History

History (derived from Ancient Greek ἱστορία (historía) 'inquiry; knowledge acquired by
investigation')[1] is the systematic study and documentation of the human past.[2][3]

Herodotus (c. 484 – c. 425 BC) has

been considered the "father of
history" in the Western world.

The period of events before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory.[4] "History" is
an umbrella term comprising past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization,
presentation, and interpretation of these events. Historians seek knowledge of the past using
historical sources such as written documents, oral accounts or traditional oral histories, art and
material artifacts, and ecological markers.[5] History is incomplete and still has debatable mysteries.

History is an academic discipline which uses a narrative to describe, examine, question, and analyze
past events, and investigate their patterns of cause and effect.[6][7] Historians debate which
narrative best explains an event, as well as the significance of different causes and effects.
Historians debate the nature of history as an end in itself, and its usefulness in giving perspective
on the problems of the present.[6][8][9][10]

Stories common to a particular culture, but not supported by external sources (such as the tales
surrounding King Arthur), are usually classified as cultural heritage or legends.[11][12] History differs
from myth in that it is supported by verifiable evidence. However, ancient cultural influences have
helped create variant interpretations of the nature of history, which have evolved over the centuries
and continue to change today. The modern study of history is wide-ranging, and includes the study
of specific regions and certain topical or thematic elements of historical investigation. History is
taught as a part of primary and secondary education, and the academic study of history is a major
discipline in universities.

Herodotus, a 5th-century BC Greek historian, is often considered the "father of history", as one of the
first historians in the Western tradition,[13] though he has been criticized as the "father of lies".[14][15]
Along with his contemporary Thucydides, he helped form the foundations for the modern study of
past events and societies.[16] Their works continue to be read today, and the gap between the
culture-focused Herodotus and the military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contention or
approach in modern historical writing. In East Asia, a state chronicle, the Spring and Autumn Annals,
was reputed to date from as early as 722 BC, though only 2nd-century BC texts have survived. The
title "father of history" has also been attributed to Sima Qian and Ibn Khaldun in their respective
societies.[17][18]

Etymology

History by Frederick Dielman (1896)

The word history comes from historía (Ancient Greek: ἱστορία, romanized: historíā, lit. 'inquiry,
knowledge from inquiry, or judge'[19]). It was in that sense that Aristotle used the word in his History
of Animals.[20] The ancestor word ἵστωρ is attested early on in Homeric Hymns, Heraclitus, the
Athenian ephebes' oath, and in Boeotic inscriptions (in a legal sense, either "judge" or "witness", or
similar). The Greek word was borrowed into Classical Latin as historia, meaning "investigation,
inquiry, research, account, description, written account of past events, writing of history, historical
narrative, recorded knowledge of past events, story, narrative". History was borrowed from Latin
(possibly via Old Irish or Old Welsh) into Old English as stær ("history, narrative, story"), but this word
fell out of use in the late Old English period.[21] Meanwhile, as Latin became Old French (and Anglo-
Norman), historia developed into forms such as istorie, estoire, and historie, with new developments
in the meaning: "account of the events of a person's life (beginning of the 12th century), chronicle,
account of events as relevant to a group of people or people in general (1155), dramatic or pictorial
representation of historical events (c. 1240), body of knowledge relative to human evolution, science
(c. 1265), narrative of real or imaginary events, story (c. 1462)".[21]

It was from Anglo-Norman that history was brought into Middle English, and it has persisted. It
appears in the 13th-century Ancrene Wisse, but seems to have become a common word in the late
14th century, with an early attestation appearing in John Gower's Confessio Amantis of the 1390s
(VI.1383): "I finde in a bok compiled | To this matiere an old histoire, | The which comth nou to mi
memoire". In Middle English, the meaning of history was "story" in general. The restriction to the
meaning "the branch of knowledge that deals with past events; the formal record or study of past
events, esp. human affairs" arose in the mid-15th century.[21] With the Renaissance, older senses of
the word were revived, and it was in the Greek sense that Francis Bacon used the term in the late
16th century, when he wrote about natural history. For him, historia was "the knowledge of objects
determined by space and time", that sort of knowledge provided by memory (while science was
provided by reason, and poetry was provided by fantasy).[22]

In an expression of the linguistic synthetic vs. analytic/isolating dichotomy, English like Chinese (史
vs. 诌) now designates separate words for human history and storytelling in general. In modern
German, French, and most Germanic and Romance languages, which are solidly synthetic and highly
inflected, the same word is still used to mean both "history" and "story". Historian in the sense of a
"researcher of history" is attested from 1531. In all European languages, the substantive history is
still used to mean both "what happened with men", and "the scholarly study of the happened", the
latter sense sometimes distinguished with a capital letter, or the word historiography.[20] The
adjective historical is attested from 1661, and historic from 1669.[23]

Description

The title page to The Historians'

History of the World

Historians write in the context of their own time, and with due regard to the current dominant ideas
of how to interpret the past, and sometimes write to provide lessons for their own society. In the
words of Benedetto Croce, "All history is contemporary history". History is facilitated by the
formation of a "true discourse of past" through the production of narrative and analysis of past
events relating to the human race.[24] The modern discipline of history is dedicated to the
institutional production of this discourse.

All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form constitute the historical
record.[25] The task of historical discourse is to identify the sources which can most usefully
contribute to the production of accurate accounts of past. Therefore, the constitution of the
historian's archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive by invalidating the usage of
certain texts and documents (by falsifying their claims to represent the "true past"). Part of the
historian's role is to skillfully and objectively use the many sources from the past, most often found
in the archives. The process of creating a narrative inevitably generates debate, as historians
remember or emphasize different events of the past.[26]

The study of history has sometimes been classified as part of the humanities, other times part of
the social sciences.[27] It can be seen as a bridge between those two broad areas, incorporating
methodologies from both. Some historians strongly support one or the other classification.[28] In the
20th century the Annales school revolutionized the study of history, by using such outside
disciplines as economics, sociology, and geography in the study of global history.[29]

Traditionally, historians have recorded events of the past, either in writing or by passing on an oral
tradition, and attempted to answer historical questions through the study of written documents and
oral accounts. From the beginning, historians have used such sources as monuments, inscriptions,
and pictures. In general, the sources of historical knowledge can be separated into three categories:
what is written, what is said, and what is physically preserved, and historians often consult all
three.[30] But writing is the marker that separates history from what comes before.

Archaeology is especially helpful in unearthing buried sites and objects, which contribute to the
study of history. Archeological finds rarely stand alone, with narrative sources complementing its
discoveries. Archeology's methodologies and approaches are independent from the field of history.
"Historical archaeology" is a specific branch of archeology which often contrasts its conclusions
against those of contemporary textual sources. For example, Mark Leone, the excavator and
interpreter of historical Annapolis, Maryland, US, has sought to understand the contradiction
between textual documents idealizing "liberty" and the material record, demonstrating the
possession of slaves and the inequalities of wealth made apparent by the study of the total
historical environment.

There are varieties of ways in which history can be organized, including chronologically, culturally,
territorially, and thematically. These divisions are not mutually exclusive, and significant
intersections are present. It is possible for historians to concern themselves with both the very
specific and the very general, though the trend has been toward specialization. The area called Big
History resists this specialization, and searches for universal patterns or trends. History has often
been studied with some practical or theoretical aim, but may be studied out of simple intellectual
curiosity.[31]

Prehistory

Human history is the memory of the past experience of Homo sapiens around the world, as that
experience has been preserved, largely in written records. By "prehistory", historians mean the
recovery of knowledge of the past in an area where no written records exist, or where the writing of
a culture is not understood. By studying painting, drawings, carvings, and other artifacts, some
information can be recovered even in the absence of a written record. Since the 20th century, the
study of prehistory is considered essential to avoid history's implicit exclusion of certain
civilizations, such as those of sub-Saharan Africa and pre-Columbian America. Historians in the
West have been criticized for focusing disproportionately on the Western world.[32] In 1961, British
historian E. H. Carr wrote:

The line of demarcation between prehistoric and historical times is crossed when
people cease to live only in the present, and become consciously interested both in
their past and in their future. History begins with the handing down of tradition;
and tradition means the carrying of the habits and lessons of the past into the
future. Records of the past begin to be kept for the benefit of future generations.[33]

This definition includes within the scope of history the strong interests of peoples, such as
Indigenous Australians and New Zealand Māori in the past, and the oral records maintained and
transmitted to succeeding generations, even before their contact with European civilization.
Historiography

The title page to La Historia d'Italia

Historiography has a number of related meanings.[34] Firstly, it can refer to how history has been
produced: the story of the development of methodology and practices (for example, the move from
short-term biographical narrative toward long-term thematic analysis). Secondly, it can refer to what
has been produced: a specific body of historical writing (for example, "medieval historiography
during the 1960s" means "Works of medieval history written during the 1960s").[34] Thirdly, it may
refer to why history is produced: the philosophy of history. As a meta-level analysis of descriptions
of the past, this third conception can relate to the first two in that the analysis usually focuses on
the narratives, interpretations, world view, use of evidence, or method of presentation of other
historians. Historians debate whether history can be taught as a single coherent narrative or a
series of competing narratives.[35][36]

Methods

Europeans have written and published extensively to pull together a "universal history" in the early
modern period. This written corpus and discourse in Europe includes ethnographic encounters,
comparative philosophy, as well as archaeological discovery.[37]

Herodotus, from the 5th century BC,[38] has been acclaimed as the "father of history". However, his
contemporary Thucydides is credited with having first approached history with a well-developed
historical method in the History of the Peloponnesian War. Thucydides, unlike Herodotus, regarded
history as the product of the choices and actions of humans, and looked at cause and effect, rather
than the result of divine intervention (though Herodotus was not wholly committed to this idea
himself).[38] In his historical method, Thucydides emphasized chronology, a nominally neutral point
of view, and that the human world was the result of human
actions. Greek historians viewed history as cyclical, with
events regularly recurring.[39]

There was sophisticated use of historical method in ancient

and medieval China. The groundwork for professional
historiography in East Asia was established by court historian
Sima Qian (145–90 BC), author of the Records of the Grand
Historian (Shiji) and posthumously known as the Father of
Chinese historiography. Saint Augustine was influential in
A depiction of the ancient Library of
Christian and Western thought at the beginning of the Alexandria
medieval period. Through the Medieval and Renaissance
Historical method basics
periods, history was often studied through a sacred or
religious perspective. Around 1800, German philosopher and The following questions are used

historian Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel brought philosophy by historians in modern work.

and a more secular approach in historical study.[31] 1. When was the source, written
or unwritten, produced
In the preface to his book, the Muqaddimah (1377), the Arab
(date)?
historian and early sociologist, Ibn Khaldun, warned of 7
mistakes he thought historians committed. In this criticism, he 2. Where was it produced
approached the past as strange and in need of interpretation. (localization)?
The originality of Ibn Khaldun was to claim that the cultural 3. By whom was it produced
difference of another age must govern the evaluation of (authorship)?
relevant historical material, to distinguish the principles
4. From what pre-existing
according to which it might be possible to attempt the
material was it produced
evaluation, and to feel the need for experience, in addition to
(analysis)?
rational principles, in order to assess a culture of the past. Ibn
Khaldun criticized "idle superstition and uncritical acceptance 5. In what original form was it
of historical data". He introduced a scientific method to the produced (integrity)?
study of history, and referred to it as his "new science".[40] His
6. What is the evidential value
method laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of
of its contents (credibility)?
state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in
The first four are known as
history,[41] and so is sometimes considered to be the "father of
historical criticism; the fifth,
historiography"[42] [43] or the "father of the philosophy of
textual criticism; and, together,
history".[44]
external criticism. The sixth and
In the West, historians developed modern methods of
historiography in the 17th and 18th centuries, especially in
France and Germany. In 1851, Herbert Spencer summarized final inquiry about a source is
these methods:"From the successive strata of our historical called internal criticism.
deposits, they [historians] diligently gather all the highly
colored fragments, pounce upon everything that is curious and
sparkling and chuckle like children over their glittering acquisitions; meanwhile the rich veins of
wisdom that ramify amidst this worthless debris, lie utterly neglected. Cumbrous volumes of
rubbish are greedily accumulated, while those masses of rich ore, that should have been dug out,
and from which golden truths might have been smelted, are left untaught and unsought."[45] By the
"rich ore" Spencer meant scientific theory of history. Meanwhile, Henry Thomas Buckle expressed a
dream of history becoming one day a science: "In regard to nature, events apparently the most
irregular and capricious have been explained and have been shown to be in accordance with certain
fixed and universal laws. This has been done because men of ability and, above all, men of patient,
untiring thought have studied events with the view of discovering their regularity, and if human
events were subject to a similar treatment, we have every right to expect similar results.[46] Contrary
to Buckle's dream, the 19th-century historian with greatest influence on methods became Leopold
von Ranke in Germany. He limited history to "what really happened" and by this directed the field
further away from science. For Ranke, historical data should be collected carefully, examined
objectively and put together with critical rigor. But these procedures "are merely the prerequisites
and preliminaries of science. The heart of science is searching out order and regularity in the data
being examined and in formulating generalizations or laws about them."[47]

As Historians like Ranke and many who followed him have pursued it, no, history is
not a science. Thus if Historians tell us that, given the manner in which he practices
his craft, it cannot be considered a science, we must take him at his word. If he is
not doing science, then, whatever else he is doing, he is not doing science. The
traditional Historian is thus no scientist and history, as conventionally practiced, is
not a science.[48]

In the 20th century, academic historians focused less on epic nationalistic narratives, which often
tended to glorify the nation or great men, to more objective and complex analyses of social and
intellectual forces. A major trend of historical methodology in the 20th century was to treat history
more as a social science rather than art, which traditionally had been the case. Leading advocates
of history as a social science were a diverse collection of scholars which included Fernand Braudel
and E. H. Carr. Many are noted for their multidisciplinary approach e.g. Braudel combined history
with geography. Nevertheless, these multidisciplinary approaches failed to produce a theory of
history. So far only one theory of history came from a professional historian.[49] Whatever other
theories of history exist, they were written by experts from other fields (for example, Marxian theory
of history). The field of digital history has begun to address ways of using computer technology, to
pose new questions to historical data and generate digital scholarship.

In opposition to the claims of history as a social science, historians such as Hugh Trevor-Roper
argued the key to historians' work was the power of the imagination, and hence contended that
history should be understood as art. French historians associated with the Annales school
introduced quantitative history, using raw data to track the lives of typical individuals, and were
prominent in the establishment of cultural history (cf. histoire des mentalités). Intellectual historians
such as Herbert Butterfield have argued for the significance of ideas in history. American historians,
motivated by the civil rights era, focused on formerly overlooked ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic
groups. A genre of social history to emerge post-WWII was Alltagsgeschichte (History of Everyday
Life). Scholars such as Ian Kershaw examined what everyday life was like for ordinary people in
20th-century Germany, especially in Nazi Germany.

The Marxist theory of historical materialism theorises that society is fundamentally determined by
the material conditions at any given time – in other words, the relationships which people have with
each other in order to fulfill basic needs such as feeding, clothing and housing themselves and their
families.[50] Overall, Marx and Engels claimed to have identified five successive stages of the
development of these material conditions in Western Europe.[51] Marxist historiography was once
orthodoxy in the Soviet Union, but since the communism's collapse there, its influence has
significantly reduced.[52]

Marxist historians sought to validate Karl Marx's theories by analyzing history from a Marxist
perspective. In response to the Marxist interpretation of history, historians such as François Furet
have offered anti-Marxist interpretations of history. Feminist historians argued for the importance of
studying the experience of women. Postmodernists have challenged the validity and need for the
study of history on the basis all history is based on the personal interpretation of sources. Keith
Windschuttle's 1994 book, The Killing of History defended the worth of history.

Today, most historians begin their research in the archives, on either a physical or digital platform.
They often propose an argument and use research to support it. John H. Arnold proposed that
history is an argument, which creates the possibility of creating change.[5] Digital information
companies, such as Google, have sparked controversy over the role of internet censorship in
information access.[53]
Potential shortcomings in the production of history

Many historians believe that the production of history is embedded with bias because events and
known facts in history can be interpreted in a variety of ways. Constantin Fasolt suggested that
history is linked to politics by the practice of silence itself.[54] He said: "A second common view of
the link between history and politics rests on the elementary observation that historians are often
influenced by politics."[54] According to Michel-Rolph Trouillot, the historical process is rooted in the
archives, therefore silences, or parts of history that are forgotten, may be an intentional part of a
narrative strategy that dictates how areas of history are remembered.[26] Historical omissions can
occur in many ways and can have a profound effect on historical records. Information can also
purposely be excluded or left out accidentally. Historians have coined multiple terms that describe
the act of omitting historical information, including: "silencing",[26] "selective memory",[55] and
erasures.[56] Gerda Lerner, a twentieth century historian who focused much of her work on historical
omissions involving women and their accomplishments, explained the negative impact that these
omissions had on minority groups.[55]

Environmental historian William Cronon proposed three ways to combat bias and ensure authentic
and accurate narratives: narratives must not contradict known fact, they must make ecological
sense (specifically for environmental history), and published work must be reviewed by scholarly
community and other historians to ensure accountability.[56]

Areas of study

Periods

Historical study often focuses on events and developments that occur in particular blocks of time.
Historians give these periods of time names in order to allow "organising ideas and classificatory
generalisations" to be used by historians.[57] The names given to a period can vary with geographical
location, as can the dates of the beginning and end of a particular period. Centuries and decades
are commonly used periods and the time they represent depends on the dating system used. Most
periods are constructed retrospectively and so reflect value judgments made about the past. The
way periods are constructed and the names given to them can affect the way they are viewed and
studied.[58]

Prehistoric periodization

The field of history generally leaves prehistory to archeologists, who have entirely different sets of
tools and theories. In archeology, the usual method for periodization of the distant prehistoric past
is to rely on changes in material culture and technology, such Particular studies and fields
as the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age, with subdivisions
These are approaches to history;
that are also based on different styles of material remains.
not listed are histories of other
Here prehistory is divided into a series of "chapters" so that
fields, such as history of science,
periods in history could unfold not only in a relative
history of mathematics, and
chronology but also narrative chronology.[59] This narrative
history of philosophy.
content could be in the form of functional-economic
interpretation. There are periodizations, however, that do not Ancient history: the study of
have this narrative aspect, relying largely on relative history from the beginning of
chronology, and that are thus devoid of any specific meaning. human history until the Early
Middle Ages.
Despite the development over recent decades of the ability
Atlantic history: the study of the
through radiocarbon dating and other scientific methods to
history of people living on or
give actual dates for many sites or artefacts, these long-
near the Atlantic Ocean.
established schemes seem likely to remain in use. In many
cases neighboring cultures with writing have left some history Art history: the study of
of cultures without it, which may be used. Periodization, changes in and the social
however, is not viewed as a perfect framework, with one context of art.
account explaining that "cultural changes do not conveniently
Comparative history: the
start and stop (combinedly) at periodization boundaries" and
historical analysis of social and
that different trajectories of change need to be studied in their
cultural entities not confined to
own right before they get intertwined with cultural
national boundaries.
phenomena.[60]
Contemporary history: the study
of recent historical events.
Geographical locations
Counterfactual history: the

Particular geographical locations can form the basis of study of historical events as

historical study, for example, continents, countries, and cities. they might have happened in

Understanding why historic events took place is important. To different causal circumstances.

do this, historians often turn to the methods and theory from Cultural history: the study of
[61]
the discipline of geography. According to Jules Michelet in culture in the past.
his book Histoire de France (1833), "without geographical
Digital history: the use of
basis, the people, the makers of history, seem to be walking on
computing technologies to do
air".[62] Weather patterns, the water supply, and the landscape
massive searches in published
of a place all affect the lives of the people who live there. For
sources.
example, to explain why the ancient Egyptians developed a
successful civilization, studying the geography of Egypt is
essential. Egyptian civilization was built on the banks of the Economic history: the use of
Nile River, which flooded each year, depositing soil on its economic models fitted to the
banks. The rich soil could help farmers grow enough crops to past.
feed the people in the cities. That meant everyone did not
Intellectual history: the study of
have to farm, so some people could perform other jobs that
ideas in the context of the
helped develop the civilization. There is also the case of
cultures that produced them
climate, which historians like Ellsworth Huntington and Ellen
and their development over
Churchill Semple cited as a crucial influence on the course of
time.
history. Huntington and Semple further argued that climate
has an impact on racial temperament.[63] Maritime history: the study of
maritime transport and all
Regions connected subjects.

Material history: the study of

objects and the stories they can
tell.

Modern history: the study of

modern times, the era after the
Allegory of the recognition of the Middle Ages.
Empire of Brazil and its
independence. The painting depicts Military history: the study of
British diplomat Sir Charles Stuart warfare, historical wars, and
presenting his letter of credence to
Naval history, which is
Emperor Pedro I of Brazil, who is
flanked by his wife Maria Leopoldina, sometimes considered to be a
their daughter Maria da Glória (later sub-branch of military history.
Queen Maria II of Portugal), and other
dignitaries. At right, a winged figure, Oral history: the collection and
representing History, carving the
study of historical information
"great event" on a stone tablet.[64]
by utilizing spoken interviews
History of Africa begins with the first emergence of modern with people who have lived past
human beings on the continent, continuing into its modern events.
present as a patchwork of diverse and politically developing
Palaeography: the study of
states.
ancient texts.
History of the Americas is the collective history of North
People's history: historical work
and South America, including the Caribbean and Central
from the perspective of
America.
common people.
History of North America is the study of the past
passed down from generation to generation on the
 continent in the Earth's Northern and Western Political history: the study of
Hemispheres. politics in the past.

History of the Caribbean begins with the oldest Psychohistory: the study of the
evidence where 7,000-year-old remains have been psychological motivations for
found. historical events.

History of Central America is the study of the past Pseudohistory: studies about
passed down from generation to generation on the the past that fall outside the
continent in the Earth's Western Hemisphere. domain of mainstream history
(sometimes equivalent to
History of South America is the study of the past
pseudoscience).
passed down from generation to generation on the
continent in the Earth's Southern and Western Social history: the study of the
Hemispheres. process of social change
throughout history.
History of Eurasia is the collective history of several distinct
peripheral coastal regions: the Middle East, South Asia, East Women's history: the history of
Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe, linked by the interior mass female human beings. Gender
of the Eurasian Steppe of Central Asia and Eastern Europe. history is related and covers the
History of Europe describes the passage of time from perspective of gender.
humans inhabiting the European continent to the
World history: the study of
present day.
history from a global
History of Asia can be seen as the collective history of perspective, with special
several distinct peripheral coastal regions, East Asia, attention to non-Western
South Asia, and the Middle East, linked by the interior societies.
mass of the Eurasian Steppe.
History of East Asia is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation
in East Asia.

History of India is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation in
the sub-Himalayan region.

History of the Middle East begins with the earliest civilizations in the region now known
as the Middle East that were established around 3000 BC, in Mesopotamia (Iraq).

History of Southeast Asia has been characterized as interaction between regional

players and foreign powers.

History of Oceania is the collective history of Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands.
 History of Australia starts with the documentation of the Makassar trading with Indigenous
Australians on Australia's north coast.

History of New Zealand dates back at least 700 years to when it was discovered and settled
by Polynesians, who developed a distinct Māori culture centered on kinship links and land.

History of the Pacific Islands covers the history of the islands in the Pacific Ocean.

History of Antarctica emerges from early Western theories of a vast continent known as Terra
Australis, believed to exist in the far south of the globe.

Political

Political history covers the type of government, the branches of government, leaders, legislation,
political activism, political parties, and voting.

Military

Military history concerns warfare, strategies, battles, weapons, and the psychology of combat.[65]
The "new military history" since the 1970s has been concerned with soldiers more than generals,
with psychology more than tactics, and with the broader impact of warfare on society and
culture.[66]

Religious

The history of religion has been a main theme for both secular and religious historians for centuries,
and continues to be taught in seminaries and academe. Leading journals include Church History,
The Catholic Historical Review, and History of Religions. Topics range widely from political and
cultural and artistic dimensions, to theology and liturgy.[67] This subject studies religions from all
regions and areas of the world where humans have lived.[68]

Social

Social history, sometimes called the new social history, is the field that includes history of ordinary
people and their strategies and institutions for coping with life.[69] In its "golden age" it was a major
growth field in the 1960s and 1970s among scholars, and still is well represented in history
departments. In two decades from 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in
American universities identifying with social history rose from 31% to 41%, while the proportion of
political historians fell from 40% to 30%.[70] In the history departments of British universities in 2007,
of the 5723 faculty members, 1644 (29%) identified themselves with social history while political
history came next with 1425 (25%).[71] The "old" social history before the 1960s was a hodgepodge
of topics without a central theme, and it often included political movements, like Populism, that
were "social" in the sense of being outside the elite system. Social history was contrasted with
political history, intellectual history and the history of great men. English historian G. M. Trevelyan
saw it as the bridging point between economic and political history, reflecting that, "Without social
history, economic history is barren and political history unintelligible."[72] While the field has often
been viewed negatively as history with the politics left out, it has also been defended as "history
with the people put back in".[73]

Subfields

The chief subfields of social history include:

Black history

Demographic history

Ethnic history

Gender history

History of childhood

History of education

History of the family

Labor history

LGBT history

Rural history

Urban history
American urban history

Women's history

Cultural

Cultural history replaced social history as the dominant form in the 1980s and 1990s. It typically
combines the approaches of anthropology and history to look at language, popular cultural
traditions and cultural interpretations of historical experience. It examines the records and narrative
descriptions of past knowledge, customs, and arts of a group of people. How peoples constructed
their memory of the past is a major topic. Cultural history includes the study of art in society as well
is the study of images and human visual production (iconography).[74]

Diplomatic

Diplomatic history focuses on the relationships between nations, primarily regarding diplomacy and
the causes of wars.[75] More recently it looks at the causes of peace and human rights. It typically
presents the viewpoints of the foreign office, and long-term strategic values, as the driving force of
continuity and change in history. This type of political history is the study of the conduct of
international relations between states or across state boundaries over time. Historian Muriel
Chamberlain notes that after the First World War, "diplomatic history replaced constitutional history
as the flagship of historical investigation, at once the most important, most exact and most
sophisticated of historical studies".[76] She adds that after 1945, the trend reversed, allowing social
history to replace it.

Economic

Although economic history has been well established since the late 19th century, in recent years
academic studies have shifted more and more toward economics departments and away from
traditional history departments.[77] Business history deals with the history of individual business
organizations, business methods, government regulation, labour relations, and impact on society. It
also includes biographies of individual companies, executives, and entrepreneurs. It is related to
economic history. Business history is most often taught in business schools.[78]

Environmental

Environmental history is a new field that emerged in the 1980s to look at the history of the
environment, especially in the long run, and the impact of human activities upon it.[79] It is an
offshoot of the environmental movement, which was kickstarted by Rachel Carson's Silent Spring in
the 1960s.

World

World history is the study of major civilizations over the last 3000 years or so. World history is
primarily a teaching field, rather than a research field. It gained popularity in the United States,[80]
Japan[81] and other countries after the 1980s with the realization that students need a broader
exposure to the world as globalization proceeds.

It has led to highly controversial interpretations by Oswald Spengler and Arnold J. Toynbee, among
others.

The World History Association publishes the Journal of World History every quarter since 1990.[82]
The H-World discussion list[83] serves as a network of communication among practitioners of world
history, with discussions among scholars, announcements, syllabi, bibliographies and book reviews.

People's

A people's history is a type of historical work which attempts to account for historical events from
the perspective of common people. A people's history is the history of the world that is the story of
mass movements and of the outsiders. Individuals or groups not included in the past in other types
of writing about history are the primary focus, which includes the disenfranchised, the oppressed,
the poor, the nonconformists, and the otherwise forgotten people. The authors are typically on the
left and have a socialist model in mind, as in the approach of the History Workshop movement in
Britain in the 1960s.[84]

Intellectual

Intellectual history and the history of ideas emerged in the mid-20th century, with the focus on the
intellectuals and their books on the one hand, and on the other the study of ideas as disembodied
objects with a career of their own.[85][86]

Gender

Gender history is a subfield of History and Gender studies, which looks at the past from the
perspective of gender. The outgrowth of gender history from women's history stemmed from many
non-feminist historians dismissing the importance of women in history. According to Joan W. Scott,
"Gender is a constitutive element of social relationships based on perceived differences between
the sexes, and gender is a primary way of signifying relations of power",[87] meaning that gender
historians study the social effects of perceived differences between the sexes and how all genders
use allotted power in societal and political structures. Despite being a relatively new field, gender
history has had a significant effect on the general study of history. Gender history traditionally
differs from women's history in its inclusion of all aspects of gender such as masculinity and
femininity, and today's gender history extends to include people who identify outside of that binary.
LGBT history deals with the first recorded instances of same-sex love and sexuality of ancient
civilizations, and involves the history of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) peoples and
cultures around the world.[88]

Public

Public history describes the broad range of activities undertaken by people with some training in the
discipline of history who are generally working outside of specialized academic settings. Public
history practice has quite deep roots in the areas of historic preservation, archival science, oral
history, museum curatorship, and other related fields. The term itself began to be used in the United
States and Canada in the late 1970s, and the field has become increasingly professionalized since
that time. Some of the most common settings for public history are museums, historic homes and
historic sites, parks, battlefields, archives, film and television companies, and all levels of
government.[89]

Historians

Benedetto Croce
 Ban Zhao, courtesy
name Huiban, was the
first known female
Chinese historian.

Professional and amateur historians discover, collect, organize, and present information about past
events. They discover this information through archeological evidence, written primary sources,
verbal stories or oral histories, and other archival material. In lists of historians, historians can be
grouped by order of the historical period in which they were writing, which is not necessarily the
same as the period in which they specialized. Chroniclers and annalists, though they are not
historians in the true sense, are also frequently included.

Judgement

Since the 20th century, Western historians have disavowed the aspiration to provide the "judgement
of history".[90] The goals of historical judgements or interpretations are separate to those of legal
judgements, that need to be formulated quickly after the events and be final.[91] A related issue to
that of the judgement of history is that of collective memory.

Pseudohistory

Pseudohistory is a term applied to texts which purport to be historical in nature but which depart
from standard historiographical conventions in a way which undermines their conclusions. It is
closely related to deceptive historical revisionism. Works which draw controversial conclusions
from new, speculative, or disputed historical evidence, particularly in the fields of national, political,
military, and religious affairs, are often rejected as pseudohistory.
Teaching

Scholarship vs teaching

A major intellectual battle took place in Britain in the early twentieth century regarding the place of
history teaching in the universities. At Oxford and Cambridge, scholarship was downplayed.
Professor Charles Harding Firth, Oxford's Regius Professor of history in 1904 ridiculed the system
as best suited to produce superficial journalists. The Oxford tutors, who had more votes than the
professors, fought back in defense of their system saying that it successfully produced Britain's
outstanding statesmen, administrators, prelates, and diplomats, and that mission was as valuable
as training scholars. The tutors dominated the debate until after the Second World War. It forced
aspiring young scholars to teach at outlying schools, such as Manchester University, where Thomas
Frederick Tout was professionalizing the History undergraduate programme by introducing the
study of original sources and requiring the writing of a thesis.[92][93]

In the United States, scholarship was concentrated at the major PhD-producing universities, while
the large number of other colleges and universities focused on undergraduate teaching. A tendency
in the 21st century was for the latter schools to increasingly demand scholarly productivity of their
younger tenure-track faculty. Furthermore, universities have increasingly relied on inexpensive part-
time adjuncts to do most of the classroom teaching.[94]

Nationalism

From the origins of national school systems in the 19th century, the teaching of history to promote
national sentiment has been a high priority. In the United States after World War I, a strong
movement emerged at the university level to teach courses in Western Civilization, so as to give
students a common heritage with Europe. In the U.S. after 1980, attention increasingly moved
toward teaching world history or requiring students to take courses in non-western cultures, to
prepare students for life in a globalized economy.[95]

At the university level, historians debate the question of whether history belongs more to social
science or to the humanities. Many view the field from both perspectives.

The teaching of history in French schools was influenced by the Nouvelle histoire as disseminated
after the 1960s by Cahiers pédagogiques and Enseignement and other journals for teachers. Also
influential was the Institut national de recherche et de documentation pédagogique (INRDP).
Joseph Leif, the Inspector-general of teacher training, said pupils children should learn about
historians' approaches as well as facts and dates. Louis François, Dean of the History/Geography
group in the Inspectorate of National Education advised that teachers should provide historic
documents and promote "active methods" which would give pupils "the immense happiness of
discovery". Proponents said it was a reaction against the memorization of names and dates that
characterized teaching and left the students bored. Traditionalists protested loudly it was a
postmodern innovation that threatened to leave the youth ignorant of French patriotism and national
identity.[96]

Bias in school teaching

History books in a bookstore

In several countries history textbooks are tools to foster nationalism and patriotism, and give
students the official narrative about national enemies.[97]

In many countries, history textbooks are sponsored by the national government and are written to
put the national heritage in the most favorable light. For example, in Japan, mention of the Nanking
Massacre has been removed from textbooks and the entire Second World War is given cursory
treatment. Other countries have complained.[98] Another example includes Turkey, where there is no
mention of the Armenian Genocide in Turkish textbooks as a result of the denial of the genocide.[99]

It was standard policy in communist countries to present only a rigid Marxist historiography.[100][101]

In the United States, textbooks published by the same company often differ in content from state to
state.[102] An example of content that is represented different in different regions of the country is
the history of the Southern states, where slavery and the American Civil War are treated as
controversial topics. McGraw-Hill Education for example, was criticized for describing Africans
brought to American plantations as "workers" instead of slaves in a textbook.[103]

Academic historians have often fought against the politicization of the textbooks, sometimes with
success.[104][105]
In 21st-century Germany, the history curriculum is controlled by the 16 states, and is characterized
not by superpatriotism but rather by an "almost pacifistic and deliberately unpatriotic undertone"
and reflects "principles formulated by international organizations such as UNESCO or the Council of
Europe, thus oriented towards human rights, democracy and peace." The result is that "German
textbooks usually downplay national pride and ambitions and aim to develop an understanding of
citizenship centered on democracy, progress, human rights, peace, tolerance and
Europeanness."[106]

See also

Glossary of history
History portal
Outline of history

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Further reading

Norton, Mary Beth; Gerardi, Pamela, eds. (1995). The American Historical Association's Guide to Historical
Literature (3rd ed.). Oxford U.P; Annotated guide to 27,000 of the most important English language history
books in all fields and topics.

Benjamin, Jules R. (2009). A Student's Guide to History.

Carr, E.H. (2001). What is History?. With a new introduction by Richard J. Evans. Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan. ISBN 0333977017.
 Cronon, William (2013). "Storytelling" (http://www.williamcronon.net/aha-writings.htm) . American Historical
Review. 118 (1): 1–19. doi:10.1093/ahr/118.1.1 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fahr%2F118.1.1) . Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20160723044136/http://www.williamcronon.net/aha-writings.htm) from the
original on 23 July 2016. Retrieved 24 July 2016; Discussion of the impact of the end of the Cold War upon
scholarly research funding, the impact of the Internet and Wikipedia on history study and teaching, and the
importance of storytelling in history writing and teaching.

Evans, Richard J. (2000). In Defence of History. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393319598.

Furay, Conal; Salevouris, Michael J. (2010). The Methods and Skills of History: A Practical Guide.

Kelleher, William (2008). Writing History: A Guide for Students; excerpt and text search (https://www.amazon.c
om/dp/0195337557/) .

Lingelbach, Gabriele (2011). "The Institutionalization and Professionalization of History in Europe and the
United States" (https://books.google.com/books?id=xVrwFT6zAFoC&pg=PA78) . The Oxford History of
Historical Writing. Vol. 4: 1800–1945. Oxford University Press. pp. 78–. ISBN 978-0199533091. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20150915192900/https://books.google.com/books?id=xVrwFT6zAFoC&pg=PA7
8) from the original on 15 September 2015. Retrieved 2 July 2015.

Presnell, Jenny L. (2006). The Information-Literate Historian: A Guide to Research for History Students; excerpt
and text search (https://www.amazon.com/dp/0195176510/) .

Tosh, John (2006). The Pursuit of History. Pearson Longman. ISBN 1405823518.

Woolf, D.R. (1998). A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing. Vol. 2. Garland Reference Library of the
Humanities; excerpt and text search (https://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Historical-Writing-Reference-H
umanities/dp/0815315147/) .

Williams, H.S., ed. (1907). The Historians' History of the World (https://books.google.com/books?id=g5sFAAA
AIAAJ) . Vol. Book 1. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150915174251/https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=g5sFAAAAIAAJ) from the original on 15 September 2015. Retrieved 2 July 2015; This is Book 1 of
25 Volumes.

Schwarcz, Lilia Moritz (1998). As barbas do imperador: D. Pedro II, um monarca nos trópicos (in Portuguese).
São Paulo: Companhia das Letras. ISBN 85-7164-837-9.

External links

Official website (http://www.besthistorysites.net/) of BestHistorySites

Official website (https://www.bbc.co.uk/history) of BBC History

Internet History Sourcebooks Project (http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/) See also Internet

History Sourcebooks Project (Collections of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts for
educational use)
History at Wikipedia's sister projects: Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons

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