑟1𝑛
respectively from a charge 𝑞1 .
 1 q1 q 2
The force on 𝑞1 due to 𝑞2 , F12 = rˆ12
4 o r122
 1 q1 q 2
The force on 𝑞1 due to 𝑞3 , F13 = rˆ13
4 o r132
 1 q1 q 2
Similarly, the force on 𝑞1 due to 𝑞𝑛 , F1n = rˆ1n
4 o r12n
From superposition principle,
    
The resultant force, F = F12 + F13 + F14 + .......... + F1n
 1 q1 q 2 1 q1 q 2 1 q1 q 2
F= ˆ
r + rˆ + ....... + rˆ1n
4 o r122 4 o r132 4 o r12n
12 13

 q n
q
 F = 1  2i rˆ1i where r̂12 , r̂13 , r̂14 ....... rˆ1n are the unit vectors.
4 o i = 2 r1i
Note: The vector sum is obtained by the parallelogram law of vector addition for two forces and polygon law
of vector addition for more than two forces.
NP.5 Consider three charges q1, q2, q3 each equal to q at the vertices of an
equilateral triangle of side l. What is the force on a charge Q (with the same
sign as q) placed at the centroid of the triangle, as shown in Fig.

In the given equilateral triangle ABC of sides of length l, if we draw a

perpendicular AD to the side BC,
AD = AC cos 30º = ( √3/2 )l and the distance AO of the centroid O
from A is (2/3) AD = (1/ √3 ) l. By symmatry AO = BO = CO.
Thus,
3 𝑄𝑞
Force ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 on Q due to charge q at A = 4𝜋𝜖 𝑙2 along AO
𝑜
3 𝑄𝑞
Force ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹2 on Q due to charge q at B = 4𝜋𝜖 along BO
𝑜 𝑙2
3 𝑄𝑞
Force ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹3 on Q due to charge q at C = along CO
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑙2
3 𝑄𝑞
The resultant of forces ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹2 and ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹3 is 4𝜋𝜖 𝑙2
along OA, by the parallelogram law.
𝑜
3 𝑄𝑞
Therefore, the total force on Q =4𝜋𝜖 (𝑟̂ − 𝑟̂ ) = 0, where 𝑟̂ is the unit vector along OA.
𝑜 𝑙2
It is clear also by symmetry that the three forces will sum to zero. Suppose that the resultant force was non-
zero but in some direction. Consider what would happen if the system was rotated through 60° about O.

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 8

NP.6 Consider the charges q, q, and –q placed at the vertices of an equilateral triangle, as shown in Fig. What
is the force on each charge?

The forces acting on charge q at A due to charges q at B and –q at C are 𝐹⃑12 along BA and 𝐹⃑13 along AC
respectively, as shown in Fig. By the parallelogram law, the total force 𝐹⃑1 on the charge q at A is given by
𝐹⃑1 = 𝐹 𝑟̂1 where 𝑟̂1 is a unit vector along BC.
1 𝑞2
The force of attraction or repulsion for each pair of charges has the same magnitude F = 4𝜋𝜖
𝑜 𝑙2
The total force 𝐹⃑2 on charge q at B is thus 𝐹⃑2 = 𝐹 𝑟̂2, where 𝑟̂2 is a unit vector along AC.
Similarly the total force on charge –q at C is 𝐹⃑3 = √3𝐹 𝑛̂, where 𝑛̂ is the unit vector along the direction
bisecting the ∠𝐵𝐶𝐴.
It is interesting to see that the sum of the forces on the three charges is zero, i.e.,
𝐹⃑1 + 𝐹⃑2 + 𝐹⃑3 = 0
The result is not at all surprising. It follows straight from the fact that Coulomb’s law is consistent with
Newton’s third law. The proof is left to you as an exercise.

Electric Field:
It is the region in which the charged particles experience electrostatic force.

Electric field strength (E):

Electric field strength at a point in an electric field is the force experienced by the unit positive charge
placed at that point. 
Force  F
E= E=
Charge qo
 1 q
E= rˆ
4 o r 2

Where r̂ is the unit vector in the direction of E , q be the magnitude of the charge, r is the distance between
q and the point of consideration,  o is the permittivity of free space.
The SI unit of electric field is NC-1 or Vm-1 , Electric field is a vector quantity.
Uniform electric field:
It is the electric field in which unit positive charge experience the same force
at all points.
Non-uniform electric field:
It is the electric field in which unit positive charge experience different forces at different points.

Source charge: It is the charge which produces the electric field that we define the source charge can be a
single charge or a group of charges or any continuous distribution of charge.

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 9

Unit positive charge (or) unit positive test charge (𝑞𝑜 ):
It is the charge which tests the effect of source charge. Test charge should not affect the electric field
produced by the source charge. The location of the source charge must be fixed. However, when a test charge
is placed at the observation point, the source charge experience electric force and it will tend to move. This
would alter the field at the observation point. To avoid this test charge is assumed to be negligible but the ratio
F/𝑞𝑜 is finite.
F
Therefore, accurate definition of electric field is given by the relation, E = Lim
qo → 0 q
o

Physical significance of Lim :

qo → 0

The limit q o → 0 indicates that the test charge is infinitesimally small so that it does not change
original field configuration (arrangement). But, minimum value of charge is the charge on the proton or
electron (1.6×10-19C). Therefore, in classical and microscopic situations, we can safely ignore this problem.
The test charge is merely introduced for measurement of electric field in convenient manner.
Note: The magnitude of electric field depends only on the source charge and the distance of the test charge
from source charge. It does not depend on the magnitude of test charge.
If the source charge is positive, the direction of electric field is directed radially outward from the
source charge. If the source charge is negative, the direction of electric filed is directed radially inwards
(towards the source charge)
TP 13: Figure shows tracks of three charged particles in a uniform electrostatic field. Give the signs of the
three charges. Which particle has the highest charge to mass ratio?

Superposition principle of electric fields and electric field due to system of n point charges:
Statement:
The resultant electric field at a point due to number of charges is the
vector sum of all the electric fields due to number of charges.
Let 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 … … … , 𝑞𝑛 be the point charges at distances
𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , 𝑟3 … … , 𝑟𝑛 respectively from a point P.
 1 q1
Electric field at P due to charge 𝑞1 , E1 = rˆ1
4 o r12
 1 q2
Electric field at P due to charge 𝑞2 , E 2 = rˆ2
4 o r22
 1 qn
Similarly, Electric field at P due to charge 𝑞𝑛 , E n = rˆn
4 o rn2
From superposition principle,
   
The resultant electric field, E = E1 + E 2 + ....... + E n
 1 q1 1 q2 1 qn
E= rˆ + rˆ +……. + rˆn
4 o r12 1
4 o r2 2 2
4 o rn2
 1 n qi
E=  rˆi where r̂1 , r̂2 , r̂3 ....... r̂n are the unit vectors.
4 o i =1 ri 2
The vector sum is obtained by the parallelogram law of vector addition for two electric fields and
polygon law of vector addition for more than two electric fields.

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 10

Physical significance of electric field:
Electric field E at any point around a charge (or system of charges) is used to calculate the force F
experienced by unit positive test charge 𝑞𝑜 at that point.
NP 7. An electron falls through a distance of 1.5 cm in a
uniform electric field of magnitude 2.0 × 104 N C–1. The
direction of the field is reversed keeping its magnitude
unchanged and a proton falls through the same distance.
Compute the time of fall in each case. Contrast the
situation with that of ‘free fall under gravity’.

In Fig.(a) the field is upward, so the negatively charged electron experiences a downward force of magnitude
eE where E is the magnitude of the electric field. The acceleration of the electron is
ae = eE/me where me is the mass of the electron.
Starting from rest, the time required by the electron to fall through a distance h is given by
2ℎ 2ℎ𝑚𝑒
𝑡𝑒 = √ 𝑎 = √ = 2.9 ×10–9s
𝑒 𝑒𝐸
For e = 1.6 ×10–19C, me = 9.11×10–31 kg, E = 2.0 ×104 N C–1, h = 1.5 ×10–2 m, te = 2.9 ×10–9s
In Fig. (b), the field is downward, and the positively charged
proton experiences a downward force of magnitude eE. The
acceleration of the proton is
ap = eE/mp
where mp is the mass of the proton; mp = 1.67 ×10–27 kg.
The time of fall for the proton is
2ℎ 2ℎ𝑚𝑝
𝑡𝑝 = √𝑎 = √ 𝑒𝐸
= 1.3 ×10–7s
𝑝

Thus, the heavier particle (proton) takes a greater time to fall through the same distance. This is in basic
contrast to the situation of ‘free fall under gravity’ where the time of fall is independent of the mass of the
body. Note that in this example we have ignored the acceleration due to gravity in calculating the time of fall.
To see if this is justified, let us calculate the acceleration of the proton in the given electric field:
ap = eE/mp = 1.9 ×1012 ms–2
which is enormous compared to the value of g (9.8 m s–2), the acceleration due to gravity. The acceleration of
the electron is even greater. Thus, the effect of acceleration due to gravity can be ignored in this example.

NP 8. Two point charges q1 and q2, of magnitude +10–8 C and –10–8

C, respectively, are placed 0.1 m apart. Calculate the electric fields
at points A, B and C shown in Fig.

The electric field vector 𝐸⃗⃑1𝐴 at A due to the positive charge q1 points
towards the right and has a magnitude
𝐸⃗⃑1𝐴 = 3.6 ×104 N C–1
The electric field vector 𝐸⃗⃑2𝐴 at A due to the negative charge q2 points
towards the right and has the same magnitude. Hence the magnitude
of the total electric field EA at A is
EA = E1A + E2A = 7.2 ×104 N C–1
𝐸⃗⃑𝐴 is directed toward the right.
The electric field vector 𝐸⃗⃑1𝐵 at B due to the positive charge q1 points towards the left and has a magnitude
𝐸⃗⃑1𝐵 = 3.6 ×104 N C–1
The electric field vector 𝐸⃗⃑2𝐵 at B due to the negative charge q2 points towards the right and has a magnitude
𝐸⃗⃑2𝐵 = 4 ×103 N C–1
The magnitude of the total electric field at B is. EB = E1B – E2B = 3.2 ×104 N C–1

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 11

 𝐸⃗⃑𝐵 is directed towards the left.
The magnitude of each electric field vector at point C, due to charge q1 and q2 is
E1C = E2C = 9 ×103 NC–1
The directions in which these two vectors point are indicated in Fig.
𝜋 𝜋
The resultant of these two vectors is EC = E1 cos 3 + E2 cos 3 = 9 ×103 NC–1
𝐸⃗⃑𝐶 points towards the right.
TP 14: Consider a uniform electric field E = 3×103 î N/C. (a) What is the flux of this field through a square of
10 cm on a side whose plane is parallel to the yz plane? (b) What is the flux through the same square if the
normal to its plane makes a 60° angle with the x-axis?
TP15: What is the net flux of the uniform electric field of Exercise 14 through a cube of side 20 cm oriented
so that its faces are parallel to the coordinate planes?
Electric field of lines:
These are the imaginary lines or
smooth curves along which unit positive
charge moves or tends to move.
Note: The nature of the path traced by the
electron projected perpendicular to the
uniform electric field is parabola
Properties of electric field of lines:
1. They do not form closed loops.
2. They never intersect each other.
3. They do not pass through a conductor.
4. They can pass through a non-conductor (dielectric).
5. They are normal to the surface of the charged conductor.
6. Due to an isolated positive charge, they start from the charge and ends at infinity.
7. Due to an isolated negative charge, they start from infinity and ends on the charge.
8. Due to a pair of equal and opposite charges, electric field lines start from positive charge and ends on
the negative charge.
9. Number of field lines passing normally through unit area depends on strength of electric field.
10. In charge free region, electric field lines can be taken to be continuous curves without any breaks.
11. They seem to contract longitudinally due to the force of attraction between unlike charges.
12. They seem to exert lateral pressure due to the force of repulsion between like charges.
No two electric field lines can intersect each other:
This is because at the point of intersection, two tangents can be drawn to two lines of force. Therefore
there would be two directions of electric field at same point, which is not possible.
Area vector:
A small planar area element A can be
represented as a vector A = A nˆ . The area vector is
represented by an arrow drawn perpendicular to the
area element. This arrow is along the normal drawn
outward. n̂ is the unit vector along the normal (drawn
outward) to the area.
In case of curved surface, the surface is imagined to be divided in large number of area elements. Each
area element is treated as a planar area element.
Electric flux (  E ):
Electric flux is defined as the product of component of electric
field along the normal of the surface and area element.
 E =EA cos  where  is the angle between the directions of E and A
electric flux is the number of field lines passing normally across unit area.

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Electric flux through a given surface:

Let  be the angle between E and A . And E cos  is the
component of E along the normal.
Flux through the area element,  = E cos   A
The total flux  through any given surface is given by,
 =     =  EA cos 
Density of field lines:
Density of field lines is the number of field lines passing normally
per unit area.
Consider the electric field lines due to a point charge q placed at O
as shown in the figure. Near the charge, the field lines are closer.
Therefore, the density of field lines and hence electric field both are more.
Away from the charge, electric lines are well separated. Therefore, the density of field lines and hence electric
field both are less.
Therefore, Electric field  density of field lines.
Concept of electric field of lines due to a point charge:
Consider the electric field lines due to a point charge q placed
at O as shown in the figure. These field lines forms a cone of solid
angle  . Consider two points P1 and P2 at distances 𝑟1and 𝑟2
respectively from the charge. Let 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 be the electric fields and
A1 and A2 be the area of cross-sections at the points P1 and P2 respectively.
Flux 
We have electric field, E =  E=
Area A
1
Electric field at the point P1, E 1 = ------- (1)
A1

Electric field at the point P2, E 2 = 2 ------- (2)
A2
(1) E  A
 1 = 1  2 ------- (3)
(2) E 2 A1  2
From figure, it is observed that the number of field lines in a given solid angle is constant. ie 1 =  2
E A
 (3)  1 = 2 ------- (4)
E 2 A1
A
We have, solid angle,  = 2  A =  r 2  A1 =  r12 and A2 =  r22
r
E  r22 E 1 r22 1
Substitute for A1 and A2 in (4)  1 =  = 2 i.e. E  2
E 2  r1 2
E 2 r1 r
Electric dipole:
It is a pair of equal and opposite charges separated by small distance.
Examples: molecules of water, ammonia, HCl and CO.
Electric dipole moment:
It is the product of magnitude of either charge of the dipole and the distance between the two charges
of the dipole. p = q  2a
where q is the magnitude of either charge and 2a is the distance between the charges.

In vector form p = q  2a pˆ where p̂ is the unit vector
The SI unit of dipole moment is coulomb metre (or) Cm
Another unit of dipole moment is debye. 1 debye = 3.333×10-30 Cm

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 13

Note:
1. The net charge of an electric dipole is zero but electric field is not zero.
2. The line joining the two charges is called dipole axis.
3. The mid-point of location of –q and +q is called the centre of the dipole.
4. The dipole moment is a vector quantity. The direction of dipole moment is along the dipole axis. By
convention, the direction from –q to +q is said to be the direction of the dipole.
Physical significance of dipoles:
The study of the electric dipole is
1. Used in the study of the effect of electric field on the insulator.
2. Used in the study of radiation of energy from an antenna.
In some molecules, the center of positive charges and the negative charges do not coincide. Therefore, these
molecules have a permanent electric dipole moment and they are permanent dipoles. Such molecules are called
polar molecules. Molecules of water, ammonia, HCl, HI and CO are some examples of this type. The materials
with polar molecules give rise to interesting properties and important applications in the presence or absence
of electric field.
In most of molecules, the centers of positive charges and negative charges coincide. Therefore, their
dipole moment is zero. Such molecules are called non-polar molecules. Molecules of H2, O2, N2, CO2 and NH4
are examples of such molecules. However, they develop an induced dipole moment when an electric field is
applied, but it is not permanent.
Dipole field:
It is the electric field produced by an electric dipole. The net charge of an electric dipole (-q + q = 0)
is zero, but electric field is not zero. This field arises due to slight separation between the charges.
Axial line of a dipole (end –on position):
It is the line joining the centers of two charges of dipole and extended on either side. It is also known
as end-on position.
Equatorial line (perpendicular bisector):
It is the line passing through the center of the dipole and perpendicular to its length. It is also known
as perpendicular bisector or broad-on position.
Electric field at a point on the axis of the dipole:
Let -q and +q are the magnitudes of
the charges of the dipole, O is the midpoint
of the dipole 2a is the distance between the
charges, P be the point on the axial line, r be
the distance between point O and point P.
Electric field at P due to -q,
1 q 1 q
E1 = =
4 o AP 2
4 o (r + a )2
along PA
Electric field at P due to +q,
1 q 1 q
E2 = = along BP
4 o BP 2
4 o (r − a )2
Resultant electric field at P,
E = E 2 − E1  E 2  E1 because (r-a) < (r+a)
q  1 1 
E =  − 
4 o  (r − a )2 (r + a )2 
q  (r + a ) − (r − a )   4ar 
2 2
q 1 q 2a 2r
=  2 
=  2 2 
=
4 o  (r − a ) (r + a )  4 o
2
(
 r − a 2 ) (
 4 o r 2 − a 2)2

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 14

 1 2rp
E=
(
4 o r 2 − a 2 2 )
where electric field and dipole moment are in same direction.
 
1 2 rp
In vector form E =
4 o r 2 − a 2 2 ( )
For short dipole r >>a, a2
can be neglected.
 
1 2p 1 2p
E= In vector form E =
4 o r 3 4 o r 3
Electric field at a point on the equatorial line of the dipole:
Let -q and +q are the magnitudes of the charges of the dipole, O be
the midpoint of the dipole, 2a be the distance between the charges, P is the
point on the equatorial line, r is the distance between O and P,  be the smaller
   
angle between the directions of E1 and p or E 2 and p .
PAO = APR (alternating angles), PBO = QPR
(corresponding angles)
1 q
Electric field at P due to -q, E1 = along PA ---- (1)
4 o AP 2
From triangle POA, AP2 = ( a2 + r2 ) (By applying Pythagoras theorem)
1 q
 (1)  E1 =
(
4 o r + a 2
2
)
---- (2)

1 q
Similarly, electric field at P due to +q, E 2 =
4 o r + a 2
2
(
along BPQ
)
From resolution of vectors,
E1 cos  is the component of E1 along PR
E2 cos  is the component of E 2 along PR
 Resultant electric field at P, E = E1 cos  + E2 cos 
But E1 = E2,  E = 2 E1 cos  -------- (3)
1 q
Eq.(2) in Eq (3)  E = 2 cos  ---- (4)
4 o (r + a 2 )
2

a a
From triangle POA, cos  = =
AP (r 2
+ a2 )
1 q a
Eq (4)  E = 2
4 o (r + a2 2
) (r 2
+ a2 )
1 2qa 1 p
E=  E=−  q×2a = p = electric dipole moment
(
4 o r 2 + a 2 2 ) 3
4 o r 2 + a 2 3 2 ( )
where negative sign indicates that the electric field and dipole moment are in opposite directions
 
1 p
In vector form E = −
4 o r 2 + a 2 3 2 ( )
p 1
Electric field at the midpoint of the dipole is E = ( at mid-point r = 0)
4 o a 3
 
1 p 1 p
For short dipole r >>a, a can be neglected.  E =
2 In vector form E = −
4 o r 3 4 o r 3

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 15

Differences between electric intensity due to a point charge and that due to a dipole:
Electric field due to a point charge Electric field due to a dipole
1 It is directly proportional to the magnitude of It is directly proportional to the magnitude of
the point charge. i.e E  q the dipole moment. i.e E  p
2 It is inversely proportional to the square of the It is inversely proportional to the cube of the
distance between the point charge and the distance between the centre of the dipole and
point of observation. i.e. E  1/r2 the point of observation. i.e E  1/r3

Point dipole:
When the distance between the two charges of a dipole approaches zero, then the dipole is said to be
point dipole.
Dipole in a uniform external electric field:
When an electric dipole is placed in uniform electric field, net force on the dipole is zero. When an
electric dipole is placed in non-uniform electric field, net force on the dipole is not zero. A torque acts on the
dipole placed in a uniform or non-uniform electric field till the dipole is completely aligned along the direction
of electric field.
Physical significance of dipoles:
Most of the molecules have zero dipole moment. However they develop dipole moment when they are
placed in an external electric field. But in some molecules there is permanent electric dipole moment even in
the absence of electric field.
The substances having this type of molecules are used in important applications in the presence or
absence of external electric field.
NP 9. Two charges ±10 𝜇 C are placed 5.0 mm apart. Determine the
electric field at (a) a point P on the axis of the dipole 15 cm away
from its centre O on the side of the positive charge, as shown in
Fig.(a), and (b) a point Q, 15 cm away from O on a line passing
through O and normal to the axis of the dipole, as shown in Fig. (b).

(a) Field at P due to charge +10 𝜇C = 4.13 × 106 N C–1 along BP

Field at P due to charge –10 𝜇C = 3.86 ×106 NC–1 along PA
The resultant electric field at P due to the two charges at A and B is
= 2.7 ×105 N C–1 along BP.
In this example, the ratio OP/OB is quite large (= 60). Thus, we can expect to get approximately the same
result as above by directly using the formula for electric field at a far-away point on the axis of a dipole. For
a dipole consisting of charges ± q, 2a distance apart, the electric field at a distance r from the centre on the
axis of the dipole has a magnitude
1 2𝑝
𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜖 𝑟3 (r/a >> 1)
𝑜
where p = 2a q is the magnitude of the dipole moment.
The direction of electric field on the dipole axis is always along the
direction of the dipole moment vector (i.e., from –q to q). Here,
p =10–5 C ×5 ×10–3 m = 5 ×10–8 Cm
Therefore,
E = 2.6 ×105 N C–1
along the dipole moment direction AB, which is close to the result obtained earlier.
(b) Field at Q due to charge + 10 𝜇C at B = 3.99 ×106 N C–1 along BQ
Field at Q due to charge –10 𝜇C at A = 3.99 ×106 N C–1 along QA.
Clearly, the components of these two forces with equal magnitudes cancel along the direction OQ but add up
along the direction parallel to BA. Therefore, the resultant electric field at Q due to the two charges at A and
B is
0.25
=2× 2 2
× 3.99 × 106 = 1.33 × 105 N C–1 along BA.
√15 +(0.25)

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 16

As in (a), we can expect to get approximately the same result by directly using the formula for dipole field at
a point on the normal to the axis of the dipole:
1 𝑝
𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜖 𝑟3 (r/a >> 1)
𝑜
= 1.33 ×105 N C–1.
The direction of electric field in this case is opposite to the direction of the dipole moment vector.
Again, the result agrees with that obtained before.
TP9: A system has two charges q A = 2.5×10–7 C and qB = –2.5×10–7 C located at points A: (0, 0, –15 cm) and
B: (0,0, +15 cm), respectively. What are the total charge and electric dipole moment of the system?
TP10: An electric dipole with dipole moment 4×10–9 C m is aligned at 30° with the direction of a uniform
electric field of magnitude 5×104 NC–1.Calculate the magnitude of the torque acting on the dipole.
The torque (couple) on a dipole placed in uniform electric field:
Let -q and +q are the magnitudes of charges of the dipole, 2a be the
distance between the charges, E be the uniform electric field in which dipole
is placed, p be the dipole moment,  be the angle between the directions of
E and p.
Force acting on +q, F = Eq along E
Force acting on -q, F = Eq opposite to E
These two forces constitute a couple and hence a dipole experiences
torque.
We have, torque = magnitude of either force  perpendicular distance   =Eq  BO -------- (1)
BO
To find BO From triangle, BOA, sin  =  BO = AB sin  = 2a sin  ----- (2) ( AB =2a)
AB
(2) in (1)   = E q  2a sin 
    
In vector form  = p  E where p is electric dipole moment and E is electric field.
If  =0o then sin 0o = 0   = 0 (minimum torque)
If  =90o then sin 90o = 1   = pE (maximum torque)
If  = 180 then sin 0 = 0
o o
  = 0 (minimum torque)
When p and E are in opposite directions, torque is zero. In this case, the electric dipole is in unstable
equilibrium.
Gaussian surface:
It is an imaginary closed surface containing the charged body chosen for
application of Gauss's law.
Consider the Gaussian surface containing the charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 and 𝑞3 . From Gauss’s
q + q 2 + q3 q
law, the electric flux is  = 1 = where q = q1 + q 2 + q 3
o o
Continuous charge distribution:
It is the system of closely spaced charges.
Three types of continuous charge distribution
1. Line density of charge or linear density of charge ( ) :
It is the charge per unit length of a wire.
q
It is given by,  = where q is the charge on the wire and l is the length of the wire.
l
SI unit of line density of charge is coulomb per metre (or) C /m
2. Surface density of charge or area density of charge ( ) :
It is the charge per unit area of a conductor.
Charge q
It is given by,  = =
Area A
where q be the charge on the conductor and A is the area of the conductor.
SI unit of surface density of charge is C/m2 (it is read as coulomb per metre2)

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 17

3. Volume density of charge ( ) :
It is the charge per unit volume of a conductor.
q
It is given by,  = where q is the charge and V is the volume.
V
SI unit of volume density of charge is coulomb per metre3 (or) C/m3
Electric field in terms of volume density of charge:
1 dV
E= 
4 o all V r 2
where  is the volume density of charge,
dV is the volume of the volume element,
r is the distance between the volume element and the point.
Gauss's law in electrostatics:
Statement:
The total electric flux through a closed surface in free space is equal to 1  o times the net charge
enclosed by the surface.
Explanation:
Let q be the total charge enclosed by the surface.
q
Then from Gauss's law, total electric flux,  =
o
where  o = Permittivity of free space.
Proof of the Gauss's law:
Consider an isolated positive point charge q at O. Imagine a sphere of radius
r with centre O. The magnitude of electric field E is same at every point on the
surface of the sphere and it is directed radially outward. Let A be the small area
element on the surface of the sphere. Let S be the area of the sphere.
The flux through an area element A is given by,
 = E cos  A
 = E A ------ (1)   = 0 o and cos 0 o =1
Flux through the spherical Gaussian surface of area A is given by,
That is,  =   =  EA = E  A ------ (2)
1 q
Here, E = and  A = 4 r 2 = area of Gaussian spherical surface.
4 o r 2

1 q q
 (1)   =  4r 2   = This is Gauss's theorem.
4 o r 2
o
Verification of gauss's law:
To verify Gauss's law, let us calculate electric flux through a closed
cylindrical surface containing no charge. Let the cylinder be held in an external
uniform electric field E along the axis of the cylinder. Suppose 1 and  2
represents the electric flux passing through the surfaces 1 and 2 each of area A
of the cylinder and  3 represent the flux passing through the curved surface 3
of the cylinder.
Total electric flux through the cylindrical surface is given by
 = 1 +  2 + 3 ----- (1)
We have,  = EA cos 
For surface-1,  = 180 o  cos180o = -1  1 = − EA ----- (2)
For surface-2,  = 0  cos 0 = 1   2 = EA ------- (3)
o o

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 For curved surface,  = 90 o  cos 90 o = 0   3 = 0 ------ (4)
Equations (2), (3) and (4) in (1)   = − EA + EA + 0 = 0
The flux through the cylindrical surface is zero because charge inside the cylinder is zero. This verifies
Gauss's theorem.
Important points on Gauss's law:
1. Gauss's law is applicable for any closed surface of any shape and size.
2. Gauss's law is applicable if the charge may be anywhere inside the Gaussian surface.
3. Gauss's law is applicable for both the stationary and moving charges.
4. In the Gauss's law, the term q represents only the total charge inside the closed surface. The charges
situated outside the closed surface are not considered.
5. Gauss's law is used most commonly for symmetric charge configurations.
6. Gauss's law is based on inverse square law.

NP.10 The electric field components in Fig. are Ex = ax1/2, Ey = Ez

= 0, in which 𝛼 = 800 N/C m1/2. Calculate (a) the flux through the
cube, and (b) the charge within the cube. Assume that 𝛼 = 0.1 m.

(a) Since the electric field has only an x component, for faces
perpendicular to x direction, the angle between 𝐸⃗ and ∆𝑆 is ± 𝜋/2.
Therefore, the flux 𝜙 = 𝐸⃗ ∙ ∆𝑆 is separately zero for each face of the
cube except the two shaded ones. Now the magnitude of the electric
field at the left face is
EL = 𝛼x1/2 = 𝛼a1/2
(x = 𝛼 at the left face).
The magnitude of electric field at the right face is
ER = 𝛼 x1/2 = 𝛼 (2a)1/2 (x = 2a at the right face).
The corresponding fluxes are
𝜙𝐿 = 𝐸⃗𝐿 ∙ ∆𝑆 = ∆𝑆 𝐸⃗𝐿 ∙ 𝑛̂𝐿 = ∆𝑆𝐸𝐿 cos 𝜃= – 𝐸𝐿 ∆𝑆, since 𝜃 = 180°
= – 𝐸𝐿 𝑎2
𝜙𝑅 = 𝐸⃗𝑅 ∙ ∆𝑆 = ∆𝑆𝐸𝑅 cos 𝜃= 𝐸𝑅 ∆𝑆, since 𝜃 = 0°
= 𝐸𝐿 𝑎2
Net flux through the cube 𝜙𝐿 + 𝜙𝑅 = – 𝐸𝐿 ∆𝑆 + 𝐸𝑅 ∆𝑆 = a2 (𝐸𝑅 – 𝐸𝐿 ) = 𝛼a2 [(2a)1/2 – a1/2]
= 𝛼a5/2 ( √2 – 1) = 1.05 N m2 C–1
(b) We can use Gauss’s law to find the total charge q inside the cube. We have 𝜙 = q/ 𝜖𝑜 or q = 𝜙 𝜖𝑜 .
Therefore,
q = 1.05× 8.854× 10–12 C = 9.27× 10–12 C.

NP.11. An electric field is uniform, and in the positive x direction for

positive x, and uniform with the same magnitude but in the negative
x direction for negative x. It is given that 𝐸⃗ = 200 𝑖̂ N/C for x > 0 and
𝐸⃗ = -200𝑖̂ N/C for x < 0. A right circular cylinder of length 20 cm
and radius 5 cm has its centre at the origin and its axis along the x-
axis so that one face is at x = +10 cm and the other is at x = –10 cm.
(a) What is the net outward flux through each flat face? (b) What is
the flux through the side of the cylinder? (c) What is the net outward
flux through the cylinder? (d) What is the net charge inside the cylinder?

(a) We can see from the figure that on the left face 𝐸⃗ and ∆𝑆 are parallel. Therefore, the outward flux is
𝜙𝐿 = 𝐸⃗𝐿 ∙ ∆𝑆= -200 𝑖̂ ∙ ∆𝑆 = + 200 ∆S, since 𝑖̂ ∙ ∆𝑆 = – ∆S
= + 200× 𝜋 (0.05)2 = + 1.57 N m2 C–1

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On the right face, 𝐸⃗ and 𝑆 are parallel and therefore 𝜙𝑅 = 𝐸⃗ ∙ ∆𝑆 = + 1.57 N m2C–1.
(b) For any point on the side of the cylinder 𝐸⃗ is perpendicular ∆𝑆 and hence 𝐸⃗ ∙ ∆𝑆 = 0. Therefore, the flux
out of the side of the cylinder is zero.
(c) Net outward flux through the cylinder
𝜙 = 1.57 + 1.57 + 0 = 3.14 N m2 C–1
(d) The net charge within the cylinder can be found by using Gauss’s law which gives
𝑞 = 𝜖𝑜 𝜙
= 3.14× 8.854× 10–12 C = 2.78 × 10–11 C
TP 16: Careful measurement of the electric field at the surface of a black box indicates that the net outward
flux through the surface of the box is 8.0×103 Nm2/C. (a) What is the net charge inside the box? (b) If the net
outward flux through the surface of the box were zero, could you conclude that there were no charges inside
the box? Why or Why not?
TP 17: A point charge +10 𝜇C is a distance 5 cm directly above the centre of a square
of side 10 cm, as shown in Fig. What is the magnitude of the electric flux through the
square? (Hint: Think of the square as one face of a cube with edge 10 cm.)
TP 18: A point charge of 2.0 𝜇C is at the centre of a cubic Gaussian surface 9.0 cm on
edge. What is the net electric flux through the surface?
TP 19: A point charge causes an electric flux of –1.0×103 Nm2/C to pass through a
spherical Gaussian surface of 10.0 cm radius centred on the charge. (a) If the radius of the Gaussian surface
were doubled, how much flux would pass through the surface? (b) What is the value of the point charge?
Applications of Gauss’s law:
Gauss's law is used to find electric field intensity due to the charged conductor.
The method involves in three steps:
1. Imagine Gaussian surface symmetrical to given charged body.
2. Compute electric flux through this surface.
q
3. Equate this flux to where q is the total charge enclosed by the surface.
o
Electric field at a point outside a charged thin spherical shell by
using Gauss's law:
Let E be the electric field, R be the radius of a thin spherical
shell of centre O, r be the distance between the point P and O, P is
a point at distance r from O,
A is the area element around the point P.
Let q be the charge uniformly distributed over the surface
of the shell.
The electric flux through the Gaussian surface is given by,
 =  E A cos  ------ (1)
The angle  between E and A is 0o  cos0o = 1
(1)   =  E A = E  A ------ (2)
where  A = area of the spherical Gaussian surface = 4r 2 .
(2)   = E  4r 2 ------ (3)
q
From Gauss law,  = ------ (4)
o
On comparing the equations (3) & (4), we get,
q 1 q
E 4r 2 =  E= The direction of E is along OP produced.
o 4 o r 2

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Electric field at a point just outside a charged thin spherical shell by using Gauss's law:
Let E be the electric field, R be the radius of a thin spherical shell of centre O, P is a point at a distance
R from O. Let q be the charge uniformly distributed over the surface of the shell,
We have,
Electric field at a point outside the charged shell is given by,
1 q
E= --------- (1)
4 o r 2
when the point lies just outside the shell, r  R  radius of the shell.
1 q
 (1)  E = ------ (2)
4 o R 2
Charge
We have, surface density of charge,  =  Charge =   area
Area
But area of the shell = 4R 2  q =  4R 2 ------ (2)
 4R 2 
Equation (2) in (1)  E = E=
4 o R 2
o
where  is the surface density of charge and  o is the permittivity of free space
Note:
Electric field at any point inside the shell is zero. This is because the charge enclosed by the Gaussian
surface is zero.
Graphical representation of variation of electric field with distance from centre of uniformly charged
thin spherical shell:
Electric field at different points
1) when r < R, then E = 0 (R is the radius of the shell)
1 q
2) when r = R then E =  E is maximum value
4 o R 2
1 q
3) when r > R then E =  E is inversely proportional to r 2
4 o r 2

4) when r =  , then E = 0
Electric field due to an infinitely long straight uniformly charged wire by using Gauss’s law:
Let AB is the infinitely long wire, E is the electric
field, P is a point at a distance r from the wire, r be the radius
of Gaussian cylinder, l be the length of the Gaussian cylinder.
Let q be the charge enclosed by the Gaussian cylinder.
Let  be the linear charge density on the wire. Flux
through the end faces is zero because there are no components
of electric field along the normal to the end faces.
  = flux through curved surface
 = E  area of curved surface [  = E  area]
 = E  2rl ----- (1)
q
From Gauss's theorem,  = ------- (2)
o
q l
But  =  q = l  (2)   = ------ (3)
l o
l 
On comparing (l) and (3), we get, E  2rl =  E=
o 2 o r
The direction of E is perpendicular to the wire and directed away from the wire.

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Note:
1 2𝜆 1 2𝜆
1. It can also be written as 𝐸 = . In vector form 𝐸⃗ = 𝑛̂ where 𝑛̂ is the radial unit vector
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟
in plane perpendicular to the wire passing through the point.
1
2. The electric field due to a line charge proportional to 𝑟2
3. The derived expression is approximately true for central portions of a finite long wire, where the
end effects may be ignored.
Electric field due to uniformly charged infinite plane sheet by using Gauss's law:
Let E be the electric field on either side
of the sheet, r be the distance between the
sheet and each end face of the cylinder. Let A
be the area of each end faces of Gaussian
cylindrical surface. Let q be the charge
enclosed by the Gaussian cylindrical surface.
Let  be the surface charge density on the
sheet.
The electric field lines are parallel to
the curved surface of the Gaussian cylinder. Therefore, the electric flux through the curved surface is zero.
The electric flux through the Gaussian cylindrical surface is given by,
 = Flux through end face-l+ Flux through end face-2
 =E A+ E A ( = E  Aera )
 = 2 EA ------ (1)
q
From Gauss's law,  = ------ (2)
o
q A
But  =  q = A  (2)   = ------ (3)
A o
A 
On comparing (l) and (3), we get, E  2A = E=
o 2 o
The direction of E is perpendicular to the plane of the sheet and directed away from the sheet.
Note:
𝜎
1. In vector form 𝐸⃗ = 2𝜀 𝑛̂, where 𝑛̂ is the unit vector normal to the plane and directed outward.
𝑜
2. The electric field due to sheet does not depend on the r (distance from the sheet).
3. Derived expression is approximately true for middle region of the finite large sheet, where the end
effects may be ignored.
NP.12 An early model for an atom considered it to have a positively charged
point nucleus of charge Ze, surrounded by a uniform density of negative charge
up to a radius R. The atom as a whole is neutral. For this model, what is the
electric field at a distance r from the nucleus?
The charge distribution for this model of the atom is as shown in Fig. The total
negative charge in the uniform spherical charge distribution of radius R must be
–Ze, since the atom (nucleus of charge Ze + negative charge) is neutral. This
immediately gives us the negative charge density r, since we must have
4𝜋𝑅3 3𝑍𝑒
𝜌 = 0 − 𝑍𝑒 ⟹ 𝜌 =
3 4𝜋𝑅3
To find the electric field 𝐸⃗ (r) at a point P which is a distance r away from the
nucleus, we use Gauss’s law. Because of the spherical symmetry of the charge distribution, the magnitude of
the electric field 𝐸⃗ (r) depends only on the radial distance, no matter what the direction of 𝑟. Its direction is
along (or opposite to) the radius vector 𝑟 from the origin to the point P. The obvious Gaussian surface is a
spherical surface centred at the nucleus. We consider two situations,

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namely, r < R and r > R.
(i) r < R : The electric flux f enclosed by the spherical surface is 𝜙 = E (r) × 4𝜋𝑅2
where E (r) is the magnitude of the electric field at r. This is because the field at any point on the spherical
Gaussian surface has the same direction as the normal to the surface there, and has the same magnitude at all
points on the surface. The charge q enclosed by the Gaussian surface is the positive nuclear charge and the
negative charge within the sphere of radius r,
4𝜋𝑅3
i.e. q = Ze+ 3 𝜌
Substituting for the charge density r obtained earlier, we have
4𝜋𝑅3
q = Ze - 𝜌
3
Gauss’s law then gives,
𝑍𝑒 1 𝑟
𝐸 (𝑟) = ( − 𝑅3 ) r<R
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑅3 𝑟2
The electric field is directed radially outward.
(ii) r > R: In this case, the total charge enclosed by the Gaussian spherical surface is zero since the atom is
neutral. Thus, from Gauss’s law,
𝜙 = E (r) × 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 0 or E (r) = 0; r > R
At r = R, both cases give the same result: E = 0.
TP 20: A conducting sphere of radius 10 cm has an unknown charge. If the electric field 20 cm from the centre
of the sphere is 1.5×103 N/C and points radially inward, what is the net charge on the sphere?
TP 21: A uniformly charged conducting sphere of 2.4 m diameter has a surface charge density of 80.0 𝜇C/m2.
(a) Find the charge on the sphere. (b) What is the total electric flux leaving the surface of th sphere?
TP 22: An infinite line charge produces a field of 9×104 N/C at a distance of 2 cm. Calculate the linear charge
density.
TP 23: Two large, thin metal plates are parallel and close to each other. On their inner faces, the plates have
surface charge densities of opposite signs and of magnitude 17.0×10–22 C/m2. What is E: (a) in the outer
region of the first plate, (b) in the outer region of the second plate, and (c) between the plates?

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 23