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 Contents

Summary 140
Student activities 140

12 Tourism planning and management and the tourism industry 141

Introduction 142
Key perspectives 142
Summary 150
Student activities 151

13 Partnerships and collaboration in tourism 152

Introduction 153
Key perspectives 153
Summary 161
Student activities 161

14 Destination management 164

Introduction 165
Key perspectives 165
Summary 176
Student activities 177

Part III Tools and techniques in tourism planning and management 179

15 Education as a technique in tourism planning and management 181

Introduction 182
Key perspectives 182
Summary 191
Student activities 191

16 Self-regulation as a technique in tourism planning and management 193

Introduction 194
Key perspectives 194
Summary 201
Student activities 201

17 Information technology and tourism planning and management 203

Introduction 204
Key perspectives 204
Summary 209
Student activities 209

vii
Contents

Part IV The future of tourism planning and management 211

18 Tourism planning and management and sustainability 213

Introduction 214
Key perspectives 214
Summary 227
Student activities 227

19 Conclusions and the future of tourism planning and management 228

Influences on the future of tourism 229
Student activities 236

References 238
Index 249

viii
Illustrations

Figures
1.1 A classification of travellers and tourists 9
1.2 A summary of sectors of the tourism industry 10
1.3 The main sectors of the tourism industry 10
1.4 The tourism system: a spatial construct 11
1.5 The tourism environment 11
1.6 Some important dates in the growth of tourism in the United Kingdom 17
2.1 Doxey’s Irritation Index 22
2.2 The resort cycle of evolution 23
2.3 Stages of resort development and associated features 24
2.4 Weaver’s seven scenarios 26
4.1 The multiplier: effects of tourist spend in a hotel in southwest England 43
5.1 Tourism and international understanding 48
5.2 The glasses of prejudice 48
6.1 The scope of the concept of the environment 57
6.2 ‘Balance sheet’ of environmental impacts of tourism 59
6.3 Key principles of EIA 62
7.1 The process of planning in tourism, showing stages and related questions 76
7.2 Resource constraints and market forces: tourism management controls
and influences at destinations 83
7.3 The triangle of three major components in tourism management 84
8.1 Responsibilities of the tourist 89
8.2 The rights of tourists and the responsibilities of the host community,
government agencies and the tourism industry 90
8.3 Agenda 21 for the travel and tourism industry 98
10.1 A classification of ecotourists 125
11.1 Pretty’s typology of participation 134
11.2 Local participation in nature-based tourism: Drake’s (1991)
nine-phase model 139
13.1 Potential benefits of collaboration and partnerships in tourism planning 154
13.2 Potential problems of collaboration and partnerships in tourism planning 155
13.3 Five types of linkage between a tourism company and the local
economy from the PPT pilot projects 159
13.4 Key challenges to a PPT partnership 159

ix
Illustrations

13.5 Benefits that can be derived by businesses from the type of partnerships
in the PPT pilot projects 160
13.6 The processes involved in the WWF Arctic Tourism Project 162
16.1 The English Country Code 196
16.2 Tourismus mit Einsicht: code for the travel business 197
16.3 Checklist for the Ministry of Tourism 198
16.4 Key elements of codes of conduct in tourism 198
18.1 Differences in views of development between the ‘dominant world-view’
and ‘deep ecology’ 215
18.2 Instruments for more sustainable tourism 219
18.3 Recreation and tourism planning approaches in Manawatu 221
18.4 Minimalist and comprehensive tourism ideal types 222
18.5 Basic concepts of chaos and complexity and corresponding
examples in tourism 224

Photographs
1.1 Uluru (Ayers Rock): a symbol of modern Australia? 16
4.1 The Santa Claus Village, Rovaniemi, Finland, which has been
specifically located on the Arctic Circle 41
7.1 The Lido, Palmerston North, New Zealand 80
9.1 The Eden Project in Cornwall 108
9.2 Road rage at the Eden Project, Cornwall 108
9.3 Prehistoric Avebury is a WHS in the care of the NT 114
9.4 Parking at Stonehenge (and nearby Avebury) is a major visitor
management issue 115
11.1 The isolated Pohangina Valley, New Zealand, setting for the controversial
planned tourism development 135
11.2 The café/bar in the Pohangina Valley which was the focus of much
controversy prior to development in 1997 137
15.1 Interpretation can take a variety of forms: here it is on a sign at the
Citadel in Halifax, Nova Scotia in Canada 183
15.2 The Parthenon in Athens is one of the most visited attractions in the world 185
15.3 A tour guide at work on the steps leading to the Parthenon on
the Acropolis in Athens 185

Tables
9.1 Comparison of visitor management issues at Stonehenge and
Avebury in 2014 116
12.1 Practices of sustainable tourism currently adopted 144
12.2 Perceived obstacles to adopting practices of sustainable tourism 145
12.3 Perceived priorities for action 145
14.1 SWOT analysis of Brighton 174
14.2 Scarborough/East Yorkshire events 19 July–30 August 2013 177

x
Case studies

Chapter 1 Tourism growth in Australia 15

Chapter 2 An application of Butler’s Theory – Agarwhal’s study of
Torbay, England 24
Chapter 3 Some fundamental truths about tourism 33
Chapter 4 Tourism in Lapland, the Santa Claus industry 40
Chapter 5 Attitudes to tourism on the Greek island of Samos 51
Chapter 6 Waitomo Caves, New Zealand 60
Julian Rocks, Australia 63
Chapter 7 Developing a tourism action plan for a local community 77
Tourism planning in New Zealand 79
Chapter 8 Tourism development in Dubai and the role of government 96
How the media can create a tourist attraction 102
Chapter 9 Visitor management in Kakadu Park, Australia 109
Visitor management at Stonehenge 110
Chapter 10 The Great Barrier Reef, Australia 120
The role of the modern zoo 122
Ecotourism operators in New Zealand 126
Eco-labels – the Blue Flag award 128
Chapter 11 Resident attitudes to tourism development in the Pohangina
Valley, New Zealand 135
Chapter 12 Business attitudes to sustainable tourism: practices,
obstacles and priorities 144
Cruise ship waste 146
Club Méditerranée Lindemann Island, Australia 148
Lisu Lodge, Thailand 149
Chapter 13 The WWF Arctic Tourism Project 156
The Namibian Community-Based Tourism Association 160
Chapter 14 Urban destinations – Birmingham, UK 167
Urban destinations – Barcelona, Spain 168
Coastal resorts – Brighton, UK 172
Chapter 15 Keeper talks at Wellington Zoo 186
Visitors as Antarctic ambassadors? 188
Chapter 16 Cruise ship codes of conduct in the Arctic 200
Chapter 17 GIS and community aspects of tourism in New Zealand 206
Landscape sensitivity and tourism zoning in Iceland 206
Sustainable tourism infrastructure planning in Sri Lanka 208

xi
Case studies

Chapter 18 Innskeep’s concept of sustainable tourism 216

Leisure and tourism planning in the Manawatu region of
New Zealand 219
Problems in achieving sustainable tourism 225
Chapter 19 The Bali terrorist bombings 231
Development of tourism in Namibia 234

xii
Preface to the third edition

I am very pleased that a third edition of this book has been published. It started life in 2003
with Butterworth-Heinemann, who were later taken over by Elsevier, and I am happy that it is
now with Routledge! For this Third Edition, I have taken the opportunity to make a number
of significant changes, although keeping largely to the original structure used in the First
Edition. One important addition is a completely new chapter on destination management –
colleagues commented to me, and at least one reviewer argued, that a key focus of the book
was on destinations, but there was no separate section/chapter on this topic. So I have
responded with what I hope is a suitable chapter! Most of the original case studies have been
retained and have been updated where appropriate. The ‘Stonehenge’ case study has been
augmented by a table comparing its tourism management issues with nearby Avebury.
The ‘Bali bombings’ study is now supported by reference to primary research data, the
New Zealand ‘Pohangina’ study has new observations via personal communication, whilst the
‘Great Barrier Reef’ study and ‘Namibian tourism development’ study have been updated
from secondary sources. More theoretical perspectives on tourism planning are discussed and
there is an extended section on the topic of sex tourism. Tourism data and statistics have
been updated. The new case studies and related material are on the following themes (with
specific geographical locations, where appropriate, in brackets): urban tourism destinations
(Birmingham, Barcelona); coastal resorts (Brighton, Scarborough); community-based, pro-poor
tourism (Namibia); cruise ship tourism waste disposal; cruise ship codes of conduct (the Arctic);
eco-labels (the Blue Flag award in Europe); tourists as ambassadors for the environment
(Antarctica); GIS and fragile landscape zoning (Iceland); and issues with achieving sustainable
tourism.

xiii
Acknowledgements: third edition

In addition to those I thanked for their help with the first and second editions, I would like
to indicate my gratitude to the anonymous reviewers of the proposal for this third edition.
I would like to thank, in particular the following academics: Professor Andrew Holden, Professor
Robert Maitland, Dr I-Ling Kuo, Dr Duncan Tyler and Professor Richard Sharpley, for their con-
tinued advice and support.
I would also like to thank Master’s students at Bedfordshire University, UK, London Metro-
politan University, UK, South Bank University, UK, the Ecole de Management de Normandie,
Deauville, France and the Ecole Supérieure d’Hôtellerie, Paris, with whom, over the past seven
years, I have trialled new material for this edition.
The team at Taylor and Francis deserve a special mention, particularly my commissioning
editor, Emma Travis, and Pippa Mullins, who patiently and professionally advised and sup-
ported me in the practicalities of the book production. Also, in terms of production I would
like to thank Jessica Stock and Marion Moffatt at Sunrise Setting Ltd, Paignton.
I would like to give special thanks to my wife, Patsy, and my children Jess and Will for their
continued support.

Peter Mason, Norfolk, March, 2015

xiv
Abbreviations

AFTA Australian Federation of Travel Agents

DEH Department of Environment and Heritage
DMO destination management organization
DMS destination management systems
DOC Department of Conservation
EH English Heritage
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
FENATA Federation of Namibian Tourism Associations
GIS geographical information system
ISO International Standards Organization
IT information technology
LAC limits of acceptable change technique
MRWBT Manawatu Riverside Walkway and Bridle Track
NGO non-governmental organization
NSW New South Wales
NT National Trust
ODI Overseas Development Institute
PNCC Palmerston North City Council
PPT pro-poor tourism
RMA Resource Management Act
SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats
THL Tourism Holdings Ltd
UAE United Arab Emirates
VFR visiting friends and relatives
WCED World Conference on Environment and Development
WHS World Heritage Site
WTO World Tourism Organization
WTTC World Travel and Tourism Council
WWF World Wide Fund for Nature

xv
Introduction

Part I
The first six chapters of the book discuss the growth, development and impacts of tourism. It
is assumed that all readers will have some understanding of the concepts of tourism. However,
a brief discussion on the emergence and development of tourism is provided in Chapter 1. The
reasons behind the development are also provided in this first chapter. The chapter attempts
to establish the global significance of tourism, but it also points out some data limitations.
Chapter 2 provides a discussion of key theories that are important within the context of tour-
ism planning and management. Chapter 3 indicates that much tourism planning and manage-
ment takes place in relation to tourism impacts. This chapter also considers factors that
influence tourism impacts. The three chapters following Chapter 3 consider, in turn, economic
impacts, socio-cultural impacts and environmental impacts. Case studies are provided in each
chapter to exemplify these different impacts. These studies are also employed to provide stim-
ulus material for students and at the end of each chapter a number of student activities are
suggested.

Part II
Chapters 7–14 discuss concepts of, issues concerning and the players involved in tourism plan-
ning and management. Chapter 7 focuses on key concepts in tourism planning and manage-
ment. It investigates the general relationship between planning and management before a
discussion of tourism planning and management. This chapter also focuses on policy issues
and introduces ideas in sustainability in tourism. Chapter 8 considers the major players in tour-
ism planning and management and discusses visitors, host communities, the tourism industry
and government. This chapter also discusses the role of the media and non-governmental
organizations in tourism planning and management. Chapters 9–13 provide more detailed
discussion of visitors, host communities and the tourism industry, as well as focusing on the
environment as a key resource in tourism and the role of partnerships and collaboration in
tourism planning and management. Chapter 14 focuses on destination management. As with
the first part of the book, this second part uses a number of case studies. Here they are used
to illustrate major concepts, themes and issues and once again a number of student activities
are linked to the case studies in each chapter.

xvi
 Introduction

Part III
This section is concerned with particular techniques used in tourism planning and manage-
ment. It focuses on education and the role of interpretation (Chapter 15), self-regulation in
tourism planning and management, and, in particular, codes of conduct (Chapter 16) and the
use of information technology as a tool in tourism planning and management (Chapter 17).
As with previous sections, case studies are an important feature of these chapters and as
before they are included to provide stimulus material for students.

Part IV
The final part of the book is concerned with sustainability issues and tourism planning and
management. A number of theoretical perspectives are discussed and case studies, with
accompanying student activities, are presented to investigate some of these perspectives. A
short concluding chapter is also provided and in addition this has ideas on the future of tour-
ism. This final part of the book also uses case studies with related questions for students.

xvii
This page intentionally left blank
 PART I

Tourism growth, development

and impacts
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 1

Social change and

the growth of tourism

Learning objectives

At the end of this chapter you should:

• be aware of a variety of definitions of tourism;

• be aware of a number of dimensions and components of tourism, viz.
the components of the tourism industry, motivations for tourism,
tourism systems, data limitations in tourism;
• understand major social and economic changes that have contributed to
the growth of tourism.

3
Tourism growth, development and impacts

Introduction
Tourism is now a global industry involving hundreds of millions of people in international as
well as domestic travel each year. The World Tourism Organization (WTO, 2014) indicated that
there were for the first time more than one billion international travellers in 2012. By 2013 this
figure had reached 1.087 billion international travellers, which amounts to almost 14 per cent
of the world’s population (WTO, 2014). Although some of this activity may comprise the same
travellers involved in more than one journey per year and hence the precise scale of tourism
as an industry is in some doubt (Leiper, 1999), tens of millions of people globally work directly
in the industry and many more are employed indirectly. Hundreds of millions of people are on
the receiving end of tourism activity as they live in what are termed destination areas, in sup-
posed ‘host’ populations. Millions of dollars are spent each year on advertising and promoting
holidays and tourism products.
For much of recorded history, travel was difficult, uncomfortable, expensive and frequently
dangerous (Williams, 1998). Yet journeys were undertaken and this implies some strong moti-
vating factors. However, it is only in the last 150 years, as travel has become more affordable
and less difficult, that some of those who travelled were prepared to openly admit that pleas-
ure was one of the motivations for their journeys.
As recently as the 1960s, tourism was an activity in which relatively few participated regu-
larly, and was primarily confined to Europe, North America and a small number of locations in
other parts of the world. International travel, prior to the 1960s, was still largely the preserve
of a wealthy minority who had the time as well as money to afford long distance sea or air
travel. Major changes in the second half of the twentieth century led to the rapid and massive
growth of the phenomenon known as modern tourism. For example, these changes contrib-
uted to the Pacific Region/East Asia becoming the fastest growing area for international tour-
ism in the period from 1985 to 2005. In 1975, East Asia and the Pacific Region accounted for
only 4 per cent of international tourist arrivals, but by 1995 the share of world arrivals had
increased to almost 15 per cent (Pearce, 1995) and by 2006 to 20 per cent (WTO, 2007) and this
figure was almost 23 per cent in 2013 (WTO, 2014). It should be noted that this change has
occurred at a time when tourist numbers were growing globally. The increase in the share of
international tourist arrivals in the Pacific Region therefore indicates a very significant increase
in actual tourists between 1975 and 2013. There were approximately 78 million visitor arrivals
in the Pacific Region/East Asia in 1995 (Pearce, 1995). This compares with approximately 100
million in the combined area of North and South America and 305 million in Europe in 1995
(Pearce, 1995).
With approximately 52 per cent of international arrivals in 2013 Europe remained, in the
early part of twenty-first century, the single most important region for international travel
arrivals (WTO, 2014) although this percentage has fallen from 55 per cent in 2006 (WTO,
2007). In fact in 2013, Europe had five countries in the top ten tourism destinations – France,
Spain, Italy, the United Kingdom and Germany, with France (first in the top ten) and Spain
(third in the top ten) having combined totals accounting for 13 per cent of total international
arrivals (WTO, 2014).
This introductory chapter considers what has made this growth possible. It involves discus-
sion of a number of economic and social factors. This chapter also explores changing atti-
tudes to travel, as well as presenting a discussion of how opportunities for travel have
increased.

4
 Social change and the growth of tourism

Key perspectives
Definitions of tourism and tourists
This book is an introductory text to tourism planning and management at undergraduate level.
However, some understanding of the nature of tourism is assumed. Nevertheless, as there is
no full agreement on the meaning of the term tourism, nor is there complete agreement on
what a tourist is, this section contains a brief discussion of these concepts as they are clearly
important in relation to the planning and management of tourism.
In the early 1980s, Matthieson and Wall (1982: 1) indicated that tourism comprised:

The temporary movement of people to destinations outside their normal places of work
and residence, the activities undertaken during the stay in those destinations, and the
facilities created to cater for their needs.

In 1991, the WTO created a definition, primarily to assist those whose responsibility it was to
compile statistics in tourism. This definition reads as follows (WTO, 1991):

The activities of a person travelling outside his or her usual environment for less than a
specified period of time whose main purpose of travel is other than for exercise of an activ-
ity remunerated from the place visited.

Neither of these two definitions makes reference to the impacts of tourism. Impacts are key
factors in any discussion of the planning and management of tourism. However, Jafari (1981)
did include reference to impacts in his definition. Jafari (1981: 3) stated:

Tourism is a study of man [sic] away from his usual habitat, of the industry which responds
to his needs and the impacts that both he and the industry have for the host socio-cultural,
economic and physical environments.

Most definitions of the term tourist are based on the concept of tourism. Usually, such definitions
make reference to the need for the tourist to spend at least one night in a destination to which
he or she has travelled. Tourists can be distinguished from excursionists in such definitions, as an
excursionist is someone who visits and leaves without staying a night in a destination (Prosser,
1998). However, as Prosser suggested, it is relatively common for the two terms to be combined.
The term visitor is often used in preference to either tourist or excursionist. Theobold (1994), for
example, used the concept of ‘visitor’ to combine elements of tourists and excursionists.
When discussing the impacts of tourism, a classification involving terms such as excursionist
or tourist is not particularly helpful. For example, in relation to the environmental impacts of
the feet of a walker on a natural or semi-natural landscape, it matters little whether the per-
son involved is classified as a tourist or an excursionist; the feet will have the same effect! As
the actions of day visitors (excursionists) and those of longer stayers may be almost indistin-
guishable, the view that a definition of tourism does not need reference to an overnight stay
has been become far more acceptable (Williams, 1998).
The distance travelled is often seen as important in definitions of both tourism and tourists.
However, there is no commonly accepted international distance used in connection with defini-
tions of tourism. As with the need of at least some definitions to include reference to an over-
night stay, there is a good deal of debate and unresolved confusion about distance travelled

5
Tourism growth, development and impacts

and tourism definitions. For example, in the latter part of the twentieth century, the United
States Travel Data Center reported on all trips with a one-way distance of 100 miles, the Cana-
dian Travel Survey used a lower one-way limit of 50 miles, and the Australian Bureau of Indus-
try Economics employed a one-way distance of 25 miles (Prosser, 1998).
One of the continuing problems caused by a lack of a clear definition of tourism is that
tourism studies are often poles apart in philosophical approach, methodological orientation
or intent of the investigation (Fennell, 1999). Nevertheless, if there is no complete agreement
on the definition of tourism, it is still important to understand the key aspects of the processes
of tourism and the reality of being a tourist. Prosser (1998: 374) indicated that the central
components of any definition of either tourists or tourism are as follows:

movement, non-permanent stay, activities and experiences during the travel and stay,
resources and facilities required and impacts resulting from the travel and stay.

Tourism is multi-dimensional and can be compartmentalized in a number of ways. According

to Prosser (1998), there are two major variables. These are the origin–destination relationship
and the motivation for travel. It is possible to create the following categories using Prosser‘s
origin–destination relationship:

• international tourism
• internal tourism
• domestic tourism
• national tourism.

Prosser indicated that international tourism involves overseas visitors to a destination, while
domestic tourism relates to nationals of one country visiting that same country. Internal tourism
can relate to a region within a country, while national tourism considers all forms of tourism
within one particular nation or country.

Motivations for travel

In any tourism trip, there are likely to be a number of reasons which, when combined, can be
considered as the motivational factors for the journey. These can be characterized as ‘push’
and ‘pull’ factors. The ‘push’ factors are a number of perceived negative factors about the con-
text in which the potential tourist currently finds himself or herself. The ‘pull’ factors are per-
ceived positive factors of a potential or real destination. The nature, extent and significance of
particular ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors will vary according to the particular tourism context.
The classification of motivations into ‘push’ and ‘pull’ is linked closely with the psychologi-
cal model of tourism motivation developed by Iso-Aloha (1980). The two dimensions in the
model can be summarized as ‘seeking’ motives and ‘escaping’ motives (Pearce, 1993). In
Iso-Aloha’s model, individuals seek personal and interpersonal rewards and at the same time
wish to escape personal and interpersonal environments. The main criticism of Iso-Aloha’s
model is that, with only two dimensions, it is limited by its level of aggregation (Raybould
et al., 1999). Hence, the use of the concepts ‘push’ and ‘pull’ may oversimplify a complex pro-
cess. Nevertheless, investigating motivations in an attempt to understand the behaviour of
tourists has become an important area of tourism research (Ryan, 1997). This can help with the
categorization of tourists as well as provide a better understanding of their impacts. Tourist
behaviour can be influenced by a number of factors including cultural conditioning, social
influences, perception and education, but as Crompton and McKay (1997) indicated, motives

6
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