66320d5f57bd0500186c3afa_##_Science & Technology - Compilation Notes PDF Only

Compilation of
Daily Class Notes
Science & Technology

List of Lectures
1. Introduction to the Subject, Information Technology (Part-1)
2. Information Technology (Part - 02)
5. Artificial intelligence
6. Crypto Currency
7. General Biology - Part – 1
8. General Biology (Part – 02)
9. Human Health and Diseases
10. Health and Diseases (Part - 2), Vitamins
11. Biotechnology (Part-1)
14. Biotechnology(part - 4) Vaccines and Antibodies
16. Space Technology (Part - 1)
21. NanoTechnology (Part – 01)
22. NanoTechnology (Part – 02)
23. Computers
24. Computers (Part 2)
25. Robotics
26. Health
27. Alternative Energy
28. Nuclear Technology
29. Intellectual Property Right
30. Defence Technology
31. Miscellaneous Topics
1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science and Technology
Lecture - 01
Introduction to the Subject,
Information Technology (Part-1)
2
Introduction to the Subject, Information Technology (Part-1)

Syllabus:
UPSC Syllabus for GS Paper (Prelims Paper I)
❖ General Science
UPSC Syllabus for Mains GS-III
❖ Science and Technology: Developments and their applications and effects in everyday life.
❖ Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization of technology and development of new
technology.
❖ Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, robotics, nano-technology, bio-technology, and issues
relating to intellectual property rights.
Previous Year prelims Trend:
❖ Around 10% of 100 questions are asked from the
science and technology subject.
Generally, Questions Are Of Three Types:
1. The questions which depend on the basics of the
subject.
2. The questions which are related to current affairs.
3. The questions which are amalgamations of statistics and current affairs.
Analysis Of Previous Year's Question:
Q. Wolbachia method’ is sometimes talked about with reference to which one of the following? (UPSC-2023)
(a) Controlling the viral diseases spread by mosquitoes
(b) Converting crop residues into packing material
(c) Producing biodegradable plastics
(d) Producing biochar from thermo-chemical conversion of biomass
(Type of The Question: Direct and related to current affairs)
Q. Consider the following statements:
1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their flights, while cruise missiles are
rockets powered only in the initial phase of flight.
2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental
ballistic missile.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (UPSC-2023)
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
3
(Type Of The Question: Direct and related to current affairs)

Q. Consider the following: (UPSC-2022)
1. Aarogya Setu
2. CoWIN
3. DigiLocker
4. DIKSHA
Which of the above are built on top of open-source digital platforms?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2, 3, and 4 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Source: Free and Open-Source Software has great potential in government applications - 31st Aug 2021 (Indian
Express)
Q. In Which one of the following contexts the term "qubit" is mentioned? (UPSC-2022)
(a) Cloud Services
(b) Quantum Computing
(c) Visible Light Communication Technologies
(d) Wireless Communication Technologies
Q. With reference to street lighting, how do sodium lamps differ from LED
lamps? (UPSC-2021)
1. Sodium lamps produce light in 360 degrees but it is not so in the case of LED
lamps.
2. As street lights, sodium lamps have a longer lifespan than LED lamps.
3. The spectrum of visible light from sodium lamps is almost monochromatic while LED lamps offer
significant color advantages in street lighting.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 3 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
(Type Of The Question: The questions which are amalgamations of statistics and current affairs and application-
oriented.)
4
Q. Consider the following activities: (UPSC-2020)

1. Spraying pesticides on a crop field
2. Inspecting the craters of active volcanoes
3. Collecting breath samples from spouting whales for DNA analysis
At the present level of technology, which of the above activities can be successfully carried out by using drones?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
(Type Of The Question: The questions are amalgamations of statistics and current affairs and application-
oriented.)
Q. In the context of wearable technology, which of the following tasks is/are accomplished by wearable
devices? (UPSC-2019)
1. Location identification of a person
2. Sleep monitoring of a person
3. Assisting the hearing-impaired person
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Source: The world…on a hearing aid - What it feels like to wear tech that actually solves a health problem. (The
Hindu – 13th Feb 2018)
Q. Recently, Scientists observed the merger of giant black holes billions of light-years away from the Earth.
What is the significance of this observation? (UPSC-2019)
(a) 'Higgs boson particles' were detected.
(b) 'Gravitational waves' were detected.
(c) The possibility of intergalactic space travel through a 'wormhole' was confirmed.
(d) It enabled the scientists to understand 'singularity'.
Source: Four new gravitational waves detected from black hole mergers – Indian Express (5th Dec 2018)
5
Sources:
❖ NCERT books from classes 6th to 10th of the Science subject.

➢ Read the books from the 6 to 8 standard and underline the concepts.
➢ Read the chapters related to biology from the 9 and 10 standards.
❖ XII NCERT Of Biology (Chapters or topics to be studied):
➢ Chapter 6 is related to DNA & Genetics.
➢ Chapters 11 & 12 are related to Biotechnology.
➢ Chapter 8 is related to health and diseases.
➢ Chapters 13,14,15 & 16 are related to ecology and the environment.
❖ XII NCERT Of Chemistry (Chapters or topics to be studied):
➢ Biomolecule
➢ Polymers
➢ Everyday chemistry.
❖ Newspapers: The Hindu (Sunday column) or Indian Express.
❖ Last year's current affairs.
❖ Class notes, presentations, and study material.
❖ Previous Years Questions
Topic: Information Technology
Topics to be discussed:
❖ Important technology
❖ Network
❖ connections(Wired and wireless)Types of networks
❖ Artificial intelligence(machine learning, deep fakes, chat GPT, etc.
❖ Blockchain technology
❖ Cryptocurrency
❖ Virtual currency
❖ Digital currency
❖ Internet of Things
6
❖ Big Data analysis

❖ Data protection Act
❖ Cyber Threat
Information Technology:
❖ It is the study or use of electronic equipment, especially computers, for collecting, storing, and sending out
information.
❖ It is building communications networks for a company, safeguarding data and information, creating and
administering databases, helping employees troubleshoot problems with their computers or mobile devices,
or doing a range of other work to ensure the efficiency and security of business information.
❖ After the 1991 LPG (Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization) reform in India, the Information
Technology (IT) sector experienced significant growth and has become increasingly integral to various
aspects of daily life. For instance, in education, e-learning platforms have proliferated, providing accessible
and flexible learning opportunities to a wide audience. This reliance on IT reflects its transformative impact
on diverse sectors, driving innovation, efficiency, and connectivity in the modern world.
IT-Enabled Services Types:
1. Customer Interaction Services: complaints, advice, Digilocker, DIKSH App for e-learning
2. Business Process Outsourcing / Management, Back Office Operations
3. Insurance Claims Processing
4. Medical Transcription
5. Legal Databases
6. Digital Content
7. Online Education
8. Data Digitization / GIS
9. Payroll / HR Services
10. Website Services
Example: Jan Suchana portal of the government of the state of
Rajasthan to provide good governance.
UNESCO defines Information Technology as “the scientific,
technological and emerging disciplines and its management
techniques used to handle and transmit information to men
or machines”.
SOME FACTS:
❖ Approximately 840 million internet users in India.
❖ By 2025 its expected number is 950 million.
❖ India stands in 2nd position in terms of both Telecommunication and internet users in the world.
7
The Impact of Information Technology (IT) on Society:

❖ Government: IT can be used to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of government services. For
example, IT can be used to provide online access to government services, streamline government processes,
and make it easier for citizens to interact with the government.
❖ Business: IT can help businesses to improve their productivity, efficiency, and profitability. For example, IT
can be used to automate business processes, to improve communication and collaboration between
employees, and to reach new customers.
❖ Education: IT can be used to improve the quality of education and to make it more accessible to students.
For example, IT can be used to deliver online courses, provide students with access to educational resources,
and personalize the learning experience for each student.
❖ Communication: IT has revolutionized the way we communicate with each other. For example, IT allows
us to communicate with people all over the world through email, social media, and video conferencing.
❖ Home: IT has also had a major impact on our homes. For example, IT allows us to work from home, to shop
online, and to access entertainment on demand.
❖ Work Applications: Teleworking and cloud computing are two work applications that have revolutionized
the way we work. Teleworking, also known as remote work, allows employees to work from anywhere with
an Internet connection, while cloud computing provides on-demand access to computing resources over the
Internet.
❖ International cooperation: Information technology facilitates real-time communication and collaboration
among nations, promoting global cooperation on issues like climate change, health crises, and economic
development.
❖ Cultural exchange: Information technology has revolutionized cultural exchange by breaking down
geographical barriers and connecting people worldwide. Through social media, streaming platforms, and
digital content, individuals can easily share and access diverse cultural expressions, fostering cross-cultural
understanding, appreciation, and dialogue.
Mode of Internet Connections:(Wired and Wireless)
❖ Dial-up: Dial-up is the oldest type of internet connection. It uses facilities of the public switched telephone
network (PSTN). Dial-up is the slowest type of internet connection, and it is no longer widely used.
Telephone lines are used for data transfer. Both phones and the dial-up connections do not work
simultaneously.
❖ DSL(Digital Subscriber Line): DSL stands for Digital Subscriber Line. DSL is a broadband digital
transmission. DSL is faster than dial-up, but it is not as fast as other types of wired internet connections, such
as cable or fiber optic. Telephones and the Internet can work simultaneously. One of its limitations was its
distance-sensitive nature.
❖ Wireless transmission: Wireless transmission is the transmission of data over the air without using cables.
Radio waves and microwaves are two types of electromagnetic radiation that can be used for wireless
transmission.
➢ Radio waves: Radio waves are used for a variety of purposes, including television and radio
broadcasting, cellular phone communication, and wireless networking.
8
➢ Microwaves: Microwaves are used for a variety of purposes, including radar, satellite communication,
and microwave ovens
Electromagnetic Radiation:
❖ Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy that travels in waves. It is made up of electric and magnetic
fields that oscillate perpendicular to each other and the direction of travel.
❖ The different types of electromagnetic radiation are
classified by their wavelength, which is the distance
between two consecutive peaks of the wave.
Wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency,
which is the number of waves that pass a given point
in a given amount of time.
❖ Gamma rays have the shortest wavelength and the
highest frequency, while radio waves have the longest wavelength and the lowest frequency.
The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into seven regions, each with its unique properties and
applications:
❖ Radio waves: Radio waves have the longest wavelengths and lowest frequencies of the electromagnetic
spectrum. They are used for a variety of purposes, including broadcasting radio and television signals,
cellular phone communication, and wireless networking. Communication is possible both indoors and
outdoors. They are Omnidirectional (in all directions)
❖ Microwaves: Microwaves have shorter wavelengths and higher frequencies than radio waves. They are used
for a variety of purposes, including radar, satellite communication, and microwave ovens, cellular phones.
They travel in a straight line
❖ Infrared waves: Infrared waves have even shorter wavelengths and higher frequencies than microwaves.
They are used for a variety of purposes, including remote controls, night vision goggles, and infrared
cameras. They are directional. They are cheaper and easy to build. They do not pass through solid objects.
Example: TV remote
❖ Visible light: Visible light is the only region of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human
eye. It has a wide range of wavelengths, from red to violet.
❖ Ultraviolet light: Ultraviolet light has shorter wavelengths and higher frequencies than visible light. It is
used for a variety of purposes, including tanning beds, sterilization, and medical imaging.
❖ X-rays: X-rays have even shorter wavelengths and higher frequencies than ultraviolet light. They are used
for a variety of purposes, including medical imaging and security
screening.
❖ Gamma rays: Gamma rays have the shortest wavelengths and
highest frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum. They are
used for a variety of purposes, including cancer treatment and
medical imaging.
❖ VIBGYOR: VIBGYOR is an acronym for the seven colors of the
visible spectrum: violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red.
9
❖ When white light passes through a prism, it is refracted (bent) at different angles depending on the
wavelength of the light. Violet light has the shortest wavelength and is refracted the most, while red light has
the longest wavelength and is refracted the least. This is why we see the rainbow of colors when white light
passes through a prism.
Terms:
❖ Amplitude: Amplitude is the height of a wave, measured
from the midpoint to the crest or trough.
❖ Crest: Crest is the highest point of a wave.
❖ Trough: Trough is the lowest point of a wave.
❖ Wavelength: Wavelength is the distance between two
consecutive crests or troughs of a wave. Wavelength (λ) is
the Greek letter lambda, which is used to represent
wavelength.
❖ Frequency: Frequency is the number of cycles/oscillations
of a wave that pass a point in a given time interval. The unit
of frequency is Hertz.
❖ Wavelength is inversely proportional to the frequency.
Why UV Rays, X-rays, and Gamma rays are not used for communication?
Because they are:
❖ Dangerous: Gamma rays are ionizing radiation, which means that they have enough energy to knock
electrons out of atoms and damage cells. This can lead to cancer and other health problems.
❖ Difficulty in Control and Modulation: These rays have very high frequencies, making them difficult to
control and modulate for communication purposes. This high frequency also makes them unsuitable for
transmitting information effectively.
❖ Limited Range: Their shorter wavelengths result in limited propagation distance, restricting their usefulness
for long-distance communication. They are easily absorbed by materials in the atmosphere, limiting their
range and effectiveness.
❖ Expensive to produce: Gamma rays are typically produced by nuclear reactions, which are expensive and
dangerous.
Signal:
Signals are Information or data that is converted to electric form for transmission. Signals can be analog or
digital. Analog signals are continuous in both amplitude (strength) and time. Digital signals are discrete in both
amplitude and time.
Characteristic Analog signal Digital signal
Definition A signal that is continuous in both A signal that is discrete in both amplitude and
amplitude and time. time.
Representation Represented by a smooth line on a Represented by a series of discrete values, such

graph. as 0 and 1.
Transmission Transmitted as a continuous wave. Transmitted as a series of bits.

10
Noise immunity More susceptible to noise Less susceptible to noise interference.

interference.
Accuracy Less accurate due to noise More accurate due to less noise interference.
interference.
Examples Sound waves, radio waves, television Computer data, digital audio, digital images
signals
Bit interval: Time required to send a single bit.
Terminologies:
❖ Modem: A modem is a device that connects your home network to the internet. A modem converts the
signals from your internet service provider (ISP) into a form that can
be used by your computer and other devices. A device that
modulates and demodulates signals, converting digital signals into
analog signals that can be transmitted over a telephone line or other
physical medium, and vice versa.
❖ Router: A router is a device that allows all of your wired and
wireless devices to use that internet connection at once and allows
them to talk to each other directly. A router distributes the internet
connection from your modem to all of your devices. A networking
device that forwards data packets between computer networks.

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Lecture - 02
Information Technology
(Part - 02)
2
Information Technology (Part - 02)
Modem:
 It stands for Modulator demodulator.
 It converts the digital signal to an analog signal and vice versa.
 The modem serves as a link between the internet service provider and the browser.
A Web Browser:
 A web browser program, such as Google Chrome, is a client that connects to a web server to retrieve web
pages and other resources.
3
Internet Explorer:
 It is a web browser developed by Microsoft. It was first released in 1995 and was
the most popular web browser in the world until it was surpassed by Google Chrome
in 2012. June 15, 2022, is the date that Microsoft announced that it would be
ending support for Internet Explorer.
 Yahoo! is a web portal and a search engine company. It was founded in 1995 and
was one of the most popular search engines in the world until it was surpassed by
Google in 2002.
 Google is a search engine company that was founded in 1998. It is now the most
popular search engine in the world.
 IP address: IP address stands for Internet Protocol address. It is a unique identifier/address that is assigned
to every device that is connected to the internet. An IP address is used to route traffic between devices on the
internet. IP address allocation is the process of assigning IP addresses to devices that are connected to the
internet. This is done by internet service providers (ISPs).
 Reassembling an IP address is the process of putting together an IP address that has been broken down
into smaller packets. IP address allocation is the process of assigning IP addresses to devices that are
connected to the internet.
 MAC address: A MAC address is a unique identifier that is assigned to every network interface controller
(NIC). A MAC address is used to identify devices on a local network.
 Website: A website is a collection of web pages and related content that is identified by a common domain
name and published on one or more web servers. Websites are typically dedicated to a particular topic or
purpose, such as news, education, commerce, entertainment, or social networking.
 Networks: A network is a system that connects two or more computing devices for transmitting and sharing
information.
Types of Computer Networks:
There are many different types of computer networks, but some of the most common include:
 Personal area network (PAN): A PAN is a small
network that connects devices within a person's
immediate vicinity, such as a smartphone, laptop,
and printer. PANs are often used for wireless data
transfer and file sharing. Example: Bluetooth
 Local area network (LAN): A LAN is a network
that connects devices within a limited area, such
as a home, office, or school. LANs are typically
used for sharing resources such as printers, files,
and internet access. Example: Wifi, Hotspot.
 Metropolitan area network (MAN): A MAN is
a network that connects devices within a
metropolitan area, such as a city or town. MANs
are often used to provide high-speed internet
access and other shared resources to businesses,
government agencies, and educational
institutions.
 Wide Area Network (WAN): A WAN is a network that connects devices over a large geographic area, such
as a country or the world. WANs are often used to provide internet access, connect remote offices, and
exchange data between different organizations. Example: Internet
4
Various Modes Of Network Connections:

Bluetooth:
 Bluetooth is a wireless technology that allows devices to communicate with each other
over short distances. It is used in a wide range of devices, including smartphones, tablets,
headphones, and speakers. Bluetooth is a popular choice for wireless communication
because it is easy to set up and use, and it is relatively energy-efficient.
More about Bluetooth:
 Bluetooth is a wireless technology that uses radio waves to communicate between
devices.
 Bluetooth devices use a short-range radio frequency of 2.4 GHz to communicate with each other.
 Bluetooth has a range of up to 10 meters, but the actual range may vary depending on the environment.
 Bluetooth devices can communicate with each other in a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint fashion.
 Bluetooth devices use a variety of authentication and encryption methods to protect data from being
intercepted or accessed by unauthorized users.
5
Hotspot:
 The physical location of the hotspot is LAN.
 It is a microwave technology
 Distance covered up to 100 m.
 Bandwidth: 2.4 GHz.
Wi-Fi Direct:
 Wi-Fi Direct is a wireless technology that allows devices to communicate with each other directly, without
the need for a router. This makes it ideal for sharing files, streaming media, and connecting devices to a printer.
Wi-Fi Direct is supported by a wide range of devices, including smartphones, tablets, laptops, and TVs.
More about Wi-Fi Direct:
 Wi-Fi Direct is a peer-to-peer wireless technology that allows devices to communicate with each other directly,
without the need for a router.
 Wi-Fi Direct uses the same 2.4 GHz frequency.
 Its speed is 250mb/sec.
 Wi-Fi Direct has a range of up to 600 feet, but the actual range may vary depending on the environment.
 Its battery life is less.
 Wi-Fi Direct devices use a variety of authentication and encryption methods to protect data from being
intercepted or accessed by unauthorized users.
Note:
Bluetooth 4.0: Operate at 2.4 Ghz frequency. Its speed is approximately 25 mb/sec. It distance is approximately
200 feet. Its battery life is more than wifi direct.
Wi-Fi Router: A Wi-Fi router is a device that connects devices to a wireless network. It allows devices to share
files, stream media, and access the internet. Wi-Fi routers are available in a variety of different configurations
and price ranges.
More about Wi-Fi routers:
 A Wi-Fi router is a device that connects devices to a wireless network.
 Wi-Fi routers use radio waves to transmit data between devices.
 Wi-Fi routers are available in a variety of different configurations, including single-band, dual-band, and tri-
band routers.
 Single-band routers operate on the 2.4 GHz frequency band.
 Dual-band routers operate on both the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequency bands.
 Tri-band routers operate on the 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and 6 GHz frequency bands.
6
Wi-Fi Max: Wi-Fi Max accommodates a larger distance and a greater number of users
at a time. is the maximum speed that a Wi-Fi network can support. It carries a MAN
network. The maximum speed of a Wi-Fi network depends on a number of factors,
including the type of router, the frequency band that the router is using, and the
environment. It needs a base station and carries microwave access.
LiFi (Light Fidelity)/Visible light communication (VLC):
 Visible light spectrum is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is
visible to the human eye. It has a wavelength range of 400 to 700 nanometers.
 LiFi uses energy-efficient bulbs, such as LED bulbs, to transmit data.
 LiFi cannot travel through walls, which can be a privacy advantage.
 LiFi is a more private communication technology than other wireless technologies, such as Wi-Fi, because it
cannot travel through walls.
Parameter LiFi WiFi
Medium Light waves Radio waves
Blocked by walls hence more Less secure and need other techniques to secure data
Privacy
privacy
Speed Faster Slower
Coverage About 10 m About 32 m
White WiFi:
 White space is an unused spectrum that is allotted to television broadcasters. This spectrum can be used
to provide internet connectivity to rural and remote areas. Microsoft is developing a technology called TV
White Space (TVWS) that can use white space to beam Wi-Fi on a larger scale of 10 kilometer radius, with
a speed of 15 Mbps at a cost of Rs. 10 lakhs per router.
 TVWS is a promising technology that can help to bridge the digital divide and provide internet connectivity
to underserved areas. It is still under development, but it has the potential to revolutionize the way we
communicate.
7
VoWiFi:
VoWiFi stands for Voice over WiFi. It is a technology that allows you to make and receive voice calls over a Wi-
Fi network, instead of using the traditional cellular network.
 Mobile phone converts voice to data and sends it to telecom tower via WiFi: When you make a VoWiFi
call, your mobile phone converts your voice into data packets and sends them to a telecom tower via a Wi-Fi
network.
 No extra charges: VoWiFi calls are typically charged at the same rate as regular cellular calls. However,
some mobile operators may offer special promotions or discounts for VoWiFi calls.
 No mobile app needed: VoWiFi is a built-in feature on most modern mobile phones. You do not need to
install any additional apps to use it.
 Calls can be made even when mobile connectivity is zero: VoWiFi allows you to make and receive calls
even when you have no cellular signal. This is because VoWiFi uses your Wi-Fi connection to route the call.
8
Difference:
WIFI 6 WIFI 7
Frequency: 2.4 Ghz/5Ghz 2.4 Ghz/5 Ghz/6 Ghz
Speed: 9.6 Gb/sec 36 Gb/sec
Virtual Private Network
 It is the mechanism of employing encryption, authentification and integrity protection.
 It uses the public networka as private term.
 Remote access VPN connects remote users from any location to a corporate network.
9
Site-to-site VPN connects individual networks to each other.
RFID Technology:
 RFID stands for Radio-Frequency Identification. It is a technology that uses radio waves to identify and
track objects. RFID tags are small electronic devices that can be attached to or embedded in objects. RFID
tags contain a microchip and an antenna. The microchip stores the unique identifier of the object, and the
antenna transmits the data to an RFID reader.
 Digital data is encoded in RFID tags or smart labels which are captured by a reader. When an RFID tag
passes through the range of an RFID reader, the reader emits a radio signal that powers up the tag and activates
the microchip. The microchip then transmits the data stored on the tag to the reader. The reader can then
decode the data and identify the object.
 Applications of RFID technology:
 Logistics and supply chain - increase efficiency, reduce errors, and improve quality
 Inventory tracking
 Tracking attendees
 Increase the level of security
 Real-time location system
10
Near Field Technology (NFC) :

 Near field technology (NFC) is a short-range wireless communication technology that enables communication
between two electronic devices over a distance of 10 cm or less. NFC offers a low-speed connection through
a simple setup that can be used to bootstrap more capable wireless connections.
 NFC works by using two radio frequency (RF) induction coils to create a magnetic field. When two NFC-
enabled devices are brought close together, the magnetic field induces a current in the coils, which powers the
devices and allows them to communicate with each other.
11
Differences between RFID and NFC:

Feature RFID NFC (near field communication)
Read range Up to several meters Up to a few centimeters
Cost Inexpensive More expensive
Asset tracking, inventory management, Mobile payments, access control, data sharing,
Applications
contactless payments, etc. pairing devices, etc.
Communication One-way or two-way Two-way
FASTag:
 The FASTag is a reloadable tag that allows automatic deduction
of toll without having to stop carrying out the cash transaction.
 The tag uses radio frequency identification (RFID)
technology.
 Fixed on the windscreen of the vehicle once active.
 It is operated by NHAI (National Highway Authority of
India).
 It uses the ‘National Electronic Toll Collection (NETC)’
system developed by NPCI (National Payments
Corporations of India).

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
Lecture – 03
Information Technology (Part 3)
2
Information Technology (Part 3)

Optical fiber cable:
❖ Optical fiber is a technology used to transmit data by sending short light
pulses along a long fiber, which is typically made of glass or plastic. In
optical fiber communication, metal wires are preferred for transmission
because the signals travel more safely. Optical fibers are also resistant to
electromagnetic interference.
❖ Total internal reflection of light is used in the
fiber optical cable. Depending on the amount of
power needed and the distance needed, the fibers are
designed to allow light to travel in parallel with the
optical fiber.
❖ Total internal reflection occurs in optical fiber
because the refractive index of the coating material
called cladding is less than the refractive index of
the material inside the optical fiber.
Advantages:
❖ Long transmission distances
❖ Faster data transfer
❖ Lower attenuation
❖ Immunity to interference
❖ Secure
Generations of Mobile Phones:
❖ 1G: The first generation of mobile phones. They could only make and receive voice calls. The technology
used was analog, which resulted in poor sound quality and limited coverage.
❖ 2G: The second generation of mobile phones. They could make and receive voice calls, as well as send and
receive text messages (SMS). They also enabled basic data services through GPRS (General packet radio
services), and EDGE (Enhanced rates for GSM evolution). Both voice and data traveled separately.
3
❖ GSM: It stands for global system for mobiles. It can use any service Provider’s SIM.
❖ CDMA: It stands for code division multiple access. It can only use the same service provider’s SIM.No
outside SIM.
❖ 3G: The third generation of mobile phones. They could make and receive voice calls, send and receive text
messages, and access the internet at relatively high speeds. They used HSPA (High-Speed Packet Access) to
transfer voice and data. The voice was converted into data before being transmitted. They also enabled
broadband data services, such as video streaming and mobile internet.
❖ 4G: The fourth generation of mobile phones. They could make and receive voice calls, send and receive text
messages, access the internet at very high speeds, and stream live video. They used LTE (Long-Term
Evolution) and VoLTE (Voice over LTE) to transfer voice and data. They offered ultra-fast data speeds,
real-time video streaming and gaming, and lower latency than 3G.
5G Technology:
Applications of 5G:
❖ High-speed mobile network: 5G can provide mobile internet speeds that are up to 100 times faster than 4G.
This will enable new applications and services, such as mobile streaming of high-definition video and gaming.
❖ Entertainment and multimedia: 5G will enable new forms of entertainment and multimedia, such as
immersive virtual reality and augmented reality experiences.
4
❖ Internet of Things (IoT): 5G will make it possible to connect more devices to the internet, and to transmit
data between those devices in real-time. This will enable new IoT applications, such as smart homes, smart
cities, and connected cars.
❖ Smart cities: 5G can be used to improve the efficiency and sustainability of cities. For example, it can be used
to manage traffic, monitor energy consumption, and control public transportation.
❖ Smart farming: 5G can be used to improve the efficiency and productivity of farms. For example, it can be
used to monitor crop health, track livestock, and control irrigation systems.
❖ Telemedicine services: 5G can be used to provide telemedicine services, such as remote patient monitoring
and diagnosis. This will enable patients to access healthcare services from anywhere in the world.
❖ Controlling of critical infrastructure and vehicles: 5G can be used to control critical infrastructure, such as
power grids and transportation systems. It can also be used to control autonomous vehicles.
❖ Industrial applications: 5G can be used to improve the efficiency and productivity of industrial processes.
For example, it can be used to control robots, monitor production lines, and manage inventory.
Advantages of 5G:
❖ Enhanced mobile broadband that can meet high coverage requirements: 5G can provide faster data speeds
and better coverage than previous generations of cellular networks. This means that people will be able to
access the internet and use mobile applications more reliably, even in crowded areas.
❖ High upload and download speed: 5G can provide upload and download speeds that are up to 100 times
faster than 4G. This will make it possible to download large files, stream high-definition video, and play online
games with low latency.
❖ Can diversify services and demonstrate spectral efficiency: 5G can support a wider range of services than
previous generations of cellular networks, including mobile broadband, fixed wireless access, and mission-
critical communications. It can also make more efficient use of the radio spectrum, which means that more
devices can be connected to the network at the same time.
❖ Help cloud systems to stream software updates, music, and navigation data: 5G's high speed and low
latency make it ideal for streaming data from cloud systems. This means that people will be able to access
software updates, music, and navigation data more quickly and reliably.
❖ Incorporate Artificial Intelligence (AI) in our daily lives: 5G's high speed and low latency make it ideal for
AI applications. For example, AI can be used to power chatbots, virtual assistants, and self-driving cars.
❖ Facilitate the Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystem: 5G can enable the IoT ecosystem by connecting billions
of devices to the Internet. This will lead to new applications and services in a wide range of industries,
including healthcare, transportation, and manufacturing.
❖ Digital growth of the country rise of GDP à employment generation: 5G can help to drive digital growth
in countries by enabling new businesses and industries. This can lead to increased GDP and employment
generation.
Challenges of 5G:
❖ Cost Factor: 5G is a new technology, and it is more expensive to deploy and maintain than previous
generations of cellular networks. This is because 5G requires more base stations and other infrastructure.
5
❖ Infrastructural Issues: Deploying 5G infrastructure can be challenging, especially in rural and remote areas.
This is because 5G requires more base stations than previous generations of cellular networks, and these base
stations need to be placed closer together.
❖ Cyber Security: 5G networks are more complex than previous generations of cellular networks, and this
complexity makes them more vulnerable to cyber-attacks.
❖ Technical Issues: 5G is a new technology, and there are still some technical issues that need to be resolved.
For example, 5G signals can be blocked by buildings and other obstacles.
5G is an amalgamation of various technologies such as:
❖ Massive multi-user MIMO (Multiple input multiple output) enabled network: MIMO uses multiple
antennas at both the transmitter and receiver to improve data rates and reliability (MIMO Diversity). 5G will
use massive MIMO, which uses hundreds or even thousands of antennas, to further improve performance
(MIMO Multiplexing).
❖ Small cell stations connect the base stations and users seamlessly: Small cell stations are smaller and less
expensive than traditional cell towers. They can be deployed more densely, which means that 5G networks can
provide better coverage and capacity.
❖ Mobile Edge Computing that brings cloud computing closer to the user: Mobile Edge Computing (MEC)
places cloud computing resources at the edge of the network, closer to the user. This reduces latency and
improves performance for applications that require real-time data processing, such as augmented reality and
self-driving cars.
❖ Beamforming allows for directional transmission or reception: Beamforming uses multiple antennas to
focus the radio signal in a specific direction. This improves signal strength and reduces interference.
Other Steps taken by the Government to boost 5G Technology:
❖ Cellular Operators Association of India (COAI) has formed the 5G India Forum (5GIF).
❖ National Digital Communication Policy-2018 lays out the objectives concerning 5G services in India.
❖ 5G Vertical Engagement and Partnership Program (VEPP) initiative: The Department of
Telecommunications (DoT) has invited Expressions of Interest for the initiative to enable close collaboration
between User verticals and 5G Tech stakeholders.
5G Airwave Interference
❖ Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) flagged concerns over likely interference of 5G C-Band
spectrum with aircraft radio altimeters as both operate in the mid-C-Band frequency range.
❖ A radio altimeter provides direct height-above-terrain information to various aircraft systems and the
use of altimeters in the C-band ensures highly precise measurements of a plane’s altitude.
❖ For telecom service providers, C-Band ensures coverage as well as high bandwidth, resulting in faster
internet speeds, for rolling out 5G services.
Private captive 5G networks
❖ The Union Cabinet has allowed private captive 5G telecom networks in India.
❖ A private captive 5G network is a network set up by a private entity for the use of the enterprise
concerned, and no one else.
6
Network Slicing In 5G:

❖ Network Slicing in 5G is a network configuration that allows multiple networks (virtualized and independent)
to be created on top of a common physical infrastructure.
Fiberisation:
❖ The process of connecting radio towers via optical fiber cables is called fiberisation.
❖ The backhaul is a component of the larger transport that is responsible for carrying data across the network.
❖ It represents the part of the network that connects the core of the network to the edge.
❖ It is necessary to increase the density of mobile towers to provide better coverage to consumers and businesses.
5G Open Radio Access Network (RAN)
Why in the News?
❖ Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT), WiSig Networks Private Limited, and VVDN
Technologies Private Limited have signed an agreement to develop 5G Open RAN and other products
together.
About RAN:
❖ RAN is a part of the network that connects the main network infrastructure to end-users.
❖ It connects individual devices to other parts of a network through radio connections.
❖ It provides critical technology to connect users to the mobile network over radio waves. It acts as a bridge to
access all the key applications on the web.
❖ Current RAN technology is provided as an integrated platform of both hardware and software.
❖ It is difficult to mix vendors for different units.
❖ The idea of Open RAN is to enable operators to mix and match components from different vendors.
7
❖ Open RAN will create a multi-supplier

RAN solution that allows for the separation
between hardware and software with open
interfaces.
Standalone (SA) 5G:
❖ A telecom network where both the core
network and radio access network (RAN) are
upgraded to 5G.
❖ It replaces the LTE network 4G wireless
communications standard and allows
completely independent operation of a 5G
service without any interaction with an
existing 4G core.
Non-standalone 5G:
❖ In this, only the RAN part of the network is upgraded.
❖ It is built over an existing 4G network.
Advantages of SA 5G over NSA:
❖ Superior voice quality: SA 5G uses VoLTE (Voice over LTE) for voice calls, which provides better call
quality than the legacy voice technology used by NSA 5G.
❖ Significantly more speed: SA 5G can provide significantly faster data speeds than NSA 5G. This is because
SA 5G uses a dedicated 5G core network, while NSA 5G uses a 4G core network.
❖ Lower latency: SA 5G has lower latency than NSA 5G. This means that there is less delay between sending
and receiving data, which makes SA 5G ideal for real-time applications such as gaming and augmented reality.
Challenges of SA 5G:
❖ Not all phones will have support for SA 5G: Not all phones have been upgraded to support SA 5G. This
means that some users may not be able to take advantage of the full benefits of SA 5G.
8
❖ Will cost more: SA 5G is more expensive to deploy and maintain than NSA 5G. This means that mobile
operators may charge more for SA 5G plans.
6G Technology:
❖ 6G technology is the next generation of cellular network technology. It is expected to be able to use higher
frequencies than 5G networks, which will allow it to provide substantially higher capacity and much lower
latency (delay). 6G is also expected to utilize the terahertz band of frequency, which is currently unutilized.
Terahertz waves fall between infrared waves and microwaves on the electromagnetic spectrum.
❖ These waves are extremely tiny and fragile, but there's a huge amount of free spectrum up there that would
allow for spectacular data rates.
   
1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Lecture - 04
Information technology
(Part-4)
2
Information technology (Part-4)

Blockchain Technology:
Blockchain technology is a decentralized and transparent system for recording transactions. It is like a book that
records all transactions, but instead of being kept in one place, it is distributed across a network of computers. This
makes it very difficult to tamper with or hack the data.
❖ Ledger: A blockchain ledger is a type of distributed ledger. This means that the ledger is not stored in a single
location, but is instead distributed across a network of computers. This makes it very difficult to tamper with
the ledger, as any changes would need to be made to all of the copies of the ledger on the network.
➢ Centralized ledger: A centralized ledger is a type of ledger that is stored in a single location. This makes
it vulnerable to attack and fraud, as any changes to the ledger can be made by the central authority.
✓ Disadvantages of Centralized Ledgers:
➔ Every party is dependent on the central party.
➔ The central party has power over the data.
➢ Distributed ledger is a type of ledger that is stored on a network of computers. This makes it very difficult
to tamper with the ledger, as any changes would need to be made to all of the copies of the ledger on the
network.
➢ Advantages of Distributed Ledgers:
✓ More Privacy
✓ Transparency
✓ Records are tamper-proof
What is Blockchain Technology?

It is a decentralized distributed digital ledger that records transactions on thousands of computers globally in such
a way that the registered transactions cannot be altered retrospectively.
❖ It uses cryptography to securely record transactions.
❖ It enables instant transfer of money as against the current system, especially cross-border transactions.
❖ Data stored in multiple locations reduces the chances of data corruption.
❖ The network has no central authority.
How does blockchain work?
❖ When a transaction occurs on a blockchain network, it is first broadcast to all of the nodes on the network. The
nodes then verify the transaction and add it to their respective ledgers. Once the transaction has been verified
and added to the ledgers of a majority of the nodes on the network, it is considered to be final and cannot be
altered.
3
How blockchain technology can be used in elections?

❖ In a traditional election, voters go to a polling place and cast their ballots on paper. The ballots are then
collected and counted manually or by machines. This process can be slow and error-prone.
❖ Blockchain technology can be used to create a more secure and efficient election system. In a blockchain-
based election, voters would cast their ballots electronically using a secure device. The ballots would then
be recorded on a blockchain, which is a distributed ledger that is very difficult to tamper with.
❖ Once the ballots have been cast, they will be counted automatically by the blockchain network. The results
of the election would then be published on the blockchain, where they would be publicly accessible and
verifiable.
Applications of blockchain technology:

❖ Transfer of Land Records (Property Record Management): Blockchain can be used to store and transfer
land records securely and efficiently. This can help to reduce fraud and corruption and make it easier for people
to buy and sell property.
❖ Digital Certificates Management (Education, Death, Birth, agreements, etc.): Blockchain can be used to
store and manage digital certificates, such as educational certificates, birth certificates, and death certificates.
This can help to ensure the authenticity of these certificates and make it easier for people to share them with
authorized individuals.
❖ Pharmaceutical supply chain: Blockchain can be used to track the movement of pharmaceuticals through the
supply chain. This can help to prevent counterfeit drugs from entering the market and to ensure the safety and
quality of pharmaceuticals.
❖ Farm Insurance: Blockchain can be used to create more efficient and transparent farm insurance systems.
For example, it can be used to track crop yields and to automate the payment of insurance claims.
❖ Identity management: Blockchain can be used to create a more secure and privacy-preserving identity
management system. This can help to prevent identity theft and fraud.
❖ eVoting: Blockchain can be used to create a more
secure and transparent voting system. This can
help to reduce the risk of voter fraud and make it
easier for people to vote.
❖ Electronic Health Record Management:
Blockchain can be used to store and manage
electronic health records securely and privately.
This can help to improve the quality of healthcare
and make it easier for patients to share their medical records with authorized healthcare providers.
❖ Vehicle lifecycle etc: Blockchain can be used to track the lifecycle of vehicles, including vehicle registrations,
insurance, and maintenance records. This can help to reduce fraud and make it easier for people to buy and
sell vehicles.
4
Importance of Blockchain:
❖ Blockchain can bring value addition to e-governance:
Blockchain can be used to create more secure,
transparent, and efficient e-governance systems. For
example, it can be used to store and manage land records,
digital certificates, and voting records.
❖ No Middlemen in Transaction: Blockchain can help to
reduce the need for middlemen in transactions. This can
make transactions cheaper and more efficient.
❖ Protect businesses from fraud: Blockchain can help to
protect businesses from fraud by making it more difficult
to counterfeit documents and alter data.
❖ Blockchain Business Value: The World Economic Forum (WEF) estimates that 10% of global GDP will
be stored on blockchain by 2025. This shows that blockchain is a rapidly growing technology with the
potential to revolutionize many industries.
Blockchain in News:
1. In May 2020 WEF Global Blockchain Council published (Presidio Principles", also called as
"Blockchain Bill of Rights"
The WEF Global Blockchain Council published the Presidio Principles in May 2020. These principles are also
known as the "Blockchain Bill of Rights." The Presidio Principles are a set of guidelines that are designed to protect
the rights of users of blockchain technology.
The Presidio Principles are divided into four categories:
❖ Right to information about the system: Users have the right to understand how the blockchain system works
and how their data is being used.
❖ Right to own and manage data: Users have the right to own and manage their data on the blockchain.
❖ Right to data protection: Users have the right to have their data protected from unauthorized access and use.
❖ Right to recourse: Users have the right to have any false or inaccurate data about them corrected. They also
have the right to access a grievance redressal mechanism if they have any problems with the blockchain system.
2. NITI Aayog: NITI Aayog is the premier think tank of the Government of India. It is building a platform called
"India Chain" as a common blockchain infrastructure for various government departments.
3. Andhra Pradesh: Blockchain is used for land records and vehicle registration.
4. West Bengal: Blockchain is used for birth certificates for newborns.
Challenges of Blockchain Technology:
❖ High initial investment cost in creating framework: Blockchain technology requires a significant
investment to create the initial infrastructure. This can be a barrier to entry for smaller businesses and
organizations.
5
❖ Immense use of energy (electricity) as each transaction involves thousands of nodes: Blockchain networks
are very energy-intensive. This is because each transaction needs to be verified by all of the nodes on the
network.
❖ Data privacy issue: Blockchain networks are public by design. This means that all transactions are visible to
everyone on the network. This can be a concern for businesses and individuals who want to keep their data
private.
❖ Need for legal and regulatory framework since no central authority: Blockchain networks are
decentralized, meaning that they are not controlled by any single entity. This can make it difficult to develop
and enforce legal and regulatory frameworks for blockchain technology.
❖ Irreversibility of data: Once data is recorded on a blockchain, it is very difficult to change or delete it. This
can be a problem if there is an error in the data or if the data needs to be updated.
❖ Lack of skill set and Awareness of Talent: Blockchain technology is a new and complex technology. There
is a shortage of skilled workers who have the expertise to develop and deploy blockchain applications.
The National Level Blockchain Framework (NLBF):

1. Need for National Level Blockchain Framework (NLBF): The NLBF will provide a common infrastructure
and set of standards for the development and deployment of blockchain applications in India. It will also help
to promote interoperability between different blockchain networks.
2. Integration of important National Level Services to Blockchain such as eSign, ePramaan, DigiLocker,
etc.: This will make it easier for businesses and individuals to use blockchain technology by integrating it with
the existing national level services.
3. Capacity building in Blockchain Technology: The government will invest in training and education
programs to develop a skilled workforce in blockchain technology.
4. Explore the potential of Blockchain Technology in sectors like Agriculture, Health, Energy: The
government will support research and development in blockchain technology to explore its potential in various
sectors such as agriculture, healthcare, and energy.
3D Printing:
❖ 3D printing or additive manufacturing uses computer-aided designing to make
prototypes or working models of objects by laying down successive layers of
materials such as plastic, resin, thermoplastic, metal, fiber or ceramic.
❖ The USA remains the global leader with more than 35% market share.
❖ In Asia, about 50% of its market is cornered by China, followed by Japan at 30%,
and South Korea at 10%.
❖ There is negligible material wastage.
❖ It is highly customized.
6
Applications of 3D printing:
❖ Fashion and retail: 3D printing can be used to create custom-made clothing, accessories, and home decor
items. It can also be used to produce prototypes of new designs, which can help companies reduce time to
market and costs.
❖ Games and entertainment: 3D printing
can be used to create custom figurines, toys,
and props for games and movies. It can also
be used to create realistic prosthetics for
actors.
❖ Food: 3D printing can be used to create
custom-shaped and flavored food items. It
can also be used to print food for people
with dietary restrictions.
❖ Pop culture: 3D printing can be used to
create replicas of popular culture icons and
artifacts. It can also be used to create
custom costumes and props for fans.
❖ Medicine: 3D printing is being used to
create custom prosthetics, implants, and
surgical models. It is also being used to print biocompatible materials, which could be used to create new
organs and tissues.
❖ Engineering: 3D printing is being used to prototype new products, design new buildings, and create custom
tools. It is also being used to print complex structures that would be difficult or impossible to produce using
traditional manufacturing methods.
Examples:
1. Auto and ancillary auto
2. Motor spare part engines
3. Interior and exterior parts of luxury vehicles, or consumer electronics
4. Printed circuit boards
5. Clothing
6. Toys
7. Jewellery
8. Organs
Challenges of 3D printing:
❖ Lack of standards: There are currently no widely accepted standards for 3D
printing materials, processes, or products. This can make it difficult for
companies to adopt 3D printing and to ensure the quality of their products.
7
❖ Hesitation in adoption: Many companies are hesitant to adopt 3D printing because they are not familiar with
the technology or they are concerned about the costs.
❖ Risk of job losses: Some people worry that 3D printing could lead to job losses, as machines will be able to
do many of the tasks that are currently done by people.
❖ High cost: 3D printing can be expensive, especially for large and complex objects.
❖ Sector-specific challenges: The challenges of 3D printing vary depending on the industry. For example, one
challenge in the automotive industry is that the demand for 3D printing has slowed as new vehicle design
development has slowed.
4D printing:
❖ In recent years, 4D printing technology has enhanced the potential of cancer therapeutics such as surgery,
hyperthermia, chemotherapy, therapeutic devices etc.
About 4-D printing:
❖ A renovation of 3D printing wherein special materials are used to print objects that change shape post-
production.
❖ There is a need for Stimuli or triggers to start transformation such as moisture, temperature, light, electrical
current, stress, pH, etc.
❖ Materials used: Hydrogels, Thermo-responsive, Photo, and magneto-responsive, Piezoelectric materials,
pH-responsive, etc.
❖ Properties: Self-assembly, self-adaptability, self-healing, shape memory, self-capability, etc.
❖ Printing techniques: The printing techniques used are similar to ones used in 3D such as fused deposition
modeling (FDM), jet 3D printing (3DP), selective laser melting (SLM), direct ink writing (DIW), electron
beam melting (EBM), etc.
❖ Selective laser melting (SLM): It utilizes a high power-density laser to fully melt and fuse metallic powders
to produce near-net-shape parts with near full density (up to 99.9% relative density).
8
Internet of Things:
The Internet of Things (IoT) is a network of physical objects that
are embedded with sensors, software, and other technologies for
the purpose of connecting and exchanging data with other devices
and systems over the Internet. These devices range from simple
everyday objects, such as thermostats, doorbells, and light bulbs,
to industrial machines, medical devices, and agricultural
equipment.
Advantages of the IoT:
❖ Improved efficiency: The IoT can help to improve
efficiency in a variety of ways. For example, IoT devices can
be used to automate tasks, such as turning on and off lights, adjusting the thermostat, and locking and unlocking
doors. This can free up people's time and allow them to focus on other tasks.
❖ Reduced costs: The IoT can also help to reduce costs. For example, IoT devices can be used to monitor energy
consumption and make adjustments to reduce waste. This can lead to significant savings over time.
❖ Enhanced safety and security: The IoT can also help to enhance safety and security. For example, IoT devices
can be used to monitor homes for intruders or to track the location of vehicles. This can help to reduce crime
and improve public safety.
❖ Improved convenience: The IoT can also help to improve convenience. For example, IoT devices can be used
to control appliances and devices remotely. This can make it easier for people to manage their homes and
businesses.
Disadvantages of the IoT:
❖ Privacy and security concerns: One of the biggest concerns about the IoT is privacy and security. IoT devices
often collect a lot of data about users, and this data could be vulnerable to hacking or misuse. It is important
to choose IoT devices from reputable companies and to take steps to protect your privacy and security.
❖ Complexity: The IoT can be complex to set up and manage. This can make it difficult for people to adopt the
technology. It is important to choose IoT devices that are easy to use and that come with clear instructions.
❖ Cost: The cost of IoT devices can be high, especially for large and complex systems. This can make adopting
the technology difficult for small businesses and individuals.
❖ Reliability: IoT devices can be unreliable, especially if they are not properly maintained. This can lead to
frustration and inconvenience. It is important to choose IoT devices from reputable companies and to maintain
them regularly.
Virtual reality (VR):

Virtual reality (VR) is a computer-generated simulation in which a person can interact within an artificial 3D
environment using electronic devices, such as special goggles with a screen or gloves fitted with sensors.
➢ Examples: Everything is Virtual like a video game.
9
Augmented reality (AR) is an enhanced

version of the real physical world that is
achieved through the use of digital visual
elements, sound, or other sensory stimuli
delivered via technology.
➢ Examples: Fake images are overloaded
with real things.
What is the Dark Web?
❖ The dark web is a subset of the deep web that is only accessible through special software, such as the Tor
browser. It is hidden from conventional search engines and requires users to take specific steps to remain
anonymous.
❖ The dark web is often associated with illegal activities, such as drug trafficking and cybercrime. However, it
is also used by legitimate users for a variety of purposes, such as communicating with whistleblowers and
journalists and accessing censored content.
Surface Web:
❖ The surface web is the part of the internet that is accessible to everyone. It is what most people think of when
they use the word "internet". The surface web includes websites that can be found through search engines,
such as Google and Bing.
Deep Web:
❖ The deep web is the part of the internet that is not indexed by search engines. It includes websites and databases
that require authentication to access, such as email accounts, bank accounts, and medical records. The deep
web also includes websites that are intentionally hidden, such as those used by law enforcement and
intelligence agencies.
Dark Web:
❖ The dark web is a subset of the deep web that is only accessible through special
software, such as the TOR (the onion router) browser. It is hidden from
conventional search engines and requires users to take specific steps to remain
anonymous.
❖ The dark web is often used for illegal activities, but it is also used by legitimate
users for a variety of purposes.
10
➢ For example, journalists may use the dark web to communicate with whistleblowers without being
tracked. Activists may use the dark web to organize protests against authoritarian governments. People in
countries with internet censorship may use the dark web to access websites that are blocked by their
government.
Issues with the DarkNet:

❖ Used for illegal activities: The Dark Net is often used for illegal activities because it is anonymous and
difficult to track. This includes selling confidential data, such as credit card numbers and Social Security
numbers; selling illegal drugs and weapons; and hiring hackers and other criminals.
❖ The anonymity of users makes it difficult to identify the culprits: The Dark Net's anonymity makes it
difficult for law enforcement to identify criminals and prosecute them. This is because users can hide their
identities and locations, making it difficult to track them down.
❖ Uses cryptocurrencies for payment, making tracking transactions difficult: Many Dark Net transactions
are conducted using cryptocurrencies, such as Bitcoin. Cryptocurrencies are digital currencies that are not
regulated by any government or financial institution. This makes it difficult for law enforcement to track
cryptocurrency transactions and identify criminals.
❖ Global distribution of users makes it difficult to crack the network: The Dark Net is used by people all
over the world. This makes it difficult for law enforcement to crack down on DarkNet crimes, as they have to
coordinate with law enforcement agencies in other countries.
Steps Taken To Counter Dark Net Crimes:
The Indian government has taken some steps to counter Dark Net crimes. These include:
❖ Directing immunity for ethical hackers who help police counter DarkNet crimes: The Indian government
has directed that ethical hackers who help police counter DarkNet crimes will be granted immunity from
prosecution. This is to encourage ethical hackers to help law enforcement track down and prosecute Dark Net
criminals.
❖ CDAC (Centre for Development of Advanced Computing) working with CSIR to effectively monitor
dark web activities: The Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (CDAC) is working with the
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) to develop new technologies to monitor DarkNet
activities. This technology will be used by law enforcement to track down and prosecute Dark Net criminals.
❖ Kerala has established a darknet lab in its Cyberdome project: The state of Kerala has established a
darknet lab in its Cyberdome project. This lab will be used to research and develop new ways to combat Dark
Net crimes.
What Are Drones?
Drones are aircraft that can fly without a human pilot on board. They are also known as unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAVs) or unmanned aircraft systems (UAS). Drones are remotely controlled by a pilot on the ground using a radio
control transmitter.
Drones can be divided into five categories based on their weight:
❖ Nano: Less than or equal to 250 grams.
11
❖ Micro: From 250 grams to 2kg.

❖ Small: From 2 kg to 25kg.
❖ Medium: From 25kg to 150kg.
❖ Large: Greater than 150kg
Applications of Drones:
❖ Defense: Drones can be used for reconnaissance and strike missions. For
example, the DRDO Rustam and the USA's Predator drones are used for
military purposes.
❖ Law enforcement: Drones can be used for crowd management and traffic control. For example, drones can
be used to monitor crowds at protests and sporting events and to direct traffic during rush hour.
❖ Agriculture: Drones can be used to monitor crop health and to spray insecticides. For example, farmers can
use drones to identify areas of their fields that are diseased or infested with pests and to apply pesticides to
those areas.
❖ Miscellaneous: Drones can be used to make GIS maps, search for people after disasters, and to take
photographs. For example, drones can be used to create maps of disaster zones to help with relief efforts and
to search for people who are lost or missing.
General Rules and Regulations for Flying Drones:
12
Drone Regulations in India:

❖ Drone regulations in India are issued by the Ministry of Civil Aviation.
❖ Drones are classified into five categories based on their weight: nano (<250 grams), micro (250 grams to 2kg),
small (2 kg to 25kg), medium (25kg to 150kg), and large (>150kg).
❖ It is mandatory to register all drones except for nano drones.
❖ Before flying a drone, you must obtain permission from the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA).
This is known as the No Permission No Take-off (NPNT) rule.
❖ Drones can only be flown during the day, within the visual line of sight of the pilot, and at a maximum altitude
of 400 feet.
❖ Drones cannot carry any human or animal payloads, or anything hazardous.
❖ Indian airspace has been partitioned into three zones:
➢ Red Zone: Flying is prohibited in this zone.
➢ Yellow Zone: Flying is allowed in this zone, but permission from the Air Traffic Control (ATC) is
required.
➢ Green Zone: Flying is allowed in this zone without permission from the ATC.
National Counter Rogue Drone Guidelines:

❖ The National Counter Rogue Drone Guidelines were issued by the Ministry of Civil Aviation in 2019 to handle
the threats posed by Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS), also known as drones. The guidelines outline three
models to counter rogue drones, based on threat perception:
➢ Full-scale model: This model is for places like Rashtrapati Bhavan and Parliament House, where there
is a high threat of drone attacks. It includes detectors like radars and full countermeasures, such as radio
frequency jammers and kinetic weapons.
➢ Mid-segment model: This model is for places like power plants and oil refineries, where there is a
medium threat of drone attacks. It includes some countermeasures, such as radio frequency jammers and
visual detection systems.
➢ Basic model: This model is for important government offices, where there is a low threat of drone attacks.
It includes visual detection systems and basic countermeasures, such as drone nets and guns.
Recently drone attacks have been often in the news:

News:
❖ Three US troops were killed in a drone attack in Jordan, and more than 30 were injured.
❖ Saudi-Aramco Drone Attack – In Sept 2019, Drone attacks claimed by Yemen's Houthi rebels struck two key
oil installations inside Saudi Arabia
Also read: Combat drones: a new era of warfare.
13
Methods to control drones:

❖ Sky fence: A sky fence is a system that uses radio frequency (RF) waves to disrupt the signals between a drone
and its pilot. This can prevent the drone from entering a certain area, or from being able to fly altogether.
❖ Drone gun: A drone gun is a device that emits a high-powered RF signal that can jam the drone's
communication and navigation systems. This can cause the drone to lose control and crash.
❖ Laser: A laser can be used to damage a drone's electronics or to overheat its components, causing it to crash.
❖ Net: A net can be thrown over a drone to catch it. This is a relatively low-tech solution, but it can be effective.
❖ Bigger drone: A larger drone can be used to carry a net and catch a smaller drone. This is a more sophisticated
solution, but it is also more expensive.

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Lecture - 05
Artificial intelligence
2
Artificial intelligence
Artificial Intelligence:
❖ Algorithms can analyze the data, identify patterns, and make predictions based on the patterns they find.
Machine learning:
❖ Algorithms can analyze data, identify patterns, and make predictions based on the patterns they find. For
Example: Agriculture, weather, etc.
Deep Learning:
❖ It is a subset of machine learning that uses artificial neural networks to learn from data in a way that is similar
to human brain learning.
Neural network:
❖ A method in artificial intelligence that teaches computers to process data in a way that is inspired by the human
brain.
Recurrent neural network
❖ Deep learning mode that is trained to process and convert a sequential data input into a specific sequential data
output. For Example: Facial recognition etc
Applications of Machine learning and Deep learning?

❖ Medical imaging: Finding tumors and other malignant tumors in the human body.
❖ Marketing: Forecasting is being used for predicting sales.
❖ Development of industrial robotics
❖ Self-driving car industry: Algorithms are used for navigating the vehicle to its destination
❖ To analyze customer reviews and gain insights into their sentiments.
❖ E-commerce: deep Learning-based recommendation systems to provide insights to the customers based on
their purchasing patterns.
Application of AI:
1. Agriculture:
A. AI Helping Analyze Farm Data
i. accurate weather forecast
ii. early warning of pest attacks
iii. temperature, water usage, or soil conditions
B. Use in precision agriculture
i. AI sensors can detect and target weeds
ii. prevent over-application of herbicides and excessive toxins
3
C. Chatbots for Assistance

2. Manufacturing: Decision support systems for inventory control, and demand prediction
3. Services: Smart chatbot for customer support (SBI’s SIA); early fraud detection
4. Health: Automated diagnostics; early warning of disease outbreaks; faster development of new
vaccines/medicine.
5. Education: Personalized course module for each student as per need.
6. Mobility: Self-driving cars; smart traffic signals to reroute heavy traffic.
Issues with Al:
1. Legal issues: Fixing liability when the law is broken by the Al system
2. Inequality: Economic inequality will increase as skilled will gain more by using Al, whereas unskilled will
lose bargaining power
3. Misuse: Deepfakes to malign political opponents; create social unrest; malign character.
4. Surveillance: Al makes mass surveillance practical by use of public cameras, telephone conversations, written
communications, etc.
5. Al takeover: advanced Al system may grow out of control of humans
6. Ethical issues:
➢ Livelihood: Al replaces humans, unlike computers which help humans
➢ Bias: Chatbots learn social biases (racism/casteism/communalism) e.g. Microsoft had to shut down Tay
➢ Weapons: Lethal Autonomous Weapons can wrongly trigger attack (anti-aircraft systems)
Challenges:
1. Regulatory: finding the optimum level of regulation
2. Data security: Al systems generally use a lot of data; ensuring its fair use is difficult
3. Technological: Jow computing power in most computers commonly available; also less supercomputers at the
national level
4. Human resource: lack of talent to work on advanced
technologies, despite having huge IT manpower
Steps Taken by Government:
1) AIRAWAT: Al Research, Analytics, and Knowledge
Assimilation platform.India's first Al-specific cloud
computing infrastructure.
This will help in transforming sectors like education, health,
agriculture, urbanization, and mobilization.
2) Centre of Excellence (CoE in Al) by NIC for Al solutions for
NIC's projects.
3) "OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development/ Principles on Al"
4
➢ To promote Al that is trustworthy and respects human rights and democratic values:
4) In the USA, it is mostly self-regulation by tech giants like Google and Microsoft.
More about News
❖ Increasing popularity of generative Al programs, such as OpenAl's ChatGPT, Google's BARD A) DALL-
E, Codex, GPT-3, etc.
❖ These programs are a conversational Al language based on a deep learning model built on the transformer
architecture.
❖ Generative Al creates new and creative content with simple textual instructions known as prompts.
❖ It uses a deep neural network and is trained on a corpus of text data from the internet, allowing it to generate
human-like text and to perform various tasks like question answering, and conversation.
Generative artificial intelligence (Al)
❖ Describes algorithms that can be used to create new content like audio, code, images, text, simulations, and
videos.
❖ Achieved by training machine learning models on large amounts of data using neural networks and then
using these models to generate new, synthetic data, like already existing data.
❖ Prominent frameworks or models of generative Al like Generative adversarial networks (GANs),
Transformer-Based Models (TBMs), and Variational AutoEncoders (VAEs).
LaMDA (Language Models for Dialog Applications):
❖ LaMDA is a machine-learning language model created by Google as a chatbot that is supposed to mimic
humans in conversation.
❖ Like BERT, GPT-3, and other language models, LaMDA is built on Transformer, a neural network
architecture that Google invented and open-sourced in 2017.
❖ It is designed to be able to engage in free-flowing conditions about a virtually endless number of topics.
Generative adversarial networks (GANs):
A generative adversarial network (GAN) has two
parts:
1. The generator learns to generate plausible data.
The generated instances become negative
training examples for the discriminator.
2. The discriminator learns to distinguish the
generator's fake data from real data. The
discriminator penalizes the generator for
producing implausible results.
5
GLOBAL PARTNERSHIP ON AI (GPAI)

Why in the News?
❖ India took over the Chair of Global Partnership
on Al (GPAI) from France.
Responsible Al for Youth 2022
❖ The National E-Governance Division of the
Ministry of Electronics & IT in collaboration
with Intel India launched the 'Responsible Al
for Youth 2022' program.
❖ The program is aimed at enabling school
students)with Artificial intelligence (Al) skills
in an inclusive manner through exclusive
hands-on learning and mentorship
opportunities.
❖ It is open to all school students studying in
classes 8-12 across India.

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Tech
Lecture – 06
Crypto Currency
2
Crypto Currency
What are Cryptocurrencies?

Cryptocurrencies are digital currencies that are secured by cryptography, which makes them nearly impossible
to counterfeit or double-spend. Cryptocurrencies are decentralized, meaning they are not subject to
government or financial institution control.
❖ Satoshi Nakamoto, the founder of
cryptocurrencies, defined Bitcoin as a new
electronic cash system. Bitcoin is the first
and most popular cryptocurrency. It was
created in 2009 by an anonymous person
or group of people under the name Satoshi
Nakamoto. The identity of Satoshi
Nakamoto is unknown.
Examples:
❖ Bitcoin: Bitcoin is the first and most popular cryptocurrency. It was created in 2009 by an anonymous
person or group of people under the name Satoshi Nakamoto.
❖ Ethereum: Ethereum is a decentralized, open-source blockchain platform that enables the development of
smart contracts and decentralized applications. It is the second-largest cryptocurrency by market
capitalization, after Bitcoin.
❖ Facebook Diem: Facebook Diem is a digital currency that is being developed by Facebook. It is not yet
available to the public.
❖ Ripple (XRP): Ripple (XRP) is a cryptocurrency that is designed to be used for fast and low-cost
international payments.
❖ Litecoin: Litecoin is a cryptocurrency that is similar to Bitcoin, but it offers faster transaction times.
Virtual Currencies (VC):
Virtual currencies are digital representations of value.
They can be used to buy goods and services online, and
they can also be traded for other currencies.
❖ Limited Usage: Virtual currencies are still a
relatively new technology, and they are not yet
widely accepted. This means that the number of
places where you can use virtual currencies is
limited.
❖ A larger umbrella term for all forms of
currencies traded online: Virtual currencies are a
type of digital currency. However, the term "virtual
currencies" is often used to refer to a wider range
of digital assets, including cryptocurrencies, fiat currencies, and central bank digital currencies (CBDCs).
3
❖ No globally accepted definition: There is no single definition of a virtual currency that is universally
accepted. Different countries and organizations have different definitions.
❖ Entirely peer-to-peer regulation: Virtual currencies are decentralized, meaning they are not subject to
government or financial institution control. This is because virtual currencies use a peer-to-peer network to
verify and record transactions. In a peer-to-peer network, all participants have an equal role in verifying and
recording transactions.
The Advantages and Disadvantages of Cryptocurrency:
Advantages Disadvantages
❖ Easy to use: Cryptocurrency is easy to use and ❖ Volatility in value: The value of cryptocurrencies
understand. can be volatile, meaning that it can change quickly
❖ Easy to store in digital mode: Cryptocurrency and unpredictably.
can be easily stored in digital form on a computer ❖ Money supply management is difficult (No
or smartphone. Central authority): There is no central authority
❖ People get a choice: People can choose to use that controls the money supply of
cryptocurrency instead of traditional fiat cryptocurrencies. This can make it difficult to
currencies. manage the money supply and prevent inflation.
❖ Difficult to counterfeit like physical currency: ❖ Difficult to regulate: Cryptocurrencies are
Cryptocurrency is difficult to counterfeit because difficult to regulate because they are
it is secured by cryptography. decentralized. This means that there is no single
❖ Highly secure with blockchain technology: government or financial institution that controls
Cryptocurrency is highly secure because it uses them.
blockchain technology to record transactions. ❖ Cyber frauds: Cryptocurrencies can be used for
❖ International usage: Cryptocurrency can be used cyber fraud, such as ransomware attacks.
internationally without having to go through a ❖ Misuse - Tax evasion, Money laundering:
bank or other financial institution. Cryptocurrencies can be used for illegal activities,
❖ Anti-Inflationary Currency: Cryptocurrency is such as tax evasion and money laundering.
often seen as an anti-inflationary currency ❖ Needs high energy (electricity) requirement in
because the supply of many cryptocurrencies is extraction: Cryptocurrency mining requires a lot
limited. of electricity, which can be harmful to the
environment.
❖ Irreversibility: Cryptocurrency transactions are
irreversible, meaning that they cannot be canceled
or reversed.
Cryptocurrency Mining:
Cryptocurrency mining is the process of verifying and adding transactions to a cryptocurrency ledger. Miners are
rewarded for their work with cryptocurrency.
Aspects of Cryptocurrency Mining:
❖ Data mining: Cryptocurrency mining involves using powerful computers to solve complex mathematical
problems. This process is called data mining.
4
❖ Cryptocurrency mining requires powerful computers that can perform a lot of calculations.
❖ Miners are rewarded with cryptocurrency for their work. The reward amount varies depending on the
cryptocurrency.
❖ Cryptocurrency is based on code. Miners use specialized software to mine cryptocurrency.
❖ Cryptocurrency is a digital currency. It does not exist in physical form.
❖ Cryptocurrency can be traded on exchanges for other currencies.
❖ Cryptocurrency can be used to buy goods and services.
Terms related to Crypto Mining:
❖ Proof of work: Proof of work is a consensus mechanism used by some cryptocurrencies, such as Bitcoin. In
proof of work, miners compete to solve complex mathematical problems. The first miner to solve a problem
is rewarded with cryptocurrency.
❖ Proof of stake: Proof of stake is a consensus mechanism used by some cryptocurrencies, such as Ethereum.
In proof of stake, miners stake their cryptocurrency to validate transactions. The more cryptocurrency a
miner stakes, the more likely they are to be selected to validate a transaction.
Cryptocurrency News:
❖ April 2018: The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) issued a circular prohibiting banks and non-banking financial
companies (NBFCs) from providing services related to virtual currencies (VCs).
❖ March 2020: The Supreme Court of India struck down the RBI's ban on VCs, ruling that they are not
commodities or real money.
❖ 2021: El Salvador became the first country in the world to adopt Bitcoin as legal tender.
❖ 2022: The Central African Republic became the second country to adopt Bitcoin as legal tender.
❖ India's cryptocurrency stance: India is still working on cryptocurrency regulations. The government has
said that it is open to supporting other cryptocurrencies, but it wants to avoid copying other countries'
regulations.
Why are countries like the Central African Republic (CAR) adopting cryptocurrencies as legal tender?
❖ Strong and inclusive growth: CAR is one of the poorest and most economically fragile countries in the
world, with a population of 5 million. Cryptocurrencies have the potential to help CAR achieve strong and
inclusive growth by:
❖ Reducing inflation: Cryptocurrencies are often seen as an inflation-resistant asset class, as their supply is
limited. This makes them attractive to countries with high inflation rates, such as CAR.
❖ Promoting financial inclusion: Cryptocurrencies can be used by anyone with an internet connection,
regardless of their bank account status or financial history. This can help to promote financial inclusion in
countries like CAR, where a large portion of the population is unbanked.
❖ Boosting economic activity: Cryptocurrencies can help boost economic activity by making it easier for
people to send and receive payments, both domestically and internationally.
❖ Positive growth: Cryptocurrencies have the potential to convert inflation-related decline from legal
currencies into positive growth. This is because cryptocurrencies are not subject to the same inflationary
pressures as fiat currencies. Additionally, cryptocurrencies can help to attract foreign investment and boost
the tourism industry.
5
❖ Reduce dependency on the other country: CAR does not have its own currency. Instead, it uses the
Central African CFA franc, which is pegged to the euro. By adopting Bitcoin as legal tender, CAR can
reduce its dependency on the euro and other foreign currencies.
❖ Circumvent the sanctions: CAR is subject to sanctions imposed by the United States and other countries.
Cryptocurrencies can help CAR to circumvent these sanctions by providing a way to send and receive
payments without going through the traditional banking system.
Issues Associated with Banning Decentralised Cryptocurrencies:
❖ Brain-drain: A blanket ban on cryptocurrencies in India would lead to an exodus of blockchain experts and
businesses from the country. After the RBI's 2018 ban on cryptocurrencies, many blockchain experts
moved to countries where crypto is regulated, such as Switzerland, Singapore, Estonia, and the US.
This brain drain would deprive India of the talent and expertise needed to develop and innovate in the
blockchain space.
❖ Deprivation of transformative technology: Blockchain technology is the underlying technology behind
cryptocurrencies. It is a distributed ledger technology that has the potential to revolutionize many industries,
including finance, healthcare, and supply chain management. By banning cryptocurrencies, India would
deprive itself of the opportunity to benefit from this transformative technology.
❖ Encouraging illegitimate use: Banning cryptocurrencies would drive them underground, making them
more difficult to track and regulate. This could encourage illegitimate use of cryptocurrencies for activities
such as money laundering and terrorist financing.
❖ Contradictory policies: A ban on cryptocurrencies would be inconsistent with the National Strategy on
Blockchain, 2021, which hailed blockchain technology as transparent, secure, and efficient. The ban would
also send a mixed message to the global community about India's commitment to innovation and
technological advancement.
Way Forward:
❖ Regulation is the Solution: Banning cryptocurrencies would not be an effective solution, as it would drive
them underground and make them more difficult to track and regulate. Instead, the Indian government
should focus on regulating cryptocurrencies in order to protect consumers and investors and to mitigate the
risks associated with cryptocurrencies.
❖ Clarity on Cryptocurrency Definition: The first step in regulating cryptocurrencies is to provide a clear
and concise definition of what constitutes a cryptocurrency. This would help to reduce uncertainty and
confusion in the market.
❖ Strong KYC Norms: Know Your Customer (KYC) norms are essential for preventing money laundering
and other financial crimes. The government should require cryptocurrency exchanges and other businesses
to implement strong KYC norms for their customers.
❖ Ensuring Transparency: The government should work to ensure transparency in the cryptocurrency
market. This could be done by requiring cryptocurrency exchanges to keep detailed records of all
transactions and to submit to regular inspections. The government could also require independent audits of
cryptocurrency exchanges.
❖ Creating Job Opportunities: The cryptocurrency industry has the potential to create a significant number
of jobs in India. The government should support the development of the cryptocurrency industry to create
jobs and boost the economy.
6
❖ Igniting the Entrepreneurial Wave: The cryptocurrency industry is attracting a growing number of
entrepreneurs. The government should support the startup ecosystem and provide incentives for investors to
invest in cryptocurrency startups.
SC Garg Committee Recommendations (2019):
❖ It recommended banning anybody who mines, holds, transacts or deals with cryptocurrencies in any
form. The Union Budget 2022-2023 of India has also proposed to introduce a digital currency in the coming
financial year. It was also announced that "any income from transfer of any virtual digital asset shall be
taxed at the rate of 30%.
❖ As per the rules specified by the Indian government gains from all such crypto transactions are taxable at a
flat rate of 30%. These rules, introduced during the 2022 Union Budget, are governed by Section 115BBH
of the Income Tax Act, 1961.
CBDC or National Digital Currency:
❖ A central bank digital currency (CBDC) is a digital form of a country's fiat currency. It is issued by the
central bank of a country and is
backed by the full faith and credit
of the government.
❖ Instead of printing paper currency
or minting coins, the central bank
issues electronic tokens. These
tokens can be used to make
payments online and in stores.
❖ The Digital Rupee (eINR or E-
Rupee): The Digital Rupee is a
tokenized digital version of the
Indian Rupee, issued by the
Reserve Bank of India (RBI) as a
central bank digital currency
(CBDC). The Digital Rupee was
launched on 1 December 2022.
Difference between Digital Currency and Unified Payments Interface:
Digital Currency:
❖ Digital Currency not volatile: Digital currency is not volatile, meaning that its value does not change as
quickly or dramatically as the value of cryptocurrencies. This is because digital currencies are regulated by
central banks, which have the power to control the supply of money and interest rates.
❖ Regulated by RBI: Digital currency is regulated by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), which is the central
bank of India. The RBI has the power to set policies and regulations for digital currency, including how it is
issued and used.
❖ Real money: Digital currency is real money, just like paper currency and coins. It can be used to buy goods
and services, and it can also be used to send and receive payments.
7
Challenges in rolling out National Digital Currency:

❖ Potential cybersecurity threat: Digital currencies are vulnerable to cyberattacks, such as hacking and
malware. This could lead to theft of funds or disruptions to the system.
❖ Lack of digital literacy of the population: Many people, especially in developing countries, do not have
access to the internet or do not know how to use digital devices. This could make it difficult for them to use
a national digital currency.
❖ Challenges in regulation, tracking investment and purchase, taxing individuals, etc.: Digital currencies
can be difficult to regulate and track. This could make them attractive to criminals and could also make it
difficult for governments to tax individuals and businesses.
❖ Threat to Privacy: Digital currencies can be used to track people's spending habits. This could raise privacy
concerns.
Big Data:
❖ Big data refers to data sets so large that
conventional systems cannot process them
❖ In it, a large amount of data is of a structured,
semi-structured, or unstructured nature.
❖ It also refers to the entire process of gathering,
storing, and analyzing that data.
❖ As per the study conducted by NASSCOM,
“the Indian analytics industry is predicted to
reach the $16 billion mark by 2025.”
❖ It is characterized by five V’s:
➢ Volume
➢ Variety
➢ Velocity
➢ Veracity
➢ Value
Applications:
❖ Big data is a large and complex set of data that is difficult to process using traditional database management
tools. Big data has the potential to revolutionize many industries and aspects of our lives. Here are some
examples of how big data is being used today:
➢ For Policy Making: Big data can be used to understand the savings and expenditure patterns of the
population, which can help governments to develop better policies and programs. For example, the
government of India is using big data to develop a new poverty line.
➢ For targeted delivery of welfare schemes: Big data can be used to identify the beneficiaries of welfare
schemes, such as Aadhaar, more accurately and efficiently. This can help to ensure that the benefits of
welfare schemes reach those who need them most.
➢ To prevent market manipulations: Big data can be used to detect and prevent market manipulations,
such as insider trading and price rigging. For example, the Securities and Exchange Board of India
8
(SEBI) is using a data lake to collect and analyze data from various sources to detect and prevent market
manipulations.
➢ To catch income tax evaders: Big data can be used to identify income tax evaders. For example, the
Income Tax Department of India is using a project called Insight to identify high-risk taxpayers and to
conduct more effective audits.
➢ To improve the competence of PSBs: Big data can be used to improve the competence of public sector
banks (PSBs). For example, the Economic Survey of India 2020 suggested the creation of a PSB network
on the lines of the Goods and Services Tax Network (GSTN) to improve the efficiency and effectiveness
of PSBs.
➢ To boost intelligence gathering: Big data can be used to boost intelligence gathering through
surveillance of communication systems. This can help to prevent crimes and terrorist attacks.
➢ Internet of Things (IoT): The IoT is a network of physical devices that are connected to the internet.
The IoT is expected to generate a huge amount of data, which can be used for a variety of purposes. For
example, the IoT can be used to improve traffic management, to reduce energy consumption, and to
monitor the environment.
Challenges of big data:
❖ Lack of data scientists: India has a shortage of data scientists, with less than 10% of the global supply. This
is a major challenge, as data scientists are essential for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting big data.
❖ Security: Ensuring the security of huge amounts of data is difficult. Big data is often stored on cloud
servers, which can be vulnerable to cyberattacks. Additionally, big data is often collected from a variety of
sources, which can make it difficult to track and protect.
❖ Invasion of privacy: Big data analytics can lead to privacy concerns. For example, big data can be used to
track people's movements, spending habits, and online activity. This information can be used to target them
with advertising or to make decisions about their employment or creditworthiness.
❖ Technical Challenges: There are several technical challenges associated with big data, such as inefficient
infrastructure for data collection and storage. Big data is often collected and stored in different formats,
which can make it difficult to analyze. Additionally, big data processing requires powerful computers and
software.
❖ Net Neutrality: the principle that internet service providers should enable access to all content and
applications regardless of the source, and without favoring or blocking particular products or websites.
Steps Taken:
❖ NITI Aayog is developing ‘National Data & Analytics Platform’ as a single source for various data
❖ Big Data Management Policy’ drafted by CAG for auditing big data generated in the public sector.
Dark patterns:
❖ Deceptive patterns refer to strategies employed by websites and apps to make users perform actions they did
not intend to or discourage behaviors that are not advantageous for the companies.
❖ These patterns often exploit cognitive biases and employ tactics such as intellect, false urgency, forced
actions, hidden costs, etc.
9
Types of dark patterns:

❖ The Consumer Affairs Ministry has identified nine types of dark patterns being used by e -commerce
companies.
❖ False Urgency: Creates a sense of urgency or scarcity to pressure consumers into making a purchase or
taking action.
❖ Basket Sneaking: Dark patterns are used to add additional products or services to the shopping cart without
the user's consent.
❖ Confirm Shaming: Uses guilt to make consumers adhere; criticizes or attacks consumers for not
conforming to a particular belief or viewpoint.
❖ Forced Action: Pushes consumers into taking an action they may not want to take, such as signing up for a
service, in order.

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Tech
Lecture - 07
General Biology - Part - 1
2
General Biology - Part - 1

Cell:
 Cells are a basic unit of life.
 The cell was first discovered and named by Robert Hooke in 1665.
 Basic components of cell
1. Cell membrane
2. Cytoplasm
3. Nucleus
 Cell theory was proposed by Schleiden and Schwann (1838-39)
 All living things are made up of cells.
 The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life
 All new cells come from pre-existing cells (Rudolph Virchow)
Types of Cells:
 Prokaryotic Cells: Prokaryotic Cells are the simplest type of cells. They do not have a nucleus or other
organelles. They are found in bacteria and archaea.
 Eukaryotic Cells: Eukaryotic Cells are more complex than prokaryotic cells. They have a nucleus and other
organelles, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts. Eukaryotic cells are found in plants, animals, fungi, and
protists.
Prokaryotic Cells have the Following Features:
 They do not have a nucleus.
 Their DNA is not enclosed in a membrane.
 They have a single circular chromosome.
 They have ribosomes, but they are not bound to the
endoplasmic reticulum.
 They do not have mitochondria or chloroplasts.
 Examples: Bacterial cells (Amoeba, paramecium)
The Structure of a Bacterial Cell:
 Cell membrane: The cell membrane is a thin, flexible
layer that surrounds the cell. It controls what enters and
leaves the cell.
 Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance
inside the cell. It contains all of the cell's organelles, as
well as the cell's DNA.
 Nucleoid: The nucleoid is the region of the cytoplasm where the cell's DNA is located. It is not enclosed by a
membrane, like the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell.
 Ribosomes: Ribosomes are tiny organelles that make proteins. They are found in the cytoplasm and in the
3
 Plasmid: A plasmid is a small, circular piece of DNA that is not part of the cell's main chromosome. Plasmids
can carry genes that code for different traits, such as antibiotic resistance.
 Flagellum: A flagellum is a long, whip-like structure that helps the cell to move.
 Pili: Pili are short, hair-like structures that help the cell to attach to other cells or surfaces.
Eukaryotic Cells have the Following Features:
 They have a nucleus.
 Their DNA is enclosed in a membrane.
 They have multiple linear chromosomes.
 Their ribosomes are bound to the endoplasmic reticulum.
 They have mitochondria and chloroplasts.
 Examples: Cells of multicellular organisms.(Animal cells , plant cells, fungus, protozoan)
Example: (Animal cell)

Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell
Prokaryotic cell has tough cell wall Eukaryotic animal cell is only surrounded by a thin
plasma membrane.
It does not have a nucleus. It has a prominent nucleus in the center.
Membrane bound cell organelles are absent The cell bears several organelles like mitochondria,
golgi complex, etc.
DNA is naked and circular. DNA is linear, thread like structure
Examples: bacterial cells (Amoeba, paramecium) Examples: Cells of multicellular organisms. (Animal
cells , plant cells, fungus, protozoan)
The structure of Animal cell:
 Cell membrane: The cell membrane is a thin, flexible layer that surrounds the cell. It controls what enters
and leaves the cell.
 Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance inside the cell. It contains all of the cell's organelles, as
well as the cell's DNA.
4
 Nucleus: The nucleus is the control center of the cell. It contains the cell's DNA, which is the genetic material
that determines the cell's structure and function.
 Ribosomes: Ribosomes are tiny organelles that make proteins. They are found in the cytoplasm and on the
 Endoplasmic reticulum: The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes that transports proteins and
other molecules around the cell.
 Golgi apparatus: The Golgi apparatus is a stack of flattened sacs that modifies and packages proteins for
export from the cell.
 Mitochondria: Mitochondria are the "powerhouses" of the cell. They produce energy for the cell to use.
 Vacuole: The vacuole is a large, fluid-filled sac that stores water, nutrients, and waste products.
 Lysosomes: Lysosomes are sacs of enzymes that break down cellular waste products.
 Centrioles: Centrioles are a pair of rod-shaped structures that help organize cell division.
Plant Cells:
The main parts of the cell are labeled, including:
 Cell wall: The cell wall is a rigid layer that
surrounds the cell membrane. It provides
support and protection for the cell.
 Cell membrane: The cell membrane is a thin,
flexible layer that surrounds the cell wall. It
controls what enters and leaves the cell.
 Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm is the jelly-like
substance inside the cell. It contains all of the
cell's organelles, as well as the cell's DNA.
 Nucleus: The nucleus is the control center of
the cell. It contains the cell's DNA, which is
the genetic material that determines the cell's
structure and function.
 Chloroplast: Chloroplasts are organelles that contain chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is a green pigment that absorbs
sunlight and uses it to convert carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and glucose. This process is called
photosynthesis.
 Ribosomes: Ribosomes are tiny organelles that make proteins. They are found in the cytoplasm and in the
 Endoplasmic reticulum: The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes that transports proteins and
other molecules around the cell.
 Golgi apparatus: The Golgi apparatus is a stack of flattened sacs that modifies and packages proteins for
export from the cell.
 Mitochondria: Mitochondria are the "powerhouses" of the cell. They produce energy for the cell to use.
 Vacuole: The vacuole is a large, fluid-filled sac that stores water, nutrients, and waste products.
 Lysosomes: Lysosomes are sacs of enzymes that break down cellular waste products.
5
Mitochondria:
 Mitochondria: Mitochondria are organelles that are found in the cells of most living organisms. They are
responsible for producing energy for the cell.
 Cristae: The cristae are folds of the inner membrane of the mitochondria. They increase the surface area of
the membrane, which allows more ATP to be produced.
 ATP: ATP is the energy currency of the cell. It is used to power all of the cell's activities, such as movement,
growth, and reproduction.
 Oxidation of food: Mitochondria
produce ATP by oxidizing food
molecules. This process releases
energy, which is used to synthesize
ATP.
 Semi-autonomous organelle:
Mitochondria have their DNA and
ribosomes. This means that they can
produce some of their proteins, but they
still need to rely on the cell for other
proteins.
 Increase in number: The number of mitochondria in a cell can increase if the cell needs more energy. This
happens, for example, when the cell is dividing or when the cell is under stress.
 Powerhouse of the cell: Mitochondria are often called the "powerhouses of the cell" because they produce so
much energy.
 Breakdown of glucose: Mitochondria break down glucose molecules to produce ATP. This process is called
cellular respiration.
 Energy production: Mitochondria are responsible for the production of energy in the cell. They do this by
breaking down glucose molecules and using the released energy to create ATP molecules.
Chloroplast:
 Chloroplast: Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells. They are the site of photosynthesis, the process
by which plants use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and glucose.
 Only in plant cells: Chloroplasts are only found in plant cells. This is because they contain chlorophyll, a
green pigment that is essential for photosynthesis.
 Own DNA: Chloroplasts have their DNA. This means that they can produce some of their proteins, but they
still rely on the cell for other proteins and nutrients.
 Ribosomes: Chloroplasts have their ribosomes. These are used to produce proteins.
 Thylakoid membrane: The thylakoid membrane is a series of flattened sacs that are found inside the
chloroplast. These sacs are where the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis take place.
 Grana: The grana are stacks of thylakoid membranes. They are where the light-dependent reactions of
photosynthesis are most concentrated.
 Stroma: The stroma is the fluid that surrounds the thylakoids. This is where the Calvin cycle, the light-
independent reactions of photosynthesis, take place.
6
 Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and
water into oxygen and glucose.
 Steps of photosynthesis: The steps of photosynthesis are:
1. Light-dependent reactions: These reactions use sunlight to split water molecules and produce oxygen
and ATP.
2. Calvin cycle: These reactions use ATP and NADPH to reduce carbon dioxide and produce glucose.
The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
 Endoplasmic reticulum: The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of membranes that is found in the
cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. It is responsible for a variety of functions, including:
 Protein synthesis: The ER is the site of protein synthesis. Ribosomes are attached to the ER, and they
produce proteins that are destined for export from the cell or for use within the cell.
 Lipid synthesis: The ER is also involved in lipid synthesis. Lipids are essential for the structure and
function of cell membranes.
 Transport: The ER helps to transport proteins and lipids around the cell.
 Storage: The ER can store proteins and lipids.
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum: The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is covered in ribosomes. This gives
it a rough appearance, hence the name. The RER is responsible for protein synthesis.
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) does not have ribosomes attached
to it. This gives it a smooth appearance, hence the name. The SER is involved in lipid synthesis, detoxification,
and calcium storage.
 Urea: Urea is a waste product that is produced by the liver. It is transported from the liver to the kidneys,
where it is excreted in the urine.
 Water: Water is essential for life. It is used in a variety of cellular processes, including protein synthesis,
metabolism, and transport.
 Synthesis: The ER synthesis refers to the process of making proteins and lipids.
 Detoxification: The Smooth ER is involved in detoxification by metabolizing drugs and other harmful
substances.
 Calcium storage: Calcium is an important mineral that is involved in a variety of cellular processes, including
muscle contraction, nerve signaling, and blood clotting. The SER stores calcium, which can be released when
needed.
The Cell Wall:
 Cell wall: A rigid structure that surrounds the cell membrane of plant cells, algae, and some bacteria. It
provides support and protection for the cell and helps to maintain its shape.
 Plant cell wall: The cell wall of plant cells is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, and lignin. Cellulose
is a long, fibrous carbohydrate that gives the cell wall its strength. Hemicellulose is another carbohydrate that
helps to bind the cellulose fibers together. Pectin is a gel-like substance that helps to hold the cell wall together.
Lignin is a complex polymer that makes the cell wall rigid and resistant to decay.
 The cell wall is permeable, which means that it allows some substances to pass through it. However, it is not
completely permeable, so it can still help to protect the cell from harmful substances.
7
 Functions of the cell wall:

 Provides support and protection for the cell
 Helps to maintain the shape of the cell
 Prevents the cell from bursting
 Provides a barrier against harmful substances
 Helps to regulate the movement of water and nutrients into and out of the cell
 Composition of the cell wall:
 Plant cell wall: Cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, lignin
 Fungus cell wall: Chitin
 Bacterial cell wall: Peptidoglycan
The Cell Membrane:
 Cell membrane: The cell membrane is a thin, flexible layer that surrounds all cells. It is made up of a
phospholipid bilayer, with proteins and carbohydrates embedded in it.
 Lipids: The lipids in the cell membrane are arranged in a bilayer, with the hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails
facing each other and the hydrophilic (water-loving) heads facing outwards. This arrangement allows the cell
membrane to be both water-resistant and flexible.
 Proteins: The proteins in the cell membrane are responsible for a variety of functions, including:
 Transporting molecules into and out of the cell
 Signaling between cells
 Recognizing other cells
 Attaching the cell to other cells or the extracellular matrix
 Carbohydrates: The carbohydrates in the cell membrane are attached to the proteins and lipids. They help to
identify the cell to other cells and the immune system.
 Semi-permeable: The cell membrane is semi-permeable, which means that it allows some molecules to pass
through it, but not others. This selective permeability allows the cell to control the composition of its internal
environment.
 The outer boundary of a living cell: The cell membrane is the outer boundary of the living cell. It separates
the cell from its environment and protects the cell from harmful substances.
 Helps in giving shape to cells: The cell membrane helps to give the cell its shape. The proteins and
carbohydrates in the cell membrane help to anchor the cell to other cells and to the extracellular matrix.
 Also helps in cell-to-cell communication: The proteins in the cell membrane help to signal between cells.
This signaling allows cells to communicate with each other and to coordinate their activities.
Golgi bodies:
 Golgi bodies: Golgi bodies are organelles found in all eukaryotic cells. They are responsible for the packaging
and secretion of proteins.
 Function: Golgi bodies receive proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum and modify them by adding sugar
molecules and other post-translational modifications. They then transport the modified proteins to other
organelles or to the cell surface for secretion.
 Cisterne: The Golgi bodies are made up of a stack of flattened sacs called cisternae.
8
 Modification and packaging of proteins: Golgi bodies are responsible for the modification and packaging
of proteins. They add sugar molecules and other post-translational modifications to proteins, which helps them
to fold correctly and function properly.
They also package proteins into vesicles
that can be transported to other organelles
or to the cell surface for secretion.
 Complex Sugar: Golgi bodies are also
involved in the synthesis of complex sugars.
These sugars are used to build cell walls,
membranes, and other structures.
Lysosomes:
 Lysosomes: Lysosomes are organelles
found in all eukaryotic cells. They are
responsible for the breakdown of cellular
waste products.
 Function: Lysosomes contain enzymes that
break down proteins, carbohydrates, lipids,
and nucleic acids. They also help to remove damaged organelles from the cell.
 In case of injury: Lysosomes can also be involved in the defense against pathogens. They can release their
enzymes to kill bacteria and other harmful microbes.
Cell Nucleus:
Parts of Cell Nucleus:
 Nucleoplasm: The nucleoplasm is the fluid inside the nucleus. It contains chromosomes, nucleoli, and other
nuclear components.
 Chromosomes: Chromosomes are structures that contain the genetic material of the cell. They are made up
of DNA and protein.
 Nucleolus: The nucleolus is a small, dense body in the nucleus. It is responsible for the production of
ribosomes.
 Nuclear membrane: The nuclear membrane is a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus. It controls the
passage of materials into and out of the nucleus.
The Following are the Important Points of the Nucleus:
 The nucleus is the control center of the cell. It contains the genetic material, which controls all of the cell's
activities.
 The chromosomes are the carriers of genetic information. They are made up of DNA, which is the genetic
material of the cell.
 The nucleolus is responsible for the production of ribosomes. Ribosomes are the protein factories of the cell.
 The nuclear membrane controls the passage of materials into and out of the nucleus. It helps to protect the
genetic material from damage.
9
Organelle Function
Nucleus Contains DNA, the "Brain of the cell"
Mitochondria Energy production, "Power house of cell"
Chloroplast (only in Plant cells) Photosynthesis, (Kitchen of cell)
Endoplasmic reticulum Synthesis of proteins, and lipids, remove toxins from
the cell
Golgi bodies Modification of proteins, Packaging
Vacuole Storage (water, nutrients, waste)
Ribosomes Synthesis of proteins, protein factory of the cell
Lysosome Cell digestion, Suicidal bags of cell
Centrioles (only in Animal cells) Help in cell division
Q. Which of the following statements are correct regarding the general difference between plant and animal cells?
(2020)
1. Plant cells have cellulose cell walls whilst animal cells do not.
2. Plant cells do not have plasma membranes, unlike animal cells which do.
3. Mature plant cell has one large vacuole whilst an animal cell has many small vacuoles.
Select the correct answer using the code given below :
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Respiration in a Cell:
 Respiration is the process by which cells break down glucose to release energy.
10
There are two main types of respiration: Aerobic respiration and Anaerobic respiration:
 Aerobic respiration takes place in the presence of oxygen. It is the more efficient type of respiration and
produces more energy. The first step of aerobic respiration is glycolysis, which takes place in the cytoplasm
of the cell. In glycolysis, glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate. Pyruvate is then transported
to the mitochondria, where it is further broken down in the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain. The Krebs
cycle produces carbon dioxide and water, while the electron transport chain produces ATP, the cell's energy
currency.
 Anaerobic respiration takes place in the absence of oxygen. It is less efficient than aerobic respiration and
produces less energy. The only type of anaerobic respiration that is shown in the image is fermentation.
Fermentation takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell and produces ethanol or lactic acid as a byproduct.

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Tech
Lecture - 08
General Biology (Part – 02)
2
General Biology (Part – 01)

The Cell Cycle:
The cell cycle is a cyclical process that cells go through to grow
and divide. The cell cycle has four main phases: G1, S, G2,
and M.
❖ G 1: This is the first gap phase, where the cell grows and
prepares for DNA replication. During this phase, the cell
increases in size and synthesizes proteins and RNA.
❖ S: This is the synthesis phase, where the DNA is
replicated. During this phase, the cell duplicates its DNA
so that each daughter cell will have a complete set of
chromosomes.
❖ G 2: This is the second gap phase, where the cell prepares
for mitosis. During this phase, the cell synthesizes more
proteins and RNA and makes sure that the DNA has been
replicated correctly.
❖ M: This is the mitotic phase, where the cell divides into two daughter cells. During this phase, the
chromosomes condense, the nuclear membrane breaks down, and the mitotic spindle forms. The mitotic
spindle is a structure that helps to separate the chromosomes during mitosis. The chromosomes then separate
and move to opposite poles of the cell, and the cell divides into two daughter cells.
Cell Division:
❖ Mitosis:
➢ It is a type of cell division that results in two identical daughter cells.
➢ The number of chromosomes remains the same in the daughter cells as in the parent cell.
➢ It is used for growth and repair of the body.
❖ Meiosis:
➢ It is a type of cell division that results in four daughter cells.
➢ The number of chromosomes is reduced by half in the daughter cells compared to the parent cell.
➢ It is used for the production of gametes (sex cells).
The Process of Cell Division in a Human Cell:
❖ Human cells have 46 chromosomes, which are made up of DNA. Meiosis is a type of cell division that
produces gametes, or sex cells. In meiosis, the number of chromosomes is reduced by half, so each gamete has
23 chromosomes. This is because a human cell has 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes.
In meiosis, each chromosome pair separates, so each gamete only gets one chromosome from each pair.
❖ Male cells produce sperm cells, which are the male gametes. Female cells produce egg cells, which are
the female gametes. When a sperm cell fertilizes an egg cell, the two gametes fuse together to form a zygote.
The zygote has 46 chromosomes, the same number of chromosomes as a human cell. This is because the
sperm cell and egg cell each contributed 23 chromosomes to the zygote.
❖ Cell division is used to repair cells that have been damaged or injured. For example, if a person gets a cut, the
cells in the cut area will divide to repair the damage. This process is called a Rep cell.
3
Types of Cells:
❖ Somatic cells and Gamete cells are the two main types of cells in the human body. Somatic cells make up
all of the tissues and organs in the body, while gamete cells are the reproductive cells that produce offspring.
❖ Somatic cells have 46 chromosomes, which are arranged in 23 pairs. These chromosomes are made up of
DNA, which is the genetic material that determines a person's traits. Gamete cells, on the other hand, only
have 23 chromosomes. This is because when a sperm cell and an egg cell fuse together during fertilization, the
resulting zygote has 46 chromosomes, the same number as a somatic cell.
❖ The process of cell division that produces gamete cells is called meiosis. Meiosis is a more complex process
than mitosis, the process that produces somatic cells. In meiosis, the chromosomes are paired up and then
separated. This results in four daughter cells, each with 23 chromosomes.
❖ Somatic cells are essential for the growth and repair of the body. They also play a role in many other important
processes, such as immunity and metabolism. Gamete cells are essential for reproduction. They are responsible
for passing on genetic information from parents to offspring.
Mitosis Division:
❖ Nuclear division is the process by which the nucleus of the cell divides into two daughter nuclei. This happens
in the m phase of mitosis, which is the stage where the chromosomes are duplicated and the cell prepares to
divide.
❖ The chromosomes are duplicated in the first stage of mitosis, called the prophase. In the second stage, called
the metaphase, the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell. In the third stage, called the anaphase, the
chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles of the cell. In the fourth and final stage, called the telophase,
the nuclear envelope reforms around each set of chromosomes and the cell divides into two new cells.
❖ In the prophase stage, the chromosomes condense and become visible. The nuclear membrane breaks down
and the nucleolus disappears.
❖ In the metaphase stage, the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell.
❖ In the anaphase stage, the chromosomes are separated and move to opposite poles of the cell.
❖ In the telophase stage, the nuclear membrane reforms and the nucleolus reappears. The cell then divides into
two daughter cells.
Three-Parent Baby or Mitochondrial Replacement
❖ Mitochondrial inheritance is the process by which mitochondria are passed on from the mother to the child.
Mitochondria are tiny organelles that are found in the cytoplasm of cells. They are responsible for generating
energy for the cell.
❖ Consider a mother cell and a father cell. The mother cell has two mitochondria, one with damaged DNA and
the other with normal DNA. The father cell does not have any mitochondria.
❖ When the mother cell and the father cell fuse together to form a zygote, the zygote inherits two mitochondria
from the mother cell. The zygote then undergoes mitosis to form two daughter cells. The two daughter cells
will each inherit one mitochondrion from the mother cell.
❖ If the mitochondria with the damaged DNA are inherited by the daughter cell, the daughter cell will not be
able to generate enough energy and will die.
❖ This is a rare condition, but it can happen. In some cases, the child may be born with a mitochondrial disease.
Mitochondrial diseases are a group of disorders that are caused by defects in mitochondria. These disorders
can affect many different parts of the body, including the heart, brain, and muscles.
4
5
Mitochondrial diseases are caused by mutations in the DNA of mitochondria, which are the energy-
producing organelles found in cells. These mutations can be passed on from mothers to their children, but only if
the mother's egg cell contains mitochondria with the mutation.
In a three-parent baby, the mitochondria from the mother's egg cell are replaced with mitochondria from a healthy
donor. This is done by removing the nucleus from the mother's egg cell and then fusing it with the cytoplasm
of a donor egg cell. The resulting cell, which has the mother's nucleus and the donor's mitochondria, is then
implanted in the mother's uterus to grow into a baby.
The different Steps Involved in a Three-Parent Baby:
❖ The first step is to remove the nucleus from the mother's egg cell. This is done by using a laser to cut the
cell in half. The nucleus is then removed from one-half of the cell.
❖ The second step is to remove the cytoplasm from the donor egg cell. This is done by using a suction device
to remove the cytoplasm from the cell.
❖ The third step is to fuse the nucleus from the mother's egg cell with the cytoplasm from the donor egg cell.
This is done by using an electric current to join the two cells together.
❖ The fourth step is to implant the resulting cell in the mother's uterus. If the cell implants and grows into a
baby, the baby will have the mother's nuclear DNA and the donor's mitochondrial DNA.
Surrogacy:
Surrogacy is a complex process in which a woman agrees to carry and deliver a child for another couple or
individual. The process typically involves the following steps:
❖ The intended parents (IPs) provide their sperm and egg cells to a fertility clinic.
❖ The clinic fertilizes the egg cells with the sperm cells in a laboratory.
❖ The resulting embryos are transferred to the surrogate's uterus.
❖ The surrogate carries the pregnancy to term and delivers the baby.
❖ The IPs take custody of the baby after the birth.
6
Q. In the context of hereditary diseases, consider the following statements: (2021)

1. Passing on mitochondrial diseases from parent to child can be prevented by mitochondrial replacement
therapy either before or after in vitro fertilization of the egg.
2. A child inherits mitochondrial diseases entirely from the mother and not from the father.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Q. With reference to mitochondrial replacement therapy, consider the following statements:

1. Three parent babies are created using a technique called mitochondrial replacement therapy.
2. Mitochondrial replacement therapy is a type of assisted reproductive technology that involves replacing
the faulty mitochondria in an egg with healthy mitochondria from a donor egg.
3. Mitochondrial disease are caused by mutations in the mitochondria ,which are the powerhouse of the
cell
How many statements are correct?
(a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None
Blood:
The different components of blood are labeled
❖ Components of Blood: The different components of blood, including red blood cells, white blood cells,
platelets, and plasma.
➢ Red blood cells carry oxygen to the tissues.
➢ White blood cells fight infection.
➢ Platelets help blood clot.
➢ Plasma is the liquid part of blood that carries nutrients and waste products.
❖ Plasma: Plasma makes up about 55% of blood. It is a clear, yellowish liquid that contains water, proteins,
nutrients, and waste products.
❖ Hemoglobin: Hemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells. It is responsible for carrying oxygen to the
tissues.
❖ Red blood cells (Erythrocytes): Red blood cells are the most abundant cells in blood. They are disc-shaped
and contain hemoglobin. These are the cells that carry oxygen to the body's tissues. They make up about
45% of blood. Red blood cells are red because they contain hemoglobin, which is a protein that binds oxygen.
❖ White blood cells (Leukocytes): White blood cells are less abundant than red blood cells. They are there
to fight infection. They make up about 1% of blood. White blood cells come in different types, each with a
different function.
❖ Platelets (Thrombocytes): Platelets are the smallest cells in the blood. They help blood clot. They make
up about 1% of blood. Platelets are small, disc-shaped cells that help blood clot by forming a mesh that traps
blood cells.
7
❖ Blood has the following features:

➢ It is fluid.
➢ It is red.
➢ It is made up of different components.
➢ It is essential for life.
Note:
❖ The one Haemoglobin molecule carries four molecules of oxygen.
❖ Human beings have 5.5 liters of blood in the body.
White Blood Cells (WBCs):

The different types of WBCs are:
❖ Granulocytes: These WBCs have granules in their cytoplasm. They include neutrophils, eosinophils, and
basophils.
8
➢ Neutrophils: These are the most abundant type of WBCs. They fight infection by engulfing and
destroying bacteria.
➢ Eosinophils: These WBCs help fight parasitic infections and allergic reactions.
➢ Basophils: These WBCs release histamine, which is a chemical that causes inflammation.
❖ Agranulocytes: These WBCs do not have granules in their cytoplasm. They include lymphocytes and
monocytes.
➢ Lymphocytes: These WBCs fight infection by producing antibodies.
➢ Monocytes: These WBCs mature into macrophages, which are large cells that engulf and destroy bacteria
and other foreign invaders.
Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell that helps the body fight infection. They do this by producing
antibodies, attacking infected cells, and killing cancer cells.
There are three main types of lymphocytes: B cells, T cells, and natural killer cells.
❖ B cells produce antibodies, which are proteins that help the body fight infection. When a B cell encounters an
antigen, it will produce antibodies that are specific to that antigen. These antibodies will then attach to the
antigen and help the body's immune system destroy it.
❖ T cells attack and kill infected cells. There are two main types of T cells: helper T cells and cytotoxic T cells.
Helper T cells help other cells of the immune system, such as B cells, to function properly. Cytotoxic T cells
kill infected cells directly.
❖ Natural killer cells attack and kill infected cells and cancer cells. They do this without the need for antibodies.
Memory cells are a type of lymphocyte that remembers the specific antigens that the body has been exposed to in
the past. This allows the body to fight infection more quickly if the same antigen is encountered again.
The process of the immune system fighting infection. When the body is invaded by a foreign invader, the white
blood cells recognize the antigen on the surface of the invader. The white blood cells then produce antibodies that
bind to the antigen. The antibodies attach to the antigen and mark it for destruction.
Platelets:
❖ Platelets are essential for blood clotting. When a blood vessel is injured, platelets clump together to form a
plug that stops the bleeding. Platelets also release chemicals that help to activate the clotting cascade,
which is a series of reactions that leads to the formation of a blood clot.
❖ Platelets are the third type of blood cells, after red blood cells and white blood cells. They are also called
Thrombocytes. Platelets are small, colorless cell fragments that help blood clot.
❖ Platelets are made up of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. The proteins in platelets are essential for their
function in blood clotting. When a blood vessel is injured, platelets release chemicals that attract other platelets
to the site of the injury. The platelets then form a mesh that traps blood cells and helps to stop the bleeding.
❖ The clot that forms when blood clots is called a Fibrin Clot. The fibrin clot is made up of a protein called
fibrinogen. Fibrinogen is converted into fibrin, which forms the mesh that traps blood cells.
❖ Blood clotting is a complex process that involves many different factors. Platelets are just one of the factors
involved in blood clotting. Other factors include proteins, blood vessels, and the nervous system.
Blood Groups:
The blood groups are determined by the presence or absence of certain antigens on the surface of red blood cells.
The most common blood groups are A, B, AB, and O.
9
❖ Antigens: These are proteins or other

substances that are found on the surface
of cells.
❖ Antibodies: These are proteins that are
produced by the immune system to
fight against foreign substances.
When a person receives a blood transfusion,
the blood must be compatible with their own
blood type. This is because the antibodies in
the recipient's blood will attack the antigens
on the donor's blood cells if they are
incompatible.
❖ For example, a person with blood type
A has A antigens on their red blood
cells. They can only receive blood from
a donor with blood type A or O. If they
receive blood from a donor with blood
type B, their antibodies will attack the B antigens on the donor's blood cells and cause a reaction.
❖ Agglutination is the clumping of red blood cells. When blood from two different blood groups is mixed, the
antigens on the red blood cells of one person will react with the antibodies in the plasma of the other person.
This will cause the red blood cells to clump together.
❖ The agglutination reaction is important because it can help to prevent blood transfusions from being
mismatched. If blood is mismatched, the red blood cells of the recipient can clump together and cause a serious
reaction.
The Rh Factor:
❖ The Rh factor is a protein that is found on the surface of red blood cells. People who have the Rh factor are
Rh positive, while people who do not have the Rh factor are Rh negative.
❖ About 85% of people are Rh-positive. The Rh factor is not important for blood type, but it is important for
blood transfusions and pregnancy.
❖ When a person with Rh-negative blood receives blood from a donor who is Rh-positive, their body will
produce antibodies against the Rh factor. These antibodies can attack the red blood cells of the baby if the
mother is Rh negative and the father is Rh positive. This can lead to a condition called Hemolytic Disease of
the Newborn (HDN).
❖ HDN is a serious condition that can cause the death of the baby. There are a few ways to prevent HDN. One
way is to give the mother Rh immunoglobulin (RhoGAM) during her pregnancy. RhoGAM is a medication
that helps to prevent the mother's body from producing antibodies against the Rh factor.
❖ Another way to prevent HDN is to give the baby Rh immunoglobulin after birth. This will help to prevent the
baby's body from producing antibodies against the Rh factor.
10
Q. A married couple adopted a male child. A few years later, two boys were born to them. The blood
group of the couple is AB positive and O negative. The blood group of the three sons is A positive, B
positive, and O positive. The blood group of the adopted son is (2011)
(a) O positive (b) A positive
(c) B Positive (d) Cannot be determined on the basis of the given data
Blood Group Matching Table:

Father’s Blood Type
A B AB O
A A, B, AB, or O A, B, or AB A, B, or AB A or O
Mother’s B B or O A, B, or AB A, B, or AB B or O Child’s
Blood Type AB A, B, or AB A, B, or AB A, B, or AB A or B Blood Type
O B or O A or B A or B O
❖ Blood group is inherited from parents in a Mendelian fashion. This means that each parent passes on one of
their two blood group alleles to the child. The child's blood type is determined by the combination of the alleles
they inherit from their parents.
11
❖ The table shows the possible blood types of a child based on the blood types of the parents.
❖ For example: If the mother has blood type A and the father has blood type O, the child can have blood
type A or O. This is because the mother can pass on either her A allele or her O allele to the child, and the
father can only pass on his O allele to the child.
❖ The table is divided into four sections, one for each blood type (A, B, AB, and O). Each section shows the
possible blood types of the child if the mother and father have the blood types listed at the top of the section.
❖ The table is a useful tool for predicting the possible blood types of a child. However, it is important to
remember that the table is not always accurate. There is a small chance that the child's blood type will be
different from what is predicted by the table.
Classification Of Organisms:
Five Kingdom Classification of Living Organisms
by R.H. Whittaker in 1969
12
The Five Kingdoms are:

❖ Monera: This kingdom includes all prokaryotic organisms, such as bacteria and archaea.
❖ Protista: This kingdom includes all unicellular eukaryotic organisms, such as algae and protozoa.
❖ Fungi: This kingdom includes all multicellular eukaryotic organisms that obtain their food by absorbing
nutrients from other organisms, such as mushrooms and molds.
❖ Plantae: This kingdom includes all multicellular eukaryotic organisms that produce their own food through
photosynthesis, such as trees and flowers.
❖ Animalia: This kingdom includes all multicellular eukaryotic organisms that ingest other organisms for food,
such as humans and animals.
The five-kingdom classification system is based on a number of factors, including cell structure, mode of nutrition,
and evolutionary relationships. This system is still widely used today, but it has been criticized for being too broad
and for not taking into account the diversity of life within each kingdom.
Important Terms:
❖ Eukaryote: An organism that has cells with a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
❖ Prokaryote: An organism that does not have cells with a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles.
❖ Autotroph: An organism that can produce its own food.
❖ Heterotroph: An organism that cannot produce its own food and must consume other organisms for energy
and nutrients.
❖ Multicellular: An organism that is made up of many cells.
❖ Unicellular: An organism that is made up of a single cell.
13
Q. Consider the following statements:

1. The Rh factor is a protein found on the surface of red blood cells.
2. People who do not have the Rh factor are called Rh-positive.
3. People who have the Rh factor are called Rh-negative.
How many statements given above are correct?
(a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Tech
Lecture – 09
Human Health and Diseases
2
Human Health and Diseases
Zoonotic Diseases: Zoonotic diseases are diseases that can be transmitted from animals to people. Examples of
zoonotic diseases include Rabies, Lyme disease, and COVID-19.
Disease:
Disease means any harmful deviation from the normal structural or functional state of an organism
Communicable Diseases Non-Communicable Diseases
1. Diseases which can be passed from one person 1. Cannot be passed from one person to another.
to another.
2. They are caused by pathogens. 2. Caused by deficiency of nutrients or due to allergy
3. Person to person transmission possible. 3. Person to person transmission not possible.
4. Example: Malaria, AIDS, Cold, Tuberculosis 4. Example: Cancer, Allergies, Diabetes
Microbes: Very small living things and are sometimes called Microorganisms. Microbes cannot be seen with
the naked eye.
Pathogens: Disease causing microbes are Pathogens.
Common Human Diseases
By Bacteria By Virus Passed through Vectors
1. Cholera 1. Smallpox 1. Chikungunya

2. Leprosy 2. The common cold , Flu 2. Dengue
3. Tuberculosis 3. Measles, Mumps, 3. Yellow fever
4. Plague 4. Hepatitis 4. Zika virus
5. Syphilis 5. Herpes 5. Malaria
6. Anthrax 6. Polio, Rabies 6. Japanese encephalitis
7. Ebola and Hanta fever 7. Lymphatic filariasis
3
Means of Spread of Infectious Diseases:
Means of spread Diseases Pathogen
Airborne Common cold, pneumonia, Rhinoviruses, Streptococcus pneumoniae,

tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Water born Cholera, Amoeboisis Vibrio cholerae, Entamoeba histolytica
Sexually transmitted diseases Syphilis, Aids Treponema pallidum, HIV
Through vectors Malaria Plasmodium falciparum
Q. Consider the following:

1. Birds
2. Dust blowing
3. Rain
4. Wind blowing.
Which of the above spread plant diseases? (2018)
a. 1 and 3 only
b. 3 and 4 only
c. 1, 2 and 4 only
d. 1, 2, 3 and 4
Human Diseases Caused By Bacteria:

S. No. Disease Pathogen Symptoms
1 Cholera Vibrio cholerae Watery diarrhea, vomiting, muscle cramps
2 Typhoid Salmonella typhi Fever, headache, cough, muscle aches,
fatigue, loss of appetite, vomiting, diarrhea,
rose-colored spots on the chest and abdomen
3 Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis Coughing, sputum (mucus) that may contain
blood, chest pain, weakness, weight loss
4 Leprosy Mycobacterium leprae Skin lesions, nerve damage, muscle weakness,
loss of sensation
5 Pneumonia Streptococcus pneumoniae, Cough, fever, shortness of breath, chest pain
Haemophilus influenzae, etc.
6 Plague Yersinia pestis Fever, headache, muscle aches, vomiting,
diarrhea, swollen lymph nodes, black spots on
the skin
4
7 Diphtheria Corynebacterium diphtheriae Sore throat, fever, difficulty swallowing, thick

white or gray membrane on the tonsils
8 Tetanus Clostridium tetani Lockjaw, muscle stiffness, difficulty
swallowing, seizures
9 Food Salmonella, Staphylococcus aureus, Diarrhea, vomiting, nausea, abdominal cramps
poisoning Clostridium perfringens, etc.
10 Syphilis Treponema pallidum Chancre (sore), rash, hair loss, damage to the
heart, brain, and other organs
Tuberculosis (TB):
❖ Tuberculosis (TB) is a contagious disease caused by
bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It most
commonly affects the lungs (pulmonary TB), but can also
affect other parts of the body, such as the bones, kidneys,
and brain.
❖ Transmission: TB is spread through the air when an
infected person coughs, sneezes, or spits. The bacteria can
travel up to 10 feet, so it is important to avoid close contact
with people who are sick with TB.
❖ Symptoms: The symptoms of TB can vary depending on the part of the body that is infected. Common
symptoms of pulmonary TB include:
➢ Coughing
➢ Sputum (mucus) that may contain blood
➢ Chest pain
➢ Weakness
➢ Weight loss
❖ Treatment: TB is a treatable and curable disease. The standard treatment for TB is a 6 -month course of
antibiotics. It is important to complete the full course of treatment, even if you start to feel better, to prevent
the bacteria from becoming resistant to antibiotics.
❖ Multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) is a form of TB that is
resistant to the first-line drugs used to treat TB. MDR-TB is more
difficult to treat and requires longer and more expensive treatment.
❖ Extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB) is a more serious form
of MDR-TB that is resistant to even more drugs. XDR-TB is very
difficult to treat and there is no standard treatment available.
❖ Initiatives by India:
➢ The Nikshay Ecosystem: This is a web portal that is used to
monitor TB cases in India. It helps to track the progress of TB
control efforts and identify areas where more work is needed.
5
➢ Nikshay Poshan Yojana (NPY): This scheme provides financial support to TB patients in India. It helps
to cover the cost of treatment and other expenses, such as transportation and food.
➢ TB Harega Desh Jeetega Campaign: This is a national campaign that was launched in September 2019
to raise awareness about TB and to encourage people to get tested and treated.
➢ The Saksham Project: This project provides psycho-
social counseling to DR-TB patients in India. It helps to
improve their mental health and well-being during
treatment.
❖ Vaccine:
➢ BCG: This is a vaccine that is used to protect against TB.
It is given to children at birth in many countries,
including India.
❖ TruNat: This is a rapid TB test that can give results in one
hour. It is used to diagnose TB in people who are at high
risk of the disease.
❖ DOTS treatment: This is a treatment regimen for TB that is
supervised by a healthcare worker. It helps to ensure that patients take their medication correctly and
complete the full course of treatment.
The challenges in eliminating tuberculosis (TB) in India:
❖ COVID-19: The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted TB control efforts, as resources have been diverted to
address the new disease.
❖ Underreporting: TB is often underreported, making it difficult to track the disease and allocate resources
effectively.
❖ Underdiagnosis: TB can be difficult to diagnose, especially in its early stages. This can lead to delays in
treatment and increased risk of transmission.
❖ Drug resistance: Drug-resistant TB is a growing problem, making it more difficult to treat and increasing
the risk of transmission.
❖ High poverty rates: Poverty is a major risk factor for TB, as it can lead to poor nutrition, overcrowding, and
lack of access to healthcare.
❖ Migration: Migration can also contribute to the spread of TB, as people who are infected with TB may
move to new areas without being aware of their infection.
The Important Data:

❖ India reported the highest number of 24.04 lakh tuberculosis cases in the year (2018) as against an
estimated 26.9 lakh cases by WHO.
❖ India has 1/4 th of global TB cases, according to WHO.
❖ In India, childhood Tuberculosis remains a staggering problem, contributing to approximately 31% of
the global burden.
❖ There has been an increase in the mortality rate due to all forms of TB between 2019 and 2020 by 11% in
India.
6
❖ India accounts for roughly 28% of TB cases in the world, as per the Global TB Report 2022.
❖ India TB Report 2020:
➢ 8% of TB cases can be attributable to tobacco usage.
India’s Target:
❖ Eliminating TB by 2025, five years ahead of the global target by the World Health Organisation
(WHO) i.e. 2030.
❖ World Tuberculosis Day observed on 24 th March
❖ Theme for 2023: Yes! We can end TB!
Typhoid:
❖ Typhoid is a serious illness caused by the bacteria Salmonella typhi. It is spread through contaminated food
and water, and can cause fever, vomiting, diarrhea, and headache. Typhoid can be fatal if not treated, but it
is a treatable and curable disease.
❖ Transmission: Typhoid is spread through contaminated food and water. The bacteria can live in water for
several weeks, and can also survive in food that has been contaminated with human feces.
❖ Symptoms: The symptoms of typhoid can vary depending on the severity of the infection. Common
symptoms include:
➢ Fever
➢ Headache
➢ Cough
➢ Muscle aches
➢ Fatigue
➢ Loss of appetite
➢ Vomiting
➢ Diarrhea
➢ Rose-colored spots on the chest and abdomen
❖ Treatment: Typhoid is treated with antibiotics. The standard treatment is a 7-day course of antibiotics, but
some cases may require longer treatment.
❖ Vaccines and antibiotics available: There are two
typhoid vaccines available: the live attenuated vaccine
(Ty21a) and the typhoid conjugate vaccine (TCV). The
live attenuated vaccine is given orally, while the TCV
is given by injection. Both vaccines are effective in
preventing typhoid, but the TCV is more effective in
children.
❖ News:
➢ Typbar TCV: This is the world's first typhoid
conjugate vaccine that has been prequalified by the World Health Organization (WHO). It is made in
India by Bharat Biotech.
7
➢ Pakistan: Pakistan is the first country in the world to introduce the WHO-recommended Typbar TCV.
Viruses:
❖ Viruses are microscopic organisms that can infect and replicate inside living cells. They are made up of a
simple structure: a genetic core (either DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat. Viruses are not
alive on their own, but they can come alive and reproduce once they enter a host cell.
❖ Viruses are very diverse and can infect a wide range of hosts, including humans, animals, plants, and
bacteria. They can cause a variety of diseases, from mild to severe. Some common viral diseases include the
common cold, influenza, AIDS, and Ebola.
❖ There are no cures for most viral diseases, but there are treatments that can help to relieve symptoms and
reduce the severity of the disease. Vaccines can be used to prevent some viral diseases by exposing the body
to a weakened or inactivated form of the virus, which allows the body to develop immunity to the viru s.
How Viruses Work:

❖ A virus attaches to a host cell using its spike proteins.
❖ The virus injects its genetic material into the host cell.
❖ The virus uses the host cell's machinery to produce more copies of itself.
❖ The new viruses are released from the host cell and can infect other cells.
Treatment and Prevention:
❖ There are no cures for most viral diseases, but there are treatments that can help to relieve symptoms
and reduce the severity of the disease. Vaccines can be used to prevent some viral diseases by exposing
the body to a weakened or inactivated form of the virus, which allows the body to develop immunity to the
virus.
Polio:
❖ Polio is a viral infectious disease that can cause irreversible paralysis or even death.
❖ It is caused by three distinct wild poliovirus strains: Type 1, Type 2, and Type 3.
8
❖ Wild poliovirus type 2 was eradicated globally in 1999, and Global Commission for the Certification of
Poliomyelitis Eradication (GCC) declared WPV3 to be globally eradicated in 2019
❖ However, wild poliovirus type 1 remains in circulation in Afghanistan and Pakistan.
❖ There is no cure for polio, but it can be prevented through immunization. The polio vaccine is a safe and
effective vaccine that has helped to reduce the number of polio cases worldwide by more than 99%.
The Oral polio vaccine (OPV) and Injectable polio vaccine (IPV) are two different types of vaccines that are
used to protect against polio.
The following table summarizes the key differences between OPV and IPV:
Characteristic OPV IPV

Type of vaccine Live, weakened virus Killed virus
Route of administration Drops by mouth Injection
Number of doses required Three doses at 6, 10, and 14 weeks, Four doses total
plus a booster dose at 16-24 months
Types of poliovirus covered Type 1, 2, and 3 Type 1, 2, and 3
Potential for the virus to spread Yes No
Risk of vaccine-derived polio Yes No
As per the (WHO, since 1980, the cases of wild poliovirus have decreased by over 99.9% as a result of
vaccination efforts made around the world.
Polio in India:
❖ India received polio-free certification by the WHO in 2014, after three years of zero cases.
❖ successful pulse polio campaign in which all children were administered polio drops.
❖ The last case was detected on 13th January 2011.
AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome):
AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) is a chronic, potentially life-threatening condition caused by the
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). HIV attacks the body's immune system, making it difficult for the body to
fight off infections.
There are two types of HIV:
❖ HIV-1: This is the most common type of HIV and is found all over the world.(Group M is major)
❖ HIV-2: This type of HIV is less common and is mostly found in West and Central Africa.
HIV weakens the immune system by attacking CD4 + T cells. CD4+ T cells are a type of white blood cell that
plays a key role in the immune response. By destroying CD4+ T cells, HIV weakens the immune system and
makes the body more susceptible to other infections.
There is no cure for HIV, but there are treatments that can suppress the virus and prolong the lives of people
with HIV. These treatments are called antiretroviral therapy (ART). ART is a combination of drugs that work
together to block different stages of the HIV replication cycle.
9
Steps in the HIV replication cycle:

1. Transcription: The viral RNA is transcribed into DNA.
2. Translation: The viral DNA is translated into proteins.
3. Assembly: The viral proteins and RNA are assembled into new virus particles.
4. Release: The new virus particles are released from the infected cell.
ART can help to prevent HIV from replicating by blocking different steps in the replication cycle. For
example, some ART drugs block the transcription of
viral RNA into DNA, while others block the
translation of viral DNA into proteins.
People with HIV on ART can live long and healthy
lives. However, it is important to note that ART is not
a cure for HIV. People on ART need to continue
taking their medication for life to keep the virus
suppressed.
Outbreaks, Epidemics, and Pandemics:
❖ Outbreak: An outbreak is a sudden increase in
the number of cases of a disease above what is
normally expected in a community or region.
Outbreaks can be caused by a variety of factors,
including new diseases, changes in the environment, and human behavior.
❖ Epidemic: An epidemic is a widespread outbreak of a disease that is actively spreading to many people.
Epidemics can be localized to a specific community or region, or they can spread to multiple countries or
continents.
❖ Pandemic: A pandemic is a global epidemic. It is an epidemic that has spread to many countries or
continents and is affecting a large number of people.
❖ Some notable pandemics caused by viruses include:
➢ Spanish flu (1918)
➢ SARS (2003)
➢ Swine flu (2009)
➢ MERS (2012)
➢ Ebola (2014)
➢ Zika (2015)
➢ COVID-19 (2019-present)
Coronaviruses
❖ Coronaviruses are a family of viruses that can cause respiratory illnesses in humans and animals. The name
"coronavirus" comes from the Latin word "corona," meaning "crown," because of the crown -like spikes on
the surface of the virus.
❖ The coronavirus that causes COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, is a novel coronavirus, meaning that it is a new
strain of coronavirus that has not been previously identified in humans.
10
❖ COVID-19 is a disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. The virus spreads through respiratory droplets
produced when an infected person coughs or sneezes. Symptoms of COVID-19 can range from mild to
severe and can include fever, cough, shortness of breath, fatigue, muscle aches, headache, sore throat,
congestion or runny nose, nausea or vomiting, and diarrhea.
The Structure of the SARS-CoV-2 Virus:
❖ Spherical Shape: The SARS-CoV-2 virus is spherical
in shape. This means that it is round like a ball.
❖ Size 50-200 nanometer (nm): The SARS-CoV-2 virus
is very small. It has a diameter of 50-200 nanometers.
This means that it is too small to be seen with the
naked eye.
❖ RNA Genetic Material: The SARS-CoV-2 virus has
RNA genetic material. This means that its genetic
material is made up of ribonucleic acid (RNA). RNA is
a molecule that is similar to DNA, but it has a different
structure.
❖ RBD (Receptor binding domain): The SARS-CoV-2
virus has a receptor binding domain (RBD) on its spike
protein. The RBD is the part of the virus that binds to
the ACE-2 receptor on host cells.
❖ ACE-2 on Host Cell: The ACE-2 receptor is a protein that is found on the surface of many human cells.
The ACE-2 receptor is the main way that the SARS-CoV-2 virus enters cells.
Q. The term ‘ACE2’ is talked about in the context of (2021)

(a) Genes introduced in the genetically modified plants
(b) Development of India’s own satellite navigation system
(c) Radio collars for wildlife tracking
(d) Spread of viral diseases
Q. Which of the following statements is/are correct (2013)
1. Viruses lack enzymes necessary for the generation of energy.
2. Viruses can be cultured in any synthetic medium.
3. Viruses are transmitted from one organism to another by biological vectors only.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
11
Q. Consider the following:

1. Bacteria
2. Fungi
3. Virus
Which of the above can be cultured in artificial/synthetic medium?(2021)
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Q. Which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. Viruses can infect
2. Bacteria
3. Fungi
4. Plants
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (2016)
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Tech
Lecture - 10
Health and Diseases
(Part - 2), Vitamins
2
Health and Diseases (Part - 2), Vitamins

Hepatitis:
Hepatitis is inflammation of the liver. It can be caused by a variety of factors, including heavy alcohol use, toxins,
some medications, and certain medical conditions. However, it is most commonly caused by a group of viruses
known as the "hepatotropic" (liver-directed) viruses, including A, B, C, D, and E.
Causes:
 Hepatitis A: This virus is transmitted through contaminated food and water.
 Hepatitis B: This virus is transmitted through blood, semen, and other bodily fluids.
 Hepatitis C: This virus is transmitted through blood transfusions, needle sharing, and other bloodborne
exposures.
 Hepatitis D: This virus requires the presence of hepatitis B to be transmitted and replicated.
 Hepatitis E: This virus is transmitted through contaminated food and water.
Prevention:
 Hepatitis A and B: There are vaccines available to prevent these viruses.
 Hepatitis C: There is no vaccine available, but there are effective medications available to treat the infection.
Treatment:
 Hepatitis A and E: These viruses are self-limiting and usually go away on their own. No specific antiviral
medications are needed.
 Hepatitis B and C: There are effective medications available to treat these infections.
Q. Which one of the following statements is not correct? (2019)
(a) Hepatitis B virus is transmitted much like HIV.
(b) Hepatitis B. Unlike Hepatitis C, it does not have a vaccine.
(c) Globally, the number of people infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses is several times more than
those infected with HIV.
(d) Some of those infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses do not show the symptoms for many years.
Global strategy:
 The World Health Organization (WHO) has a global strategy to eliminate viral hepatitis by 2030. This
strategy includes increasing vaccination rates, providing access to treatment for people with hepatitis B and
C, and reducing the stigma and discrimination associated with the disease.
World Hepatitis Day:
 World Hepatitis Day is observed on July 28th each year to raise awareness of hepatitis and to promote
prevention, treatment, and care for people with the disease.
The theme for 2023:
 The theme for World Hepatitis Day 2023 is "One life, one liver." This theme highlights the importance of
early diagnosis and treatment of hepatitis to prevent liver damage and death.
Hepatitis B and C are the Most Common cause of Deaths:
 Hepatitis B and C are the most common causes of death from viral hepatitis. These viruses can lead to serious
liver damage, including cirrhosis and liver cancer.
3
National Viral Hepatitis Program

 In 2018, the government launched the National Viral Hepatitis Program to increase awareness of hepatitis
and to improve access to prevention, treatment, and care for people with the disease.
Countries that have successfully controlled Hepatitis B
 Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, and Thailand are the first four countries in the World Health Organization's
Southeast Asia region to have successfully controlled Hepatitis B.
 This means that they have reduced the prevalence of hepatitis B infection to less than 1% of the population.
World Health Organization (WHO) officially endorses World Hepatitis Day
 The World Health Organization (WHO) officially endorses World Hepatitis Day. This means that the
WHO supports the goals of World Hepatitis Day and encourages countries to take action to prevent, treat, and
care for people with hepatitis.
The World Health Organization (WHO) officially endorses only four diseases:
1. HIV-AIDS (1st December),
2. TB (24th March),
3. Malaria (25th April), and
4. Hepatitis (28th July).
Q. Which of the following diseases can be transmitted from one person to another through tattooing?
(2013)
1. Chikungunya
2. Hepatitis B
3. HIV-AIDS
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Diseases Caused By Virus:
Influenza:
Targets Severity Type
Humans and animals Severe, Extremely harmful, Epidemic Type A (avian flu
virus)
Humans Common, less severe, occasionally very harmful, non-pandemic Type B
Humans Mild, rare, non epidemic Type C
Influenza A has:
 subtypes H1, H2, and H3 as swine flu, and
 subtypes H5, H7, and H9 as bird flu/avian influenza.
 Influenza viruses are classified into subtypes based on two surface
➢ Proteins, Hemagglutinin (HA) and Neuraminidase (NA)
➢ Avian influenza virus subtypes include A (H5N1), A(H7N9), and A(H9N2).
4
 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A(H5N1) virus occurs mainly in birds and is highly contagious among
them.
 Asian H5N1 is especially deadly for poultry.
India’s Status:
 Previously in 2019, India was declared free from Avian Influenza (H5N1), which had also been notified
to the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE).
 The status will last only till another outbreak is reported.
 Outbreak Jan 2021 – H5N8
Two viral diseases successfully eradicated globally:
 1980 - Smallpox, a viral disease to humans
 2011 - Rinderpest, a viral disease in cattle, buffalo, etc.
Q. Consider the following diseases (2014)
1. Diphtheria
2. Chickenpox
3. Smallpox
Which of the above diseases has/have been eradicated in India?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) None
Monkeypox:
 Monkeypox is a rare but serious viral illness that can be transmitted from person to person and from
animal to person. The virus is related to smallpox, but it is less severe. Monkeypox can cause a range of
symptoms, including fever, headache, muscle aches,
backache, swollen lymph nodes, chills, exhaustion, and
a rash. The rash usually begins on the face and then spreads
to other parts of the body. The rash can look like pimples
or blisters at first, but it eventually turns into pus-filled
sores.
 Monkeypox can spread through close contact with an
infected person or animal. This can happen through
contact with respiratory droplets produced when an
infected person coughs or sneezes, contact with skin
lesions, or contact with contaminated objects.
 The best way to prevent monkeypox is to get vaccinated.
There is a vaccine available that is safe and effective.
The vaccine is recommended for people who are at high
risk of exposure to monkeypox, such as healthcare workers
and people who live with or care for someone who is infected with monkeypox.
5
Difference Between Monkeypox and Chickenpox:

Characteristic Monkeypox Chickenpox
Virus Orthopoxvirus Herpesvirus
Animal reservoir Rodents, monkeys Humans
Contact with skin lesions, respiratory Respiratory droplets, direct contact with skin
Transmission
droplets, contaminated objects lesions
Fever, headache, muscle aches, Fever, headache, muscle aches, rash
Symptoms backache, swollen lymph nodes, chills,
fatigue, rash
Starts on the face and spreads to other Starts on the trunk and spreads to the face and
parts of the body, typically appearing as extremities, typically appearing as itchy, fluid-
Rash
pimples or blisters that eventually form filled blisters that eventually crust over and fall
scabs off
Can be serious, but most people recover Mild to moderate, but can be severe in some
Severity within a few weeks people, especially young children and adults
with weakened immune systems
Supportive care Supportive care and antiviral medications may
Treatment
be used in some cases
Human Papillomavirus:
 Human Papillomavirus (HPV) is a sexually transmitted virus that is the leading cause of cervical cancer.
In India, cervical cancer accounted for 9.4% of all cancers and 18.3% of new cases in 2020. However, cervical
cancer can be eliminated if all prepubertal girls are given HPV vaccination globally.
 HPV vaccination is a safe and effective way to protect against HPV infection and cervical cancer. It is
recommended for all girls and boys between the ages of 9 and 14. The vaccine can also be given to older adults
who have not been vaccinated.
 In addition to HPV vaccination, there are other things that can be done to reduce the risk of cervical cancer,
such as getting regular Pap tests and screening for HPV. Pap tests and HPV screening can detect early changes
in the cervix that can lead to cancer.
6
Marburg Virus Disease (MVD):

 Ghana has reported the first-ever suspected cases of MVD.
 It is a viral disease with a fatality ratio of up to 88 percent.
 It belongs to the same family as Ebola.
 It was first identified in 1967 in Germany’s Marburg and Frankfurt.
 Fruit bats of the Pteropodidae Family are key carriers of the disease.
 Human-to-human transmission occurs.
7
Tomato Flu:
 It has been reported from Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, and Odisha.
 It is caused by a virus and shows symptoms similar to those of COVID-19 but is not related to SARS-
COV-2.
 There is no specific treatment or vaccine available for the disease.
Langya Henipavirus:
 It was reported in China
 It is a Zoonotic virus.
 It is also detected among domestic goats and dogs.
 Symptoms: Fever, fatigue, cough, loss of appetite etc. with health
impacts such as Renal and Liver Failure.
Nipah Virus:
 It is a Zoonotic virus
 The organism that causes Nipah Virus encephalitis is an RNA or Ribonucleic acid virus of the family
Paramyxoviridae, genus Henipavirus, and is closely related to Hendra virus.
 It first broke out in Malaysia and Singapore in 1998 and 1999.
 The disease is named after a village in Malaysia, Sungai Nipah, where it was first detected.
 It first appeared in domestic pigs and has been found among several species of domestic animals including
dogs, cats, goats, horses and sheep.
Transmission:
 It spreads through fruit bats or ‘flying foxes,’ of the genus Pteropus, which are natural reservoir hosts of the
Nipah and Hendra viruses.
 The virus is present in bat urine and potentially, bat feces, saliva, and birthing fluids.
Symptoms:
 The human infection presents as an encephalitic syndrome marked by fever, headache, drowsiness,
disorientation, mental confusion, coma, and potentially death.
Prevention:
 There are no vaccines for both humans and animals.
8
Diseases Spread Through Vectors:

 Diseases spread through vectors are called vector-borne diseases.
 Vectors are animals that carry and transmit disease-causing pathogens (microorganisms such as viruses,
bacteria, or parasites) from one host to another. The most common vectors are insects, such as mosquitoes,
ticks, and fleas. Other vectors include ticks, mites, and lice.
1. Lymphatic Filariasis:
 Lymphatic filariasis, also known as elephantiasis, is a disease that can
cause abnormal enlargement of body parts, such as the legs, arms, and
genitals. It is caused by a parasite called Wuchereria, which is spread
through the bite of an infected mosquito. The parasite can also be spread
from person to person.
 Symptoms of Lymphatic Filariasis: The symptoms of lymphatic
filariasis can vary depending on the severity of the infection. Some
people may have no symptoms, while others may experience the
following:
 Fever
 Chills
 Headache
 Muscle aches
 Swollen lymph nodes
 Enlarged body parts
 Treatment for Lymphatic Filariasis:
 There is no cure for lymphatic filariasis, but there
are treatments that can help to control the infection
and reduce the symptoms. Treatment typically
involves taking medication to kill the parasite and
reduce inflammation.
9
 Prevention of Lymphatic Filariasis: The best way to prevent lymphatic filariasis is to avoid being bitten
by mosquitoes. This can be done by:
 Using insect repellent
 Wearing protective clothing, such as long pants and long-sleeved shirts
 Avoiding areas where mosquitoes are known to be present
 Government Initiative:
 Hathipaon Mukt Bharat:
 The Indian government launched the Hathipaon Mukt Bharat
campaign in 2015 to eliminate lymphatic filariasis from the
country. The campaign involves mass drug administration,
which is the distribution of medication to everyone in an area,
regardless of whether they have symptoms of the disease.
2. Kala Azar:
 It is also known as Leishmaniasis, Black fever or Dum Dum fever
 It is the second biggest parasitic killer in the world after Malaria
 It accounts the Half of global cases in India
 It spreads through female sand fly.
10
3. Malaria:
 It is Caused by the parasite Plasmodium.
 It Spread by female Anopheles Mosquito
 World Malaria Day 2023 theme ‘Time to deliver zero malaria: invest, innovate, implement’.
 Malaria is a leading cause of human morbidity and mortality.
India’s Efforts in This Regard:

 At the East Asia Summit in 2015, India pledged to eliminate the disease by 2030.
 India launched the five-year National Strategic Plan for Malaria Elimination.
 This marked a shift in focus from malaria “control” to “elimination”.
 Objectives:
 Eliminate malaria from all low and moderate-category endemic states/UTs (26) by 2022
 Interrupt indigenous transmission of malaria in all States/ UTs (Category 3) by 2027 to maintain the
malaria-free status of the country by
2030.
Animal Diseases:
1. Foot And Mouth Disease (FMD):
 It is caused by Virus
 It affects cloven hoofed animals
(divided hoofs) including cattle,
buffalo, camel sheep, goat, pigs etc
 It is not zoonotic and rarely transmitted to humans.
Brucellosis:
 It is also known as Malta fever and Mediterranean fever.
 It is a bacterial disease.
 It is a zoonotic disease (transmitted from animal to humans)
 It affects cattle, sheep, goats, pigs etc.
 Due to consuming raw milk or meat.
11
2. Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD):

 Recently, nearly 57,000 cattle across
India were killed due to a viral
infection called the Lumpy Skin
Disease.
 LSD is a vector-borne pox disease
that is caused by Capripoxvirus.
 The Vectors are such as blood-
feeding insects.
 Symptoms:
 It causes the appearance of
circular, firm nodes on the
animal’s hide or skin that look
similar to lumps. excessive
nasal and salivary secretion.
 Spread:
 It is not a zoonotic disease.
 It was first discovered in 1929 in Africa, and parts of West Asia.
 It was first reported in Asia and the Pacific region in 2019 in north west China, Bangladesh,
and India.
 Recently, Lumpi-ProVacInd vaccine has been developed by Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR) – National Equine Research Center, Hisar (Haryana) in collaboration with the IVRI,
Izzatnagar (Bareilly). It is a live attenuated vaccine.
Bird Disease:
Avian Botulism:
 It is a Paralytic disease that affects the nervous system of birds.
 It is caused by Bacteria (Clostridium botulinum)
 Its bacteria are found in soil. It is heat resistant, anaerobic, and has secrete toxins.
 It is responsible for killing 20,000 birds in Sambhar Lake (Rajasthan) in Nov. 2019.

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Lecture - 11
Biotechnology (Part-1)
2
Vitamin: It is an organic non-protein substance that is required by an
organism for normal metabolic function but cannot be synthesized in
sufficient quantity by that organism.
S.No. Vitamins Deficiency disease

1 Thiamine (Bl) Beri Beri
2 Riboflavin (B) Glossitis
3 Niacin (BO) Pellagra
4 Pyridoxine (B) Anaemia
Water Soluble
5 Cyanocobalamine (B) Pernicious anaemia
6 Folic acid (B) Anaemia
7 Pantothenic acid Burning feet
8 Biotin Nerves disorders
9 Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) Scurvy
10 Retinol (Vit. A) Eye and Skin diseases- Night
Fat Soluble blindness Xerophthalmia, Rupture
of cornea, Scale formation on skin
11 Calciferol (Vit. D) Rickets, fragile bones
12 Tocoferol (Vit. E) Fertility disorders- Sterility in
males
13 Phylloquinone (Vit. K) Blood clotting
Vitamins Effects Deficiency diseases
Thiamine (B1) Important for the metabolism of Beriberi, Wernicke-

carbohydrates. Korsakoff syndrome
Riboflavin (B2) Important for energy production. Ariboflavinosis, cheilosis
Niacin (B3) Important for energy production. Pellagra

3
Pyridoxine (B6) Important for the metabolism of Dermatitis, anemia

proteins and carbohydrates.
Cyanocobalamin (B12) Important for the formation of red Pernicious anemia

blood cells.
Folic acid (B9) Important for the production of red Megaloblastic anemia
blood cells.
Pantothenic acid (B5) Important for the metabolism of Burning feet

carbohydrates and fats.
Biotin (H) Important for the metabolism of Hair loss, skin problems
carbohydrates and fats.
Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) Important for the formation of Scurvy

collagen
Retinol (Vitamin A) Important for vision, growth, and Night blindness,

reproduction. xerophthalmia, keratomalacia
Calciferol (Vitamin D) Important for the absorption of Rickets, osteomalacia

calcium and phosphorus.
Tocopherol (Vitamin E) Important for protecting cells from Vitamin E deficiency is rare.
damage.
Phylloquinone (Vitamin K) Important for blood clotting. Vitamin K deficiency is rare.
Q. Consider the following pairs : (2014)

Vitamin Deficiency disease
1. Vitamin C Scurvy
2. Vitamin D Rickets
3. Vitamin E Night blindness
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None
4
Sources:
❖ NCERT Class XII – Biology
➢ Chapter 11 - Biotechnology: Principles and Processes
➢ Chapter 12 - Biotechnology and its Applications
➢ Chapter 6 - Molecular basis of inheritance
❖ Newspapers – The Hindu, Indian express
What is DNA?
❖ DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms.
❖ Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA.
Structure of DNA:
❖ DNA is a molecule that contains the genetic information needed to build and maintain an organism. It is made
up of two strands of nucleotides, which are twisted into a double helix shape. The nucleotides are the
basic building blocks of DNA, and they each contain a sugar group, a phosphate group, and a
nitrogenous base.
❖ The four types of nitrogenous bases in DNA are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).
❖ The two strands of DNA are held together by hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases. Adenine
pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine. This pairing of bases is known as complementary
base pairing.
❖ DNA is arranged in a circular structure called a chromosome. Chromosomes are found in the nucleus of
every cell.
❖ The structure of DNA is essential for its function. The genetic information is encoded in the sequence of
the nitrogenous bases in the DNA strands. This sequence is different for every organism, and it determines
the organism's unique characteristics.
Detailed Explanation of the Different Parts:
❖ DNA double-stranded helical structure: This is the overall structure of DNA, which is made up of two
strands of nucleotides twisted into a spiral shape.
❖ Strand: Each of the two strands of DNA is made up of individual nucleotides.
❖ Nucleotide: The basic building block of DNA. Each nucleotide contains a sugar group, a phosphate group,
and a nitrogenous base.
❖ DNA→Antiparallel: This means that the two strands of DNA run in opposite directions, with the 5' end of
one strand facing the 3' end of the other strand.
❖ Sugar: The sugar group in DNA is deoxyribose.
❖ Phosphate: The phosphate group in DNA is what links the nucleotides together to form a strand.
❖ Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Thymine: These are the four types of nitrogenous bases found in DNA.
Adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine.
Structure of RNA:
❖ RNA is a single-stranded molecule made up of nucleotides. Nucleotides are the basic building blocks of
RNA, and they each contain a sugar group, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. The four types of
nitrogenous bases in RNA are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil (U).
5
❖ The nucleotides in RNA are linked together

by phosphodiester bonds. These bonds
form a sugar-phosphate backbone, which
is the same as the sugar-phosphate
backbone in DNA.
❖ The nitrogenous bases in RNA can pair with
each other to form hydrogen bonds.
Adenine pairs with uracil, and guanine
pairs with cytosine. This pairing of bases is
known as complementary base pairing.
❖ The structure of RNA is essential for its
function. RNA plays many roles in the cell,
including:
❖ Transcription: RNA is involved in the process of transcription, which is the process of copying DNA into
RNA.
❖ Translation: RNA is involved in the process of translation, which is the process of converting RNA into
proteins.
❖ Regulation: RNA is involved in the regulation of gene expression.
Difference Between Cell, Chromosome and DNA:
❖ Cell: A cell is the basic unit of life. All living things are made up of one or more cells. Cells are very small,
and they can only be seen with a microscope.
❖ Chromosome: A chromosome is a structure that contains DNA. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes in
each cell, for a total of 46 chromosomes.
❖ DNA: DNA is a molecule that contains the genetic instructions for building and maintaining an organism.
DNA is made up of four different nucleotides, which are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine
(T). The sequence of nucleotides in DNA determines the organism's unique characteristics.
Q. With reference to the recent developments in science which one of the following statements is not
correct? (2019)
(a) Functional chromosomes can be created by joining segments of DNA taken from cells of different
species.
(b) Pieces of artificial functional DNA can be created in laboratories.
(c) A piece of DNA taken out from an animal cell can be made to replicate outside a living cell in a laboratory.
(d) Cells taken out from plants and animals can be made to undergo cell division in laboratory petri dishes.
What is Gene?
6
❖ A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity.

❖ Genes are made up of DNA.
❖ Some genes act as instructions to make molecules called proteins
DNA Versus RNA:
Characteristic DNA RNA
Structure Double-stranded helix Single-stranded
Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
Nitrogenous bases Adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine Adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C),
(C), and thymine (T) and uracil (U)
Role Stores genetic information Transcribes and translates genetic

information
Q. In the context of the developments in Bioinformatics, the term ‘transcriptome’, sometimes seen in the
news, refers to (2017)
(a) a range of enzymes used in genome editing
(b) the full range of mRNA molecules expressed by an organism
(c) the description of the mechanism of gene expression
(d) a mechanism of genetic mutations taking place in cells
7
Central Dogma:
The central dogma is a theory that describes the flow of genetic information in a cell. It states that genetic
information flows from DNA to RNA to protein, but not in the reverse direction.
The central dogma can be divided into two main steps: transcription and translation.
❖ Transcription: Transcription is the process of copying DNA into RNA. RNA is a molecule that is similar to
DNA, but it is single-stranded and contains the base uracil instead of thymine.
❖ Translation: Translation is the process of converting RNA into proteins. Proteins are the molecules that are
responsible for building and maintaining cells.
The central dogma is essential for life because it ensures that the genetic information in DNA is correctly translated
into proteins. Proteins are essential for all of the life processes that occur in a cell, such as growth, repair, and
reproduction.
Transcription:
❖ Transcription takes place in the nucleus of the cell. The first step in transcription is the binding of a protein
called RNA polymerase to a promoter region on the DNA. The promoter region is a sequence of DNA that
tells the RNA polymerase where to start transcribing.
❖ Once the RNA polymerase is bound to the promoter region, it begins to move down the DNA strand,
transcribing it into RNA. The RNA polymerase adds RNA nucleotides to the new RNA molecule in a
complementary fashion. This means that the adenine (A) bases in the DNA are transcribed into uracil (U) bases
in the RNA, and the guanine (G) bases in the DNA are transcribed into cytosine (C) bases in the RNA.
❖ When the RNA polymerase reaches the end of the gene, it releases the RNA molecule. The RNA molecule
is then processed into a mature mRNA molecule, which is then transported out of the nucleus and into the
cytoplasm of the cell.
❖ Image shows that DNA is located in the nucleus of
the cell, while RNA is found in both the nucleus and
the cytoplasm of the cell. Proteins are found in the
cytoplasm of the cell.
❖ The arrows in the image show the flow of genetic
information from DNA to RNA to protein. The
arrows are one-way arrows, which indicates that the
flow of genetic information is irreversible.
Translation:
❖ Translation takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell. The first step in translation is the binding of the mRNA
molecule to a ribosome. The ribosome is a protein complex that is responsible for translating the mRNA
molecule into a protein.
❖ The ribosome moves down the mRNA molecule, one codon at a time. A codon is a sequence of three RNA
nucleotides that codes for a specific amino acid. The ribosome uses a molecule called tRNA (transfer RNA)
to bring the correct amino acid to the ribosome.
❖ The tRNA molecule has an anticodon, which is a sequence of three RNA nucleotides that is complementary
to a codon on the mRNA molecule. When the anticodon on the tRNA molecule matches the codon on the
mRNA molecule, the amino acid is attached to the growing protein chain.
❖ The ribosome continues to move down the mRNA molecule, translating it into a protein until it reaches a
stop codon. A stop codon is a sequence of three RNA nucleotides that tells the ribosome to stop translating.
8
❖ Once the ribosome reaches a stop codon, it releases the protein chain. The protein chain is then folded into its
three-dimensional structure, and it is now ready to perform its function in the cell.
Transcription and translation are essential processes for life. These processes allow cells to convert the genetic
information in DNA into proteins, which are the molecules that are responsible for building and maintaining cells.
What is Biotechnology?
Biotechnology uses living processes, organisms, or systems to manufacture products or technology. Biotechnology
is the use of living organisms or their products to make or modify products or processes for specific use.
Biotechnology has been used for centuries to produce products such as bread, beer, and wine. However, in recent
years, biotechnology has become much more sophisticated and is now used to produce a wide range of products,
including medicines, vaccines, biofuels, and industrial enzymes.
Biotechnology can be divided into four main categories:
❖ Blue biotechnology (marine and aquatic application): This category includes biotechnology applications
that use marine and aquatic organisms and resources. Examples of blue biotechnology products include omega-
3 fatty acids, marine pharmaceuticals, and biofuels from algae.
❖ Green biotechnology (agriculture processes): This category includes biotechnology applications that use
plants and other agricultural organisms. Examples of green biotechnology products include genetically
modified crops, biopesticides, and biofertilizers.
❖ Red biotechnology (medical): This category includes biotechnology applications that use human and animal
cells and tissues. Examples of red biotechnology products include vaccines, therapeutic proteins, and gene
therapy.
❖ White biotechnology (industrial): This category includes biotechnology applications that use industrial
enzymes and microorganisms to produce chemicals, fuels, and other products. Examples of white
biotechnology products include bioplastics, biofuels, and biodetergents.

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Lecture - 12
Biotechnology (Part - 2)
2
Biotechnology (Part - 2)
Recombinant DNA Technology (RDT)
 Recombinant DNA technology (RDT) is a process of altering genetic material outside an organism to
obtain enhanced and desired characteristics in living organisms or as their products.
 It is a powerful tool that has revolutionized the fields of biology, medicine, and agriculture.
 RDT is based on the ability to cut and paste DNA from different organisms. This is done using a variety of
enzymes, including restriction enzymes, polymerases, and ligases.
Restriction Enzymes:
 Restriction enzymes are enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences. They are found naturally in bacteria and
archaea, where they protect the bacteria from infection by viruses. Restriction enzymes are used in RDT to cut
DNA into pieces that can be recombined with DNA from other organisms.
Polymerases:
 Polymerases are enzymes that synthesize DNA. They are used in RDT to amplify DNA sequences and to
create new DNA sequences.
Ligases:
 Ligases are enzymes that join DNA fragments together. They are used in RDT to join DNA fragments from
different organisms together to create recombinant DNA molecules.
Action of Restriction Enzymes:
 Restriction enzymes are enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences. They are found naturally in bacteria
and archaea, where they protect the bacteria from infection by viruses. Restriction enzymes work by
recognizing a specific sequence of DNA and then cutting the DNA at that sequence. The sequence of DNA
that a restriction enzyme recognizes is called its recognition sequence. Restriction enzymes typically have a
recognition sequence that is four to eight base pairs long.
 Once a restriction enzyme has recognized
its recognition sequence, it cuts the DNA
at that sequence. Restriction enzymes can
cut DNA in a blunt-end fashion or in a
staggered-end fashion. In a blunt-end
fashion, the restriction enzyme cuts the
DNA straight across, leaving blunt ends
on the DNA fragments. In a staggered-
end fashion, the restriction enzyme cuts
the DNA at a slight angle, leaving
staggered ends on the DNA fragments.
 Restriction enzymes are essential tools in
recombinant DNA technology. They are
used to cut DNA into pieces that can be
recombined with DNA from other
organisms. Restriction enzymes are also
used to create restriction maps, which are maps of the restriction sites on a piece of DNA.
 The image shows a restriction enzyme called EcoRI cutting DNA at its recognition sequence, GAATTC.
EcoRI cuts DNA in a staggered-end fashion.
3
Biotechnology Principle:
The image shows a diagram of the recombinant DNA technology (RDT) process. RDT is a process of altering
genetic material outside an organism to obtain enhanced and desired characteristics in living organisms or
as their products.
It is a powerful tool that has revolutionized the fields of biology, medicine, and agriculture.
The RDT process can be summarized as follows:
1. Isolation of DNA: The first step in RDT is to isolate the DNA of the organism of interest. This can be done
using a variety of methods, such as phenol-chloroform extraction or silica column purification.
2. Restriction digestion: The next step is to cut the DNA into pieces using restriction enzymes. Restriction
enzymes are enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences. The sequence of DNA that a restriction enzyme
recognizes is called its recognition sequence.
3. Gel electrophoresis: Gel electrophoresis is a technique used to separate DNA fragments based on their size.
The restriction-digested DNA is loaded onto an agarose gel and subjected to an electric field. The smaller
DNA fragments will move through the gel faster than the larger DNA fragments.
4. Ligation: Ligation is a process of joining DNA fragments together. Ligases are enzymes that catalyze the
ligation reaction. The restriction-digested DNA fragments are ligated together to form recombinant DNA
molecules.
5. Transformation: Transformation is a process of introducing recombinant DNA into a host organism. The
host organism can be a bacterium, yeast, plant, or animal cell. The recombinant DNA is introduced into the
host organism using a variety of methods, such as electroporation or chemical transformation.
4
6. Selection: Once the recombinant DNA has been introduced into the host organism, the host organism is
selected for the desired trait. This can be done using a variety of methods, such as antibiotic resistance or color
selection.
7. Expression: The recombinant DNA is expressed in the host organism to produce the desired product. This
can be a protein, vaccine, or other product.
The RDT process is a powerful tool that can be used to create a wide variety of products. It is used to produce
therapeutic proteins, vaccines, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), and other products.
Transformation Methods:
 Microinjection:
 Microinjection is a technique used to introduce DNA directly into the nucleus of a cell. It is done using
a very thin needle, which is inserted into the nucleus and used to inject the DNA.
 Microinjection is often used to
transform plant and animal cells.
It is also used to create transgenic
animals, which are animals that have
had their genetic material altered to
include DNA from another
organism.
 Gene Gun:
 A gene gun, also known as a biolistic
particle delivery system, is a device
used to introduce DNA into cells by
shooting tiny metal particles coated
with DNA into the cells. Gene guns are relatively easy to use and can be used to transform a wide variety
of cells, including plant cells, animal cells, and bacteria.
 Gene guns are often used to transform plants and to create transgenic animals. They are also used to
deliver vaccines and other drugs to cells.
 Heat Shock Therapy:
 Heat shock therapy is a technique used to introduce
DNA into cells by briefly exposing them to a high
temperature. Heat shock therapy causes the cells to take
up DNA from the surrounding environment.
 Heat shock therapy is a relatively simple and inexpensive
technique, but it is not as efficient as microinjection or
gene gun transformation.
 Heat shock therapy is often used to transform bacteria
and yeast cells. It is also used to transform plant cells,
but it is less efficient than gene gun transformation.
Biotechnology In India:
 The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) was set up in 1986 (Ministry of Science and Technology).
 DBT has also set up a BIRAC (Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council) agency to strengthen
strategic research and innovation.
5
 India is among the top 12 destinations for biotechnology in the world, with approximately 3% share in the
global Biotechnology industry.
 The sector is divided into five major:
 Biopharma: This segment includes the development and production of vaccines, drugs, and other
biological products.
 Bio-services: This segment includes research and development (R&D) services, contract research
organizations (CROs), and other services that support the biotechnology industry.
 Bio-agri: This segment includes the development of genetically modified (GM) crops, biofortification,
and other agricultural biotechnology applications.
 Bio-industrial: This segment includes the use of microbes in industrial processes, such as paper and pulp
production, textiles, and biofuels.
 Bioinformatics: This segment includes the development and application of computational tools and
algorithms to analyze biological data.
How Can Biotechnology Be Used To Address Various Issues In India?
1. Food Security:
 Developing crops that are resistant to pests and diseases: This can help to reduce crop losses and
improve yields. For example, Bt cotton is a genetically modified cotton plant that is resistant to a common
pest called the bollworm. This has helped to increase cotton yields and reduce the use of pesticides.
 Developing crops that are tolerant to drought and other abiotic stresses: This can help to ensure that
crops can continue to grow even in harsh environments. For example, scientists are developing drought-
tolerant rice varieties that can grow in areas with limited rainfall.
 Improving the nutritional value of crops: This can help to reduce malnutrition and improve public
health. For example, golden rice is a genetically modified rice variety that contains beta-carotene, a
precursor to vitamin A. This can help to prevent vitamin A deficiency, which is a major problem in
developing countries.
 Biotechnology is also being used to develop new food processing methods and to produce new food
products. For example, enzymes are being used to improve the quality and shelf life of food products.
And microbes are being used to produce biofuels and other industrial products from food waste.
2. Adapting To Climate Change:
 Produce crops that are resistant to the effects of climate change: Climate change is already having a
significant impact on agriculture, and is expected to have an even greater impact in the future. By
producing crops that are resistant to drought, heat, pests, and diseases, we can help to ensure that there is
enough food to feed the world's growing population in the face of climate change.
 Decrease carbon-based fertilizers: Carbon-based fertilizers contribute to greenhouse gas emissions,
which are the main cause of climate change. By decreasing our use of carbon-based fertilizers, we can
help to mitigate climate change.
3. Tackling Diseases:
 To find solutions to threats the like Zika virus and rise of antibiotic resistant bacteria: New and emerging
diseases, such as Zika virus, and the rise of antibiotic resistant bacteria, pose a major threat to global
health. By developing new vaccines and treatments, and by finding ways to reduce the spread of antibiotic
resistance, we can help to protect people from these diseases.
6
4. Bioenergy:
 Bioenergy is a renewable energy source because it can be produced from organic matter that is constantly
being replenished. Bioenergy is also a relatively clean energy source, as it produces fewer emissions than
fossil fuels.
 Bioenergy has a number of advantages over other energy sources. It is a renewable energy source, which
means that it can be produced without depleting natural resources. Bioenergy is also a clean energy
source, as it produces fewer emissions than fossil fuels. Additionally, bioenergy can be produced from a
variety of sources, such as plants, animals, and waste products. This makes it a versatile energy source
that can be used in a variety of applications.
 Different ways that bioenergy can be produced, including:
 Biogas: Biogas is a methane-rich gas that is produced by the anaerobic digestion of organic matter.
It can be used to generate electricity, heat homes and businesses, and power vehicles.
 Bioethanol: Bioethanol is an alcohol fuel that is produced from the fermentation of sugars. It can
be blended with gasoline to produce a cleaner-burning fuel.
 Biodiesel: Biodiesel is a diesel fuel substitute that is produced from vegetable oils and animal fats.
It can be used to power vehicles and generators.
 Solid biofuels: Solid biofuels, such as wood pellets and briquettes, can be used to generate
electricity and heat homes and businesses.
5. Advancement In Drugs:
 Cost advantage in the manufacture of drugs: Biotechnology can be used to produce drugs more
efficiently and at a lower cost than traditional methods. For example, biotechnology can be used to
produce large quantities of proteins that are used in many drugs. This can help to make drugs more
affordable for patients.
6. Animal Biotechnology:
 Improve the productivity of livestock: Biotechnology can be used to improve the productivity of
livestock in a number of ways. For example, biotechnology can be used to develop livestock that are
more resistant to diseases, that produce more meat or milk, or that have a faster growth rate. This can
help to reduce the cost of food production and make food more accessible to people around the world.
 Development of affordable new generation vaccines and diagnostics against animal diseases:
Biotechnology can be used to develop new and more affordable vaccines and diagnostics for animal
diseases. This can help to reduce the spread of animal diseases and improve the health of livestock.
7
7. Bioremediation:
 It is a waste management technique in which microorganisms (e.g., bacteria, fungi), plants (termed
phytoremediation), or biological enzymes are used to consume and break down environmental pollutants.
 Example: oil zappers.
8. Stem Cell Therapy:

 Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that have the ability to develop into different types of cells. This
makes them ideal for use in cell therapy, which is the process of transplanting cells into a patient to repair
or replace damaged tissue.
 It is also known as regenerative medicine/which promotes the reparative response of diseased,
dysfunctional or injured tissue using stem cells or their derivatives.
Challenges For Biotechnology In India:
1. Low Research and Development (R&D): India's R&D expenditure is quite low at 0.67% of GDP, compared
to Japan (3%), the US (3%), and China (2%).
2. Intellectual Property Right (IPR) regime: Section 3(d) of the Patents (Amendment) Act, 2005, sets a higher
standard for patentability than mandated by TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights).
This stricter standard discourages innovation and lowers foreign investment. Additionally, compulsory
licensing, which gives the government power to suspend a patent in times of health emergencies, can also
create uncertainty for businesses and discourage innovation.
3. Lack of Marketisation: There is a significant gap between the development of new biotechnology products
and their commercialization. This is due to a number of factors, including a lack of funding for clinical trials,
complex regulatory processes, and a lack of infrastructure to support commercialization.
4. Lack of public awareness: There is a lack of public awareness about the biotechnology sector and its
potential benefits. This can lead to resistance to new biotechnology products and technologies.
5. Less Lucrative: The biotechnology sector offers fewer and lower-quality jobs than other sectors, such as IT.
This can make it difficult to attract and retain top talent.
Transgenic Plants:
 Transgenic plants are plants that have had their genetic makeup altered by the insertion of foreign DNA. This
can be done using a variety of techniques, but the most common is Agrobacterium-mediated transformation.
In this method, a bacterium called Agrobacterium tumefaciens is used to deliver the foreign DNA to the plant
cell. The bacterium naturally infects plants and inserts its own DNA into the plant genome. Scientists have
modified Agrobacterium so that it can carry and deliver foreign DNA of their choice.
 Once the foreign DNA is inside the plant cell, it can be integrated into the plant genome. This means that the
foreign DNA will be passed down to future generations of the plant. The foreign DNA can encode for a variety
of trai
8
What Is A Genetically Modified (GM) Crop?

Genetically Modified (GM) crops are plants that have had their genetic makeup altered by the insertion of foreign
DNA. This can be done using a variety of techniques, but the most common is Agrobacterium-mediated
transformation. In this method, a bacterium called Agrobacterium tumefaciens is used to deliver the foreign DNA
to the plant cell. The bacterium naturally infects plants and inserts its own DNA into the plant genome. Scientists
have modified Agrobacterium so that it can carry and deliver foreign DNA of their choice.
Transgenic crops are a type of GM crop that has been modified to express a trait that is not normally found in the
crop. This trait could be resistance to pests and diseases, improved nutritional value, or tolerance to abiotic stresses
such as drought or salinity.
 Bt cotton: Bt cotton is a GM crop that has been modified to express the Cry1Ac protein from the soil bacterium
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). This protein is toxic to the pink bollworm, a major pest of cotton. Bt cotton has
been shown to reduce the use of pesticides and increase cotton yields.
 Herbicide Tolerant Bt (Ht Bt) cotton: Ht Bt cotton is a GM crop that has been modified to express the
Cry1Ac protein from Bt and the Cp4-Epsps gene from a bacterium. The Cp4-Epsps gene makes the plant
resistant to the herbicide glyphosate. Ht Bt cotton allows farmers to use glyphosate to control weeds, which
can reduce labor costs and improve weed control.
 Bt brinjal: Bt brinjal is a GM crop that has been modified to express the Cry1Ac protein from Bt. This protein
is toxic to fruit and shoot borers, which are major pests of brinjal. Bt brinjal has been shown to reduce the use
of pesticides and increase brinjal yields.
 DMH-11 mustard: DMH-11 mustard is a GM crop that has been modified to express the Barnase gene from
Bacillus amyloliquefaciens and the Barnase Inhibitor gene from Bacillus subtilis. These genes make the plant
resistant to the herbicide glufosinate. DMH-11 mustard has been shown to increase mustard yields.
 DMH-11 mustard is a genetically modified (GM) mustard hybrid that has been developed by the Centre
for Genetic Manipulation of Crop Plants at the University of Delhi. It has been modified to express
the Barnase gene from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens and the Barnase Inhibitor gene from Bacillus
subtilis. These genes make the plant resistant to the herbicide glufosinate.
 GEAC, or the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee, has recommended the environmental
release of transgenic hybrid mustard Dhara Mustard Hybrid -11 (DMH-11) . This means that DMH-11
mustard can now be grown and commercialized in India, under the supervision of the Indian Council of
Agriculture Research (ICAR) and subject to the Seed Act, 1966.
9
 DMH-11 mustard has been shown to yield 28% more than the national check and 37% more than
the zonal checks. This could significantly increase mustard production in India and help to reduce the
country's reliance on imported mustard oil.
 The process used to develop DMH-11 mustard:
 The Indian mustard variety 'Varuna', which had been modified to express the Barnase gene, was
crossed with the East European 'Early Heera-2' mutant, which had been modified to express the
Barnase Inhibitor gene.
 The offspring of this cross were screened to identify plants that expressed both the Barnase and
Barnase Inhibitor genes.
 These plants were then crossed to produce DMH-11 mustard.
The Science Behind The Flavr Savr Tomato:
 Tomatoes ripen and soften due to the production of an enzyme called polygalacturonase (PG). PG breaks
down the cell walls of the tomato fruit, which makes the tomato softer and more susceptible to spoilage.
 The Flavr Savr tomato was engineered to contain a gene from a fish that encodes an antisense RNA molecule.
Antisense RNA molecules are complementary to specific messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules. When an
antisense RNA molecule binds to its complementary mRNA molecule, it prevents the mRNA molecule from
being translated into protein.
 In the Flavr Savr tomato, the antisense RNA molecule binds to the mRNA molecule that encodes PG. This
prevents PG from being produced, which slows down the ripening process and extends the shelf life of the
tomato.
10
 In 2002, the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) approved the commercial release of Bt
cotton in India. Since then, Bt cotton has become the dominant cotton crop in India, with over 95% of the
country's cotton area under Bt cotton cultivation.
 India is the fourth largest producer of genetically modified (GM) crops in the world, after the United States,
Brazil, and Argentina. The majority of GM crops grown in India are Bt cotton and herbicide-tolerant cotton.
 The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) is the apex body constituted in the Ministry of
Environment and Forests under ‘Rules for Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous
Microorganisms/Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells, under the Environment Protection Act,
1986.
Issues Involved:
1. Threat to biodiversity:
 Cross-pollination in GM crops can lead to the development of herbicide-resistant superweeds. This is
because the genes that confer herbicide resistance in GM crops can be transferred to wild plants through
cross-pollination.
 The development of herbicide-resistant superweeds can be a major problem for farmers, as it can make
it more difficult and expensive to control weeds.
 Herbicide-resistant superweeds can also have a negative impact on biodiversity, as they can outcompete
other plants for resources.
2. Nutrition issues:
 Bt brinjal is a GM brinjal that has been engineered to produce a protein that is toxic to the fruit and shoot
borer, a major pest of brinjal.
 There have been concerns that the Bt protein in Bt brinjal may pose a risk to human health, as it is similar
to a protein that is used in some antibiotics.
 Some people worry that exposure to the Bt protein from Bt brinjal could make people resistant to these
antibiotics.
 There is also a concern that the Bt protein in Bt brinjal could form new toxins and allergens.
3. Implications for consumers and farmers:
 Patent laws give companies that develop GM crops the exclusive right to sell those crops. This can lead
to increased dominance of food production and supply by a few companies.
 Some people worry that this increased dominance by a few companies could lead to higher prices for
consumers and less choice.
Benefits of GM Crops:
1. Cost-beneficial: GM crops can be more cost-effective than traditional crops for farmers, as they can reduce
the need for pesticides and herbicides, and can increase crop yields.
2. Better tolerance: GM crops can be engineered to be more tolerant of harsh climatic conditions such as cold,
heat, drought, and salinity. This can help to improve crop yields in areas that are affected by these conditions.
3. Improved crop protection: GM crops can be engineered to be resistant to pests and diseases. This can help
to reduce crop losses and improve crop yields.
4. Increased tolerance towards herbicides: GM crops can be engineered to be tolerant of herbicides. This
allows farmers to use herbicides to control weeds without harming the crop.
11
5. Increased food security for growing population: GM crops can help to increase food production and
improve food security for the growing global population.
6. Improved agricultural performance (yields): GM crops can produce higher yields than traditional crops.
This can help to reduce food prices and improve food security.
7. Less labor input and less cost input: GM crops can help to reduce labor and cost inputs for farmers, as they
can reduce the need for pesticides and herbicides, and can increase crop yields.
8. Reduced waste and lower food costs to the consumer: GM crops can help to reduce food waste and lower
food costs to the consumer, as they can produce higher yields and can be stored for longer periods of time.
9. Reduced usage of pesticides and herbicides: GM crops can help to reduce the use of pesticides and
herbicides, as they can be engineered to be resistant to pests and diseases. This can have environmental
benefits, such as reducing water pollution and protecting biodiversity.
Policy Framework For GM Crops:
1. Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex):
 It is a joint FAO/WHO intergovernmental body that develops international food standards, guidelines
and codes of practice to protect consumer health and ensure fair practices in the food trade.
 In 2003, Codex developed principles for the human health risk analysis of GM foods. These principles
provide a framework for assessing the safety of GM foods and for developing regulations for their
production and trade.
2. Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC)
 The GEAC is the apex body in India responsible for approving the commercialization of GM crops.
 The GEAC has a rigorous process for evaluating GM crops before they are approved for commercial
release. This process includes scientific assessments of the potential risks and benefits of the GM crops.
3. GM food imports require approvals under two laws, Environment Protection Act of 1986 and the Food
Safety and Standards Act of 2006.
 The Environment Protection Act of 1986 is the primary legislation that governs the environmental
safety of GM crops and other genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in India.
 Under the Environment Protection Act of 1986, the GEAC is required to approve the import of
GM food products.
 The Food Safety and Standards Act of 2006 is the primary legislation that governs the safety of food
in India.
 Under the Food Safety and Standards Act of 2006, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India
(FSSAI) is responsible for regulating the import and sale of GM food products.

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Lecture - 13
Biotechnology (Part -3)
2
Biotechnology (Part -3)

Termination Gene And Terminator Seeds:
Terminator seeds are seeds that have been genetically modified to contain a termination
gene. When these seeds are planted, they germinate and grow normally. However,
when the plants reach a certain stage of development(second generation), the
termination gene is activated and the plants die.
How terminator seeds work:
1. The termination gene is inserted into the DNA of a plant using a process called
Agrobacterium-mediated transformation.
2. The termination gene is designed to produce a protein that kills the plant embryo when the seed germinates.
3. When the seed germinates, the termination gene is activated and the protein is produced.
4. The protein kills the plant embryo and the seed does not germinate.
Food Fortification:
❖ Fortification is the process of deliberately adding micronutrients, such as vitamins and minerals, to food to
improve its nutritional value. Micronutrients are essential for human health, but they can be difficult to obtain
from diet alone, especially in developing countries.
❖ Iodized salt is a common example of a fortified food. Iodine is a mineral that is essential for thyroid function.
Iodine deficiency can lead to a number of health problems, including goiter, mental retardation etc. Iodizing
salt is a simple and effective way to prevent iodine deficiency.
❖ The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) is the regulatory body responsible for ensuring the
safety and quality of food in India. The FSSAI has introduced the
+F logo to identify fortified foods. This logo helps consumers to
identify foods that have been fortified with micronutrients.
Biofortification:
Biofortification is the process of breeding crops to increase their
nutritional value. This can be done through conventional breeding
methods, such as crossing different varieties of crops, or through genetic engineering. Biofortification is a promising
approach to addressing micronutrient deficiencies, which are a major public health problem in many parts of the
world.
3
❖ Iron-biofortification of rice, beans, sweet potato, cassava, and legumes: Iron deficiency is a common
micronutrient deficiency that can lead to anemia, fatigue, and impaired cognitive development. Iron-
biofortified crops have been developed to contain higher levels of iron, which can help to improve iron intake
and reduce the risk of iron deficiency.
❖ Zinc-biofortification of wheat, rice, beans, sweet potato, and maize: Zinc deficiency is another common
micronutrient deficiency that can lead to stunting, impaired immune function, and increased risk of infection.
Zinc-biofortified crops have been developed to contain higher levels of zinc, which can help to improve zinc
intake and reduce the risk of zinc deficiency.
❖ Provitamin A carotenoid-biofortification of sweet potato, maize, and cassava: Vitamin A deficiency is a
major cause of blindness and childhood mortality. Provitamin A carotenoid-biofortified crops have been
developed to contain higher levels of provitamin A carotenoids, which can be converted to vitamin A in the
body. This can help to improve vitamin A intake and reduce the risk of vitamin A deficiency.
❖ Amino acid and protein-biofortification of sorghum and cassava: Sorghum and cassava are staple crops
that are consumed by millions of people in developing countries. However, they are relatively low in protein
and some essential amino acids. Amino acid and protein-biofortified sorghum and cassava have been
developed to contain higher levels of protein and essential amino acids. This can help to improve the nutritional
quality of these staple crops and improve the health of people who consume them.
❖ Golden rice with Vitamin A: Golden rice is a genetically engineered rice variety that has been modified to
produce beta-carotene, a provitamin A carotenoid. Golden rice has the potential to help reduce vitamin A
deficiency in developing countries. However, golden rice has been controversial, and it is not yet commercially
available.
Methods of Biofortification:
Biofortification is the process of breeding crops to increase their nutritional value. This can be done through
conventional breeding methods, such as crossing different varieties of crops, or through genetic engineering.
1. Identify the target nutrient: The first step is to identify the nutrient that you want to increase in the crop.
This could be a vitamin, mineral, or amino acid.
2. Find a donor source: Once you have identified the target nutrient, you need to find a donor source of the
nutrient. This could be another plant variety, a microorganism, or even an animal.
4
3. Transfer the gene: The next step is to transfer the gene for the target nutrient from the donor source to the
crop. This can be done through conventional breeding methods or through genetic engineering.
4. Select and breed the biofortified crop: Once the gene for the target nutrient has been transferred to the crop,
you need to select and breed the biofortified crop. This involves selecting plants that have the highest levels of
the target nutrient and crossing them to produce offspring with even higher levels of the nutrient.
5. Test and evaluate the biofortified crop: Once you have selected and bred the biofortified crop, you need to
test and evaluate it to make sure that it is safe and nutritious. This involves testing the crop for its nutritional
content, its ability to grow in different environments, and its resistance to pests and diseases.
6. Release the biofortified crop to farmers: Once the biofortified crop has been tested and evaluated, it can be
released to farmers to grow and distribute.
Importance of Biofortification:
❖ Improving the overall health of humans: Biofortified crops are bred to have higher levels of vitamins,
minerals, and other essential nutrients. This can help to improve the overall health of humans, especially those
who are at risk of micronutrient deficiencies.
❖ Often more resilient to pests, diseases, higher temperatures, and drought: Biofortified crops are often
more resilient to pests, diseases, higher temperatures, and drought. This makes them a more reliable source of
food in times of climate change and other environmental stresses.
❖ Provide a high yield: Biofortified crops can provide high yields, which means that they can produce more
food on less land. This is important for meeting the food needs of a growing global population.
❖ It provides a food-based, sustainable, and low-dose alternative to supplementation: Biofortified crops
provide a food-based, sustainable, and low-dose alternative to supplementation. This means that people can
get the nutrients they need from the food they eat, rather than from expensive and often inaccessible
supplements.
❖ It does not require behavior change: Biofortified crops
do not require behavior change. People can eat
biofortified crops without having to change their eating
habits. This makes them a more sustainable and culturally
acceptable way to address micronutrient deficiencies.
❖ Can reach the poorest sections of society: Biofortified
crops can reach the poorest sections of society.
Biofortified crops can be grown and consumed by people
of all income levels. This is important for addressing
micronutrient deficiencies in developing countries.
❖ Supports local farmers: Biofortified crops support local
farmers. Farmers can grow and sell biofortified crops, which can help to improve their livelihoods.
❖ It is highly cost-effective and sustainable: Biofortified crops are highly cost-effective and sustainable.
Biofortified crops can be grown using traditional farming methods, and they do not require expensive inputs.
This makes them a sustainable and affordable way to improve public health.
5
Challenges For Biofortification In India:

1. Lack of consumer acceptance due to color changes (e.g. golden rice): Some biofortified crops, such as
golden rice, have a different color than traditional crops. This can lead to consumer rejection of biofortified
crops.
2. Last mile reach of fortified food remains a big challenge: Getting fortified food to people who need it can
be difficult. This is because fortified food is often more expensive than traditional food, and it may not be
available in all areas.
3. Adoption of farmers and cost involved in the process of fortification: Farmers may be reluctant to grow
biofortified crops if they are more expensive to produce than traditional crops. Additionally, the process of
fortifying food can be expensive, which can make it difficult for food companies to produce and sell fortified
foods.
4. It is a slower process than genetic modification: Biofortification is a slower process than genetic
modification. This is because biofortification involves breeding crops to increase their nutritional value, while
genetic modification involves directly altering the DNA of crops.
5. Marketing challenges: It can be difficult to market biofortified foods to consumers. This is because consumers
may not be aware of the benefits of biofortified foods, or they may be reluctant to pay more for fortified foods.
Cloning:
❖ Cloning is a process of producing genetically identical copies of a biological entity (genes, cells, tissues, and
even entire organisms), either by natural or artificial means.
❖ Recently, China has successfully cloned a wild Arctic wolf for the first time in the world.
❖ In mammals including humans, identical twins (monozygotic twins) are natural clones.
❖ Dolly was the first mammal to be cloned.
The cloning process is a complex and challenging procedure. Only a small percentage of attempts are successful.
However, the successful cloning of Dolly the sheep was a major breakthrough in scientific research. It demonstrated
that it is possible to clone mammals from adult cells.
6
Three Different Types Of Artificial Cloning:

❖ Gene/DNA cloning: Transfer of a DNA fragment from one organism to a self-replicating genetic element,
such as a bacterial plasmid.
❖ Reproductive cloning: Transferring nuclear material isolated from a somatic cell into an enucleated oocyte
(egg cell).
❖ Therapeutic cloning is like reproductive cloning till the production of the embryo. The produced embryo is
then grown in the laboratory.
Note: Not identical: Despite having the same genetic material clones do not always look identical as the
environment also plays a role in deciding the physical feature of an organism.
7
Transgenic Animal:
❖ Animals that have had their DNA manipulated to possess and express an extra (foreign) gene are known as
transgenic animals.
❖ Transgenic rats, rabbits, pigs, sheep, cows and fish have been produced
❖ Although over 95% of all existing transgenic animals are mice, they have numerous utilities. Here are a few
examples:
➢ Mice are used in research because their genome is very similar to the human genome. This means that
findings from research on mice can often be translated to humans.
➢ Mice are relatively small and easy to handle. This makes them convenient and cost-effective research
animals.
Applications Of Transgenic Animals:
❖ Study of normal physiology and body functioning: Transgenic animals can be used to study how genes
work and how they contribute to normal physiology and body functioning. For example, transgenic mice with
the human apolipoprotein E gene are used to study the development of Alzheimer's disease.
❖ Study of diseases: Transgenic animals can also be used to study diseases and develop new treatments. For
example, transgenic mice with the Huntington's disease gene are used to study the disease process and develop
new drugs.
❖ Production of human milk: Transgenic goats have been engineered to produce human milk. This could
provide a valuable source of milk for babies who are allergic to cow's milk or who do not have access to breast
milk.
❖ Production of therapeutic proteins: Transgenic animals can be used to produce therapeutic proteins that can
be used to treat diseases. For example, transgenic rabbits have been engineered to produce human factor IX, a
protein that is used to treat hemophilia B.
❖ Production of vaccines: Transgenic animals can be used to produce vaccines. For example, transgenic
chickens have been engineered to produce vaccines against avian influenza (bird flu).
❖ Xenotransplantation: Transgenic animals could potentially be used as donors for xenotransplantation, which
is the transplantation of organs and tissues from one species to another. For example, transgenic pigs have
been engineered to have organs that are more compatible with the human immune system, making them
potential donors for xenotransplantation.
Genetic Manipulation Techniques:
Genetic manipulation techniques are used to change the genetic makeup of an organism. This can be done for a
variety of purposes, such as improving crops or livestock, developing new medical treatments, or creating new
scientific knowledge.
(1) Gene editing:
The manipulation of the genetic material of a living organism by deleting, replacing, or inserting a DNA sequence,
typically with the aim of improving a crop or farmed animal or correcting a genetic disorder. Gene editing is a type
of genetic manipulation that allows scientists to make precise changes to DNA. This can be done using a variety of
techniques, but one of the most common is CRISPR-Cas9.
8
❖ CRISPR-Cas9:
➢ CRISPR-Cas9 is a system that bacteria use to defend themselves against viruses. Scientists have adapted
this system to allow them to make precise cuts in DNA. To do this, they use a guide RNA molecule to
direct the Cas9 enzyme to the desired location in the genome. The Cas9 enzyme then cuts the DNA at
that location.
Applications of gene editing:
➢ Improving crops and livestock: Gene editing can be used to develop crops and livestock with improved
traits, such as resistance to pests and diseases or increased nutritional value.
➢ Developing new medical treatments: Gene editing can be used to develop new treatments for genetic
diseases and other conditions.
➢ Creating new scientific knowledge: Gene editing can be used to study gene function and to develop new
models of human disease.
Figure: Molecular Scissor

2. RNA interference(RNAi):
➢ It is a novel strategy to prevent this infestation.
➢ RNAi takes place in all eukaryotic organisms as a method of natural cellular defense.
➢ This method involves silencing of a specific mRNA.
➢ It has therapeutic use in cancer treatment.
9
3. Ribozyme Technology:
➢ RNA molecules with catalytic ability are known as
ribozymes.
➢ Some ribozymes act by cleaving other
➢ Thus ribozymes may be engineered to recognize and
destroy any target messenger RNA molecule.
➢ Ribozymes are RNA molecules that have catalytic
activity, meaning they can speed up chemical
reactions. Some ribozymes can cleave other RNA
molecules. This means that ribozymes can be
engineered to recognize and destroy any target
messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule.
➢ mRNA molecules are the instructions for making
proteins. By destroying specific mRNA molecules,
ribozymes can be used to control protein production.
This has the potential to be used to develop new
treatments for diseases. For example, ribozymes could be used to target and destroy mRNA molecules
that are involved in cancer cell growth or viral replication.
Xenotransplantation:
Animal organs to human patients (Xenotransplantation):
❖
❖ Xenotransplantation involves the transplantation of nonhuman
tissues or organs into human recipients.
❖ The first successful transplant of a pig's heart into a human
being.
The challenges that need to be addressed :
❖ Rejection: The risk of rejection is a major challenge for all
organ transplants, including pig-to-human transplants.
Researchers are developing new ways to reduce the risk of
rejection, but more research is needed.
❖ Infection: Pig organs can carry viruses that could infect
humans. Researchers are developing new ways to prevent infection, but more research is needed.
❖ Long-term effects: The long-term effects of pig-to-human transplants are unknown. Researchers need to
follow patients who have received pig heart transplants for many years to learn about the long-term risks and
benefits.

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Tech
Lecture - 14
Biotechnology(part - 4)
Vaccines and Antibodies
2
Biotechnology(part - 4) Vaccines and Antibodies

Vaccine:
 Vaccine is a biological agent (Bacteria, fungus, virus, etc.) that elicit an immune response to a specific antigen
derived from an infectious disease-causing pathogen.
 Generally, it comprises an agent that has a resemblance to the disease-causing microbe.
Immunization:
 It is the action of making a person or animal immune to infection, typically by inoculation.
Types of Vaccine:
Three main approaches to making a vaccine:

1. Using a whole virus or bacterium
 This is the traditional approach to vaccine development, and it is still used for many vaccines today. In
this approach, the virus or bacterium is grown in a laboratory and then weakened or killed. The weakened
or killed virus or bacterium is then injected into the body, where it triggers an immune response.
 Examples of vaccines that are made using this approach include:
 Measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine
 Polio vaccine
 Chickenpox vaccine
 Rabies vaccine
Types of vaccines that use a whole virus or bacterium:
1. Inactivated Vaccines
 Inactivated vaccines contain whole virus particles that have been killed or inactivated so that they can no
longer cause disease. These vaccines are generally very safe and effective, but they may require multiple
doses to achieve full protection.
3
 Examples of inactivated vaccines include:

 Flu
 Polio vaccine
 Covexin
2. Live-attenuated Vaccines:
 Live-attenuated vaccines contain weakened live virus particles that can still replicate in the body, but
they are not strong enough to cause disease. These vaccines are generally very effective at providing
long-lasting immunity, but they may have more side effects than inactivated vaccines. They are also not
suitable for people with weakened immune systems.
 Examples of live-attenuated vaccines include:
 Measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine
 Chickenpox vaccine
 Yellow fever vaccine
 Rotavirus vaccine
3. Virus vector vaccine:
 Virus vector vaccines use a harmless virus to deliver genetic material from the target virus or bacterium
into the body. This triggers an immune response to the target virus or bacterium without the need to inject
the whole virus or bacterium into the body.
 Virus vector vaccines are a newer type of vaccine, but they have shown great promise in clinical trials.
They are particularly well-suited for developing vaccines against emerging diseases, such as COVID-19.
 Examples of virus vector vaccines include:
 Ebola vaccine
 Covishield
4
2. Using parts of the virus or bacterium that trigger the immune system
 This approach is becoming more common, as it allows scientists to develop vaccines that are more
targeted and less likely to cause side effects.
 In this approach, scientists identify the parts of the virus or bacterium that are most important for
triggering an immune response. These parts of the virus or bacterium are then produced and used to make
the vaccine.
 Examples of vaccines that are made using this approach include:
 Whooping cough
 Tetanus
 Diphtheria
3. Using just the genetic material of the virus or bacterium
 This is the newest and most advanced approach to vaccine development. In this approach, scientists use
the genetic material of the virus or bacterium to create a vaccine.
 This is done by inserting the genetic material into a harmless virus or bacterium. When this harmless
virus or bacterium is injected into the body, it triggers an immune response to the virus or bacterium that
is being targeted.
Examples of vaccines that are made using this approach include:
 mRNA vaccines for COVID-19
 DNA vaccines for COVID-19
Other approaches to making a vaccine:
Toxoid Vaccine:
 A toxoid vaccine is made by inactivating the toxin that causes disease symptoms. The toxin is a poisonous
substance produced by bacteria or viruses. When the toxin is inactivated, it is no longer able to cause disease,
but it can still trigger an immune response.
 Toxoid vaccines are very effective at preventing diseases caused by toxins.
 Examples of toxoid vaccines include:
 Diphtheria vaccine
 Tetanus vaccine
 Pertussis vaccine (the "T" in DTaP and Tdap)
Conjugate Vaccine:
 A conjugate vaccine is made using a combination of two different components: Polysaccharide and a
Protein carrier.
 A polysaccharide is a type of sugar molecule that is found on the surface of many bacteria. A protein carrier
is a protein that is very good at triggering an immune response.
 Polysaccharides on their own are not very good at triggering an immune response in young children. However,
when they are conjugated to a protein carrier, they become much more immunogenic.
 Conjugate vaccines are very effective at preventing diseases caused by bacteria that have polysaccharides on
their surface.
 Examples of conjugate vaccines include:
 Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccine
 Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13)
 Meningococcal conjugate vaccine (MenACWY)
5
Inactivated Vaccine Working Mechanism:

 Inactivated vaccines are made from viruses or bacteria that have been killed or inactivated so that they can no
longer cause disease. When an inactivated vaccine is injected into the body, the immune system recognizes
the virus or bacterium as a foreign invader and mounts an immune response.
 The immune response produces antibodies, which are proteins that can bind to the virus or bacterium and
prevent it from infecting cells. If the person is later exposed to the virus or bacterium, the antibodies will
recognize and neutralize it, preventing the person from getting sick.
A step-by-step explanation of how an inactivated vaccine works:
1. The vaccine is injected into the muscle.
2. Dendritic cells, a type of white blood cell, take up the vaccine particles and transport them to the lymph nodes.
3. In the lymph nodes, the dendritic cells present the vaccine particles to T cells, another type of white blood cell.
4. Some of the T cells become activated and differentiate into helper T cells and killer T cells.
5. The helper T cells release cytokines, which are signaling molecules that help to activate other immune cells,
including B cells.
6. B cells divide and produce antibodies, which are proteins that can bind to the virus or bacterium and prevent
it from infecting cells.
7. Some of the B cells become memory B cells, which can quickly produce antibodies if the person is later
exposed to the virus or bacterium.
Inactivated vaccines are very safe and effective. They are generally well-tolerated, with few side effects. Inactivated
vaccines are also very effective at preventing disease. However, they may require multiple doses to achieve full
protection.
Some examples of inactivated vaccines include:
 Flu vaccine
 Polio vaccine
 Hepatitis A vaccine
 Rabies vaccine
 Covexin
6
Viral Vector Vaccine Working Mechanism:

 Viral vector vaccines use a harmless virus to deliver genetic material from the target virus or bacterium
into the body. This triggers an immune response to the target virus or bacterium without the need to inject the
whole virus or bacterium into the body.
 To make a viral vector vaccine, scientists first modify a harmless virus to remove its ability to cause
disease. Then, they insert genetic material from the target virus or bacterium into the modified virus. When
the modified virus is injected into the body, it infects cells and delivers the genetic material from the target
virus or bacterium into the cells.
 The cells then produce proteins from the target virus or bacterium. These proteins are then displayed on
the surface of the cells, where they are recognized by the immune system. The immune system then mounts
an immune response to the proteins, producing antibodies and T cells that can protect the body from the target
virus or bacterium.
A step-by-step explanation of how a viral vector vaccine works:
1. The vaccine is injected into the muscle.
2. The vaccine particles are taken up by cells in the muscle.
3. The vaccine particles enter the nucleus of the cells.
4. The genetic material from the target virus or bacterium is transcribed into mRNA.
5. The mRNA is translated into proteins.
6. The proteins are transported to the surface of the cells and displayed.
7. The proteins are recognized by the immune system.
8. The immune system mounts an immune response to the proteins, producing antibodies and T cells that can
protect the body from the target virus or bacterium.
Viral vector vaccines are a newer type of vaccine, but they have shown great promise in clinical trials. They are
particularly well-suited for developing vaccines against emerging diseases, such as COVID-19.
Some examples of viral vector vaccines include:
 AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine
 Johnson & Johnson COVID-19 vaccine
 Covishield.
7
Primary And Secondary Immune Response (Naturally):

Primary immune response
 The primary immune response is the first time the body encounters a new antigen. An antigen is a substance
that is recognized by the immune system as foreign. When the body encounters a new antigen, the immune
system begins to produce antibodies against it.
 The primary immune response is typically slower and weaker than the secondary immune response. It can take
several days or even weeks for the body to produce enough antibodies to protect against the antigen.
Secondary immune response
 The secondary immune response is the body's second response to an antigen. If the body is exposed to the
same antigen again, the immune system will be able to respond more quickly and more strongly. This is
because the body has already created memory B cells against the antigen.
 Memory B cells are a type of B cell that remains in the body after the primary immune response has subsided.
If the body is exposed to the same antigen again, the memory B cells can quickly produce antibodies against
it. This helps to protect the body from getting sick again.
 The image you sent shows how the primary and secondary immune responses differ in terms of speed and
strength. The primary immune response is slower and weaker, while the secondary immune response is faster
and stronger.
Example of primary and secondary immune response
 Imagine that you are exposed to the measles virus for the first time. Your body will mount a primary immune
response to the virus. This means that your immune system will begin to produce antibodies against the virus.
It may take several days or even weeks for your body to produce enough antibodies to protect you from the
virus.
 If you are exposed to the measles virus again
after you have recovered from the first
infection, your body will mount a secondary
immune response. This means that your body
will be able to respond more quickly and more
strongly to the virus. This is because your body
has already created memory B cells against the
virus.
 The memory B cells will quickly produce
antibodies against the virus, which will help to
protect you from getting sick again.
Primary and secondary immune responses are essential for protecting the body from infectious diseases. Vaccines
work by triggering a primary immune response to an antigen. This helps to prepare the body to fight off the infection
if it is exposed to the antigen again in the future.
Primary And Secondary Immune Response (Vaccine):
Primary immune response
 The primary immune response to a vaccine is the body's first response to the vaccine antigens. It is initiated
by dendritic cells, which are antigen-presenting cells. Dendritic cells take up the vaccine antigens and transport
them to the lymph nodes, where they present them to T cells.
 T cells are a type of white blood cell that play a central role in the immune response. T cells can be divided
into two main types: helper T cells and killer T cells. Helper T cells help to activate other immune cells,
including B cells. Killer T cells directly attack infected cells.
8
 When a helper T cell is activated by a dendritic cell presenting a vaccine antigen, it releases cytokines.
Cytokines are signaling molecules that help to regulate the immune response. The cytokines released by helper
T cells activate B cells and promote their differentiation into antibody-producing plasma cells and memory B
cells.
 Plasma cells produce and secrete antibodies, which are proteins that bind to specific antigens. Antibodies can
neutralize antigens, preventing them from infecting cells. Memory B cells remain in the body after the primary
immune response has subsided. They can quickly produce antibodies if the body is exposed to the same antigen
again.
 The primary immune response to a vaccine typically takes several weeks to develop. During this time, the
body is not fully protected from the infection that the vaccine is designed to prevent. However, the primary
immune response primes the immune system to respond more quickly and more strongly to the infection if the
body is exposed to it again in the future.
Secondary immune response
 The secondary immune response to a vaccine is the body's second response to the vaccine antigens. It is
initiated by memory B cells. When a memory B cell encounters a vaccine antigen, it quickly divides and
produces antibodies against the antigen.
 The secondary immune response is much faster and stronger than the primary immune response. This is
because the memory B cells are already programmed to produce antibodies against the vaccine antigens. The
secondary immune response typically develops within a few days of exposure to the vaccine antigens.
Importance of primary and secondary immune responses to vaccines
 The primary and secondary immune responses to vaccines are essential for protecting the body from infectious
diseases. Vaccines work by triggering a primary immune response to the vaccine antigens. This helps to
prepare the body to fight off the infection if it is exposed to the antigen again in the future.
 The secondary immune response is responsible for the long-lasting immunity that is provided by vaccines.
When the body is exposed to the vaccine antigens again, the memory B cells quickly produce antibodies
against the antigen, preventing the infection from developing.
Booster shots
 Booster shots are given to maintain the body's immunity to a particular infection. Booster shots are typically
given several years after the primary vaccination series. They are important because the levels of antibodies
in the blood can decline over time. Booster shots help to ensure that the body has a high enough level of
antibodies to protect against infection.
9
Antibody:
 An antibody, also known as an immunoglobulins (Ig).
 It is Y-shaped protein
 It helps to identify and neutralize foreign objects such as pathogenic bacteria and viruses (Antigens).
Antibodies are Y-shaped proteins that are produced by B cells in response to infection. They bind to specific
antigens (foreign invaders) and help to neutralize them.
 IgA: IgA is the most common type of antibody in the body. It is found in the blood, saliva, tears, and breast
milk. IgA protects the body from infection by preventing pathogens from attaching to the surfaces of cells.
 IgD: IgD is found on the surface of B cells, which are a type of white blood cell. IgD helps to activate B cells
when they encounter a pathogen.
 IgE: IgE is involved in allergic reactions. It binds to mast cells and basophils, which are types of white blood
cells that release histamine and other chemicals during an allergic reaction. Histamine and other chemicals
cause the symptoms of an allergic reaction, such as sneezing, runny nose, itchy eyes, and hives.
 IgG: IgG is the most abundant type of antibody in the blood. It is responsible for long-term immunity to
infection. IgG antibodies can cross the placenta, which means that they can protect a baby from infection
before and after birth.
 IgM: IgM is the first type of antibody that the body produces in response to infection. IgM antibodies are very
effective at neutralizing pathogens, but they are not very good at activating other immune cells.
10
Plasma Convalescent Therapy:

 Plasma convalescent therapy is a type of passive immunotherapy that uses plasma from people who have
recovered from COVID-19 to treat people who are currently infected with the virus. Plasma is the liquid part
of blood that contains antibodies and other proteins that help the body fight infection.
 Antibodies are proteins that bind to specific antigens, which are substances that trigger an immune
response. When a person is infected with COVID-19, their body produces antibodies against the virus. These
antibodies can help to neutralize the virus and prevent it from infecting cells.
 Plasma convalescent therapy works by providing patients with antibodies from people who have already
recovered from COVID-19. This can help to boost the patient's immune system and fight off the infection.
 Plasma convalescent therapy is still under investigation, but it has shown some promise in clinical trials. In
one study, plasma convalescent therapy was found to reduce the risk of death by 35% in hospitalized patients
with COVID-19.
 Plasma convalescent therapy is typically given to patients with severe or life-threatening COVID-19. It is also
sometimes given to patients who are at high risk of severe complications from COVID-19, such as older adults
and people with underlying medical conditions.
 To administer plasma convalescent therapy, plasma is collected from a donor who has recovered from COVID-
19. The plasma is then screened to ensure that it is safe and that it contains high levels of antibodies against
the virus. The plasma is then transfused into the patient.
 Plasma convalescent therapy is generally safe and well-tolerated. However, there are some potential side
effects, such as allergic reactions and fluid overload.
 Plasma convalescent therapy is one of a number of treatments that are being investigated for COVID-19. It is
an important tool for treating people with severe or life-threatening COVID-19, but it is important to note that
it is still under investigation and more research is needed to determine its safety and efficacy.
11
The image shows how plasma convalescent therapy works to treat COVID-19. The image shows a COVID-19
patient who is receiving a transfusion of plasma from a donor who has recovered from COVID-19. The plasma
contains antibodies against the SARS-CoV-2 virus, which causes COVID-19. The antibodies bind to the virus and
neutralize it, preventing it from infecting cells.

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Lecture - 15
2
Biopharmaceuticals:
❖ Biopharmaceuticals are medical drugs produced using biotechnology, which means they are made from
living cells or organisms. They do not contain any synthetic materials or chemicals.
❖ Biopharmaceuticals can be made from a variety of substances, including proteins (such as antibodies),
nucleic acids (such as DNA and RNA), and cells. They are used to treat a wide range of diseases, including
cancer, autoimmune diseases, and infectious diseases.
❖ Biopharmaceuticals are often more targeted and effective than traditional drugs, but they can also be more
expensive and difficult to produce.
Genetically Engineered Hormones:
Human insulin production by genetic engineering:
Genetic engineering is a technique used to insert a gene from one organism into another. In this case, the human
insulin gene is inserted into a bacterium, such as E. coli. The bacteria are then grown in a large fermentation tank,
where they produce human insulin.
The diagram shows the following steps involved in human insulin production by genetic engineering:
1. Extraction of human insulin gene: The human insulin gene is extracted from pancreas cells.
2. Insertion of human insulin gene into a plasmid vector: A plasmid vector is a small piece of circular DNA
that can be used to carry genes into other organisms. The human insulin gene is inserted into the plasmid vector
using restriction enzymes.
3. Transformation of E. coli
with the recombinant
plasmid vector: The
recombinant plasmid
vector is then introduced
into E. coli cells. This
process is called
transformation.
4. Growth of E. coli cells in
a fermentation tank: The
transformed E. coli cells
are grown in a large
fermentation tank, where
they produce human
insulin.
5. Purification of human insulin: The human insulin is then purified from the E. coli cells.
The purified human insulin is then ready to be used as a medication for people with diabetes.
3
Human growth hormone (hGH) genetic engineering:

❖ Human growth hormone is a
hormone that is essential for
growth and development. It is
produced by the pituitary gland in
the brain. Human growth hormone
deficiency can cause short stature
and other health problems.
❖ Genetic engineering has made it
possible to produce human growth
hormone in large quantities, which
has made it more affordable and
accessible to people with growth
hormone deficiency. It has also
made it possible to produce other
important biopharmaceuticals, such as vaccines and cancer treatments.
The steps in the process :
❖ The gene for hGH is isolated from human DNA using restriction enzymes. Restriction enzymes are enzymes
that cut DNA at specific sequences.
❖ The hGH gene is inserted into a plasmid vector using DNA ligase. DNA ligase is an enzyme that joins pieces
of DNA together.
❖ The plasmid vector is introduced into a bacterial cell using a process called transformation. Transformation is
a process in which DNA is transferred from one cell to another.
❖ The bacteria multiply and produce hGH. The hGH gene is expressed in the bacteria, and the bacteria produce
hGH as a protein.
❖ The hGH is extracted and purified from the bacteria. The hGH is then ready to be used as a medicine.
Recombinant Therapeutic Proteins:
❖ Recombinant therapeutic proteins are proteins that are produced using recombinant DNA technology. This
involves inserting the gene encoding the protein of interest into a host cell, such as bacteria, yeast, or
mammalian cells. The host cells then produce the protein, which can then be extracted and purified.
❖ Recombinant therapeutic proteins are used to treat a wide range of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune
diseases, infectious diseases, and genetic disorders. Some examples of recombinant therapeutic proteins
include:
❖ Insulin for diabetes
❖ Erythropoietin for anemia
❖ Interferons for viral infections
❖ Vaccine for Hepatitis B
4
Recombinant Vaccines:
❖ Recombinant vaccines are vaccines that are produced using recombinant DNA technology. This technology
allows scientists to combine DNA from different organisms to create new DNA molecules. Recombinant
vaccines are often safer and more effective than traditional vaccines.
❖ Recombinant vaccines are often more effective and safer than traditional vaccines because they are more
specific to the target pathogen and are produced in a more controlled environment. Recombinant vaccines also
do not contain live virus or bacteria, which reduces the risk of side effects.
Examples of Recombinant Vaccines
❖ Hepatitis B vaccine
❖ Covishield vaccine (COVID-19 vaccine)
❖ HPV (Human Papillomavirus) vaccine
Recombinant Hepatitis B vaccine:
The process in detail:

❖ The gene encoding the Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) is isolated from the Hepatitis B virus using
restriction enzymes. Restriction enzymes are enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences.
❖ The gene is inserted into a yeast expression vector using DNA ligase. DNA ligase is an enzyme that joins
pieces of DNA together.
❖ The recombinant DNA molecule is introduced into a yeast cell using a process called transformation.
Transformation is a process in which DNA is transferred from one cell to another.
❖ The yeast cell transcribes and translates the gene, producing the HBsAg. The human growth hormone gene is
expressed in the yeast cell, and the yeast cell produces HBsAg as a protein.
❖ The HBsAg is secreted from the yeast cell into the culture medium. This is because the yeast expression vector
contains a signal sequence that directs the protein to the secretory pathway.
❖ The HBsAg is harvested from the culture medium and purified. The HBsAg is then ready to be used as a
vaccine.
5
Advantages of Recombinant DNA (rDNA) Vaccines:

1. Cost-effectiveness: rDNA vaccines are relatively inexpensive to produce, making them more accessible to
people in developing countries.
2. Cell-mediated and humoral immune response: rDNA vaccines can induce both cell-mediated and humoral
immune responses, which provides more comprehensive protection against pathogens.
3. Reduced risk of contamination: rDNA vaccines are produced in a controlled laboratory environment, which
reduces the risk of contamination with other pathogens.
4. Specificity and fewer side effects: rDNA vaccines are highly specific to the target antigen, which reduces the
risk of side effects.
5. Faster manufacturing and uniform composition: rDNA vaccines can be manufactured more quickly than
traditional vaccines, and each vial contains a uniform composition of the vaccine.
Monoclonal Antibodies (mAbs):
❖ Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are proteins that are created in a laboratory. They are made from clones of a
single parent cell, which is usually a white blood cell. This means that all of the mAbs are identical and bind
to the same target antigen.
❖ Antigens are foreign substances that trigger an immune response. When a mAb binds to an antigen, it can flag
the cell for destruction by the immune system.
❖ mAbs can be used to:
❖ Treat many diseases, including some types of cancer. For example, mAbs can be used to target cancer cells
and destroy them without damaging healthy cells.
❖ Carry drugs, toxins, or radioactive substances directly to affected cells. This can help to deliver more
targeted and effective treatment.
The production of monoclonal antibodies using hybridoma technology:
6
Hybridoma technology is a technique used to produce monoclonal antibodies, which are antibodies that are all
identical and bind to the same specific antigen. Monoclonal antibodies are used in a variety of research and
therapeutic applications, including cancer diagnosis and treatment, autoimmune disease treatment, and infectious
disease prevention and treatment.
To produce monoclonal antibodies using hybridoma technology, the following steps are involved:
1. A mouse is immunized with the target antigen. This stimulates the mouse's immune system to produce
antibodies against the antigen.
2. The mouse's spleen is removed and the B cells are extracted. B cells are the type of white blood cell that
produce antibodies.
3. The B cells are fused with myeloma cells, which are cancer cells that can produce monoclonal antibodies. This
fusion creates hybridoma cells.
4. The hybridoma cells are cultured and screened for the production of antibodies against the target antigen.
5. The hybridoma cells that produce the desired antibodies are cloned and cultured to produce large quantities of
monoclonal antibodies.
Advantages of hybridoma technology for monoclonal antibody production:
❖ Hybridoma serves as an immortal source of monoclonal antibodies. This means that hybridomas can be
cultured indefinitely to produce monoclonal antibodies, which is not possible with other methods of antibody
production.
❖ Same quality of the antibody is maintained amongst the different production batches. This is because
hybridomas are clones of a single parent cell, which means that all of the hybridomas produce identical
antibodies.
❖ Highly reproducible and scalable unlimited production source. Hybridoma technology is a highly
reproducible and scalable process, which means that large quantities of monoclonal antibodies can be produced
consistently and efficiently.
❖ Can produce antibodies when needed. Hybridoma technology allows for the production of monoclonal
antibodies on demand, which is important for research and therapeutic applications.
❖ No need to worry about maintaining the animals. Hybridoma technology does not require the use of live
animals, which eliminates the need to worry about animal welfare and housing.
❖ Antigen or immunogen need not be pure. Hybridoma technology can be used to produce monoclonal
antibodies against a wide range of antigens, including those that are impure.
Disadvantages of using monoclonal antibodies:
❖ Cost: Monoclonal antibodies can be very expensive to produce, due to the time and effort required to develop
and maintain hybridoma cultures.
❖ Antigen recognition: Monoclonal antibodies may not be able to recognize small peptide and fragment
antigens, or the original antigen if it is modified or presented in a different way.
❖ Contamination: Hybridoma cultures are susceptible to contamination, which can ruin the production batch.
❖ Limited animal species: Hybridoma technology has only been well developed for mice and rats, not for other
animals.
7
❖ Low yield: More than 99% of the cells do not survive during the fusion process, which reduces the range of
useful antibodies that can be produced.
Gene Therapy:
Gene therapy is a technique that modifies a person's genes to treat or cure disease. It works by replacing a disease-
causing gene with a healthy copy of the gene, inactivating a defective gene, or introducing a new or modified gene
into the body.
There are three main types of gene therapy:
❖ Replacing a disease-causing gene with a
healthy copy of the gene: This approach
is used to treat diseases caused by
mutations in a single gene. For example,
cystic fibrosis is caused by a mutation in
the CFTR gene. Gene therapy can be used
to replace the mutated CFTR gene with a
healthy copy of the gene, which can
correct the defect and improve the patient's
symptoms.
❖ Inactivating a disease-causing gene that is not functioning properly: This approach is used to treat diseases
caused by over-expression of a gene. For example, some types of cancer are caused by over-expression of
genes that promote cell growth. Gene therapy can be used to inactivate these genes, which can slow or stop
the growth of the cancer.
❖ Introducing a new or modified gene into the body to help treat a disease: This approach is used to treat
diseases that are not caused by a single gene mutation or over-expression. For example, gene therapy can be
used to introduce genes that encode therapeutic proteins into the body. These proteins can then help to treat
the disease.
There are two main types of gene therapy:
❖ Somatic gene therapy: Somatic gene therapy
involves modifying genes in cells other than
gametes (eggs and sperm). Any changes made
to the genes in somatic cells will not be passed
on to the next generation.
❖ Germline gene therapy: Germline gene
therapy involves modifying genes in gametes.
Any changes made to the genes in gametes will
be passed on to the next generation.
8
Challenges of Gene Therapy:

1. Immune response: The body's immune system may attack the gene therapy vector, or the gene itself. This
can prevent the gene therapy from working, or it can cause serious side effects.
2. Off-target effects: Gene therapy vectors can sometimes deliver the gene to the wrong cells, or they can insert
the gene into the genome in a way that disrupts other genes. This can lead to serious side effects, including
cancer.
3. Cost: Gene therapy is a very expensive treatment. This is because it is complex to develop and produce gene
therapy vectors, and because gene therapy treatments are often personalized to the individual patient.
4. Delivery: It can be difficult to deliver the gene therapy vector to the right cells in the body. This is especially
true for diseases that affect the brain or other organs that are difficult to reach.
5. Human error: Gene therapy is a complex procedure, and there is a risk of human error. This could lead to the
wrong gene being delivered to the patient, or to the gene being delivered in the wrong way.
6. Biowarfare: Gene therapy could potentially be used as a bioweapon. This is because gene therapy vectors
could be used to deliver harmful genes to people.
7. Vector toxicity: The gene therapy vector itself can sometimes be toxic to cells. This can cause side effects, or
it can even kill the cells.
Stem Cell Therapy:
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that have the potential to develop into different types of cells in the body. Stem
cell therapy is a type of regenerative medicine that uses stem cells to repair or replace damaged cells and tissues.
Cell potency: Cell potency is a cell's ability to differentiate into other cell types. Differentiation is the process by
which cells become specialized to perform different functions in the body.
Stem cells: Stem cells are special cells that can differentiate into many different types of cells. They are important
for growth, development, and repair.
Types of stem cells:
❖ Totipotent stem cells: Totipotent stem cells can
differentiate into any type of cell in the body,
including the cells of the placenta. These cells are
only found in early embryos.
❖ Pluripotent stem cells: Pluripotent stem cells can
differentiate into all of the cell types that make up
the body, but not the cells of the placenta. These
cells are found in early embryos and in embryonic
stem cell lines.
❖ Multipotent stem cells: Multipotent stem cells
can differentiate into a limited number of cell
types. These cells are found in various tissues
throughout the body, such as bone marrow, blood, and adipose tissue.
9
❖ Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs): iPSCs

are created by reprogramming adult cells into a
pluripotent state. This can be done by using a
variety of methods, such as transfecting the cells
with specific genes or exposing them to specific
chemicals. iPSCs can be used to develop
personalized cell therapies for a variety of
diseases and conditions.
Totipotent embryonic stem cells are cells that can
differentiate into any type of cell in the body, including
the cells of the placenta. This makes them very
promising for cell therapy applications.
Steps in the totipotent embryonic stem cell therapy process:
1. Totipotent embryonic stem cells are collected from an early embryo.
2. The stem cells are cultured and expanded in a laboratory. This increases the number of stem cells available for
therapy.
3. The stem cells are differentiated into the desired type of cell. This can be done by exposing the stem cells to
specific chemicals or growth factors.
4. The differentiated cells are transplanted into the patient's body. The cells can be transplanted directly into the
damaged tissue, or they can be delivered using a variety of methods, such as injection, infusion, or surgery.
The advantages and disadvantages of stem cell therapy:
Advantages Disadvantages
❖ Treatment of degenerative, incurable, and irreversible diseases ❖ Costly technique

like diabetes, heart disease, spinal cord injuries, Parkinson's, cells ❖ Difficulty in obtaining stem
Alzheimer's disease, etc. ❖ Long period of growth required
❖ Blood stem used to treat diseases of the blood like leukemia before using them
❖ Stem cell transplant can be used to replace bone marrow affected ❖ Ethical issues - Example- Germ
during chemotherapy treatments. line therapy
❖ Requires only a small number of cells.
❖ No risk of rejection
❖ Fast recovery
❖ No surgical complications generally
10
Regulations in India:
❖ In March 2019, the Union Health Ministry had notified the 'New Drugs and Clinical Trial Rules, 2019')
which state that stem-cell- derived products are to be used as "new drugs".
❖ This means that any doctor who uses stem-cell therapy needs to take permission from the government.
❖ In India as well as globally, only blood stem cells from
bone marrow to treat blood cancers and different blood
disorders are permitted.
❖ The clinical use in any other disease or use of any stem
cells other than these is still in the research stage.
Pharmacogenomics:
❖ Pharmacogenomics is the study of how genes affect a
person's response to drugs. It is a combination of two
different streams: pharmacology (the science of drugs)
and genomics (the study of genes and their functions).
A drug receptor is a protein molecule that is located on the
surface of a cell. It is responsible for the binding of drugs to
the cell, which causes them to release the drug into the cell.
HER2 Receptor:
The HER2 receptor, also known as ERBB2,
is a protein that is located on the surface of
many types of cells, including breast cancer
cells. The HER2 receptor is a member of the
epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)
family of proteins. EGFR family proteins are
involved in cell growth and division.
When the HER2 receptor is activated, it sends
signals to the cell that tell it to grow and divide. This is a normal process that occurs in all cells. However, in some
cases, the HER2 receptor can be overexpressed or mutated, which can lead to uncontrolled cell growth and cancer.
The receptor has three parts:
❖ Extracellular domain: The extracellular domain is the part of the receptor that is exposed to the outside of
the cell. It binds to HER2 ligands, which are proteins that activate the receptor.
❖ Transmembrane domain: The transmembrane domain is the part of the receptor that spans the cell
membrane. It anchors the receptor to the cell membrane and allows it to transmit signals from the outside of
the cell to the inside of the cell.
❖ Intracellular domain: The intracellular domain is the part of the receptor that is located on the inside of the
cell. It contains tyrosine kinase activity, which means that it can phosphorylate other proteins and initiate
signaling pathways that lead to cell growth and division.
11
The HER2 receptor is a target for cancer treatment. Drugs that target the HER2 receptor can be used to block the
receptor's activity and prevent cell growth and division. HER2-targeted therapies are used to treat breast cancer,
gastric cancer, and other types of cancer.
In the future, pharmacogenomics will be used to develop tailored drugs to treat a wide range of health problems,
including cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer disease, cancer, and asthma.
Slide
The RT-PCR Process:
Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is a technique used to amplify and detect RNA targets.
RT-PCR is commonly used to detect and quantify the expression of specific genes, or to detect the presence of
RNA viruses, such as SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19.
Detailed explanation:
❖ Step 1: Reverse transcription: The RNA template is combined with reverse transcriptase, primers, and other
components in a reaction tube. The reaction tube is then heated to a temperature that is optimal for reverse
transcription. Reverse transcriptase converts the RNA template into cDNA.
❖ Step 2: PCR amplification: The cDNA is combined with primers, Taq polymerase, DNTPs, MgCl2, and
buffer in a reaction tube. The reaction tube is then placed in a PCR machine. The PCR machine cycles through
a series of steps, including heating, annealing, and extension. During the heating step, the double-stranded
DNA is denatured into single-stranded DNA. During the annealing step, the primers bind to the single-stranded
DNA. During the extension step, Taq polymerase synthesizes a new strand of DNA complementary to the
template strand. The PCR cycle is repeated many times, resulting in the amplification of the cDNA.
❖ Step 3: Detection: The amplified cDNA is detected using a variety of methods, such as gel electrophoresis,
fluorescence detection, or real-time PCR.
12
Q. With reference to 'stem cells', frequently in the news, which of the following statements is/are correct?
(2012)
1. Stem cells can be derived from mammals only.
2. Stem cells can be used for screening new drugs.
3. Stem cells can be used for medical therapies.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
mRNA Vaccines:
Messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines represent a
revolutionary approach to vaccination. They work
by delivering a critical piece of genetic
information directly to our cells, instructing them
to produce a specific viral protein, typically the
spike protein displayed on the outer surface of a
virus. This protein then triggers the immune
system to develop defenses against the actual
virus, preparing the body to effectively combat
infection.
Advantages of mRNA Vaccines:
1. Rapid Development: A significant advantage of mRNA vaccines lies in their rapid development process.
Because they only require the genetic sequence of a viral protein, mRNA vaccines can be designed and
manufactured much faster compared to traditional vaccines. This expedited development timeline is crucial
for effectively responding to emerging pathogens and outbreaks.
2. Flexibility and Adaptability: Another key strength of mRNA vaccines is their inherent flexibility. The
mRNA sequence encoding the viral protein can be readily modified to target new variants or strains of a virus.
This adaptability allows for the rapid development of updated vaccines to address evolving threats.
3. Enhanced Safety Profile: mRNA vaccines offer a high degree of safety. They do not contain live viruses,
which eliminates the risk of causing the very disease they are intended to prevent. Additionally, mRNA
vaccines do not integrate into the recipient's DNA. This is because mRNA is a transient molecule that degrades
naturally after delivering its instructions.
4. Minimal Risk of Insertional Mutagenesis: Traditional viral vector vaccines use modified viruses to deliver
genetic material into cells. There is a rare theoretical risk of these vectors accidentally integrating into the host
genome and causing unintended mutations. mRNA vaccines, by not using any viral vectors, completely
eliminate this potential risk.
13
5. Potent Immune Response: Studies have shown that mRNA vaccines can induce a robust immune response,
including the production of antibodies and T cells, which are crucial for effectively combatting infections.
6. Scalable Production: The manufacturing process for mRNA vaccines is relatively straightforward and can be
scaled up quickly to meet large-scale vaccination needs. This scalability is critical for ensuring widespread
vaccine availability during pandemics.
7. Broader Applications: The technology underlying mRNA vaccines holds immense potential beyond
infectious diseases. Researchers are exploring the use of mRNA vaccines for cancer immunotherapy, where
the mRNA can be designed to target tumor-specific antigens and stimulate the immune system to attack cancer
cells.
Nobel Prize: Physiology Or Medicine 2023
❖ The groundbreaking discovery earned Katalin
Kariko and Drew Weissman the 2023 Nobel Prize
in Physiology or Medicine. Their work focused on
modifying messenger RNA (mRNA) to make it
more suitable for therapeutic applications,
particularly in the development of vaccines.
❖ Unmodified mRNA, when introduced into the body,
triggers an inflammatory response due to the
presence of uridine (U), one of the RNA bases. This
immune reaction can hinder the effectiveness of
mRNA-based therapies.
❖ Kariko and Weissman discovered that replacing uridine with pseudouridine (Ψ) significantly reduces the
inflammatory response. This modification makes mRNA more tolerable to the body's immune system,
allowing it to effectively deliver instructions for protein synthesis without triggering an unwanted immune
reaction.
❖ Their discovery paved the way for the development of mRNA vaccines, including the highly successful
COVID-19 vaccines. The ability to modify mRNA and reduce its immunogenicity has revolutionized vaccine
development and holds immense promise for treating various diseases.
14
Q. What is the primary function of mRNA vaccines in the context of vaccination?

a) They introduce(weakened pathogens into the body.
b) They deliver a fragment of the pathogen's genetic material to trigger an immune response.
c) They contain a live, attenuated form of the pathogen.
d) They rely on viral vectors to stimulate immunity.
Q. With reference to recent developments regarding Recombinant Vector Vaccines, consider the following
statements (2021)
1. Genetic engineering is applied in the development of these vaccines.
2. Bacteria and viruses are used as vectors.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 2 only
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Tech
Lecture – 16
Space Technology (Part - 1)
2
Topics to be covered ❖ Satellite
❖ Orbits
❖ Launch Vehicles
❖ Types of Satellites
❖ NAVIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation)
❖ PYQs
Genome Sequencing:
❖ Genome sequencing is the process of determining the order of the nucleotides in a genome.
❖ The genome is the complete set of genetic instructions for an organism.
❖ Sequencing the human genome: In 2023, an international team of scientists published the first complete
Human Genome Sequence.
❖ This was a significant achievement, as previous sequencing efforts had been incomplete due to limitations in
DNA sequencing technologies, and couldn’t read much of the Genome.
Human Genome Project:
❖ The Human Genome Project was an international research effort to determine the DNA sequence of the
entire human genome.
❖ It began in 1990 and was completed in 2003.
❖ The project was coordinated by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the United States and the
Department of Energy (DOE) in the United States.
❖ India was not a part of it.
❖ It was analyzed that there were less than 25,000 Genes in the body that are functional.
Various Initiatives Taken for Genome Sequencing in India:
❖ IndiGen program: The IndiGen program aims to undertake whole genome sequencing of 1000 Indian
individuals representing diverse ethnic groups from India. The program is funded by the Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).
❖ Genome India Project: The Genome India Project aims to collect 10000 genetic samples from citizens
across India to build a reference genome. The project is led by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT).
Indian Biological Data Center (IBDC):
❖ The Indian Biological Data Center (IBDC) is the first national repository for life science data in India.
❖ It was established at the Regional Centre of Biotechnology (RCB) in Faridabad in collaboration with the
National Informatics Centre (NIC).
3
❖ Supported by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT).

❖ Storage: Digitised data will be stored on a 4 Petabyte Supercomputer ‘Brahm’.
❖ Purpose: The IBDC was established to provide a central repository for life science data generated from
publicly funded research in India. This data can be used by scientists to accelerate research in areas such as
genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics.
❖ Data sharing: The IBDC shares data in accordance with the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable,
and Reusable) principles. It means that data is easy to find, access, and reuse.
Biological Research Regulatory Approval Portal (BioRRAP):
❖ The Department of Biotechnology has developed BioRRAP to track the regulatory approvals for a
research proposal on a single portal.
❖ BioRRAP provides a single route to direct the applicant to regulatory agencies providing requisite approval
relevant to the biological research.
Space Technology
Mains Previous Year Questions:

1. What is the main task of India’s third moon mission that could not be achieved in its earlier mission? List the
countries that have achieved this task. Introduce the subsystems in the spacecraft launched and explain the
role of the Virtual Launch Control Centre’ at the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre which contributed to the
successful launch from Sriharikota. (2023)
2. Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How has the application of this
technology helped India in its socio-economic development? (2016)
3. What do you understand about ‘Standard Positioning System’ and ‘Precision Positioning System’ in the GPS
era? Discuss the advantages India perceives from its ambitious IRNSS program employing just seven
satellites. (2015)
4. What is India’s plan to have its own space station and how will it benefit our space programme? (2019)
5. India has achieved remarkable successes in unmanned space missions including the Chandrayaan and Mars
Orbiter Mission, but has not ventured into manned space missions. What are the main obstacles to launching
a manned space mission, both in terms of technology and logistics? Examine critically. (2017)
4
Topics Covered:
1. Satellite and Orbits 2. Geotail
3. Types of Satellites 4. Gaganyaan Mission
5. Launch Vehicle 6. Aditya-L1 mission (ISRO)
7. Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) 8. MARS Exploration
9. Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) 10. Voyager Program
11. History & Achievements of ISRO 12. Space debris
13. The private sector in space 14. Sunspots
15. IN-SPACE Indian National Space Promotion 16. Gravitational lensing
17. India’s Lunar Mission 18. Space Station
Satellite:
❖ A satellite is an artificial body placed in orbit around the earth moon or another planet in order to collect
information or for communication.
Basic Orbits:
5
❖ Lower Earth Orbit (LEO): It is the region of space closest to Earth. It extends from the Earth's surface to
an altitude of about 10,000 kilometers. LEO satellites are typically used for communication, earth
observation, and navigation purposes.
❖ Medium Earth Orbit (MEO): It is the region of space between LEO and GEO. It extends from an altitude
of about 15,000 kilometers. MEO satellites are typically used for navigation and communication purposes.
❖ Geostationary Orbit (GEO): (Altitude of about 35,786 kilometers) It is a special type of MEO where the
satellite orbits the Earth at the same speed as the Earth rotates. This means that the satellite remains
stationary above a fixed point on the Earth's surface. GEO satellites are typically used for communication
and broadcasting purposes.
Geostationary Satellites:
❖ Geostationary Satellites orbit the Earth at the same speed as
the Earth rotates, which means that they remain stationary
above a fixed point on the Earth's surface.
❖ This makes them ideal for many applications, such as
communication, broadcasting, and weather monitoring.
❖ Geostationary satellites are typically located at an altitude of
about 35,786 kilometers (22,236 miles) above the Earth.
❖ Angle of Inclination: 0 Degree.
❖ Orbital Height: 36, 000 km.
❖ Orbital Period: 24 Hours.
❖ Purpose: Majorly Communication. Geostationary orbit
Geosynchronous Satellites:
❖ Geosynchronous satellites are similar to geostationary satellites, but they do not necessarily orbit the
Earth at the same speed as the Earth rotates.
❖ This means that they may move slightly over time. Geosynchronous satellites are typically used for
navigation and communication purposes.
❖ All Geostationary Orbits are Geosynchronous Orbits.
❖ All Geosynchronous Orbits are Geostationary Orbits.
❖ All Geostationary Satellites in Geostationary Orbits are Geosynchronous too, but all Geosynchronous
Satellites in Geosynchronous Orbits are not Geostationary.
❖ Geostationary is a subtype of Geosynchronous Orbit.
Geosynchronous orbit
6
Polar Satellites
❖ Polar satellites orbit the Earth from pole to pole. This gives them a unique view of the Earth's surface,
including the Arctic and Antarctic regions.
❖ Polar satellites are typically used for Earth observation and environmental monitoring.
Polar Orbit
Sun Synchronous Orbit:
❖ A Sun-synchronous orbit (SSO) is a nearly polar orbit around a
planet, in which the satellite passes over any given point of the
planet's surface at the same local mean solar time.
❖ More technically, it is an orbit arranged so that it processes through
one complete revolution each year, so it always maintains the same
relationship with the Sun.
Launch Vehicles:
7
❖ Solid Fuel: Hydroxy Terminated Poly Butadiene (HTPB)

❖ Liquid Fuel: UMMH (Unsymmetrical Mono Methyl Hydrazine), and UDMH (Unsymmetrical Di-methyl
Hydrazine)
❖ Propellent: Combination of Fuel and Oxidiser.
Launch Vehicle Stages:
Types of Satellite
1. Astronomical satellites/Space observatory:
➢ Astronomical satellites/space observatories are telescopes that are placed in orbit around Earth so they
can see the universe without the interference of Earth's atmosphere.
➢ India's ASTROSAT is an astronomical satellite that was launched in 2015. It has five telescopes that
can see the universe in different types of light, including X-ray, ultraviolet, visible, and infrared.
8
➢ The Hubble Space Telescope is the most famous astronomical satellite. It was launched in 1990 and
has taken iconic images of deep space objects, such as the Pillars of Creation and the Hubble Deep
Field.
Types of Satellites
SLV (Satellite Launch Vehicle):
❖ The first launch of SLV launching rockets was done in 1980.
❖ It was India's first experimental launch vehicle.
❖ It can carry a 40 Kg payload to Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
❖ It is a 4-stage all solid rocket system.The solid fuels are HTPB (Hydroxy Terminated Poly-Butadine).
ASLV (Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle):
❖ The first launch of ASLV launching rockets was done in 1987.
❖ It was India's second experimental launch vehicle.
❖ It can carry 150 Kg payload to 400 km Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
❖ It is a 5-stage solid rocket system.
❖ PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle):
❖ The first launch of PSLV launching rockets was done in 1994.
❖ It was India's first functional launch vehicle.
❖ It can carry 1750 Kg payload to Polar Orbit and 1425 Kg payload to Geosynchronous orbit which is
approximately 36000 Km above the surface of the earth.
❖ It is known as the workhorse of ISRO.
Variants of PSLV:
❖ PSLV-G (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle – Generic):
➢ It was launched in 1994 for the first time.
➢ It is a 4-stage launch vehicle.
➢ The first stage has an additional rocket attached to it. The first stage has six Strap On Motors (SOM).
➢ The first and the third stage is solid whereas the second and the fourth stage has a liquid fuel.
9
➢ VIKAS engine is used for the liquid fuel. No engine has to be used for the solid fuel.
❖ PSLV-CA (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle – Core Alone):
➢ It was developed in 2007.
➢ It is a 4-stage launch vehicle. The six SOM present in PSLV-G are absent here.
➢ The technology is simplified and we don’t need to attach a fixed rocket to the first stage.
➢ Hence, operational ease and flexibility has increased. PSLV-CA is easy to launch. Hence, it replaced
the PSLV-G.
❖ PSLV-XL (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle – Hexa Lift):
➢ It is the most powerful PSLV.
➢ Six SOM are added to the first stage of PSLV-CA.
❖ PSLV-QL (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle – Quad Lift):
➢ It is a PSLV-CA with four SOM.
❖ PSLV-DL (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle – Dual Lift):
➢ It is a PSLV-CA with two SOM.
Summary: PSLV Variant
Variant Year Stages Strap-On Motors Fuel Type Notable Features
Developed (SOM)
PSLV-G (Polar Satellite 1994 4 6 SOM attached 1st and 3rd First use of PSLV,
Launch Vehicle – to the first stage stages: VIKAS engine for
Generic) Solid liquid fuel, improved
payload capacity.
PSLV-CA (Polar Satellite 2007 4 None Simplified Enhanced operational
Launch Vehicle – Core technology ease, no fixed rocket
Alone) attached to the first
stage.
PSLV-XL (Polar Satellite 2008 4 6 SOM attached 1st and 3rd Most powerful PSLV
Launch Vehicle – Hexa to the first stage stages: variant with increased
Lift) Solid payload capacity.
PSLV-QL (Polar Satellite 2019 4 4 SOM attached Simplified Improved payload
Launch Vehicle – Quad to the first stage technology capacity compared to
Lift) the CA variant.
PSLV-DL (Polar Satellite 2019 4 2 SOM attached Simplified Enhanced payload
Launch Vehicle – Dual to the first stage technology capacity compared to
Lift) the CA variant.
10
Achievements of PSLV
❖ PSLV is one of the most versatile and reliable launch vehicles for polar orbit.
❖ Till now 59 launches have been made out of which only two missions were unsuccessful. Thus, it has an
impeccable track record.
❖ PSLV has launched around 375 foreign satellites from about 35 different countries, which indicates
reliability and popularity of PSLV.
❖ Chandryaan 2008, Mars Orbitor Mission 2013, Astrosal 2015, and Aditya L1 2023, all launched from
the PSLV.
Types of Satellite
1. Astronomical satellites/Space observatory:
➢ Astronomical satellites/space observatories are telescopes that are placed in orbit around Earth so they
can see the universe without the interference of Earth's atmosphere.
➢ India's ASTROSAT is an astronomical satellite that was launched in 2015. It has five telescopes that
can see the universe in different types of light, including X-ray, ultraviolet, visible, and infrared.
➢ The Hubble Space Telescope is the most famous astronomical satellite. It was launched in 1990 and
has taken iconic images of deep space objects, such as the Pillars of Creation and the Hubble Deep
Field.
Applications of Astronomical Satellites:

1. They can be used to make star maps.
2. They can be used to study mysterious phenomena such as Black holes and Quasars.
3. They can be used to take pictures of the planets in the solar system.
4. They can be used to make maps of different planetary surfaces.
11
Black Hole Quasars

James Webb Space Telescope:
❖ It is also called JWST or Webb
❖ It is the outcome of replacement for HUBBLE telescope
❖ It has a large infrared telescope with a 6.5-meter primary
mirror.
❖ The telescope was launched on an Ariane 5 rocket from
French Guiana in Dec. 2021.
❖ It will study every phase in the history of the Universe.
❖ It is the collaboration between NASA, the European Space
Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA).
❖ India is not a part of it.
2. Communication Satellites:
➢ Communication satellites are satellites that are used to
relay communication signals between different points on
Earth.
➢ They are typically placed in geostationary orbit, which means that they orbit the Earth at the same speed
as the Earth rotates. This allows them to stay fixed over a particular point on the Earth's surface.
➢ Example: The Indian National Satellite (INSAT) - INSAT-3A, 3C, 4A, 4B, 4CR ,GSAT of India.
➢ Communication satellites are used for a variety of purposes, including:
✓ Telecommunications: Communication satellites are used to carry telephone, television, and radio
signals.
✓ Mobile communications: Communication satellites are used to provide mobile phone and satellite
internet services.
✓ Data communications: Communication satellites are used to transmit data between different
computer networks.
➢ Communication satellites are an essential part of modern telecommunications infrastructure. They allow
us to communicate with people all over the world, regardless of their location.
12
3. Earth Observation Satellites:

➢ Earth observation satellites are satellites that are
used to observe the Earth's surface. They are often
termed geographical satellites.
➢ Example: India’s IRS and RESOURCESAT.
➢ Earth observation satellites are used for a wide
range of applications, including:
✓ Agriculture: Earth observation satellites can
be used to monitor crop growth, assess crop
damage, and estimate crop yields. They can
also be used to identify areas that are suitable
for agriculture and to track changes in
agricultural land use over time.
✓ Water resources: Earth observation satellites can be used to monitor water bodies, assess water
quality, and estimate water availability. They can also be used to track changes in water resources
over time and to identify areas that are at risk of drought or flooding.
✓ Urban development: Earth observation satellites can be used to map urban areas, assess urban
growth, and plan for future development. They can also be used to monitor urban infrastructure
and to identify areas that are at risk of natural hazards.
✓ Mineral prospecting: Earth observation satellites can be used to identify potential mineral
deposits and to track the development of mining operations. They can also be used to monitor the
environmental impact of mining activities.
✓ Environment and forestry: Earth observation satellites can be used to monitor deforestation,
forest fires, and other environmental changes. They can also be used to track the movement of
wildlife and to identify areas that are important for biodiversity conservation.
13
✓ Drought and flood forecasting:

Earth observation satellites can be
used to monitor weather conditions
and to predict the likelihood of
drought or flooding. This
information can be used to warn
people of impending disasters and to
help them to prepare for them.
✓ Ocean resources: Earth observation
satellites can be used to monitor
ocean currents, sea ice, and
phytoplankton blooms. This
information can be used to manage
fisheries, to plan for shipping routes,
and to predict the impact of climate
change on the oceans.
✓ Disaster management: Earth observation satellites can be used to monitor for natural disasters
such as earthquakes, hurricanes, and volcanic eruptions. They can also be used to assess the
damage caused by disasters and to help with relief and recovery efforts.
4. Radar Imaging Satellite:
➢ RISAT (Radar Imaging Satellite) series is the first all-
weather Earth observation satellite from ISRO.
➢ The radar can penetrate clouds and darkness.
➢ It uses synthetic aperture radars (SAR) that measure changes
on the surface of the Earth.
✓ RISAT 2 - 2009
✓ RISAT 1 - 2012
✓ RISAT-2B - 2019
✓ RISAT-2BR1 - 2019
✓ RISAT-2BR2 - 2020
✓ RISAT-1A - 2021
➢ Applications of RISAT: It helps in the context of agriculture, forestry and disaster management, their
primary purpose is military surveillance.

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Tech
Lecture - 17
2

NavIC
 Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS):
 IRNSS) is an independent regional navigation satellite system 4 developed by the Indian Space Research
Organization (ISRO).
 The main objective is to provide reliable position navigation and timing services over India and its
neighbourhood.
 The IRNSS constellation was named "NavIC" (Navigation with Indian Constellation) by the Prime
Minister.
 NavIC provides two types of services:
 Standard Positioning Service (SPS) is meant for the general public.
 Restricted Service (RS) is an encrypted service meant for authorised users and agencies.
 India has become the 14th country in the world to have its independent regional navigation satellite system
recognised by the IMO as a part of the World Wide Radio Navigation System (WWRNS).
 GPS includes 24 satellites while NavIC has 8 satellites and their range is within India and its adjoining regions
extending up to 1,500 km from the country's border.
 Compared to GPS which has a position accuracy of 20-30) metres, the NavIC is able to pinpoint location to
an estimated accuracy of under 20 metres.
 IRNSS-NavIC is designed to provide accurate position information service to users in India and the region
extending up to 1500 km from its boundary, which is its primary service area
 An extended service area lies between the primary service area and the area enclosed by the rectangle from
latitude 30° South to 50° North and longitude 30° East to 130° East.
 It is being considered as a significant achievement towards the 'Atmanirbhar Bharat' initiative.
Important Navigation Systems:
 USA navigation system: The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system that
consists of 24 orbiting satellites.
 Glonass is Russian Satellite Navigation System considered as a counterpart to GPS of the USA.
 BeiDou Navigation Satellite System of (China A hybrid constellation consisting of around 30 satellites in three
kinds of orbits.
 Galileo is Europe's Global Navigation Satellite System.
 QZSS Japan
HISTORY OF ISRO
 1962: INCOSPAR (Indian National Committee for Space Research)
 1969 ISRO superseded INCOSPAR (still under DAE)
 1972: Department of Space set up
 1975 (Aryabhata, first Indian satellite, launched by USSR
 1980: Rohini, first satellite launched by Indian vehicle SLV-3
 1993) PSLV's first flight
3
ACHIEVEMENTS OF ISRO
 ISRO has reputation of launching cost-effective space missions.
 Communication: INSAT and GSAT satellites.
 Remote sensing: Cartosat series, Bhuvan portal
 Navigation (IRNSS and GAGAN
 Defence:
 RISAT-2 (2009) for border surveillance
 GSAT-7 (2013) for Navy; GSAT-7A (2018) for Army and Air Force
 EMISAT (2019) for electronic intelligence gathering
 Astronomy Astrosat (2015) India's first multi-wavelength space observatory
 Space Exploration: Chandrayaan-1,2 & 3), MOом
 International Relations: South Asia Satellite (GSAT-9) for SAARC pore countries, launched in 2017; used
for DTH, telemedicine, tele-education, disaster management support, etc.
 Education: EDUSAT) (2004) (GSAT-3) exclusively for distance- education
 Commercialization: satellite launches for private sector and foreign companies through ANTRIX and
NewSpace.
 Outreach programs:
 Village Resource Centres to work with panchayats and NGOs.
 Young Scientist program to give knowledge about space to school students.
 Samvad with students where the ISRO chairman interacts with students.
 Launching satellites made by students, like Anusat Studsat
UPCOMING MISSIONS OF ISRO
 2024 - Gaganyaan 1 - Human Spaceflight - The first test flight of the Gaganyaan spacecraft, designed to carry
three astronauts and equipped with rendezvous and docking capabilities.
 2024- NISAR - Earth Observation - A joint project with NASA to launch a dual-frequency synthetic aperture
radar satellite for remote sensing is not…
 Mid-2025- Gaganyaan 2 - Human Spaceflight
 2025 - Venus Orbiter Mission (Shukrayaan) - Planetary ExplorationLunar Exploration
 2026 - Mars Orbiter Mission 2 (Mangalyaan 2)- - Planetary Exploration
 2026- Lunar Polar Exploration Mission
 2026 - Gaganyaan 3 - Human Spaceflight
 2028 - Chandrayaan-4
 2028- 2035 - Bharatiya Antariksha Station
 TBD - AstroSat-2 - Astronomy and Astrophysics
CHALLENGES OF ISRO
 Low global share: India has just 2% share in global space industry ($7 billion of $350 billion)
 Dependent on government support:
 Countries like USA have huge private participation (Falcon rocket of SpaceX, Boeing Starliner).
 NASA has a Tipping Point program for partnerships with private companies.
 Attracting talented youth: Talented youth prefers high-paying MNC jobs.
4
PRIVATE SECTOR IN SPACE

 Why is the need to involve private sector?
 Increasing demand: Demand for space-based services in India is far greater than what ISRO can provide.
 Faster growth Private sector will bring faster growth of space sector, just like it did after 1991 LPG
reforms.
 Fiscal pressure: ISRO's annual budget has crossed 13,000 crore
 and is expanding. Private sector will bring in(investment.
 Talent: Restricting space activities to ISRO prevents use of talent hidden in private sector.
 Focus on R&D: ISRO will be able to focus more on R&D and defence applications, as private companies
will do the routine tasks like making communication satellites, making PSLV, etc.
 International cooperation: It is easier for private companies to establish partnerships with foreign
companies to get latest technological solutions.
Steps taken:
 Space Technology Park where ISRO has set up range of facilities for use by industry.
 ISRO has outsourced manufacturing of (27 satellites to private companies.
 NewSpace, founded in 2019, to facilitate transfer of ISRO technologies to industry.
Challenges: Private Sector
 It's a highly risky business: Private companies may not be able to bear failures.
 Dual-use technologies and Critical information may fall in wrong hands. Private Satch (18
 Revenue loss to ISRO: Antrix current revenue of about Rs 1,700 crore will reduce.
 1992 ANTRIX focusses on selling ISRO's products and services like satellite launch.
 2019 NEWSPACE also focusses on increasing private industry participation in space programmes.
 2020 INSPACe is currently stated to promote private industry in space program, but in future, it will become
regulator of space activities in India. 4
 INSPACE is not a commercial arm of ISRO.
 Antrix & NewSpace are both commercial arms of ISRO.
IN-SPACE (Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre)
 A single-window, independent, nodal agency which functions as an autonomous agency in Department of
Space (DOS).
 Responsible to promote, enable authorize and supervise various space activities of the NGEs (Non-
Governmental Entities) that include:
 Building of launch vehicles & satellites and providing space-based services
 Sharing of space infrastructure and premises under the control of DOS/ISRO
 Establishment of new space infrastructure and facilities
 Sharing of technical facilities and expertise from ISRO.
 Headquarters (IN-SPACe) in Ahmedabad
 Hyderabad's Dhruva Space and Bengaluru's Digantara were authorized by IN-SPACe for launch of payloads
onboard PSLV Orbital Experimental Module (POEM) of PSLV-C53.
 Digantara: specializes in in-orbit space debris monitoring and also operates in the Defense-Space and
aerospace technologies
5
 Dhruva Space: is known for creating small satellite systems for commercial and government markets.
 Mission Prarambh: Involved launch of Vikram-S (VKS), India's first privately built rocket by Hyderabad
based Skyroot Aerospace.
 The Vikram-S rocket is a single-stage sub-orbital launch vehicle which would carry three customer payloads.
 Help test and validate the majority of the technologies in the Vikram series of space launch vehicles
 VKS is a single-stage spin-stabilized (using (3-D printed solid thrusters) solid propellant rocket.
 Skyroot has been working on three different Vikram rocket versions
 India's first private launch pad unveiled at Sriharikota:
 Designed by Agnikul (a startup) and executed in support of ISRO and IN-SPACE.
 It is specifically built to support liquid-stage controlled launches.
 The facility has two parts:
 Agnikul launchpad
 Agnikul mission control centre
Agnibaan Launch Vehicle
 Two-stage launch vehicle
 Capable of taking payloads of up to 100 kilograms to a low-earth orbit around 700 kilometres from the surface
of the Earth.
 Agnilet is the world's first_single-piece 3-D printed engine fully designed and manufactured in India and was
successfully test-fired in early 2021, making Agnikul the first company in the country to test its engines at
ISRO.
 Agnilet rocket is a "semi-cryogenic" engine that uses a mixture of liquid kerosene and supercold liquid oxygen
to propel itself.
 New Space India Limited((NSIL)
 It is country's first public sector undertaking in the space sector and commercial arm of ISRO aimed at
production and marketing of space-based services empowered to own the operational launch vehicles and
space assets of ISRO.
 Indian Space Association (ISPA):
 Launched in 2021, it is the apex, non-profit industry body exclusively working towards the development
of the private and public Space Industry in India.
 Antrix Corporation Limited:
 Marketing arm of ISRO to handle ISRO's commercial deals
 Space Entrepreneurship & Enterprise Development (SEED)
 Early-stage encouragement programme to startups and MSMEs in focus areas of interest to ISRO.
SPACE RESEARCH INSTITUTES
 Specialty
 Design and development of launch vehicle technology
 Design, development and integration of satellites
 Spaceport of India, provides Launch Base Infra
 Manned missions
 Remote Sensing Satellite data processing
 Space University (Asia's first, 2007)
6
 Institute
 Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre
 Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala)
 U R Rao Satellite Centre
 Satish Dhawan Space Centre
 Human Space Flight Centre
 National Remote Sensing Centre
 Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology
 Place
 Bengaluru (Karnataka)
 Sriharikota (Andhra Pradesh)
 Challakere (Karnataka)
 Hyderabad (Telangana)
 Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala)

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Tech
Lecture - 18
2

Vikram-1 Launch Vehicle:
 Skyroot Aerospace successfully test-fires stage-2 of Vikram-1 launch vehicle in A.P.'s Sriharikota
 Launch vehicles comprise multiple Stages. Stage 2, called Kalam-250 is critical during the ascent of the
launch vehicle since it will propel the rocket through the earth's atmosphere and into the vacuum of space
 The Vikram-1 launch will be a landmark event for the Indian space sector as it will be the country's
first private orbital rocket launch.
 It follows the suborbital launch of India's first private rocket - the Vikram-S by Skyroot.
 The solid propellant is being used in Kalam-250.
India’s Lunar Mission:
Chandrayaan 1 Chandrayaan 2
Year 2008 2019
Launch Vehicle PSLV GSLV Mk III
Orbiter Yes Yes
Yes, Planned crash landing Yes (Vikram), Planned soft landing but
Lander
crashed
Rover No Yes (Pragyan), but failed due to lander’s crash
 Moon impact probe struck the South  It was partially successful.
Pole.
 India is the 4th nation to have a flag
Achievements
on the moon.
 It confirmed the presence of lunar
water and lunar caves.
Tidal Locking:
 Tidal locking is when an orbiting body always has the same face towards the object it is orbiting. This is
because the gravitational pull of the larger object slows down the rotation of the smaller object until it stops
altogether.
 The Moon is tidal locked to Earth, which means that the same side of the Moon always faces Earth. The
Moon's other side is known as the far side or the dark side.
Why the Moon's South Pole?
The Moon's south pole is of particular interest to scientists because of the following reasons:
 Craters untouched by sunlight for billions of years: The craters at the Moon's south pole are some of the
oldest in the solar system. They have been untouched by sunlight for billions of years, which means that they
could contain well-preserved records of the solar system's origin.
 Records of solar system origin: The Moon's south pole is also thought to contain a record of the early solar
system, including the impact that created the Moon itself.
 Untapped sources of essential resources and minerals: The Moon's south pole is thought to contain
untapped sources of essential resources and minerals, such as water ice, helium-3, and rare earth elements.
3
 Could be used as a pit stop for future space explorations: The Moon's south pole is located in a region of
space known as the cislunar gateway, which is a relatively stable gravitational environment. This makes it a
good potential location for a future space station or other infrastructure that could be used to support further
exploration of the Moon and beyond.
 Huge resource of water: The Moon's south pole is thought to contain a large amount of water ice in its craters.
This water could be used to support future human
habitation on the Moon and to produce rocket fuel.
Chandrayaan 2:
 It was launched On 22 July 2019 from Satish Dhawan
Space Centre, Sriharikota.
 Core Objective: To map the location, and abundance of
lunar water.
 It is equipped with different kinds of cameras to create
high-resolution three-dimensional maps of the surface.
 First set of data from the Chandrayaan-2 mission is now
being released for the wider public use through the
PRADAN portal hosted by Indian Space Science Data
Centre (ISSDC) in Dec 2020.
 The site where the Chandrayaan-2 lander crash-landed on the
Moon's surface in 2019 would be known as Tiranga Point.
Chandrayaan 3:
 Launch date: 14th July 2023
 Rocket: Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III
 Launch site: Satish Dhawan Space Centre
 Soft Landing: 23rd Aug 2023. India became the 4th country to
soft-land a spacecraft on the moon.
 Spacecraft component: Rover
 Operator: (ISRO)
 Manufacturer: (ISRO)
 No orbiter in Chandrayaan -3
 The spot where the Chandrayaan-3 Vikram
lander made a soft landing would be named Shiv
Shakti Point.
 August 23, the day the Chandrayaan-3 lander
touched down on the lunar surface, would be
celebrated as ‘National Space Day’.
Key Findings:
 Temperature: Chandra's Surface
Thermophysical Experiment (ChaSTE) payload
onboard Vikram Lander measured the
temperature profile of the lunar topsoil to understand the thermal behavior of the Moon's surface, it is 70
degrees centigrade.
4
 Elements on the moon: Laser-induced breakdown Spectroscopy instrument onboard Pragyan rover
‘unambiguously confirmed’ the presence of sulfur on the lunar surface near the south pole.
 Other elements like Aluminum(Al), Calcium(Ca), Iron(Fe), Chromium(Cr), Titanium(Ti),
Manganese(Mn), Silicon (Si), and Oxygen (O) were also detected.
 Thin plasma: The ‘Langmuir probe’ (an instrument that measures the properties of plasmas) finds that there
is thin plasma (fourth state of matter) on the surface of the moon.
 The discovery signifies that radio waves can easily pass through space, an important feature for
communication between lunar missions.
 Natural seismic activity: Recording from the Instrument for Lunar Seismic Activity (ILSA) payload
indicates a possibility of a quake on the moon, but its
exact nature is currently under investigation.
 Crater: Chandrayaan-3 Rover identified a 4-meter
diameter crater on the moon’s surface.
Lunar Polar Exploration Mission (Lupex):
 Lunar Polar Exploration Mission (LuPEx) is a joint
lunar mission by the Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO) and the Japan Aerospace
Exploration Agency (JAXA). The mission is planned to
be launched in 2025 and will explore the south pole of
the Moon.
Artemis (NASA):
 The full form of ARTEMIS is Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence, and Electrodynamics of the
Moon’s Interaction with the Sun.
 It is a NASA mission.
 It is aimed to help in future space missions, like for Mars manned missions.
 Artemis 1 was an uncrewed moon orbiting mission launched in 2022 and was successful.
 Artemis 2 is a crew moon orbiting mission scheduled to be launched in 2025.
 News: NASA announces graduating class of 11 astronauts for upcoming space missions including the
Artemis Mission.
 The team includes an Indian American- Raja Chari.
 Orion is the spacecraft that will carry humans.
 The Space Launch System is the rocket that will take spacecraft to space. (like India has GSLV/PSLV)
 Gateway is a small spaceship that will orbit around the Moon, like ISS (International Space Station)
orbits around Earth.
 The first woman and the next man to the Moon by the year 2024, which it plans on doing through the
Artemis lunar exploration program.
Moon History:
 Total 12 men have landed on the moon: Only 12 people have ever walked on the Moon, and all of them
were American astronauts.
 The USA is the only country to have sent humans to the moon: The United States is the only country to
have sent humans to the Moon. The Apollo program, which ran from 1961 to 1972, landed 12 astronauts on
the Moon.
5
 No human has ever been to the south pole: No human has ever been to the south pole of the Moon. The
Apollo missions all landed on the near side of the Moon, which is the side that faces Earth.
 First rover on moon: USSR Luna 1 and 2 in 1959: The first rovers to land on the Moon were the Soviet Luna
1 and 2 probes in 1959. These probes were hard landers, meaning that they crashed onto the Moon's surface.
 First was Neil Armstrong, last was Gene Cernan: Neil Armstrong was the first person to walk on the Moon,
and Gene Cernan was the last. Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin walked on the Moon on July 20, 1969, during the
Apollo 11 mission. Cernan walked on the Moon on December 11, 1972, during the Apollo 17 mission.
 First on Apollo 11: 20 July 1969 (Tranquility base) The first Apollo mission to land on the Moon was Apollo
11. The mission landed on July 20, 1969 at Tranquility Base.
 Last on Apollo 17: 14 December 1972 The last Apollo mission to land on the Moon was Apollo 17. The
mission landed on December 11, 1972.
 Apollo 11: Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin walked on the Moon during the Apollo 11 mission, while Michael
Collins remained in orbit in the Command Module.
News:
 In December, 2020, Israel launched the Beresheet 2
project aimed at landing an unmanned craft on the
moon in 2024.
 Earlier, Israel’s Beresheet 1 probe crash landed
on the Moon. It was launched in February 2019,
using a Falcon 9 rocket from Cape Canaveral
(USA) and arrived in lunar orbit in April 2019. It
suffered an engine failure as it prepared to land and
crashed abruptly on the surface of the moon.
China has launched an unmanned spacecraft to bring back
lunar rocks, the first attempt by any nation to retrieve
samples from the Moon in four decades. The Long March-
5 Y5 rocket, carrying the Chang’e-5 spacecraft, was launched from
Wenchang Space Launch Center (China), November 2020
Mission:
1. To drill 2 meters beneath the moon’s surface and scoop rocks and debris
to be brought back to Earth.
2. To determine Moon’s origins
3. Volcanic activity on its surface and its interior
4. Protecting any form of life from the sun’s radiation dissipated.
 This mission would make China only the third country to have
retrieved lunar samples, joining the United States and the Soviet
Union.
 Japan’s Moon-lander mission, called SLIM, finally took off on 6th Sept 2023 morning. SLIM, or Smart
Lander for Investigating Moon, took a uniquely long route to the Moon and entered lunar orbit on 25th Dec
2023 and landed on 19th Jan 2024. This made Japan the 5th country to soft-land a spacecraft on the moon.
6
Mars Exploration:
 Why study Mars?
 It is the planet that is closest and most similar to earth.
 To learn about changes that can fundamentally change a planet.
 To establish a future home for humans.
 To expand human understanding of planetary evolution; solar system, universe.
Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM):
 India's First Interplanetary Mission: The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), also known as Mangalyaan,
marked India's first foray into interplanetary exploration. It was a significant milestone for the Indian Space
Research Organization (ISRO).
 Unmanned Mission: MOM was an unmanned spacecraft, meaning it didn't carry human astronauts. It was
remotely controlled from Earth.
 No Lander/Rover: Unlike some other Mars missions, MOM was an orbiter only. It didn't include a lander
or rover to descend to the Martian surface. Its
primary objective was to study Mars from
orbit.
 Launch and Arrival: MOM was launched by
the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) in
November 2013 and reached Mars' orbit in
September 2014.
 Historical Achievements: MOM's successful
entry into Mars' orbit made India the fourth
country globally to reach the Red Planet, after
the United States, Russia, and the European
Space Agency. It was also Asia's first Mars
mission and the first to succeed on its maiden
attempt.
 Orbiter Payloads: The orbiter was equipped
with five scientific payloads that served various
purposes:
7
 Atlas and Albedo Mapping: MOM's detailed images of Mars allowed it to prepare an atlas and albedo
map, providing insights into the planet's surface characteristics and reflectivity.
 Moons of Mars: The orbiter captured close-distance photos of Mars' two moons, Phobos and
Deimos, helping scientists understand more about these celestial bodies.
 Dust Storm Observations: MOM's data indicated that dust storms on Mars could rise to significant
altitudes, providing valuable information about the Martian atmosphere.
NASA's InSight Mission:

 Reached Mars in 2018.
 First dedicated mission to study deep interiors of Mars
 Findings:
 Mars doesn’t have tectonic plates, but it has volcanically
active regions.
 Quakes on Mars are of lower magnitude than earth.
8
Hope Mission:
 The United Arab Emirates' (UAE’s) first-ever interplanetary Hope Probe mission has successfully entered
orbit around Mars.
 ‘Hope’ was developed by UAE scientists in the USA and was launched in July 2020 from the Tanegashima
Space Centre in Japan.
 Life of UAE’s Mars mission is around one Martian year (687 days on Earth).
 Significance:
 The UAE becomes the 5th entity to reach the Red Planet, joining NASA, the Soviet Union, the
European Space Agency and India.
 Help UAE in building a knowledge-based economy, leading to more investment in Science,
Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) for young Emiratis.
 The probe reached Mars in the year the UAE celebrates its 50th
anniversary.
 Arab world's first interplanetary mission.
Mars 2020 Mission:
 NASA’s mission; launched in July 2020;
 It has a ‘Perseverance’ rover and ‘Ingenuity’ helicopter drone.
 Aim is to look for bio-signatures and habitable conditions for
humans.
 MOXIE (Mars Oxygen In-Situ Resource Utilization Experiment) will make
oxygen from CO2 (95% of Mars' atmosphere has CO2).
 NOTE: It has generated oxygen for the 16th and final time aboard NASA's
Perseverance rover. (06-Sep-2023)
 NASA’s Perseverance rover has landed on Mars.
 Launch: 30th July, 2020
 Landing: 18th February, 2021
 Landing Site: Jezero Crater (an ancient river delta that has rocks and minerals
that could only form in water).
 Recently, it placed a titanium tube containing a rock sample on the surface of Mars.
 Igneous rock samples were collected from Mars Jezero Crater called South Séítah.
9
Some Famous Mars Missions:

Mission Name Country Year
Viking USA 1975
Pathfinder USA 1997
Spirit USA 2003
Opportunity USA 2003
Curiosity USA 2011
InSight USA 2018
Tianwen-1 China 2020
Space Debris:
 Space debris refers to human made objects in space that no
longer serve any useful purpose. Eg: dead satellites, broken
pieces of satellites, upper stages of rockets, tools lost during
repair jobs, etc.
 According to European Space Agency, November 2020, near
about 34,000 pieces of space debris, of size more than 10 cm are
orbiting the earth
Space debris Poses Risk To:
 Satellites: Space debris can collide with satellites, damaging or
destroying them. This can disrupt critical services that satellites provide, such as communication, GPS, and
weather forecasting.
 Space station: The International Space Station (ISS) is home to astronauts who perform important scientific
research and maintenance tasks. Space debris can also collide with the ISS, putting the astronauts at risk.
 Space telescopes: Space telescopes, such as the Hubble Space Telescope and the James Webb Space
Telescope, are used to study the universe. Space debris can collide with space telescopes, damaging or
destroying them, and preventing them from making important scientific discoveries.
 Humans on Earth: Space debris can re-enter Earth's atmosphere and fall to the ground. While most space
debris burns up completely, larger pieces can survive and impact the ground. This poses a risk to people and
property on Earth.
 Engages human and technological resources to track space debris: Tracking space debris is a complex
and expensive task. It requires the use of sophisticated ground-based and space-based sensors.
 Increases the cost of space missions: Satellites and other spacecraft need to be designed to withstand
collisions with space debris. This can increase the cost of space missions.
 Kessler Syndrome: The Kessler Syndrome is a scenario in which space debris becomes so abundant that it
creates a chain reaction of collisions, destroying all space assets.
How to deal with Space Debris?
 Prevention:
 Reduce the number of satellites: One way to reduce the amount of space debris is to reduce the number
of satellites that are launched. This can be done by designing satellites to last longer and by using more
efficient launch vehicles.
 Mandatory re-entry of satellites after end-of-life: Another way to reduce space debris is to require
satellites to re-enter Earth's atmosphere at the end of their useful life. This will help to ensure that satellites
do not remain in orbit for long periods of time, where they could collide with other objects.
10
 Removal:
 Active debris removal: Active debris removal involves using spacecraft to capture and remove space
debris from orbit. This is a complex and expensive operation, but it is the most effective way to remove
large pieces of space debris.
 Net capture, Harpoon capture, etc.: There are a number of different methods that can be used to capture
space debris. One method is to use a net to capture the debris. Another method is to use a harpoon to
capture the debris.
 Management
 Track the debris: It is important to track the
location and movement of space debris. This
will help to identify potential collisions and to
avoid them.
 Avoid collision by steering satellites: Satellites
can be maneuvered to avoid collisions with
space debris. This is a complex task, but it is
possible to do so with the right technology.
 Use graveyard orbits for non-functional
satellites: When a satellite reaches the end of its useful life, it can be moved to a graveyard orbit. This is
a high orbit where the satellite is less likely to collide with other objects.
 Ban anti-satellite tests: Anti-satellite tests create a lot of space debris. Banning these tests would help
to reduce the amount of space debris in orbit. India successfully demonstrated anti-satellite (ASAT)
weapon technology in a test known as "Mission Shakti”.

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Lecture - 19
Space Technology (Part – 4)
2
Space Technology (Part – 4)
Gaganyaan Mission:
News: Recently, the Prime Minister announced the names of the four astronauts (all men) who will fly to low
earth orbit as part of the Indian Space Research Organisation’s (ISRO) Gaganyaan Mission.
Gaganyaan mission is a space mission to demonstrate ISRO’s human spaceflight capability by launching a human
crew to an orbit of 400 km and bringing them safely back to earth.
❖ It will circle Earth at a low-earth-orbit at an altitude of 300-400 km from earth.
❖ Gaganyaan is India's first manned spaceflight program.
❖ Under the Gaganyaan schedule:
1. Three flights will be sent into orbit.
2. There will be two unmanned flights and one human spaceflight.
3. The Gaganyaan system module, called the Orbital Module will have three Indian astronauts, including
a woman for five to seven days.
❖ Various precursor missions are planned for demonstrating the Technology Preparedness Levels before
carrying out the actual Human Space Flight mission. These demonstrator missions include:
1. Integrated Air Drop Test (IADT)
2. Pad Abort Test (PAT)
3. Crew Escape System (Ganganyaan TV-D1 test was conducted in October 2023 to test this technology)
4. Test Vehicle (TV) flights.
❖ The payload will consist of:
1. Crew module: Spacecraft carrying human beings.
2. Service module: Powered by two liquid propellant engines, and usually
burns up during atmospheric re-entry.
❖ It is equipped with emergency escape and emergency mission abort.
❖ Launch Vehicle: LVM3 (Launch Vehicle Mark-3)
❖ Gaganyaan will carry a number of payloads, including a robot named
Vyommitra.
3
❖ HLM3 consists of Crew Escape System (CES) powered by a set of quick acting, high burn rate solid motors
which ensures that Crew Module along with crew is taken to a safe distance in case of any emergency either
at launch pad or during ascent phase.
❖ The C25 stage is a cryogenic stage, which comprises a cryogenic engine and fuel tanks that hold tons of
frozen fuel — liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen, along with its related systems
❖ With the success of Ganaganyaan, India will become the fourth country in the world to do human space
flight.
4
Training in Russia:
❖ In June 2019 ISRO and the Russian government-owned Glavkosmos signed a contract for the training
❖ It includes Russian support in the selection of candidates, their medical examination, and space training.
❖ Training held on Soyuz manned spaceship of Russian spacecraft. It carries people and supplies to and from
the space station.
❖ The technical assistance in the Ganganyaan mission was also given by France and USA.
Evolution of the Mission:
❖ 2004: The ISRO Policy Planning Committee, recommendation for a manned space mission
❖ 2006: Preliminary studies , generic name Orbital Vehicle
❖ 2007: Spaced capsule recovery experiment
❖ 2008: An initial design of a fully autonomous vehicle was finalized.
❖ 2014: Successful testing of experimental flight of GSLV MK-III was carried out, crew module atmospheric
re-entry
❖ July 5, 2018: First successful flight -crew escape system was carried out. It is an emergency measure designed
to quickly pull the crew module along with the astronauts to a safe distance from the launch vehicle in the
event of a launch abort.
❖ August 15, 2018: Prime Minister promised a manned mission before 2022 when India completes 75 years of
independence. It has been delayed due to the Covid-19 induced lockdown.
Significance:
❖ Enhance the Science and Technology levels in the country: The Gaganyaan mission will require the
development of new technologies and capabilities in areas such as human spaceflight, spacecraft design, and
life support systems. This will boost India's overall scientific and technological prowess.
5
❖ Inspire Youth: The Gaganyaan mission is a bold and ambitious undertaking, and it is sure to inspire the next
generation of scientists, engineers, and astronauts. It will send a message to Indian youth that anything is
possible if they set their minds to it.
❖ Improve Industrial Growth: The Gaganyaan mission will provide a boost to the Indian aerospace industry.
Many Indian companies are involved in the development and construction of the Gaganyaan spacecraft and
other related infrastructure. This will create new jobs and opportunities in the sector.
❖ Boost Private Sector Participation in Space: The Gaganyaan mission is being developed in close
collaboration with the Indian private sector. This will help to build a more robust and sustainable Indian space
program.
❖ Help in the development of technology for social benefits: Many of the technologies developed for the
Gaganyaan mission can also be used to develop new products and services for the benefit of society. For
example, the water purification systems developed for the Gaganyaan spacecraft could be used to provide
clean drinking water to rural communities.
❖ Improve International Collaboration:The Gaganyaan mission is an opportunity for India to collaborate with
other countries on space exploration. This will help to strengthen India's international ties and promote
scientific cooperation.
❖ Limitation of ISS: One International Space Station (ISS) put up by multiple countries may not be enough.
Regional ecosystems will be needed and Gaganyaan will focus on regional needs: food, water and energy
security.
Challenges for Ganganyaan Mission:
❖ Human Survival Technologies: ISRO will have to develop all the technologies required for human survival
from scratch, making it time consuming.
❖ Human Training: Due to lack of adequate facilities in India, astronauts shortlisted for the Gaganyaan mission
have been trained overseas.
❖ Cost Effectiveness: The mission must not just be successful, but it must also be cost-effective.
❖ Human Safety: Safely escorting human astronauts back to Earth will be the biggest challenge going forward.
❖ Apart from that, the long term
impact of space conditions on the
human body cannot be ignored.
Aditya-L1 Mission (ISRO):
❖ Recently (2nd Sept 2023) , the ISRO
has accomplished the launch of
Aditya L1, its inaugural Solar
Mission.
❖ The launch was conducted using the
PSLV-C57 rocket.
❖ The PSLV's fourth stage was fired
twice, a first in ISRO's history, to
precisely insert the spacecraft into
its elliptical orbit.
6
❖ It is the first space based observatory class Indian solar mission to

study the Sun from a substantial distance of 148.5 million
kilometers.
❖ It will take approximately 127 days to reach the L1 point. It is
expected to reach the sun’s orbit on 6th January 2024.
Objectives of the mission:
1. The mission aims to provide valuable insights into the solar
corona, photosphere, chromosphere, and solar wind.
2. The primary objective of Aditya-L1 is to gain a deeper
understanding of the Sun's behavior, including its radiation,
heat, particle flow, and magnetic fields, and how they impact Earth.
What Are Lagrangian Points?
❖ Lagrange points are special positions in space where the gravitational forces of two large orbiting bodies,
such as the Sun and the Earth, balance each other out. For a two body system, there are five Lagrangian
points.
❖ Although a Lagrange point is just a point in empty space, its peculiar characteristic is that it can be orbited.
7
Significance:
❖ Understand Our Solar System: The Sun is the central body of our solar system, and understanding its
behavior is essential to understanding the solar system as a whole. Aditya-L1 will provide new insights into
the Sun's atmosphere, corona, and solar flares, which can impact Earth's space environment and climate.
❖ Space Weather Prediction: Solar activities, such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections, can disrupt
satellite communications, power grids, and even aircraft navigation. Aditya-L1 will help us to better understand
and predict these solar activities, so that we can mitigate their impact on Earth.
❖ Advancing Solar Physics: The Sun is a complex and dynamic object, and scientists are still learning about its
behavior. Aditya-L1 will provide new data that will help us to better understand the Sun's magnetic fields,
heating mechanisms, and plasma dynamics. This knowledge will contribute to fundamental physics and
astrophysics, and it could also lead to new technologies in areas such as energy production and space travel.
❖ Enhancing Energy Research: The Sun is a source of vast amounts of energy (due to nuclear fusion reaction),
and Aditya-L1 could help us to develop new ways to harness this energy. For example, solar flares can
accelerate particles to very high energies, and these particles could be used to produce fusion energy.
❖ Improving Satellite Operations: Aditya-L1 data could be used to develop better spacecraft design and
operation procedures. For example, satellites can be shielded from the harmful effects of solar radiation, and
they can be designed to withstand solar storms.
What Is Geotail?
❖ Geotail is the long tail-like region of the Earth's magnetosphere that is formed on the nightside of Earth by
the solar wind. The solar wind is a continuous stream of charged particles that is emitted by the Sun. These
particles are embedded in the extended magnetic field of the Sun. Earth has a magnetic field that obstructs the
solar wind, but the solar wind is so powerful that it pushes the Earth's magnetosphere into a long tail shape
on the nightside of Earth.
❖ The geotail is a dynamic region where the solar wind and the Earth's magnetic field interact. This interaction
can produce a variety of phenomena, such as auroras, magnetic storms, and plasma waves. The geotail is also
a region where charged particles from the solar wind can be trapped and accelerated to high energies.
❖ The geotail is an important region for scientific study because it can provide us with insights into the
interactions between the Sun and Earth, and the fundamental physics of plasmas and magnetic fields. Geotail
research has also helped us to better understand space weather phenomena, which can have a significant impact
on our technologies and infrastructure.
How Does the Moon Interact with the Geotail?

❖ The Moon orbits the Earth once every 27.3 days. During this time, it passes through the Geotail for about 6
days each month. When the Moon is in the Geotail, it is within the Earth's magnetic field. This interaction can
produce a variety of phenomena, such as auroras, magnetic storms, and plasma waves.
8
❖ The Moon's surface also interacts with the Geotail. The solar wind and
other charged particles from the Sun can bombard the Moon's surface.
This interaction can produce X-rays and other radiation. Scientists can
study this radiation to learn more about the composition of the Moon's
surface.
The Key Points:
❖ The Geotail is the long tail-like region of the Earth's magnetosphere that
is formed on the nightside of Earth by the solar wind.
❖ The Moon passes through the Geotail for about 6 days each month.
❖ When the Moon is in the Geotail, it is within the Earth's magnetic field.
❖ This interaction can produce a variety of phenomena, such as auroras, magnetic storms, and plasma waves.
❖ The Moon's surface also interacts with the Geotail, producing X-rays and other radiation.
❖ Scientists can study this radiation to learn more about the composition of the Moon's surface.
Sun Spots:
❖ Sunspots are dark spots on the Sun's surface that have a lower temperature than the surrounding area.
❖ Sunspots are caused by strong magnetic fields.
❖ Sunspots usually follow an 11-year cycle, known as the solar cycle.
Solar Maxima:
❖ Solar maxima is the period of greatest solar activity. This occurs when there are a large number of sunspots
and solar flares.
❖ Solar flares are powerful explosions on the Sun that can release large amounts of energy and charged particles.
Solar Minima:
❖ Solar minima is the period of lowest sun activity.
❖ It occurs when the number of sunspots and solar flares is at its lowest. Solar minima can also have an impact
on Earth, causing cooler temperatures and less rainfall.
❖ The relationship between sunspots, solar flares, and Earth's temperature is complex. However, it is generally
understood that solar maxima leads to an increase in Earth's temperature, while solar minima leads to a
decrease in Earth's temperature. This is because solar flares can release more heat and radiation into space
during solar maxima.
Voyager Program (NASA):
❖ Heliosphere:
➢ Extends from the Sun to the planets,
forming a vast protective bubble around
the solar system.
❖ Heliopause:
➢ Marks the outermost boundary of the
heliosphere, considered the edge of the
solar system.
➢ Beyond this point lies interstellar space,
where the influence of the Sun diminishes.
9
❖ Interstellar Space:
➢ The region outside the heliopause, where the solar wind from the Sun no longer dominates, and interstellar
matter prevails.
❖ Voyager 1's Milestone:

➢ In August 2012, Voyager 1 became the first spacecraft to enter interstellar space, providing valuable data
about the conditions beyond the solar system.
❖ Voyager 2's Entry:
➢ In November 2018, Voyager 2 became the second spacecraft to enter interstellar space, further expanding
our understanding of this uncharted territory.
❖ Astronomical Unit (AU):
➢ Defined as the average distance between Earth and the Sun, approximately 150 million kilometers (or 93
million miles).
❖ Dual Mission:
➢ Two spacecrafts launched by NASA in
1977.
➢ The Voyager spacecraft initially aimed to
study Jupiter and Saturn. Voyager 2
extended its mission to explore Uranus and
Neptune as well.
❖ Ongoing Contribution:
➢ Despite their age, both Voyager spacecraft
continue to transmit valuable data from the
far reaches of interstellar space.
❖ Density Increase Detection:
➢ The Voyagers detected an increase in the density of space beyond the solar system, providing insights
into the conditions of interstellar space.
10
International Space Station:

❖ Launch and Collaboration: Launched in 1998, the ISS is a collaborative effort involving space agencies from
multiple countries, including the U.S., Russia, Canada, Japan, and European Space Agency (ESA) member
countries.
❖ Orbit: The ISS is located in a Low Earth Orbit (LEO), approximately 420 kilometers (260 miles) above the
Earth's surface.
❖ Visibility: It is one of the few man-made objects visible to the naked eye from Earth, appearing as a bright
moving point of light across the night sky.
❖ Crew and Material Transportation: The ISS requires
regular crew rotations and material resupplies. Various
spacecraft have been used for these purposes over the
years.
❖ Space Shuttle Era (Till 2011): The U.S. Space Shuttle
program was a key means of transporting astronauts and
cargo to the ISS until its retirement in 2011.
❖ Russian Soyuz Era (2011 till Now): Following the
retirement of the Space Shuttle, Russian Soyuz
spacecraft have been the primary means of
transportation for crew members to and from the ISS.
❖ SpaceX's Crew Dragon (From Now): SpaceX's Crew Dragon spacecraft is now used for crew transportation,
marking a shift towards commercial spaceflight and reducing reliance on Russian Soyuz.
Significance of the Indian Space Station:
❖ Microgravity Experiments: The space station provides a unique environment for conducting microgravity
experiments in fields like astrobiology, astronomy, materials science, space medicine, and space weather.
❖ Human Health Studies: Space stations help in understanding the effects of long-term space flight on the
human body, crucial for planning future long-duration missions.
❖ Scientific Data Collection: They are essential for collecting meaningful scientific data, especially for
biological experiments that require prolonged exposure to space conditions.
❖ Geostrategic Importance: In a geopolitically competitive space environment, an Indian space station can play
a role in countering Chinese dominance in space activities.
❖ International Collaboration: It fosters better cooperation with foreign scientists and space agencies,
enhancing India's global standing in space research.
❖ Interplanetary Missions: A space station can serve as a base for preparing and launching interplanetary
missions, furthering India's space exploration capabilities.

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Tech
Lecture - 20
2

Space Sustainability
❖ The United Nations Office of Outer Space Affairs and the government of Austria organized the World Space
Forum (WSF) 2022 under the theme "Sustainability in Space for Sustainability on Earth."
❖ The World Space Forum is a platform that includes governmental institutions, international organizations, etc.,
to promote discussions on the role of space science and technology in global sustainable development.
❖ Space sustainability refers to ensuring that all of humanity can continue to use outer space for peaceful
purposes and socioeconomic benefit, both now and in the long term.
❖ Threats to space sustainability include:
➢ Orbital crowding and space debris.
➢ Militarization and weaponization of space, such as the development and testing of destructive antisatellite
(ASAT) weapons by countries like the US, Russia, China, and India.
➢ Rendezvous and proximity operations (RPO), involve altering the trajectory of one or more space objects
to bring them into proximity to each other.
➢ Space weather, can impact satellites by damaging onboard electronics and disrupting communications or
navigation signals.
❖ Global Initiatives:
➢ United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA)
➢ Conference on Disarmament (CD)
➢ Guidelines on space sustainability: Adopted by the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of
Outer Space (COPUOS) in 2019.
➢ Space Sustainability Rating (SSR): Implemented by the World Economic Forum to promote sustainable
and responsible space missions.
➢ ASAT test-ban resolution: A non-binding resolution passed by the United Nations General Assembly
(UNGA) calling for a ban on kinetic ASAT tests. (India abstained in December 2020)
❖ Indian Initiatives:
➢ Project NETRA: Initiated by ISRO to provide first-hand information on the status of debris.
➢ Space Situational Awareness: IIIT Delhi is currently working on a research project on SSA.
✓ DigAntara, a space sector startup in India, is going to set up India's first commercial SSA observatory
in the Garhwal region of Uttarakhand.
✓ Additionally, India and the US have also signed a bilateral SSA arrangement.
➢ SPADEX: ISRO is developing a space docking experiment called ‘SPADEX’ to provide in-orbit
servicing. It will offer support in refueling and other in-orbit services while enhancing a satellite's
capability.
Space Situational Awareness
❖ SSA refers to knowledge of the space environment, assessment of any threats to space activities, and
implementation of necessary mitigation measures to safeguard space assets. SSA covers three main areas:
➢ Space Surveillance and Tracking (SST) of man-made objects.
➢ Space Weather (SWE) monitoring and forecasting.
➢ Near-Earth Objects (NEO) monitoring (only natural space objects).
3
The U.N. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) oversees five international treaties:
❖ The Moon Agreement (1979): establishes the principle of the common heritage of mankind.
❖ The Outer Space Treaty (1967): prohibits the stationing of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) in outer space,
bans military activities on celestial bodies, and outlines legally binding rules for peaceful space exploration
and utilization.
❖ The Rescue Agreement (1968): mandates States to provide assistance to astronauts in case of accidents,
distress, emergencies, or unintended landings.
❖ The Liability Convention of 1972: sets standards of liability for damages caused by space objects.
❖ The Registration Convention: provides rules for the registration of space objects.
Black Hole:
The different stages of the evolution of black holes:
❖ Stellar Cloud: Stars form from clouds of gas and dust. These clouds are called stellar nurseries.
❖ Protostar: When a cloud of gas and dust collapses under its own gravity, it forms a protostar. A protostar is a
hot, dense object that is still in the process of forming into a star.
❖ Main Sequence Star: Once a protostar has begun fusing hydrogen into helium at its core, it becomes a main
sequence star. This is the most stable phase of a star's life. The Sun is currently a main sequence star.
❖ Red Giant: When a main sequence star has exhausted the hydrogen fuel in its core, it begins to fuse hydrogen
in a shell around the core. This causes the star to expand and cool, becoming a red giant.
❖ Planetary Nebula: Some red giants expel their outer layers into space, forming a planetary nebula. A planetary
nebula is a glowing cloud of gas and dust that surrounds a hot, white dwarf star.
❖ White Dwarf: A white dwarf is the remnant core of a red giant star. It is a very dense star with a small radius.
❖ Neutron Star: If a star is more massive than about 1.4 times the mass of the Sun, it will collapse into a neutron
star at the end of its life. A neutron star is incredibly dense, with a mass about equal to that of the Sun but a
radius of only about 10 kilometers.
❖ Black Hole: If a star is more
massive than about 3 times the mass
of the Sun, it will collapse into a
black hole at the end of its life. A
black hole is so dense that its gravity
is so strong that nothing, not even
light, can escape.
The different regions around the black
hole and how light and matter behave
in those regions.
❖ Event Horizon: The event horizon
is the boundary around the black
hole beyond which nothing, not even
light, can escape. The event horizon
is represented by the black circle in
the diagram.
4
❖ Singularity: At the center of a black hole is the ultimate no man's land—a place where matter is compressed
down to an infinitely tiny point, and all conceptions of time and space completely break down.
❖ Accretion Disk: A thin band around a black hole made up of all the stellar debris, dust, and matter that pass
through the event horizon. This band of matter is at the edge of the horizon and has not fallen into the black
hole.
Tidal Disruption Events (TDEs):
❖ In 2018, scientists observed a black hole ripping a star into shreds because it got
too close.
❖ TDE refers to an event when a black hole violently rips apart stars that get too
close.
❖ When a star comes close to a black hole, gravitational forces will stretch or
"spaghettify" the star.
❖ The elongated material then spirals around the black hole, gets heated up, and
creates a flash that can be detected by us millions of light years away.
In The News:
❖ The black hole Sagittarius A* at the center of the Milky Way galaxy was
photographed for the first time.
❖ Sagittarius A* (pronounced "Sagittarius A-star") is a supermassive black hole located at the center of the Milky
Way galaxy. It is about 26,000 light-years from Earth and has a mass of about 4 million times the mass of the
Sun.
❖ Sagittarius A* is the smallest object in the image, but it is also the most massive. It is so dense that its gravity
prevents any light from escaping. This is why Sagittarius A* appears as a black hole in the image.
❖ The bright ring around Sagittarius A* is caused by the bending of light by the black hole's gravity. This bending
of light is called gravitational lensing. Gravitational lensing causes the light from the hot gas and dust around
the black hole to be focused into a bright ring.
5
❖ Sagittarius A* is called Sagittarius A* because it is located in the constellation Sagittarius, and it is the
brightest and most compact radio source in the region. The asterisk (*) is used to denote an excited state of an
atom, and it
was added to
the name
Sagittarius A
to indicate
that the radio
source is
very active.
❖ Black hole
M87 is a
black hole of
another
galaxy and it
was the first black hole to be photographed in 2019.
❖ The first photograph of Sagittarius A*, a
supermassive black hole situated at the
center of the Milky Way, was revealed by
astronomers of the Event Horizon
Telescope (EHT).
❖ EHT is an international collaboration (of
observatories) capturing images of black
holes using a virtual Earth-sized telescope.
❖ In 2019, astronomers captured the first
ever photograph of a black hole M87 in
a distant galaxy called Messier 87.
6
Nobel Prize in Physics (2020) :

❖ Nobel Prize in Physics of 2020, One half was awarded to Roger Penrose for the discovery that black hole
formation is a robust prediction of the
general theory of relativity and Other
half was awarded jointly to Reinhard
Genzel and Andrea Ghez for the
discovery of a supermassive compact
object at the center of our galaxy. A
supermassive black hole is the only
currently known explanation.
❖ They focused on a region called
Sagittarius A* at the center of our galaxy.
General Theory of Relativity:
❖ This theory was proposed by Albert Einstein in 1915.
❖ It’s a theory of gravity whose basic
idea is that instead of being an
invisible force that attracts objects to
one another, gravity is a curving or
warping of space. The more massive
an object, the more it warps the space
around it.
❖ In the first major test of general
relativity, astronomers in 1919
measured the deflection of light from
distant stars as the starlight passed by
our sun, proving that gravity does, in
fact, distort or curve space.
❖ In 2016, the discovery of
gravitational waves (subtle ripples in
the fabric of spacetime) was another
confirmation of general relativity.
Q. Consider the following phenomena: (2018)

1. Light is affected by gravity.
2. The Universe is constantly expanding.
3. Matter warps its surrounding space-time.
Which of the above is/are the predictions / predictions of Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity,
often discussed in the media?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
7
Types of Black Hole:

❖ Stellar black holes: They are formed by the collapse of individual stars which are relatively small but
extremely dense. It consumes dust and gas from the galaxy to keep them growing.
❖ Supermassive black holes: They may be the result of hundreds or thousands of tiny black holes that merge,
such black holes are thought to be at the center of almost every galaxy, including the Milky Way.
❖ Binary black holes: It is a system consisting of two black holes in close orbit around each other.
Gravitational Waves (GW):

❖ These are invisible ripples in space that form when:
➢ A star explodes in a supernova.
➢ Two big stars orbit each other.
➢ Two black holes merge.
➢ Neutron star-Black hole (NS-BH) merges.
❖ They travel at the speed of light and squeeze and stretch
anything in their path.
❖ These waves can only be detected by specialized devices
like LIGO.
❖ GWs were first detected in 2015 by Laser
Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory
(LIGO).
❖ Two large observatories were built in the United States
with the aim of detecting gravitational waves by laser
interferometry.
❖ These observatories use mirrors spaced four kilometers apart which are capable of detecting a change of less
than one ten-thousandth the charge diameter of a proton.
8
Q. Consider the following statements regarding the LIGO India Project:

1. The LIGO-India observatory will be built in the Hingoli District of Maharashtra.
2. It is an international collaboration between the LIGO Laboratory and three lead institutions in the
LIGO-India consortium: Institute of Plasma Research, Gandhinagar; IUCAA, Pune; and Raja
Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology, Indore.
3. This increases the chance of observation of measurement of how fast the universe is expanding.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1,2 and 3
Dark Matter:
A test run of the LZ detector in the U.S. has shown it to be the most sensitive dark matter detector yet created.
About Dark Matter:
❖ Dark matter is made up of particles that do not have a charge.So, these particles are “dark”, namely because
they do not emit light, which is an electromagnetic phenomenon, and “matter” because they possess
mass like normal matter and interact through gravity.
❖ Only 5% of the entire visible universe is made up of all matter and the rest of 95% is dark matter and
dark energy.
❖ So far gravitational force is less understood as its extremely weak force, and that's why it's not easy to detect
any particle which interacts with gravitational force.
❖ Scientists study dark matter by looking at the effects it has on visible objects.
❖ It is believed that dark matter is what gives galaxies extra mass, generating extra gravity they need to stay
intact.
About LUX-ZEPLIN (LZ) detector:

❖ It is designed to capture dark matter in the form of weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) in an
underground setting.
9
❖ The LZ detector consists of a huge titanium tank filled with extremely pure liquid xenon. Liquid xenon is a
good choice for a dark matter detector because it is very dense and it can produce a bright flash of light when
it is struck by a WIMP.
❖ The center of the LZ detector is one of the purest places on Earth. This is because the liquid xenon is filtered
to remove any impurities, and the detector is surrounded by a shield to block out radiation.
❖ The LZ detector is a collaboration of scientists and institutions from the United States, the United Kingdom,
Portugal, and Korea. The detector is designed to operate for 10 years, and it is expected to collect enough
data to either detect WIMPs or rule them out as a candidate for dark matter.
Q. Recently Scientists observed merger of two black holes billions of light year away from earth. What
is the significance of such observation? (2019)
(a) Higgs boson particles detected
(b) Gravitational waves detected
(c) Possibility of intergalactic space travel through wormhole was confirmed
(d) Enabled scientists to understand singularity

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Lecture - 21
NanoTechnology (Part - 01)
2
NanoTechnology (Part - 01)

Dark Sky Reserve:
 The Department of Science and Technology has announced the setting up of India's first dark sky reserve at
Hanle in Ladakh as a part of Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary.
 It is the World's highest located site of optical, infra-red and gamma ray telescopes. It ensures that a tract of
land or region has minimum artificial light interference.
 It has been designated by the International Dark Sky Association.
 International Dark Sky Association: DarkSky International, formerly the International Dark-Sky
Association is a United States-based non-profit organization incorporated in 1988.
 Indian Astronomical Observatory (IAO): IAO is a high altitude station of Indian Institute of Astrophysics,
is also located at Mt. Saraswati in Nilamkhul Plain in the Hanle Valley.
 Other Prominent Telescopes of IAO: Himalayan Chandra Telescope, High Energy Gamma Ray telescope
(HAGAR),Major Atmospheric Cherenkov Experiment Telescope (MACE).
Space Tourism:
 A segment of space travel that allows people to travel to space for recreational, leisure or business purposes.
 ISRO is developing capabilities towards space tourism through the demonstration of human space flight at
Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
 Companies entering the space tourism business are Blue Origin, Virgin Galactic and SpaceX.
Note:
Escape Velocity:
 Escape Velocity is the minimum velocity required to
overcome the gravitational potential of a massive body and
escape to infinity.
 It is greater than orbital velocity.
Orbital Velocity:
 Orbital velocity is the velocity with which an object revolves
around a massive body.
Exo-Moons:
 Recently scientists at Indian Institute of Astrophysics have developed a model to trace habitable exo-moons
with help of the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST).
 Exo-moons are natural satellites that revolve around exoplanets.
 Exoplanets: Exoplanets are planets that orbit around other stars other than the sun.
 So far, more than 5000 exoplanets have been discovered by using several telescope (Kepler Hubble Space
Telescope).
Nanotechnology:
 Nanotechnology is the design, production, and application of structures, devices, and systems by manipulation
of size and shape at the nanometer scale.
1 cm = 10–2 m
1 µm = 10–6 m
1 nm = 10–9 m
3
 When the materials at their atomic and molecular levels are modified, some unusual and useful properties are
generated.
 Nanotechnology involves the ability to control individual atoms and molecules.
 Example:
1. Bandage made of Silver Nanoparticles that cures burns
2. Nano lasers in optical communication to transfer large data rapidly
Quantum Size Effect:
 The quantum size effect is a phenomenon in which properties (physical or chemical) of the material changes
due to reduction of material from macro scale to nano scale. This is because the behavior of material at the
nanoscale is governed by quantum mechanics, which is different from the classical mechanics that applies at
the macroscale.
Examples:
Material Macro Scale Properties Nano Scale Properties
Opaque, Good conductor of electricity and Transparent, quantum size effects
Copper
heat
Inert (Not reacting with other element), good Highly reactive, catalytic properties
Platinum
conductor of electricity and heat
Stable, lightweight, good conductor of Combustible material, Quantum size
Aluminum
electricity and heat effects
Gold Solid Liquid,quantum size effects
Silicon Insulator (do not pass electricity) Conductor, quantum size effects
Two Main Approaches To Making Nanoparticles:
 Top-down approach: Top-down approaches involve breaking down larger materials into nanoparticles.
Methods used for the top down approach such as milling, lithography, and etching.
 Bottom-up approach: Bottom-up approaches involve building nanoparticles from individual atoms or
molecules. Methods use for the bottom up approach are chemical vapor deposition, sol-gel synthesis, and
hydrothermal synthesis.
History of Nanotechnology:
 1959: First theory given by Dr. Richard P. Feynman. According to him, there's "Plenty of Room at the
Bottom," in which he outlines the basic concepts of nanotechnology.
 1981: Eric Drexler published a paper called "Molecular Nanotechnology", which talks about the idea of
nanotechnology and its uses.
 1981: The first fullerene was discovered in 1981 which was known as Buck Minster. It is an organic
structure made up from 60 Carbon atoms. They are the first smallest known stable carbon nanostructures.
 1994: In 1994, the term "nanotechnology" was first used by Japanese Scientist Norio Taniguchi.
 1996: Sir Harold W. Kroto, Robert F. Curl Jr., and Richard E. Smalley won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
for the discovery of fullerenes.
 2000: Use of passive nanostructures in Aerosols, Coatings started.
 2005: Starting of Active nanostructure such as Targeted drugs, Biodevices.
 2010: Systems of nanosystems, such as 3D networking and robotics, began to be developed.
 2015 Onwards: Systems of nanosystems are being designed to create new functions.
4
Properties of Buckminsterfullerene:
 Buckminsterfullerene is a type of fullerene, which is a carbon molecule
that is arranged in a spherical or ellipsoidal shape.
 Buckminsterfullerenes are named after Richard Buckminster Fuller, an
American architect who was known for his geodesic domes.
 Other names of buckminsterfullerene are Buckyball, Pentagonal and
Hexagonal rings.
 Buckminsterfullerene molecules are made up of 60 carbon atoms; they are
arranged in a truncated icosahedron structure.
 Buckminsterfullerene Properties:
 High tensile strength: Buckminsterfullerenes are very strong for their size. They have a tensile strength
that is comparable to steel, but they are much lighter than steel.
 Allotrope of carbon: Buckminsterfullerenes are one of the three allotropes of carbon, along with graphite
and diamond. Carbon atoms can be arranged in different ways to form different allotropes with different
properties.
 Bounce back to original shape: Buckminsterfullerenes is very elastic. They can be stretched and then
they can spring back to their original shape.
Note:
Allotropes:
 If a chemical element or compound exists in two or more different forms are called allotropes and such
behavior is known as Allotropy.
 Allotropes have the same chemical properties, but different physical properties such as color, density,
and hardness. Examples Of allotropes of carbon are fullerenes,Graphite, Carbon nanotube, Graphene,
Diamond.
Applications of Buckminsterfullerene:
 Surface Coating: Buckminsterfullerenes can be used to coat surfaces which makes them stronger and more
resistant to wear and tear.
 Conducting: Buckminsterfullerenes can be used to create conducting devices.
 Molecular Networks: Buckminsterfullerenes can be used to create molecular networks, which are used to
store energy and deliver drugs.
 Medical: Buckminsterfullerenes can be used for targeted delivery of drug. They can also be used to create
medical implants or specific disease treatments such as cancer.
 Protection against Ultraviolet Radiations (UV): Buckminsterfullerenes can absorb ultraviolet (UV)
radiation, which can protect the skin from damage caused by the sun.
 Cosmetics: Buckminsterfullerenes are used in cosmetics products, such as sunscreens.

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Tech
Lecture - 22
Nanotechnology
(Part - 02)
2
Nanotechnology (Part - 02)

Graphene:
Physical properties:
 One-atom thick layer: Graphene is a
single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a
hexagonal lattice. It is the thinnest known
material.
 2D structure: Graphene is a two-
dimensional material. This means that it
has only length and width, but no thickness.
 High-strength material: Graphene is
incredibly strong. It is estimated to be about
200 times stronger than steel, but only
about 5% as dense.
 Thinnest material: Graphene is the
thinnest known material. It is only one atom
thick.
 Most reactive: Graphene is the most
reactive form of carbon. This means that it reacts easily with other chemicals.
 Graphene is made of carbon atoms.
 Conductivity: Graphene is an excellent conductor of electricity and heat.
Graphene Applications:
 Biomedical analysis of DNA base pairs: Graphene can be used to create biosensors that can detect and
analyze DNA base pairs. This could be used to develop new diagnostic tools for certain diseases such as
cancer.
 Integrated circuits: Graphene can be used to create integrated circuits, which are the chips that are used in
electronic devices such as computers and smartphones. Graphene integrated circuits could be smaller, faster,
and more energy-efficient than traditional integrated circuits.
 Electronics: Graphene can be used to create a wide range of electronic devices, including transistors, solar
cells, and batteries. Graphene-based electronic devices could be smaller, faster, and more efficient than
traditional electronic devices.
 Filter desalination: Graphene can be used to create filters that can remove salt from water. This could be used
to develop new desalination technologies that can produce clean water from seawater.
 Solar cells: Graphene can be used to create solar cells that are more efficient and less expensive than
traditional solar cells.
 Energy storage device: Graphene can be used to create batteries and supercapacitors, which are devices that
store energy. Graphene-based energy storage devices could have a higher energy density than traditional
energy storage devices.
 Antibacterial sheets: Graphene can be used to create sheets that are resistant to bacterial growth. This
could be used to develop new medical devices and implants that are less likely to become infected.
3
Carbon Nanotubes:
 Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are cylindrical molecules made up of carbon atoms.
 They are very strong and lightweight, and they have a wide range of potential applications.
Properties of carbon nanotubes:
 Fullerene family structure: CNTs are related to fullerenes, which are
spherical or ellipsoidal carbon molecules. However, CNTs are cylindrical
in shape.
 Varying physical and chemical properties: The properties of CNTs can
vary depending on their structure. For example, some CNTs are good
conductors of electricity and heat, while others are semiconductors.
 100 times stronger than steel: CNTs are extremely strong. They are
estimated to be about 100 times stronger than steel, but only about 1/6th as
dense.
 Strong, hollow, tubular, and caged structure: CNTs have a hollow,
tubular structure. This makes them very strong and lightweight.
 Conductivity: Some CNTs are good conductors of electricity and heat. This makes them useful for a variety
of electronic and energy applications.
Applications of carbon nanotubes:
 Cancer treatment: CNTs can be used to deliver drugs to cancer cells without harming healthy cells.
 Solar cells: CNTs can be used to create solar cells that are more efficient and less expensive than traditional
solar cells.
 Transistors: CNTs can be used to create transistors, which are the basic building blocks of electronic devices.
CNT transistors could be smaller, faster, and more efficient than traditional transistors.
 Lightweight boat design: CNTs can be used to create lightweight and strong materials for boats. This could
make boats more fuel-efficient and faster.
 Designing spacecraft: CNTs can be used to create lightweight and strong materials for spacecraft. This could
make spacecraft more fuel-efficient and allow them to carry more cargo.
Applications of Nanotechnology:
Applications of Nanotechnology in Medicine
 Development of diagnostic devices: Nanotechnology can be used to
develop new diagnostic devices that are more sensitive and accurate
than traditional devices. For example, nano biosensors can be used
to detect diseases such as cancer at an earlier stage.
 Drug delivery vehicles to precise cells: Nanotechnology can be used
to develop drug delivery vehicles that can deliver drugs to specific
cells in the body. This can help to reduce the side effects of drugs and
improve their effectiveness. For example, Nanomicelles can be used
to deliver drugs to cancer cells without harming healthy cells.
 Scope for repairing damaged tissue: Nanotechnology can be used to develop new materials and techniques
for repairing damaged tissue. For example, Nanofibers can be used to create scaffolds for tissue
engineering.
4
 Other applications:
 Nanochips to check plaque in
arteries: Nanochips can be used to
detect plaque in arteries, which can help
to prevent heart attacks and strokes.
 Diabetic pads for regulating blood
sugar levels: Diabetic pads can be used
to monitor blood sugar levels and
deliver insulin as needed.
 Nanoparticles for drug delivery to the
brain for therapeutic treatment:
Nanoparticles can be used to deliver
drugs to the brain, which can be used to
treat diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.
 Nano-sponges used for absorbing toxins from the bloodstream:
Nano-sponges can be used to absorb toxins from the bloodstream,
which can be used to treat conditions such as kidney failure and
liver failure.
 Nano-bots are robots for specific drug delivery: Nano-bots are
robots that can be used to deliver drugs to specific cells in the body.
This is still in the early stages of development, but it has the potential to revolutionize drug delivery.
Applications of Nanotechnology in Food Industry/Agriculture:
 Nanotechnology is the study and manipulation of matter at the atomic and molecular scale. It has the potential
to revolutionize many industries, including the food industry and agriculture.
 The potential applications of nanotechnology in the food industry and agriculture:
 Contamination sensors: Nanotechnology can be used to develop sensors that can detect contaminants
in food quickly and accurately. For example, a flash of light can be used to reveal the presence of
bacteria.
 Antimicrobial packaging: Nanoparticles of zinc and calcium can be used to create antimicrobial
packaging that can kill bacteria. This can help to extend the shelf life of food and reduce foodborne
illness.
 Nano-enhanced barrier: Nanotechnology can be used to create a nano-enhanced barrier that can keep
oxygen-sensitive food fresh. This can help to reduce food waste.
 Nano-encapsulation: Nano-encapsulation can be used to improve the solubility of vitamins,
antioxidants, and other nutrients. This can make them more bioavailable and easier for the body to
absorb.
 Food color, texture, and flavor: Nanotechnology can be used to improve the color, texture, and flavor
of food. For example, it can be used to create new food colors and flavors, and to improve the
texture of food products.
 Nanosize powders to increase absorption of nutrients: Nanosize powders can be used to increase the
absorption of nutrients in food. This can be beneficial for people who have difficulty absorbing nutrients,
such as people with malnutrition or digestive disorders.
5
 Nano-barcodes: Nano-barcodes can be used to tag individual food products and trace outbreaks of
foodborne illness.
 Nano-emulsions to kill bacteria: Nano-emulsions can be used to kill bacteria without harming plants.
This can be used to develop new pesticides that are more effective and environmentally friendly.
 Nano-capsules for effective penetration of herbicides, chemical fertilizers, and genes: Nano-capsules
can be used to deliver herbicides, chemical fertilizers, and genes to specific parts of plants. This can help
to improve crop yields and reduce the use of chemicals.
 Nano agrotechnology can be applied in various aspects of agriculture, including soil management, water
management, and the utilization of nanosensors, fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides.
 It can also be used to enhance crop productivity, insects, and pest resistance, ultimately used for crop
management.
Applications of Nanotechnology In Electronics:
 Computers are already working on a nanoscale.
 It can help in reducing the size of the integrated circuits' transistors.
Example: Nano-transistors.
 It can help in improving the display screens of electronic devices.
 It can help in reducing power consumption, weight, and thickness
of the electronic devices. Example: Nano-chips
Applications of Nanotechnology in Energy Efficiency:

 It can improve the efficiency of the existing solar panels.
 It makes the manufacturing process of solar panels, cheaper and more efficient.
 It can improve the efficiency of fuel production and consumption of petroleum materials.
 Use in many batteries that are :
 Less-flammable
 Efficient Quicker-charging
 Lightweight
 Higher power density
6
Applications of Nanotechnology in Environment Protection:

 Water Purification and Remediation: Nanotechnology is revolutionizing water purification by enabling the
detection and removal of impurities at the molecular level. Nano-absorbents, with their high surface area and
tailored properties, can effectively trap and remove contaminants from water, ensuring its safety for
consumption.
 Groundwater Remediation: Nanotechnology is also addressing groundwater pollution caused by industrial
activities. Nanomembranes, with their precise pore sizes and selective filtration capabilities, can separate
harmful pollutants from groundwater, restoring its quality and protecting vital water resources.
 Environmental Sensing and Monitoring: Nanotechnology is enabling the development of highly sensitive
nano-sensors that can detect, identify, and quantify harmful chemical or biological agents in air, soil,
and water. These sensors provide real-time monitoring of environmental health, enabling prompt action to
mitigate pollution and protect ecosystems.
 Neutralizing Environmental Contaminants: Nanotechnology is also being employed to neutralize harmful
contaminants in the environment. Nanomaterials with catalytic properties can break down pollutants into
harmless substances, while others can immobilize or encapsulate contaminants, preventing their spread and
adverse effects.
Nanotechnology's Diverse Applications:
Textile Industry:
 Stain and Wrinkle Resistance: Nanotechnology is creating stain and wrinkle-resistant fabrics or clothes
by incorporating nanoparticles that repel liquids and resist creasing. This enhances fabric durability and
reduces the need for frequent laundering, saving energy and resources.
 Transportation:
 Structural Health Monitoring: The nanoscale sensors can provide structural monitoring of the
condition, and performance of the bridges, rails, and tunnels, etc.
 Enhanced Transportation, and Infrastructure: Nanomaterials are being used to develop stronger,
lighter, and more durable materials for transportation infrastructure. This leads to longer-lasting roads,
bridges, and railways, reducing maintenance costs and improving safety.
 Collision Avoidance and Traffic
Management/Congestions: Nanotechnology is enabling
the development of advanced collision avoidance systems
and traffic management solutions. Nanosensors and
communication networks can help vehicles maintain safe
distances, avoid collisions, and optimize traffic flow.
Space Exploration:
 Lightweight and Strong Materials: Carbon nanotubes, with
their exceptional strength-to-weight ratio, are being used to
create lightweight spacecraft components, reducing launch
costs and improving fuel efficiency.
 Biodegradable Materials: Nanotechnology is also enabling
the development of biodegradable materials for space
applications. This helps minimize space debris and protects the
orbital environment.
7
Quantum Dots:
 Quantum Dots (QDs) are manufactured nanoscale crystals that can transport electrons. When UV light hits
these semiconducting nanoparticles, they can emit light of various colors.
 Quantum dots are crystals made up of semiconductor particles of several nanometers in size.
 It has the property that the wavelength of light
emitted changes depending on the size of the
crystal.
Nobel Prize In Chemistry Of 2023
 In the early 1980s, Ekimov demonstrated the
existence of quantum dots using glass materials.
 Later, Bruce demonstrated the existence of
quantum dots using liquids.
 In 1993, Bawendi developed a method for
producing high-quality quantum dots and put it
into practical use.
8
Note:
 A conductor is a material that allows the flow of electrical current due to abundant free electrons. An
insulator is a material that impedes the flow of electrical current due to its high resistance.
Applications Of Quantum Dots:
 Biomedical Imaging: Quantum dots are transforming biomedical imaging, enabling high-resolution
visualization of biological structures, medicine, and drug distribution. Their unique ability to emit bright
and stable light in various colors makes them ideal for labeling cells, tracking molecules, and providing real-
time imaging of biological events.
 Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment: Quantum dots are emerging as powerful tools for cancer diagnosis and
treatment. They can target and illuminate tumors with high specificity, enabling early detection and precise
surgical removal. Additionally, quantum dots can be used to deliver targeted therapies directly to cancer cells,
minimizing side effects and improving treatment efficacy.
 Environmental Monitoring: Quantum dots are revolutionizing environmental monitoring, providing
sensitive detection of pollutants in water and air. Their ability to change color in response to specific
contaminants allows for real-time monitoring of environmental quality and early warning of potential hazards.
 Optoelectronic Devices: Quantum dots are enhancing the performance of optoelectronic devices, such as
LEDs and displays. Their tunable light emission and high color purity enable more accurate color
reproduction and brighter, more vivid displays. Quantum dot LEDs are also more energy-efficient than
conventional LEDs.
9
 Solar Cell Efficiency: Quantum dots are improving the efficiency of solar cells by converting a broader range
of the solar spectrum into electricity. Their ability to absorb light across a wide range of wavelengths can boost
solar cell efficiency and reduce energy costs.
 Quantum Computing: Quantum dots are promising candidates for building quantum computers due to their
potential as stable qubits, the basic units of quantum information. Their ability to maintain quantum
coherence for extended periods could enable the development of powerful quantum computers capable of
solving complex problems beyond the reach of classical computers.
 Telecommunication: Quantum dots are enabling advancements in telecommunication technologies. Their
ability to emit light in specific wavelengths can be used to develop high-speed optical communication systems
with increased bandwidth and data transmission rates.
 Energy Storage: Quantum dots are being explored for energy storage applications, such as batteries and
supercapacitors. Their ability to store and release energy efficiently could lead to more compact and powerful
energy storage devices for portable electronics and electric vehicles.
 Drug Delivery: Quantum dots are being investigated for targeted drug delivery, offering the potential to
deliver therapeutic agents directly to diseased cells while minimizing side effects. Their ability to be
functionalized with specific targeting molecules could revolutionize drug delivery and improve treatment
outcomes.

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Lecture - 23
Computers
2
Computers
Topics to be covered
❖ What are the risks of Nanotechnology?

Nanotechnology
❖ Government Initiatives
❖ Basics of Computer Organisations
Computers ❖ Computer Viruses/Malware
❖ Methods of Cyber Crime/Attack
Risks and Limitations of Nanotechnology

❖ Risks:
➢ Nanotoxicology: It is the study of the toxicity of nanomaterials.
➢ Nano-pollution: waste generated by the nanodevices or nanomaterials during the manufacturing process.
➢ Nano-waste may be of risk due to its size and different properties and interactions.
➢ Misuse for spying and espionage purposes or weapons of war.
❖ Limitations
➢ Costly Technique: Many nanofabrication methods involve sophisticated equipment and specialised
materials, leading to high production costs. This cost barrier can hinder the widespread adoption and
application of nanotechnology, particularly in resource-constrained settings.
➢ Lack of Expertise: Working with nanoscale materials and structures having a lack of Expertise in various
scientific and engineering disciplines. A lack of skilled professionals can slow down research progress
and limit the practical implementation of nanotechnology advancements.
➢ Manufacturing Challenges: Fabricating nanoscale structures consistently and at a large scale can be
difficult and costly.
➢ Lack of accurate characterization: Characterizing nanoparticles accurately can be challenging due to
their small size, making it difficult to understand their properties and behavior fully.
➢ Safety Concerns: There are concerns about the potential toxicity of certain nanoparticles to human health
and the environment, which requires careful assessment and regulation.
➢ Energy Consumption: Some nanofabrication techniques can be energy-intensive, limiting their
sustainability.
➢ Interdisciplinary Complexity: Nanotechnology involves a wide range of disciplines, requiring
collaboration and expertise in multiple fields, which can pose challenges in communication and
coordination.
➢ Limited Material Compatibility: Not all materials can be manipulated at the nanoscale, restricting the
range of nanotechnology applications.
3
Government Initiative to Promote Nanotechnology

❖ Nano Science and Technology Mission (NSTM): It was launched in 2007 by the Department of Science and
Technology (DST). The objectives of the mission are:
➢ Basic Research Promotion: Governments fund basic research in nanotechnology to explore fundamental
principles, properties, and phenomena at the nanoscale. This support enables scientists to uncover new
knowledge and lay the groundwork for future innovations.
➢ Infrastructure Development: Governments invest in the development of infrastructure, such as
nanotechnology research centres, laboratories, and fabrication facilities. This infrastructure provides
researchers and industry with the necessary resources and equipment to conduct experiments, fabricate
nanomaterials, and advance nanotechnology applications.
➢ Nano Applications and Technology Development: Governments support the translation of
nanotechnology research into practical applications and technologies. This may involve funding
initiatives to develop nanomaterials, nanodevices, and nanosystems for various sectors, including
healthcare, electronics, energy, and the environment.
➢ Human Resource Development: Government prioritise the education and training of a skilled workforce
in nanotechnology. This includes supporting academic programs, training workshops, and workforce
development initiatives to equip researchers, engineers, and technicians with the knowledge and skills
needed to work in the field of nanotechnology.
➢ International Collaborations: Governments foster collaborations and partnerships with other countries,
research institutions, and industry stakeholders to advance nanotechnology on a global scale. These
collaborations facilitate knowledge exchange, joint research projects, and technology transfer, enhancing
innovation and competitiveness in the field of nanotechnology.
❖ Nano Science and Technology Initiative (NSTI): It was set up by the Department of Science and Technology
(DST) in 2001. It focuses on infrastructure development, research, and application programs related to
nanomaterials including drugs, drug delivery, gene targeting, and DNA chips.
Achievements of India in Nanotechnology
❖ India published over 23000 papers in nanoscience in the past 5 years.
❖ In 2013, India ranked third in the number of papers published, behind only China and the USA.
❖ There have been 300 patent applications in the Indian Patent Office in 2013, 10 times that of 2006. Clearly,
this points to the success of the Nano Mission initiative.
❖ It has also led to Research and Development in the standards for nanotechnology and for laying down a
National Regulatory Framework Road-Map for Nanotechnology (NRFR-Nanotech).
Covid - 19 Nano Coating
❖ The Department of Science and Technology and the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB)
called for a Short-term Research Grant for Nano Coating COVID-19 in April 2020.
❖ The goals of the project are to focus on the following areas:
➢ Antiviral Nano-coatings: It will be coated/used on the appropriate material for producing anti-COVID-
19 Triple Layer Medical masks and N-95 respirators or better masks in large quantities.
➢ All components of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): PPEs are used for safeguarding the health
of all healthcare workers against COVID-19.
4
International Conference on NanoScience and NanoTechnology (ICONSAT) 2020:

❖ ICONSAT is a series of biennial international conferences held in India under the aegis of Nano Mission,
Department of Science and Technology (DST).
❖ The last conference was held in Kolkata (West Bengal).
❖ It was held in March 2020 at Kolkata (West Bengal)
❖ Biennial
❖ The Conference emphasized on 5Ms–
1. Mechanical
2. Material
3. Machines
4. Manufacturing
5. Manpower
COMPUTERS
Basic Compilation Organisation
Primary Memory:
❖ The contents of RAM (Random Access Memory) are no longer available once the computer is turned off.
❖ ROM (Read Only Memory) is typical memory which can only be read and contents of which are not lost
even when the computer is switched off.
❖ ROM contains manufacturer’s instructions.
❖ ROM also stores an initial program called the ‘bootstrap loader’ whose function is to start the operation of
the computer system once the power is turned on.
5
Secondary Memory:
❖ These include devices that are outlying and are connected and controlled by the computer to enable permanent
storage of programs and data.
❖ Secondary storage devices are of two types:
1. Magnetic: Magnetic devices include hard disks. Hard disks are composed of rigid material and are usually
a stack of metal disks sealed in a box. These are rewritable
2. Optical: Optical storage devices are CDs, DVDs.
Q. With reference to the categories of computer memory, consider the following statements:
1. Primary memory is directly accessible to the central processing unit (CPU) and holds data and
instructions that are currently in use.
2. Secondary memory provides short-term storage for data and programs not actively in use.
Which of the above statements is/are not correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1&2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Option (b) is correct:
❖ Statement 1 is correct: Primary memory, also known as main memory, is directly accessible to the central
processing unit (CPU) and holds data and instructions currently in use. It is characterised by its volatility,
meaning it loses its contents when the computer is turned off.
❖ Statement 2 is not correct: Secondary memory also known as auxiliary memory, provides long-term
storage for data and programs not actively in use. It is non-volatile, meaning it retains its contents even
when the computer is powered off.
6
Computer Viruses/Malware
❖ It is a Self-replicating program and can be
transmitted by email or by inserting copies of itself
into other programs.
❖ Most viruses or worms are malicious programs
designed to pollute and gain control over a computer
without the owner’s knowledge.
❖ It spreads through a computer system, or network
when it is activated.
❖ After it gets activated, these viruses look for certain
programs to infect.
Computer Malware
❖ Malware is the shortened form of malicious software.
❖ This is any program or file that is harmful to a computer user.
❖ The term refers to software that is deployed with malicious intent.
❖ These malicious programs can perform a variety of functions, including stealing, encrypting, or deleting
sensitive data, altering or hijacking core computing functions, and monitoring users’ computer activity
without their permission.
Types of Malware:
❖ Adware: It is the least dangerous and most lucrative Malware. Adware displays ads on your computer.
Example: Fireball, DeskAd.
❖ Spyware: Spyware is software that spies on you, tracking your internet activities to send advertising (Adware)
back to your system.
➢ Example: Pegasus: Developed by the Israeli company NSO Group. In 2019 many politicians in India
were spied. NSO sells this software only to governments
Extra Information about the Pegasus:

❖ Pegasus is not just a mythical creature;
it’s also the name of a sophisticated
spyware developed by the Israeli
cybersecurity company NSO Group.
❖ Pegasus spyware is capable of infecting
smartphones, granting attackers access
to the device’s data, including messages,
emails, calls, and even activating the microphone and camera remotely.
❖ It’s notorious for its use by governments and other entities to target activists, journalists, and political
opponents.
❖ Spam: Spamming is a method of flooding the Internet with copies of the same message. Most spam are
commercial advertisements that are sent as an unwanted email to users.
❖ Worm: A program that replicates itself and destroys data and files on the computer. Worms work to “eat” the
system operating files and data files until the drive is empty.
7
❖ Trojan: A Trojan horse or Trojan is a

type of malware that is often disguised as
legitimate software. Trojans are written
to discover your financial information,
take over your computer’s system
resources, etc.
❖ Backdoors: Backdoors are much the
same as Trojans or worms, except that
they open a “backdoor” on a computer,
providing a network connection for
hackers or other Malware to enter or
for viruses or SPAM to be sent.
❖ Keyloggers: Record everything you
type on your PC to get your log-in
names, passwords, and other sensitive
information, and send it on to the
source of the keylogging program.
❖ Ransomware: The computer screen is
locked out until an individual pays for
their cybercrimes. An individual’s
system is severely infected with a form of Malware called Ransomware.
➢ It is Software that can lock a computer and then demand a ransom for its release.
➢ The malware first gains access to the device. Depending on the type of ransomware, either the entire
operating system or individual files are encrypted. Example: WannaCry.
Extra Information about WannaCry :

❖ WannaCry is a notorious ransomware attack that occurred in May 2017.
❖ It spread rapidly across the globe, infecting hundreds of thousands of computers in over 150 countries.
❖ The attack targeted computers running Microsoft Windows operating systems that had not been updated
with a security patch released by Microsoft earlier that year.
❖ Once a computer was infected, WannaCry encrypted files on the system and demanded a ransom payment
in Bitcoin in exchange for the decryption key needed to unlock the files.
❖ The attack caused widespread disruption, affecting businesses, hospitals, and government agencies.
Methods of Cyber Crime/ Attack

1. Phishing: The fraudulent practice of sending emails purporting to be
from reputable companies in order to induce individuals to reveal
personal information, such as passwords and credit card numbers.
8
Extra Information:
Types of Phishing:
1. Smishing (SMS Phishing): Attackers send text messages posing as legitimate entities, often containing
links to fake websites or phone numbers to call. These messages typically aim to trick recipients into
providing sensitive information or downloading malware onto their devices.
2. Whaling: Targeted phishing attacks aimed at high-profile individuals or executives within
organizations. These attacks often involve personalized emails that appear to come from senior
management or trusted contacts, tricking recipients into disclosing sensitive data or initiating fraudulent
transactions.
3. Angler Phishing: Attackers create fake customer support accounts on social media platforms or
messaging apps to lure victims into providing personal information or downloading malware.
2. Man in Middle: when a

perpetrator positions himself in a
conversation between a user and
an application—either to
eavesdrop or to impersonate one
of the parties, making it appear as
if a normal exchange of
information is underway.
3. Distributed denial - of - service (DDoS): multiple compromised computer systems attack a target and cause
a denial of service for users of the targeted resource. The target can be a server, website or other network
resource.
4. Spoofing: It is when someone or something pretends to be something
else in an attempt to gain our confidence, get access to our systems, steal
data, steal money, or spread malware.
5. Pharming: is an online scam similar to phishing, where a website's
traffic is manipulated, and confidential information is stolen.
➢ In essence, it is the criminal act of producing a fake website and
then redirecting users to it.
9
Q. With reference to the Types of Cyber Threats, consider the following statements:
1. Spamming is a method of flooding the Internet with copies of the same message.
2. Worms is a program that replicates itself and destroys data and files on the computer.
3. Phishing is a deceptive practice that aims to trick users into revealing sensitive information.
(a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All the above (d) None
Q. With reference to the the Types of Cyber Threats, consider the following statements:
1. Voice Phishing (Vishing)is when phishing is done with the help of a telephonic system.
2. Phishing attacks which are directed towards specific senior executives and other high profile targets is
called Whaling.
3. Smishing is a fraudulent practice of sending text messages purporting to be from reputable companies.
(a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All the above (d) None
Extra Information
❖ Racoon Stealer : It's a Malware that steals various data from an infected computer.
❖ Lack bit - It’s a Ramsamware : target mac device both new and old device.
❖ It’s a category of Cryptovirus.
❖ Payment is through cryptocurrency.
10
❖ Anti spyware declaration : This declaration involved a group of countries including the United States,
Australia, Denmark , France , Canada , Norway , Sweden, Costa Rica, New Zealand, United Kingdom and
Switzerland. India is not part of it.
❖ Delhi declaration on cybersecurity : National Cybersecurity coordination ( NCSC) — drafted with the
help of Microsoft Corporation. It’s a series of commitments taken by G- 20 member countries. It’s an
existing nonbinding norm. Enhance the global cyber secure world.
❖ Crypto jacking : victims' computers and resources are used for mining cryptocurrency .
❖ Acoustic side Channel Attack: This is a cyber attack only. Cyberattack where Artificial Intelligence is
used to decode password by analysing sound produced by Keystrokes.

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Lecture – 24
Computers (Part 2)
2
Computers (Part 2)
Classical Computer:
❖ The smallest unit of classical computers is a bit.
❖ Classical computers are based on the classical physical theory.
❖ Language: Binary language in the form of 0 or 1 is used in computers.
Quantum Computers:
❖ Quantum computers are based on the principle of quantum mechanics.
❖ An electron in an atom or ion has four quantum numbers to describe its state.
❖ Quantum Mechanics: Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory in physics that describes the physical
properties of nature at the scale of atoms and subatomic particles. It helps to understand the wave or particle
nature of the light simultaneously. Due to such a double function, it is also known as Dual.
❖ Quantum computer has multiple values due to the continuous motion of electrons. solve mathematical
problems.
❖ Just like a binary bit is the basic unit of information in classical (or traditional) computing, a qubit (or
quantum bit) is the basic unit of information in quantum computing.
❖ Quantum computing uses quantum phenomena such as superposition and entanglement to perform
computation.
❖ Einstein called entanglement a “spooky action at a distance.”
Quantum Numbers:
❖ Quantum numbers consist of four numbers that describe the unique properties of electrons in an atom. These
numbers help to determine the location and energy of electrons within an atom's electron.
❖ Principal Quantum Number (n): The principal quantum number, represented by 'n,' determines the electron's
energy level or shell. It can have positive integer values starting from 1, indicating the increasing distance of
the electron from the nucleus.
❖ Orbital Angular momentuml Quantum Number (l): The azimuthal quantum number, denoted by 'l,' defines
the shape of the electron's orbital within a given energy level. It can have integer values ranging from 0 to n-
1, representing different subshells or orbital shapes.
❖ Magnetic Quantum Number (ml): The magnetic quantum number, represented by 'ml,' specifies the
orientation of the electron's orbital in space. It can have integer values ranging from -l to +l, indicating the
different orientations of the orbital within a subshell.
❖ Spin Quantum Number (ms): The spin quantum number, denoted by 'ms,' describes the intrinsic angular
momentum or spin of the electron. It can have two possible values, +1/2 or -1/2, representing the two possible
spin states of an electron.
Quantum Computing:
❖ Superposition: Superposition represents multiple values either 0 and 1 simultaneously or between 0 and 1, or
any combination of these states. This property of superposition allows quantum computers to store and process
exponentially more information than classical computers. Qubits, the basic units of information in quantum
computing, can exist in a superposition of states. superposition allows quantum computers to store and process
more information than classical computers.
❖ Entanglement: Quantum entanglement is a phenomenon where two or more qubits are linked, even when
separated by vast distances. This means changes in one entangled qubit instantly determine the state of the
3
other, regardless of their physical separation. Entanglement enables quantum computers to perform complex
calculations that are impossible for classical computers.
❖ Qubits: Qubits is the smallest unit of quantum computing that can represent multiple values simultaneously.
This property of qubits allows quantum computers to handle more complex information and computations
Differences Between Classical And Quantum Computers:

Classical Computers Quantum Computers
They work on classical physics. They work on quantum physics (physics at atomic and
subatomic level)
They use transistors. They use photons and electrons.
State of transistor at any given time, is called a Bit. State of photon/electron at any given instant is called
Qubit.
At a time, Bit can take single value from either of the At a time, Qubit can take multiple values, i.e. at a time
two values: either 0 or 1 (like a tube light). a qubit can be both 0 and 1 (like a fan with regulator)
(Superposition)
Transistors work independently of each other Photons and electrons work together (entanglement)
Applications Quantum computers:
❖ They help in understanding the complexity of molecular and chemical interactions leading to the discovery of
new medicines and materials.
❖ They may enable ultra-efficient logistics and supply chains, such as optimizing fleet operations for deliveries
during the holiday season.
❖ They may help us find new ways to model financial data and isolate key global risk factors to make better
investments.
❖ They may make facets of artificial intelligence such as machine learning much more powerful.
❖ They may help in augmenting Industrial Revolution 4.0: Quantum computing is an integral part of Industrial
Revolution 4.0.
4
Quantum Satellite/Communication:
QUESS (Quantum Experiments at Space scale)
❖ QUESS (Quantum Experiments at Space Scale): A Chinese initiative exploring the application of quantum
physics in space technology.
❖ Long-range secure communication: Enabling secure communication over vast distances using the principles
of quantum mechanics.
❖ Micius: The world's first quantum-enabled satellite, launched by China in 2016, spearheading quantum
communication advancements.
❖ Quantum Cryptography: Quantum cryptography uses laws of quantum physics for unbreakable encryption.
The no-cloning theorem ensures that any attempt to read encoded data quantum state will be changed. Hence,
it is not possible to decipher such message.
❖ Unbreakable Cryptographic Protection: Micius has been instrumental in establishing quantum encryption
for long-range communication, providing robust protection against malicious attacks, including blinding
telescopes with other light signals.
❖ China's Quantum Advantage: China's pioneering efforts in quantum satellite communication have
positioned the country at the forefront of this cutting-edge technology, offering unparalleled security for
sensitive data transmission.
5
News:
❖ In 2019, Google’s quantum computer, named Sycamore, claimed “quantum supremacy”.
❖ It reportedly did the task in 200 seconds that would have apparently taken a supercomputer 10,000 years to
complete.
What is “quantum supremacy”?
❖ The phrase “quantum supremacy” was coined in 2012 by John Preskill.
❖ Quantum supremacy refers to a quantum computer solving a problem that cannot be expected of a classical
computer in a normal lifetime.
❖ India does not have any quantum computers, but R&D is going on.
Supercomputers:
A computer with a high level of computing performance compared
to the general-purpose computers. Supercomputers are the most
powerful computers in the world, capable of performing complex
calculations and simulations that are too difficult for regular
computers.
❖ Performance is measured in FLOPS (floating-point
operations per second).
❖ Supercomputers are very fast, with performance measured
in petaflops (1 followed by 15 zeros).
❖ They have vast amounts of memory, up to 250,000 times more
than a typical home computer.
❖ Supercomputers require specialized housing in large clean rooms with high airflow to keep them cool.
❖ They are used to solve complex problems in various fields, including scientific research, weather forecasting,
and drug discovery.
6
Supercomputers In India:
❖ The first supercomputer assembled indigenously, called Param Shivay, was installed in IIT (Banaras
Hindu University).
➢ Param Shakti installed at IIT-Kharagpur
➢ Param Brahma installed by IISER, Pune
➢ Param Pravega was installed by the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Bangalore in 2022. It has a
supercomputing capacity of 3.3 petaflops.
➢ They are equipped with applications from domains like Weather and Climate, Computational Fluid
Dynamics, Bioinformatics, and Material science
❖ India set up C-DAC (Centre for Development of Advanced Computing) in 1988, which in 1991, unveiled
the prototype of PARAM 8000, benchmarked at 5 Gflops. This supercomputer was the second -fastest in the
world at that time.
❖ As of January 2018, Pratyush and Mihir are the fastest supercomputers in India with a maximum speed
of 6.8 Peta Flops.
❖ As of June, the AIRAWAT supercomputer is the fastest in India, having been ranked 75th fastest in the world
in the TOP500 supercomputer list. It is installed at the Center for Development of Advanced Computing(C-
DAC) in Pune.
❖ AIRAWAT PSAI (AI Research, Analytics, and Knowledge Assimilation) is India's largest and fastest AI
supercomputing system, with a remarkable speed of 13,170 teraflops.
❖ AIRAWAT's supercomputer has been manufactured by Netweb Technologies. The supercomputer runs on
Ubuntu 20.04
Applications of Supercomputers:
❖ Academic research: Supercomputers are instrumental in academic research, enabling scientists to explore
complex phenomena like the origins of the universe.
❖ Provide accurate weather and climate modeling: They provide accurate weather and climate modeling by
analyzing multiple factors and their interrelationships.
❖ Drug discovery: Supercomputers aid in drug discovery by simulating protein folding and other biological
processes.
❖ Big data mining: Big data mining is facilitated by supercomputers, supporting the Digital India mission's
data-driven initiatives.
❖ Enhancement in oil and gas exploration: Oil and gas exploration is enhanced by supercomputers, ensuring
India's energy security.
❖ Aerospace research and development: Aerospace research and development benefit from supercomputers,
leading to safer and more efficient transportation.
❖ Nuclear fission and fusion simulations using supercomputers contribute to improved nuclear infrastructure
and energy security.
❖ Molecular dynamics simulations on supercomputers pave the way for developing innovative materials for
future technologies.
National Supercomputing Mission:
❖ The national supercomputing mission was launched in 2015 to enhance the research capacities and capabilities
in the country by connecting them to form a supercomputing grid, with the National Knowledge Network
(NKN) as the backbone.
7
❖ NKN Project is aimed at establishing a strong

robust Indian Network which will be capable of
providing secure and remarkable connectivity.
❖ It supports the government's vision of Digital
India and Make in India initiatives.
❖ The mission is being jointly steered by the
Department of Science and Technology (DST)
and the Ministry of Electronics and Information
and Technology (Meity).
❖ It is implemented by the C-DAC, Pune and IISc
Bengaluru.
Note:
The fastest supercomputer in the world is
Frontier of the US.
Edge Computing:
❖ Edge computing is defined as the deployment of
data-handling activities or other network
operations away from centralized and always-
connected network segments (like Dropbox,
Gmail, etc.) and toward individual sources of data
capture.
❖ The data is analyzed locally, closer to where it is
stored, in real-time without latency.
❖ The global edge computing market is forecasted
to reach more than $ 8 Billion by 2025.
Advantages of Edge Computing:
❖ Real-time responsiveness: Edge computing
enables quicker data processing and content
delivery by processing data closer to the source,
reducing latency, and improving response times
for time-critical applications.
❖ Future-proof infrastructure: Edge computing is
designed to support emerging technologies like 5G and artificial intelligence (AI), providing the necessary
infrastructure for real-time data analysis and decision-making.
❖ Localized solution for remote areas: Edge computing is preferred over cloud computing in remote locations
with limited or unreliable internet connectivity, as it can operate independently and provide localized data
processing capabilities.
❖ Data efficiency: Edge computing reduces the amount of data that needs to be transferred to the cloud,
minimizing bandwidth usage and improving overall network efficiency.
❖ Cost-effective solution: Edge computing can reduce costs by minimizing the need for expensive cloud
infrastructure and bandwidth usage, particularly for applications that require real-time processing and localized
data handling.
8
❖ Data sovereignty and privacy: Edge computing enhances data sovereignty by keeping sensitive data closer
to the source, reducing the risk of data breaches or unauthorized access to information stored in remote cloud
servers.
Difference Between Cloud Computing And Edge Computing:
Cloud Computing Edge Computing
Non-time-sensitive data processing Real-time data processing
Reliable internet connection Remote locations with limited or no internet connectivity
Dynamic workloads Large datasets that are too costly to send to the cloud
Data in cloud storage Highly sensitive data and strict data laws
Web 3.0:
The evolution of the Internet
through three distinct phases:
Web 1.0 (1990-2000):
❖ Basic HTML and emails: This
era marked the early days of the
internet, characterized by static
web pages, basic HTML coding,
and email communication.
❖ Information-centric: The focus
was on providing access to
information, with limited user
interaction or content creation.
Web 2.0 (2000-2020):
❖ Informative and interactive:
The internet became more dynamic and interactive, with the rise of social media, user-generated content, and
online collaboration platforms.
❖ User-centric: Users became active participants in creating and sharing content, shaping the online experience.
Web 3.0 (2020 onwards):
❖ Decentralized, private, and secure: Web 3.0 envisions a decentralized internet built on blockchain
technology, emphasizing user privacy, data ownership, and secure transactions.
❖ User-centric: The focus remains on empowering users with control over their data and personalized
experiences.
❖ It is also known as the Semantic Web. It allows for more intelligent, context-aware, and personalized
interactions between humans and computers.
Note:
The semantic web allows combining information from various websites to create new and authentic knowledge
resources.
❖ It advocates a decentralized data storage system.
   
1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Lecture - 25
Robotics
2
Robotics
Robotics:
Robotics is the branch of technology that deals with the design, construction,
operation, structural depositions, manufacture, and application of robots.
❖ The word Robot is derived from the word Robota which means slave or
bonded labour.
❖ In 1920 negative description of robots was given by Karel Capek.
Because it was said that robots are killing humans.
❖ The word Robotics was given by Issac Asimov. He gave a positive
description of robots as they were seen as the helpers of humans.
❖ Evolution:
➢ Machine
➢ A combination of machines and Computers are known as Automated
robots.
➢ Self-controlled robots are based on machines, Computers, and sensors.
Robotics Laws:
❖ A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.
❖ A robot must obey the orders given to it by human beings except where such orders would conflict with the
First Law.
❖ A robot must protect its existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Laws.
❖ Zero Laws: Asimov enacted another law above these three laws known as the Zero law which says that robots
will never harm humanity and that humanity is more important than human beings.
Robotic process automation (RPA):
❖ Robotic process automation (RPA) is the use of software with artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning
capabilities to handle high-volume, repeatable tasks that previously required humans to perform.
❖ These tasks can include queries, calculations, and maintenance of records and transactions.
Practitioners divide RPA technologies into three broad categories:
❖ Probots are bots that follow simple, repeatable rules to process data.
❖ Knowbots are bots that search the internet to gather and store user-specified information.
❖ Chatbots are virtual agents who can respond to customer queries in real time.
Components of Robotics System:
❖ End Effector: The end Effector is a peripheral device that attaches to a robot's wrist, allowing the robot to
interact with its task. Most end effectors are mechanical or electromechanical and serve as grippers, process
tools, or sensors.
❖ Manipulators: The arm-like structure of an industrial robot is known as a robot manipulator. This component
is responsible for completing the tasks the robot is programmed to perform. Also known as a robot arm, the
manipulator mounts to the robot's body and consists of multiple links and joints.
❖ Locomotion Devices: Robot locomotion is the collective name for various methods that robots use to transport
themselves from place to place. Locomotion is the method of moving from one place to another place. The
mechanism that makes a robot capable of moving in its environment is called robot locomotion.
3
❖ Controller (Computer): Robotic programming is the process of defining specific commands of an application
for an industrial robot to automate.
❖ Sensors: Sensors are used in robotics to calculate the condition and environment of robots, using functions
similar to the human sensory organs. A variety of sensors are required by different robots to navigate their
environment while performing tasks.
Types of Robots:
❖ Based on Locomotion:
➢ Fixed
➢ Mobile
❖ Based on Working Abilities:
➢ Type 1: They can perform a task better than human beings. Examples, cutting and drilling.
➢ Type 2: They cannot perform the task better than humans but save the life of humans from dangerous
situations. Examples are Space exploration and Deep sea exploration, Vyommitra is a female -looking
spacefaring humanoid robot developed by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) to function on-
board the Gaganyaan, a crewed orbital spacecraft in the Gaganyaan Mission.
❖ Based on Shape:
➢ Mechanical
➢ Animal
➢ Human
Timeline Vision of Robotics in India:
❖ Report of National Institute of Science and Technology Policy (NISTEP), 2030:
➢ By 2013-2014: Agricultural robots
➢ By 2013-2017: Robots that care for elderly
➢ By 2013-2020: Nano Rabots
➢ By 2015: To have one third of its fighting capacity provided by Robots
➢ By 2017: Medical Robots performing low invasive surgery
➢ By 2017-2019: Household Robots
➢ By 2035: To have first completely autonomous Robot Soldiers on the battlefield.
4
Applications of Robotics:
❖ Machine loading: Robots automate the loading and unloading of materials onto machines, enhancing
efficiency and reducing labor costs.
❖ Pick and place operation: Robots perform precise pick-and-place tasks, moving objects with accuracy and
speed, streamlining production processes.
❖ Welding: Robots execute welding tasks with consistency and precision, ensuring high -quality welds and
reducing human error.
❖ Painting: Robots apply paint evenly and efficiently, improving finish quality and minimizing paint waste.
❖ Inspection: Robots perform visual or sensor-based inspections, detecting defects or irregularities in products
or components.
❖ Sampling: Robots collect samples for testing or analysis, ensuring consistent and reliable sampling
procedures.
❖ Assembly operation: Robots assemble components with precision and speed, reducing assembly time and
improving product quality.
❖ Manufacturing: Robots automate various manufacturing processes, enhancing productivity, consistency, and
safety.
❖ Surveillance: Robots monitor areas for security purposes, providing continuous surveillance and alerting
authorities to potential threats.
❖ Medical applications: Robots assist in surgery, rehabilitation, and patient care, improving precision, reducing
surgeon fatigue, and enhancing patient outcomes.
❖ Assisting disabled individuals: Robots provide support and assistance to individuals with disabilities, aiding
in daily tasks and promoting independence.
❖ Hazardous environments: Robots operate in hazardous environments, such as nuclear facilities or disaster
zones, minimizing human exposure to risks.
❖ Underwater, space, and remote locations: Robots explore and perform tasks in underwater, space, or remote
locations, extending human reach into challenging environments.
Benefits of Robotic Surgery:
❖ Less Tissue Damage
❖ Less time and less trauma or pain
❖ Less chances of infection
❖ Fast post-surgery recovery
❖ Better accuracy
Benefits of Robotics in the Industrial Sector:
❖ Enhance the productivity of industrial production
❖ Product quality will be improved because there is no chance of human error.
❖ Reduction in cost of production
❖ Suitable to work in a hazardous environment.
❖ Compliance with safety standards and regulations.
Examples:
Healthcare sector:
❖ C-ASTRA: C-Astra medical robots are designed to provide surgeons with a high level of precision and control
during surgical procedures, which can lead to better outcomes for patients. It can take the temperature and
sanitize the room.
5
❖ MITRA: It can check the temperature and connect the patient to family members through video calls.
❖ RoboDoc: It can connect patients to doctors virtually and provides health-related information to the doctor
hence, it provides contactless treatment.
Robots in Defence:
❖ Daksh: It is developed by (DRDO) Defense Research and Development Organization. It is one of the most
current military robots of India, it can also scan objects using its portable X-ray Device.
❖ Nishant: It is an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) developed by India’s ADE (Aeronautical Development
Establishment), a branch of DRDO for the Indian Armed Forces.
➢ The Nishant UAV is primarily tasked with intelligence gathering over enemy territory and also for
reconnaissance, training, surveillance, target designation, artillery fire correction, and damage assessment.
➢ It is for the Indian Army.
❖ AGRIBOT: It is an Agriculture Robot. It provides admirable agricultural aid for the farmer.
❖ Kitchen Robots: The SpotMini robot from Boston Dynamics is a versatile quadruped robot designed for
various tasks, including kitchen assistance.
Challenges in Robotics:
❖ Job displacement: The increasing adoption of robots in various industries raises concerns about job
displacement, particularly for workers performing repetitive tasks that can be automated.
❖ Ethical dilemmas: The growing capabilities of robots raise ethical questions about their rights and
responsibilities. Should robots be considered as property, tools, or entities with certain rights?
❖ Devaluation of Labour: Human has value for their skill but the introduction of robots will lead to a decrease
in the labour value.
❖ Security threats: As robots become more sophisticated and interconnected, they may pose security threats if
hacked or manipulated, potentially causing physical harm or disrupting critical systems.
❖ Social implications: Over-reliance on robots for companionship and emotional support could weaken human
relationships and social structures, potentially leading to isolation and erosion of family bonds.
Robots in Disaster Management:
❖ Robots are attached to advanced sensors.
❖ Robots can be small-sized and flexible.
❖ Robots can work in dangerous and hostile conditions.
❖ Hyderabad Science Society has developed a robotic system that can enter into the collapsed building wreckage
and it can detect the person trapped inside.
❖ Indian startup Gen Robotics has developed a sewer-cleaning robotic system Bandicoot. which is being used
by many municipal corporations in India.
All India Council for Robotics and Automation:
❖ It is a not-for-profit organization established in 2014.
❖ It sets up standards in the robotics & automation and education industry, helping organizations and
professionals to solve difficult technical problems.
❖ It is engaged in various activities to promote and build an ecosystem for robotics and automation in India.
Recent Development:
Artificial Humans -NEONs
❖ Artificial Humans: NEONs are heralded as the world's first artificial humans, representing a
groundbreaking advancement in artificial intelligence and computer graphics.
❖ Created by Samsung Star Labs headed by Pranav Mistry, a India-born scientist.
6
❖ Virtual Humans: NEONs are not physical robots but computationally generated virtual humans, as indicated
by their name, a combination of NEO (new) and humaNs.
Xenobots (Living Robot):
❖ World's First Living Robots: Scientists in the United States have made a groundbreaking discovery by
creating the world's first "living robots" called xenobots.
❖ Frog Cell Construction: These tiny robots are constructed from the cells of the African-clawed frog,
specifically utilizing skin cells and heart cells.
❖ Unique Design and Function: The skin cells provide a rigid support structure, while the heart cells generate
rhythmic contractions, enabling the xenobots to move and navigate their environment.
❖ Its applications include searching out nasty compounds or radioactive contamination, gathering microplastic
in the oceans, traveling in arteries to scrape out plaque, etc
Astro Robot:
❖ Home Monitoring and Assistance: Amazon's Astro robot is designed to assist customers with a range of
tasks, including home monitoring, keeping in touch with family, and providing companionship.
❖ Mobile Navigation: Astro can autonomously navigate around the home, using its wheels and sensors to avoid
obstacles and move from room to room.
❖ Pet Monitoring: Astro can keep an eye on pets while owners are away, providing peace of mind and ensuring
their furry friends are safe and sound.
❖ Integrated Technology: Astro combines the capabilities of an Echo Show smart speaker with a sophisticated
Ring security camera, offering both communication and surveillance features.
❖ Facial Recognition: Astro can recognize faces and analyze them, enabling personalized interactions and
potential security applications
Spot Robot:
❖ MIT and Boston Dynamics Collaboration: Researchers from Boston
Dynamics, of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT-USA) and
Boston Dynamics have joined forces to explore the potential of the Spot
robot in healthcare settings, particularly for COVID-19 patients.
❖ Remote Vital Sign Monitoring: Spot can measure vital signs, including
skin temperature, breathing rate, pulse rate, and blood oxygen saturation,
from a distance of 2 meters, reducing the risk of exposure for healthcare
workers.
Robotics in Pandemics:
❖ Disinfecting Surfaces: Robots equipped with ultraviolet (UV) light or
disinfectant sprayers can effectively disinfect surfaces in hospitals, public
spaces, and other high-traffic areas, reducing the spread of pathogens.
❖ Contact Tracing: Robots can assist in contact tracing efforts by collecting
and analyzing data from individuals' smartphones or wearable devices, identifying potential exposure risks and
helping to contain the spread of infection.
❖ Testing for Coronavirus: Robots can perform nasopharyngeal swabs or other testing procedures for
coronavirus, reducing the burden on healthcare workers and minimizing their exposure to the virus.
❖ Medicine Delivery: Robots can deliver medications, medical supplies, and other essential items to patients in
isolation or quarantine, reducing the risk of transmission and ensuring patients receive necessary care.
7
❖ Cloud Minds Robots in Wuhan: In Wuhan, China, CloudMinds robots played a crucial role in delivering
food, drinks, and medicine to patients during the COVID-19 outbreak, minimizing direct contact and reducing
the risk of infection.
❖ Social Robots: Social robots can provide companionship, social stimulation, and emotional support to
individuals experiencing isolation or loneliness during pandemics, improving mental well-being and reducing
the negative impacts of social distancing.
Robotics in India:
❖ In India, the application of robots is mainly related to the electronics, automobile, and medicine industries.
❖ According to the World Robotics Report 2022 released by the International Federation of Robotics, around
35 lakh industrial robots have been installed in various industries in the world in 2021.
❖ In total, global robot installations are expected to grow by more than 10% in 2022.
❖ Majority of industrial robots are installed in the electronic and automobile sectors.
❖ In 2021, more than half of the industrial robots were installed in China.
❖ Despite lingering effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, economic constraints, and geopolitical conflict, global
adoption of robotics is constinuing to grow.
❖ The new World Robotics 2023 Industrial Robots and Service Robots report said that 553052 industrial robots
were installed in factories around the world in 2022, a year-over-year growth rate of 5%.
❖ By region, 73% of all newly deployed robots were installed in Asia, 15% in Europe, and 10% in the Americas,
according to the International Federation of Robotics.
Government Initiatives:
1. Center for Development of Artificial Intelligence and Robotics (CAIR): This is a government-backed
dedicated research center for the development of robotics in India. CAIR has developed many robotic systems
including GARUDA robots which are used by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited for aircraft making.
2. All India Council for Robotics and Automation (AICRA): It was established in 2014 as a nonprofit
organization to provide a conducive environment, administrative help, technological support, and financial
assistance to start-ups and new companies in robotics.
3. Startups and companies working in the field of robotics are Gen Robotics, Asimov Robotics, and Team Indus.
4. A subsidiary of TATA, TAL has developed India's first industrial robot, BRABO which is very popular in
both the domestic and international market.
5. Laxmi: Laxmi is the first banking robot installed in the City Union Bank Chennai.
6. ERA: This is the second banking robot installed in HDFC Bank, Mumbai.
7. Invento Robotics Robot Mitra is installed in the shopping malls.

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Lecture - 26
Health
2
Health
Traditional Medicine:
❖ It is the total of the knowledge, skill, and practices based on the
theories, beliefs, and experiences indigenous to different cultures,
whether explicable or not.
❖ It is used in the maintenance of health as well as in the
prevention, diagnosis, improvement, or treatment of physical
and mental illness.
❖ India’s Traditional and Complementary Medicines (T&CM) are
also called AYUSH (Ayurveda, Yoga, Unani, Siddha, and
Homeopathy).
❖ It is regulated by the Ministry of AYUSH which was formed in
2014.
Mainstreaming of T&CM:
Advantages Challenges
1. Less capital intensive 1. Marginalisation of T&CM

2. Affordable to poor people 2. Skewed financing
3. Enhancing the accessibility to public health facilities 3. Low acceptance of AYUSH
4. Better disease management 4. State subject
5. Effective in managing chronic diseases
❖ Recently International Classification of Diseases 11 (ICD-11), Module 2(ICD 11 TM 2) is introduced by

the World Health Organisation (WHO).
❖ Module 2 of the supplementary chapter on traditional medicine conditions under ICD 11 is dedicated to
Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani (ASU) data and terminology.
❖ It encompasses more than 500 codes. Infectious diseases like malaria and lifestyle diseases like insomnia are
also included.
❖ Originating in the 19th century, the latest version of ICD, ICD-11, was adopted by the 72nd World Health
Assembly in 2019 and came into effect on 1st January 2022.
Antimicrobial Resistance
❖ Antimicrobial Resistance means the resistance acquired by any microorganism against antimicrobial drugs that
are used to treat infections.
3
Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)

❖ Source:
➢ Antimicrobial Resistance
Collaborators, “Global burden of
bacterial antimicrobial resistance
in 2019: a systematic analysis”, The
Lancet.
➢ Published: January 19, 2022.
➢ The Hindu Article: 14th Feb 2022.
➢ A study by Lancet, Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is now the leading cause of death across the world.
❖ Findings:
➢ An estimated 4·95 million deaths
associated with bacterial AMR in
2019 includes 1·27 million deaths
attributable to bacterial AMR.
➢ Highest in western sub-Saharan
Africa.
➢ Lowest in Australasia.
➢ Lower respiratory infections accounted for more than 1·5 million deaths associated with resistance in
2019.
❖ Leading pathogens with resistance:
➢ Escherichia coli
➢ Staphylococcus aureus
➢ Klebsiella Pneumonia
➢ Streptococcus pneumoniae
Recent News:
❖ WHO in partnership with the Global AMR RandD Hub, has released Incentivising the Development of
New Antibacterial Treatment 2023 Report.
❖ The report is for the G7 countries for monitoring and handling of AMR.
About Global AMR R and D Hub
❖ It is a partnership of countries, non-governmental donor organizations, and intergovernmental organizations.
❖ Launched in 2018, to address challenges and improve coordination and collaboration in global AMR
Rand D using a one-health approach.
❖ One Health Approach: One Health is an integrated, unifying approach that aims to sustainably balance and
optimize the health of people, animals, and ecosystems.
4
The reasons behind the factors contributing to antibiotic resistance are:

❖ Excessive and unnecessary use of antibiotic fixed-dose combinations: Antibiotic fixed-dose combinations
are combinations of two or more antibiotics that are sold in a single tablet or capsule. They are often used to
treat a wide range of infections, but this can lead to the overuse of antibiotics and contribute to antibiotic
resistance.
❖ Patients leaving treatment mid-way: When patients leave antibiotic treatment mid-way, the bacteria that are
causing the infection may not be completely killed. This can allow the bacteria to become resistant to the
antibiotic that is being used.
❖ Antibiotic consumption in food animals: Antibiotics are widely used in food animals to prevent and treat
diseases, and to promote growth. This can lead to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in food
animals, which can then be transmitted to humans through food.
❖ Mutated gene transfer from resistant to non-resistant micro-organism: Bacteria can share antibiotic
resistance genes through a process called horizontal gene transfer. This can allow antibiotic resistance to spread
to new strains of bacteria.
❖ Wastewater effluents from antibiotic manufacturing units – Water pollution: Wastewater from antibiotic
manufacturing units can contain high levels of antibiotics. This wastewater can pollute the environment and
contribute to the spread of antibiotic resistance.
❖ Easy purchase of drug medicines from the market without prescription: Antibiotics are often available
over the counter in many countries. This can lead to the misuse and overuse of antibiotics, which can contribute
to antibiotic resistance.
The impact of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) :
❖ High cost of treatment: When antibiotics are no longer effective, patients may need to be treated with more
expensive and toxic drugs. This can lead to a financial burden for patients and their families.
❖ Difficulty in the treatment of infections: AMR can make it difficult to treat infections, even common ones.
This can lead to longer hospital stays, higher medical costs, and increased mortality. For example, multidrug-
resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB) are very difficult to
treat and can be fatal.
❖ Severe illness and even death: AMR can lead to more severe infections and even death. For example, AMR
infections can lead to sepsis, a life-threatening condition.
❖ Reduced effectiveness of veterinary medicines: AMR can also impact animal health. When animals become
resistant to antibiotics, it can be more difficult to treat them for infections. This can lead to reduced productivity
and increased mortality in livestock.
Global Initiatives:
❖ One Health Global Leaders Group on Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR): It is initiated by the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), and the World Health
Organization (WHO). It Includes members from Member States, civil society, and the private sector.
❖ Global Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance System (GLASS) by WHO in 2015, was the first global
collaborative effort to standardize AMR surveillance.
5
❖ SECURE: It is the first dedicated mechanism to expand access in low and low-middle-income
countries(LMICs) to essential antibiotics which goes beyond access to a single product.
❖ AWaRe: It is an online tool aimed at guiding policy-makers and health workers to use antibiotics safely and
more effectively. Launched by WHO.
AMR in India:
❖ The Ministry of Health & Family Welfare (MoHFW) identified AMR as one of the top 10 priorities
❖ National Action Plan on AMR (NAP-AMR) (2017-21) by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
(MoHFW) and the National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) as the key surveillance body.
❖ India’s Red Line campaign demands that prescription-only antibiotics
❖ Antibiotic stewardship program: ICMR has initiated this pilot project across India to control the misuse and
overuse of antibiotics in hospital wards and ICUs.
❖ Schedule H-1 has been incorporated in Drug and Cosmetic rules to regulate the sale of antimicrobials in the
country.
❖ Mission Indradhanush to ensure full immunization with all available vaccines for children up to two years
of age
Way Forward:
❖ Need for a holistic approach: AMR is a complex problem that requires a comprehensive solution. This
includes investing in research and development of new antibiotics, improving infection prevention and control,
and promoting the wise use of antibiotics.
❖ Need of regulatory mechanism: Stringent regulations are needed to limit the use of antimicrobials in
livestock and food animals. This includes banning the use of antibiotics as growth promoters and using
antibiotics only to treat sick animals under veterinary supervision.
❖ Need for a One Health Approach in addressing AMR: AMR is a global problem that affects human, animal,
and environmental health. It is important to take a One Health approach to address AMR, which means
recognizing that human, animal, and environmental health are interconnected.
❖ Spreading awareness: It is important to raise awareness of AMR among the public, healthcare professionals,
and veterinarians. This can help to reduce the misuse and overuse of antibiotics.
❖ Antibiotics given to animals should be under veterinary supervision and vaccinated animals to reduce the need
for antibiotics
Biofilms:
❖ Biofilms are an aggregation of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, protozoa, etc, that grow on a surface
and are enclosed in a self-produced extracellular matrix.
❖ The biofilm matrix is composed of extracellular polymeric substances(EPS) which are secreted by the
microorganisms and provide structural integrity and protection.
❖ Biofilms can form on both biotic and abiotic surfaces.
❖ Common surfaces include teeth, bones, implants, ship hulls, pipelines, rocks etc,
6
Functions of Biofilms( Positive):

❖ Protection: the EPS matrix provides a physical barrier against environmental threats like desiccation, UV
exposure, PH changes, salinity, metal toxicity, and predations.
❖ Nutrient Access: the biofilm structure with water channels allows efficient circulation of nutrients to calls
deep within the matrix.
❖ Cellular Communication: the proximity of the cells within biofilms allows for ease of cellular
communication through signal molecules.
❖ Cells transform into antimicrobial resistance.
❖ The EPS matrix limits antibiotic penetration.
❖ Gene Transfer: High cell density and EPS matrix aids horizontal gene transfer.
Trans fat:
❖ Trans fats, or trans fatty acids (TFA) are unsaturated fatty acids that come from either industrial or natural
sources.
❖ Trans fat clogs arteries, increasing the risk of attacks and death.
❖ Industrially produced trans fat can be found in margarine, vegetable shortening, Vanaspati ghee, fried foods,
and baked goods such as crackers, biscuits, and pies. Baked and fried street and restaurant foods often contain
industrially produced trans fat.
❖ Trans fat can also be found naturally in meat and dairy foods from ruminant animals (e.g. cows, sheep, goats).
Both industrially produced and naturally occurring trans fats are equally harmful.
❖ Saturated trans fat is bad for the human body.
CAR T-Cell Therapy:
❖ CAR T cell therapy is a type of treatment in which a patient's T cells (a type of immune system cell) are
changed in the laboratory so they will attack cancer cells.
❖ T cells are taken from a patient’s blood. Then the gene for a special receptor that binds to a certain protein in
the patient’s cancer cells is added to the T cells in the laboratory. The special receptor is called a chimeric
antigen receptor (CAR). Large numbers of CAR T cells are grown in the laboratory and given to the patient
by infusion.
❖ CAR T-cell therapy is used to treat certain blood cancers, and it is being studied in the treatment of other
types of cancer. Also called chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy.
News:
❖ Recently, the Central Drug Standard Control Organisation(CDSCO) has approved the indigenous NexCar19,
a CAR T-cell therapy.
❖ It is developed indigenously by ImmunoACT(a company incubated at IIT Bombay)
NexCAR19 (Actalycabtagene Autoleucel):
❖ NexCAR19 is designated to target cancer cells that carry the CD19 proteins.
❖ CD19 is a biomarker(or flag) for B lymphocytes ( or B cells)
❖ It targets Leukaemia and B-cell lymphomas(blood cells)
❖ It uses genetically modified patient's T cells to target cancer while chemotherapy uses drugs.
7
Mo Mo Pregnancy:
❖ A Mo Mo pregnancy is one where there is one placenta and one amniotic sac for both babies
❖ Mo Mo is a shortened form of monochorionic monoamniotic.
❖ Monomatic twins are identical or semi-identical twins that share the same amniotic sac within their mother's
uterus.
❖ Monoamniotic twins are always monochorionic and are usually termed monoamniotic monochronic twins.
❖ They share a placenta but have two separate umbilical cords.
Amniocentesis:
❖ Amniocentesis is done to remove amniotic fluid and cells from the uterus for testing or treatment. Amniotic
fluid surrounds and protects a baby during pregnancy.
❖ Amniocentesis can provide useful information about a baby's health. But it's important to know the risks of
amniocentesis
❖ It is banned in India.
Sickle Cell Anemia:
❖ Sickle cell Anemia is a group of inherited red blood cell disorders that affect hemoglobin, the protein that
carries oxygen through the body.
❖ In sickle cell anemia, red blood cells become crescent or “sickle” shaped due to a genetic mutation.
❖ These sickled red blood cells do not bend or move easily and can block blood flow to the rest of the body.
News:
❖ The U.S. has approved the first CRISPR-based GEne therapies to treat patents with sickle cell disease(SCD).
❖ Cagey and Lyfgenia is the first cell-based gene therapies is approved for the treatment of SCD in patients of
age and older.
❖ India has also launched the National Sickle Cell Anemia Elimination Mission to tackle SCD.
About the National Sickle Cell Anemia Elimination Mission to Tackle SCD:
❖ Objective: Provide affordable and accessible care and eliminate it before 2047.
❖ Strategy: Consists of three pillar health strategy namely Health Promotion, Prevention, Holistic Management,
and Continuum of Care.
❖ Beneficiaries: 0 to 18 years old age and shall incrementally include the entire population up to 40 years as a
part of the National Health Mission (NHM).

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Lecture – 27
Alternative Energy
2
Alternative Energy
Biofuel:
❖ Biofuel is a type of renewable energy that is made from organic matter, such as plants, animals, and
waste. Biofuels are made up of carbon and its compounds. Biofuels can be used to generate electricity, power
vehicles, and to heat homes and to do businesses.
❖ It is hydrocarbon fuel that is produced from an organic matter.
The Main types of Biofuels are Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous:
❖ Solid biofuels include wood, dried plant material, and manure. These
biofuels can be burned directly to produce heat or electricity.
❖ Liquid biofuels include bioethanol and biodiesel. Bioethanol is a type of
alcohol that can be made from sugar or starch crops, such as corn,
sugarcane, or wheat. Biodiesel is a type of diesel fuel that can be made
from vegetable oils or animal fats.
❖ Gaseous biofuels include biogas and biomethane. Biogas is a mixture of
methane, carbon dioxide, and other gasses that is produced by the
anaerobic digestion of organic matter. Biomethane is a purified form of
biogas that is almost pure methane.
The Biofuel Development Process:
❖ The process begins with the cultivation of biomass, which can be any type of plant or animal material that can
be used to produce energy. Once the biomass is harvested, it is processed into a feedstock, which is a material
that can be converted into biofuel. The feedstock can be processed in a variety of ways, depending on the
type of biofuel being
produced.
❖ The biofuel development
process for bioethanol and
butanol production from
lignocellulosic biomass.
Lignocellulosic biomass is a
type of plant material that is
made up of three main
components: lignin, cellulose,
and hemicellulose.
❖ The biofuel development
process begins with the
collection and processing of lignocellulosic biomass. The biomass is then pretreated to break down the lignin
and cellulose into smaller molecules that can be converted into sugars.
❖ The sugars are then fermented by yeast to produce ethanol and butanol. The ethanol and butanol are then
distilled to separate them from the other components of the fermentation both.
❖ The distilled ethanol and butanol can then be used as biofuels or as feedstocks for the production of
other chemicals and products.
3
Generations Of Biofuels:
Biofuels can be Classified into three Generations,
based on the type of Feedstock Used to Produce Them:
❖ First-Generation Biofuels: First-generation
biofuels are produced from food crops, such as
corn, sugarcane, and soybeans. These biofuels are
relatively easy to produce using existing technology,
but they have been criticized for competing with food
production and for their negative environmental
impacts.
❖ Second-Generation Biofuels: Second-generation
biofuels are produced from non-food biomass, such
as agricultural waste, woody crops, jatropha
seeds. Second-generation biofuels are more
sustainable than first-generation biofuels, but they are also more expensive to produce and the technology is
still under development.
❖ Third-generation biofuels: Third-generation biofuels are produced from algae . Third-generation biofuels
have the potential to be even more sustainable than second-generation biofuels, but they are still in the early
stages of development.
❖ Fourth-generation biofuels: Fourth-
generation biofuels are produced from
advanced feedstocks, such as genetically
modified crops.
Second-Generation biofuels:
❖ Biofuel production from jatropha seeds.
❖ Jatropha is a drought-tolerant plant that can
grow in marginal lands, making it a
promising source of biofuel.
❖ The process begins with the collection of
jatropha seeds. The seeds are then dried and
crushed to extract the oil. The oil is then
processed using a chemical process called
transesterification to produce biodiesel.
❖ Transesterification is a reaction between a
triglyceride (such as jatropha oil) and an
alcohol (such as methanol) to produce fatty
acid esters (biodiesel) and glycerol. The
reaction is catalyzed by a base, such as
sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide.
❖ The biodiesel is then separated from the
glycerol and purified. The biodiesel can then
be used in vehicles or blended with
petroleum-based diesel fuel.
4
The Jatropha Seed Issues:

❖ The first challenge is that jatropha plants are relatively slow-growing. It
takes about 3-5 years for a jatropha plant to reach maturity and begin
producing seeds. This means that it is difficult to scale up jatropha
production quickly.
❖ Another challenge is that jatropha plants are susceptible to pests and
diseases. This can reduce yields and make jatropha cultivation more
difficult.
❖ Jatropha plants also have a high oil content, but the oil is difficult to
extract. This makes jatropha biofuel production more expensive than the
production of other types of biofuels.
❖ Jatropha plants require a significant amount of water to grow. This can be
a problem in areas with limited water resources.
❖ Jatropha plants require a lot of land to grow. This can lead to conflicts with other land uses, such as food
production.
❖ Jatropha cultivation has been linked to a number of social and environmental problems, such as deforestation
and land grabbing.
❖ It is native to South America and Africa.
❖ Finally, the image mentions that jatropha plants can be toxic to livestock. This is a concern if jatropha plants
are grown on land that is also used for grazing.
Third-generation biofuels:
The process of biofuel production from algae:
❖ The process of biofuel production from algae
begins with the cultivation of the algae. The algae
can be grown in open ponds, photobioreactors, or
other types of systems. Once the algae have been
harvested, they are processed to extract the oil. The
oil can be processed using a chemical process
called transesterification to produce biodiesel.
❖ Transesterification is a reaction between a
triglyceride (such as algal oil) and an alcohol (such
as methanol) to produce fatty acid esters (biodiesel)
and glycerol. The reaction is catalyzed by a base,
such as sodium hydroxide or potassium
hydroxide.
❖ The biodiesel is then separated from the glycerol
and purified. The biodiesel can then be used in
vehicles or blended with petroleum-based diesel
fuel.
Issues:
❖ They are still in the early stages of development.
❖ Issues with large scale productions.
5
Fourth-Generation Biofuels:
❖ Fourth-generation biofuels are
produced using genetically
modified (GM) organisms,
such as algae, cyanobacteria,
and yeast. These organisms
are engineered to produce
more biomass or to produce
biomass that is easier to
convert into biofuel.
❖ The fourth-generation biofuel
production process typically
begins with the cultivation of
the GM organisms in a
bioreactor. The bioreactor is a
controlled environment that provides the organisms with the nutrients and sunlight they need to grow. Once
the organisms have grown, they are harvested and processed to extract the biofuel.
❖ The biofuel can be extracted using a variety of methods, including fermentation, transesterification, and
pyrolysis. Fermentation is a process that uses yeast to convert sugars into ethanol. Transesterification is a
process that uses an alcohol and a catalyst to convert triglycerides into biodiesel. Pyrolysis is a process that
uses heat to convert biomass into biochar and other products.
❖ The extracted biofuel can then be purified and used in vehicles or blended with petroleum -based fuels.
Bioethanol as Biofuels:
❖ It is derived from corn and sugarcane using the
fermentation process.
❖ A liter of ethanol contains approximately two
thirds of the energy provided by a liter of
petrol.
❖ When it is mixed with petrol, it improves
combustion performance and lowers the
emissions of carbon monoxide and sulfur
oxide.
Biodiesel as Biofuels:
❖ It is derived from vegetable oils like soybean oil
or palm oil, vegetable waste oils, and animal
fats by a biochemical process called "Trans-
esterification".
❖ It produces very less or no amount of harmful
gasses as compared to diesel.
❖ It can be used as an alternative to conventional
diesel fuel.
❖ There is no need to make much changes in engines for use of Biodiesels.
6
Biogas:
❖ It is produced by anaerobic decomposition of
organic matter like sewage from animals and
humans.
❖ Major proportions of biogas are methane and
carbon dioxide, though it also has small
proportions of hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen,
carbon monoxide and siloxanes.
❖ It is commonly used for heating, electricity and
for automobiles.
The disadvantages of biogas:
❖ Biogas is difficult to transport for long distances
because it is a mixture of gasses.
❖ It is difficult to fill cylinders with biogas because it is a low-pressure gas.
❖ Biogas is a mixture of gasses that is produced through the anaerobic digestion of organic matter. Organic
matter is any material that contains carbon, such as food scraps, manure, and agricultural waste.
Biohydrogen
❖ Biohydrogen, like biogas, can be produced
using a number of processes such as
(pyrolysis, gasification) or biological
fermentation.
❖ It can be the perfect alternative for fossil fuel.
❖ Biohydrogen is a type of hydrogen gas that is
produced from biomass sources, such as
agricultural waste, forestry waste, and
municipal solid waste.
❖ The two main types of biohydrogen
production processes are thermochemical
processes and biological processes.
➢ Thermochemical processes use heat to
convert biomass into biohydrogen. The
two most common thermochemical
processes for biohydrogen production are pyrolysis and gasification.
➢ Pyrolysis is a process that heats biomass in the absence of oxygen. This process produces a mixture of
gasses, including hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and methane. The hydrogen can then be separated from
the other gasses and purified.
➢ Gasification is a process that heats biomass in the presence of a limited amount of oxygen. This process
also produces a mixture of gasses, including hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide. The
hydrogen can then be separated from the other gasses and purified.
➢ Biological processes use microorganisms to convert biomass into biohydrogen. The most common
biological process for biohydrogen production is fermentation.
7
➢ Fermentation is a process that uses microorganisms to break down organic matter into simpler molecules.
This process produces a variety of gasses, including hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and methane. The
hydrogen can then be separated from the other gasses and purified.
Advantages Of Biofuels:
❖ Availability: Biofuels can be produced from a variety of raw materials, which are widely available in many
parts of the world. This makes biofuels a more sustainable option than fossil fuels, which are a limited
resource.
❖ Source material: Biofuels can be produced from a variety of source materials, including plants, algae, and
waste products. This gives us more flexibility in how we produce biofuels and allows us to reduce our reliance
on food crops.
❖ Environmental pollution: Biofuels produce less pollution than fossil fuels when burned. This helps to
improve air quality and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
❖ Energy security: Biofuels can help to improve energy security by reducing our reliance on imported oil.
This is important for both economic and environmental reasons.
❖ Economic stimulation: The biofuel industry can create jobs and boost the economy. This is especially
beneficial in rural areas, where farmers can grow biofuel crops as an additional source of income.
Disadvantages Of Biofuels:
❖ Energy efficiency: Biofuels are not as energy-efficient as fossil fuels. This means that it takes more biofuel to
produce the same amount of energy as fossil fuels.
❖ Cost: Biofuels are typically more expensive to produce than fossil fuels. This is due to the high costs of land,
water, and energy required to produce biofuels.
❖ Food shortage: Biofuels can compete with food crops for land and resources. This can lead to food
shortages and higher food prices.
❖ Water use: Biofuel production can consume a lot of water. This can be a problem in areas where water is
scarce.
8
Microbial Fuel Cells:

❖ A microbial fuel cell (MFC) is a device that converts chemical energy to electrical energy by the action of
microorganisms.
❖ It is a bio-electrochemical system that uses bacteria as the catalyst to oxidize organic and inorganic matter, and
consequently, generate electric current out of it.
Battery Cell:
❖ A battery cell, often referred to simply as a cell, serves as the foundational unit of a battery. Encased in
metal, it functions as an electrochemical device, storing and discharging electrical energy via chemical
reactions that transform chemical energy into electrical power.
Note:
❖ The Anode, functioning as the negative or reducing electrode, releases electrons into the external circuit
and undergoes oxidation during an electrochemical reaction. Conversely, the Cathode, acting as the
positive or oxidizing electrode, receives electrons from the external circuit and undergoes reduction during
the electrochemical reaction.
The microbial fuel cell (MFC) process:
❖ MFCs are devices that can
generate electricity from the
metabolism of organic
matter by microorganisms.
❖ The MFC process begins with
the oxidation of organic
matter by microorganisms in
the anode chamber. This
oxidation process releases
electrons, which are
transferred to an electrode
in the anode chamber. The
electrons then flow through an
external circuit to the cathode
chamber, where they are used to reduce oxygen. The reduction of oxygen produces water and hydroxide
ions, which are released into the cathode chamber.
❖ The protons from the oxidation of organic matter in the anode chamber are also transferred to the cathode
chamber through a proton exchange membrane. The protons and hydroxide ions in the cathode chamber
combine to form water.
❖ The overall reaction in an MFC is the oxidation of organic matter and the reduction of oxygen to produce water
and electricity.
   
1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Lecture - 28
Nuclear Technology
2
Nuclear Technology
Nuclear Technology:
❖ Nuclear technology encompasses the manipulation of atomic nuclei through nuclear reactions.
❖ Prominent applications of nuclear technology include nuclear reactors for power generation, medical
procedures in nuclear medicine, and the development of nuclear weaponry.
Isotopes:
❖ Isotopes are forms of an element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons, affecting
their mass and stability.
❖ They exhibit similar chemical properties but vary in physical characteristics.
❖ Some isotopes are stable, while others are unstable and emit radiation.
Note:
❖ Fissile Material: Fissile materials are substances capable of sustaining nuclear fission reactions, crucial
components in the construction of nuclear weapons and other explosive nuclear devices. Among the most
commonly utilized materials in nuclear weaponry are highly enriched uranium, particularly the U-235
isotope.
❖ Fertile Material: A substance that isn't inherently fissile (able to undergo fission with thermal neutrons),
yet can be converted into a fissile material through irradiation within a reactor, with uranium-238 being one
of the primary examples.
Nuclear Fission:
❖ The process in nuclear physics in which the nucleus of an atom splits into two daughter nuclei.
❖ When the Uranium -235 atom is bombarded with a neutron, it splits into two lighter nuclei Barium, and
Krypton.
❖ Upon neutron bombardment, the unstable uranium-235 nucleus fragments into smaller nuclei, barium-144
and krypton-89, releasing a surge of energy and additional neutrons. These liberated neutrons can trigger a
chain reaction, perpetuating the fission cycle and generating a continuous stream of energy. This harnessed
energy forms the basis of nuclear power generation.
3
❖ The image depicts the working mechanism of a nuclear reactor, a complex system that harnesses the energy
released during nuclear fission to generate electricity. The process begins in the fission chamber, where
fuel rods containing fissile material, typically uranium-235, undergo controlled nuclear fission. This
fission releases a tremendous amount of heat, along with neutrons that can initiate further fission reactions,
creating a self-sustaining chain reaction.
❖ To control the rate of fission and prevent a runaway reaction, control rods made of neutron-absorbing
materials like cadmium or boron are inserted into the reactor core. These rods can be adjusted to either
slow down or accelerate the fission process, ensuring a controlled and stable energy output.
❖ The heat generated by fission is transferred to a coolant, usually water, which circulates through the reactor
core and absorbs the thermal energy. This heated coolant then flows through a heat exchanger, where it
transfers its heat to a secondary water loop, turning the water into steam.
❖ The high-pressure steam is directed towards a turbine, causing it to rotate. This rotational energy is then
converted into electricity by an electric generator coupled to the turbine. The spent steam is then condensed
back into water and recirculated through the system.
❖ The entire process is carefully monitored and controlled to ensure safety and efficiency. Shielding around the
reactor core prevents harmful radiation from escaping, and multiple safety systems are in place to shut down
the reactor in case of any malfunction or emergency.
Note:
❖ In nature, Uranium-235 comprises approximately 0.7% of the total uranium, whereas Uranium-238
makes up about 99%.
4
India's Three-stage Nuclear Power Program:

❖ India's three-stage nuclear power program, is a strategic plan to utilize the country's vast thorium reserves and
achieve long-term energy independence. The program was envisioned by Homi Bhabha, a renowned Indian
physicist, and is designed to progressively transition from natural uranium-based reactors to thorium-based
reactors.
❖ Stage 1: Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs):
➢ The first stage utilizes natural uranium as fuel in Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs). These
reactors are designed to produce plutonium from the uranium, which serves as a fuel for the
subsequent stages. In stage 1, we can produce around 10 GW of energy.
❖ Stage 2: Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs):
➢ The second stage involves the deployment of Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs), which utilize plutonium
produced in Stage 1 as fuel. FBRs are more efficient in fuel utilization and can also breed more
plutonium than they consume. In stage 2, we can produce around 300 GW of energy.
❖ Stage 3: Advanced Heavy Water Reactors (AHWRs):
➢ The third stage introduces Advanced Heavy Water Reactors (AHWRs), which are designed to utilize
thorium as fuel. Thorium is abundantly available in India, and its use in AHWRs can significantly
enhance the country's energy security. In stage 3, we can produce around 500 GW of energy.
❖ The three-stage program is a long-term strategy, with each stage building upon the advancements of the
previous one. The ultimate goal is to achieve a self-sustaining nuclear fuel cycle based on thorium, ensuring
India's long-term energy security while minimizing dependence on imported uranium.
Note:
❖ Core Loading: It is a process in an indigenous prototype fast breeder reactor at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu.
➢ Definition: It is the placing of nuclear assemblies inside the core of the nuclear reactor.
❖ Criticality: It is an initiation of a self-sustaining nuclear fission reaction.
❖ Thorium is chosen for the third stage primarily due to its substantial reserves, accounting for approximately
25% in India, compared to the relatively lower reserves of uranium, which range around 2-3%.
❖ As of now, our nation's nuclear power capacity stands at 7,480 megawatts (MW). However, our goal is to
reach 22,480 MW by the year 2031-32.
❖ National Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL): There are 24 nuclear reactors operational by
NPCIL.
Nuclear Fusion:
About Nuclear Fusion
❖ Nuclear Fusion is a process by which two light atomic nuclei (for example tritium and deuterium) combine
to form a single heavier (Helium) one while releasing massive amounts of energy.
5
❖ Fusion reactions take place in a state of matter called plasma, a hot, charged gas made of positive ions and
free-moving electrons with unique properties distinct from solids, liquids, or gasses.
❖ The image illustrates the concept of nuclear fusion, a process that releases enormous amounts of energy by
combining lighter atomic nuclei into heavier ones. This process powers the sun and other stars, and
scientists are working to harness it as a potential source of clean and abundant energy on Earth.
❖ The image depicts two isotopes of hydrogen, deuterium and tritium, fusing together to form a helium nucleus,
releasing a high-energy neutron in the process. This reaction is represented by the equation:
Deuterium + Tritium → Helium + Neutron + Energy
❖ The energy released in this fusion reaction is significantly higher than that produced by nuclear fission, making
it a promising alternative for future energy production. However, achieving controlled nuclear fusion on Earth
is a significant technological challenge due to the extremely high temperatures and pressures required to
initiate and sustain the fusion process.
Conditions required to achieve fusion:
❖ Temperature of more than 100 million degrees Celsius.
❖ Maintaining a high enough density for a long enough time so that the rate of fusion reactions will be large
enough to generate the desired power.
Challenges to Fusion:
❖ Strong repulsive electrostatic forces between the positively charged nuclei prevent them from getting close
enough together to collide and for fusion to occur.
When does it happen:
❖ If the attractive nuclear force (which binds protons and neutrons together in atomic nuclei) between the nuclei
outweighs the repulsive (electrostatic) force, then a fusion reaction can occur.
➢ Such conditions can occur when the temperature increases, causing the ions to move faster and
eventually reach speeds high enough to bring the ions close enough together.
Advantages of Nuclear fusion reaction:
❖ Abundant energy: Nuclear fusion reactions release an enormous amount of energy from a small amount of
fuel, providing a virtually limitless source of power.
❖ Fusion fuels are widely available, and nearly inexhaustible: The primary fuels for fusion, isotopes of
hydrogen, are abundant in nature, particularly in water, ensuring a long-term supply.
❖ Environmentally friendly/No CO2: Fusion does not produce carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gasses,
making it a clean energy source that does not contribute to climate change.
❖ No long-lived radioactive waste: Fusion produces significantly less radioactive waste compared to nuclear
fission, and the waste it does produce has a much shorter half-life, reducing long-term storage concerns.
❖ Cost-effective fuel or Cheaper raw material: The raw materials for fusion are relatively inexpensive and
readily available, making it a potentially cost-effective energy source.
❖ No Risk of Meltdown: Fusion reactions are inherently safe and cannot undergo uncontrolled chain reactions
like fission, eliminating the risk of meltdowns.
6
Similar Initiatives Across The World:

❖ International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) Assembly.
❖ China’s Artificial Sun: The Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) device replicates
nuclear fusion.
❖ SST-2 tokamak: India’s experimental fusion reactor at the Institute of Plasma Research in Gujarat.
❖ The Joint European Torus (JET): project for opening the way to future nuclear fusion grid energy.
ITER:
❖ International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) is an agreement of 7 (China, the European Union,
India, Japan, South Korea, Russia, and the United States.)members launched in 1985.
❖ ITER Agreement (2006), seven members will share the project construction, operation and decommissioning
cost.
❖ It is located in France.
❖ It aims to build the world's largest tokamak to prove the feasibility of fusion as a large-scale and carbon-
free source of energy.
Tokamak:
❖ The tokamak is an experimental machine designed to harness fusion energy.
❖ Inside a tokamak, the energy produced through the fusion of atoms is absorbed as heat in the walls of the
vessel.
7
❖ Like a conventional power plant, a fusion power plant uses this heat to produce steam, and then electricity by
way of turbines, and generators.
❖ Inside the Tokamak, we heat the fuel to produce a plasma(superheated gas) in the fourth state of matter.
❖ Once a stage is generated, the strong magnetic field traps the plasma.
❖ It aims to hold it stable for long enough for fusion reactors to occur within the plasma.
Applicable Principle:
❖ The project is based on fusion which is also an energy source for the Sun, and Stars.
❖ Every fusion reaction in the sun, in which two hydrogen atoms fuse into one helium atom, releases two
neutrinos.
Participation:
❖ International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) members include China, the European Union,
India, Japan, South Korea, Russia, and the United States.
❖ ITER Agreement (2006), seven members will share the project construction, operation, and decommissioning
cost.
❖ The European Union (EU) is responsible for the largest portion of construction costs (45.6 %), the remainder
is shared equally by China, Japan, South Korea, Russia, the USA including India (9.1% each).
Related News
❖ India has supplied four km of Cryolines for the ITER project in France.
❖ The Institute for Plasma Research (IPR), an aided institute of the Department of Atomic Energy, is India's
collaborating agency.
❖ Other than supplying cryolines, IPR has also supplied ITER with about six km of return lines for warm gasses,
manufactured in India.
Small Modular Reactors:
❖ China launched the world's first fourth-generation nuclear reactor.

❖ It used a Small Modular Reactor (SMR) design in it.
❖ Fourth-generation nuclear reactor uses gas (helium) for cooling, unlike conventional power plants that use
pressurized water.
8
❖ SMRs are advanced nuclear reactors with a power capacity of up to 300 MW(e) per unit.
Advantages of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs):
❖ Smaller footprint: SMRs can be sited in locations not suitable for larger nuclear power plants. ↑
❖ Affordable: Prefabricated units of SMRs can be manufactured and then shipped and installed on-site.
❖ Savings: SMRs offer savings in cost and construction time.
❖ Longer refueling interval: only need to refuel every three to seven years, as opposed to every one to two
years for traditional plants.
❖ Compact design: Efficient, small layout maximizing functionality within minimal space.

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Science & Tech
Lecture - 29
Intellectual Property
Right
2
Intellectual Property Right

Photovoltaic cell (PV):
❖ A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is an electronic device that
converts the energy of light directly into electricity through
the photovoltaic effect or photoelectric effect.
❖ Photolysis: The light energy is converted into electricity
by a process called photolysis.
❖ The PV cell is composed of semiconductor materials such
as silicon.
❖ The “semi” means that it can conduct electricity better than
an insulator but not as well as a good conductor like a
metal.
Process:
❖ Photovoltaic cells consist of two or more layers of
semiconductors with one layer containing positive charge
and the other negative charge lined adjacent to each other.
❖ Two types of semiconductors are produced from the
addition of impurities in the semiconductor one is N-
type(Negative) and the second one is P-type(positive).
❖ The p-type silicon is produced by adding atoms.
❖ Holes: the hole is a positively charged electron.which
means the absence of electrons.
❖ Sunlight, consisting of small packets of energy termed
photons then strikes the cell, which is either reflected,
transmitted, or absorbed.
❖ When the photons are absorbed by the negative layer of the
photovoltaic cell, the photon's energy gets transferred to an
electron in an atom of the cell.
❖ With the increase in energy, the electron escapes the atom's
outer shell.
❖ The freed electron naturally migrates to the positive layer
creating a potential difference between the positive and the
negative layer. When the two layers are connected to an external circuit, the electron flows through the circuit,
creating a current.
3
Lithium-Ion Battery:
News:
❖ Recently the Union Government constituted an expert panel to probe the recent series of battery explosions in
electric vehicles(EV).
❖ Lithium is found in Jammu and Kashmir.
❖ Issues: Lack of technological advantage for extraction of lithium.
Lithium:
❖ Lithium is the lightest solid metal. It is currently produced from hard rock or brine mines.
❖ Australia is the world's biggest supplier with production of lithium from hard rock mines while Argentina,
Chile, and China(Triangle) are producing it from salt lakes.
❖ Anode is negative in an electrochemical cell because it has a negative potential with respect to the solution
while anode is positive in an electrolytic cell because it is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery.
❖ A Lithium-ion battery is a rechargeable battery in which
lithium ions move from the negative electrode to positive
electrode during discharge and back when charging.
❖ Materials used as electrodes: Lithium cobalt oxide(cathode),
lithium manganese oxide( used in electric automobiles), and
lithium iron phosphate.
❖ Lion batteries use ether (a class of organic compounds) as an
electrolyte.
❖ Solid state batteries have excellent potential energy density.
❖ A solid state battery uses solid electrolyte not liquid.
Lithium in India:
4
❖ First traces of lithium ever to be discovered in the ancient igneous

rock of Karnataka's Mandya district.
❖ Currently India imports all its lithium needs with China and Hong
Kong biggest suppliers.
❖ India imports almost 70-80 % of its lithium from China.
Importance of Lithium:
❖ Increase in the use and production of electrical vehicles.
❖ Batteries of mobile phones.
Steps taken for Lithium-ion batteries in India:
❖ National Mission on Transformative Mobility: To encourage
domestic Lithium- Ion Cell manufacturing and EV components.
❖ ISRO and BHEL agreement: Aim of the agreement is to
develop low-cost lithium-ion batteries.
❖ India’s first lithium cell plant manufacturing facility will be launched in Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh.
❖ Lithium triangle nations: India is focusing on 'Lithium Triangle' nations Argentina, Bolivia and Chile for
joint.
Way forward:
❖ Lithium batteries will create waste. Our focus should be on the recycling of wastage.
❖ Focus should also be on renewable batteries rather than lithium batteries.
Comparison of Various Battery types:
5
Intellectual Property Right (IPR):

❖ IPR are the rights given to persons over the creations of their minds.
❖ These are exclusive rights over the use of his/her creation for a certain period of time.
❖ IP is protected in law by, for example, patents, copyright and trademarks, which enable people to earn
recognition or financial benefit from what they invent or create.
Importance of IPR:
❖ Recognition: IPR provides creators with recognition for their work, which can lead to increased opportunities
and professional advancement.
❖ Increase level of performance: The protection offered by IPR motivates individuals and organizations to
strive for higher levels of performance and innovation.
❖ Quality of Research: IPR encourages thorough and high-quality research by ensuring that researchers are
credited for their discoveries and inventions.
❖ Investment in Research: IPR attracts investment in research and development by providing a secure
environment for intellectual property and potential financial returns.
❖ Encourages creation: IPR promotes creativity and innovation by providing a framework for protecting and
benefiting from original ideas and creations.
Types Of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR):
Copyright:
❖ It is a legal term used to describe the rights that creators have over their literary
and artistic works.
❖ Works covered by copyright range from books, music, paintings,sculpture and
films, to computer programs,database, advertisement, maps and technical
drawings.
❖ It is valid for the lifetime of the crater and after death up to 50 years.
6
Patent:
❖ Exclusive Rights to Inventions: A patent grants the inventor exclusive rights to their invention, providing
control over its use and commercialization.
❖ Legal framework:The patent Act of 1970, amended in 2005, governs patent protection in India, ensuring
investors rights and promoting technological advancements.
❖ Duration of Patent Protection: Patents in India provide protection for twenty years from the date of filing
the patent application, ensuring a period of exclusivity for the inventor.
❖ Scope of Patentable Subjects: Patents encompass a broad range of inventions, including:
➢ Novel inventions that represent a significant advancement in technology
➢ Innovative improvements to existing inventions that enhance their functionality or efficiency
➢ Original processes or methods for creating products or achieving specific outcomes.
Patents (Amendment) Rules, 2021:
❖ Extension of Expedited Examination System:
➢ The fastest granted patent is the one which was granted in 41 days after filing of such request.
➢ This facility of Expedited Examination system was initially provided for patent applications filed by
Startups.
❖ Introduction of Patent Prosecution Highway (PPH): The PPH initiative facilitates accelerated patent
prosecution by enabling information sharing between participating patent offices, streamlining the process for
applicants.
❖ Reduced Patent Fees for Educational Institutions: To encourage innovation in academia, patent filing and
prosecution fees have been significantly reduced for educational institutions, promoting research and
development activities.
Trademark:
❖ It is a sign capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one enterprise from those of other enterprises.
❖ It dates back to ancient times when artisans used to put their signature or "mark" on their products.
Industrial Design:
❖ It constitutes the ornamental or aesthetic aspect of an article.
❖ A design may consist of three-dimensional features, such as the shape or surface of an article, or of two-
dimensional features, such as patterns, lines or color.
Geographical Indications (GI):
❖ GI and appellations of origin are signs used on goods that have a specific
geographical origin and possess qualities, a reputation or characteristics
that are essentially attributable to that place of origin.
❖ Most commonly, a geographical indication includes the name of the place
of origin of the goods.
❖ GI is given for 10 years.
7
❖ First GI tag was given to the Darjeeling tea.

Trade Secrets:
❖ These are IP rights on confidential information which may be sold or licensed.
❖ It is any practice or process of a company that is generally not known outside of the company.
❖ The unauthorized acquisition, use or disclosure of such secret information in a manner contrary to honest
commercial practices by others is regarded as an unfair practice and a violation of the trade secret protection.
Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act 2001:
❖ The act allows farmers to plant, grow, exchange & sell patent-protected crops, including seeds, & only bars
them from selling it as “branded seed”.
❖ News:
➢ India has revoked a patent for a potato variety grown exclusively for PepsiCo FC5 popular Lay's potato
chips.
➢ According to an order issued by the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights (PPVFR) Authority.
Other Treaties and Conventions:
India is also a member of the following important WIPO-administered International Treaties and Conventions
relating to IPRs:
❖ Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of the Deposit of Microorganisms for the Purposes of
Patent Procedure
❖ Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property
❖ Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization.
❖ Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works.
❖ Washington Treaty on Intellectual Property in respect of Integrated Circuits
❖ Nairobi Treaty on the Protection of the Olympic Symbol.
Issues in India’s IPR:
❖ Section 3(d) of the Indian Patent Act 1970 (as amended in 2005):
➢ Section 3 deals with what does not qualify as an invention under the Act.
➢ Section 3(d) in particular excludes the mere discovery of a new form of a known substance which does
not result in the enhancement of the known efficacy of that substance.
➢ Section 3(d) prevents what is known as “evergreening” of patents. (Evergreening, also known as patent
extension or secondary patenting, is a controversial practice employed by pharmaceutical companies to
extend the patent protection of their drugs beyond the initial 20-year term. This is typically achieved by
obtaining additional patents on minor modifications or new formulations of the original drug, effectively
creating a series of overlapping patents that extend the monopoly period.)
❖ Compulsory Licensing (CL):
➢ CL is the grant of permission by the government to entities to use, manufacture, import or sell a patented
invention without the patent-owner’s consent.
8
➢ CL is permitted under the WTO’s TRIPS (IPR) Agreement provided conditions such as ‘national
emergencies, other circumstances of extreme urgency and anti-competitive practices’ are fulfilled.
❖ Special 301 Report and Priority Watch List: The USTR's Special 301 Report identifies countries with
intellectual property rights (IPR) protection deficiencies. India has been placed on the Priority Watch List,
indicating serious IPR concerns requiring increased attention.
❖ Weak Enforcement of Copyright Act: Despite having a comprehensive Copyright Act, India faces
challenges in effectively enforcing it, leading to widespread copyright infringement and piracy, particularly in
digital content.
TRIPS (Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights )
❖ It is a legal agreement between all the member nations of the World Trade Organization (WTO).
❖ It establishes minimum standards for the regulation by national governments of different forms of intellectual
property (IP) as applied to nationals of other WTO member nations.
❖ It is the most comprehensive multilateral agreement on intellectual property to date.

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Lecture - 30
Defence Technology
2
Defence Technology
Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme
❖ IGMDP was the brainchild of renowned scientist Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam.
❖ It was intended to attain self-sufficiency in the field of missile technology.
❖ After considering the requirements of various types of missiles by the defense forces, the program recognized
the need to develop five missile systems.
❖ The IGMDP formally got the approval of the Indian government on 26 July 1983.
Missiles Developed Under IGMDP:
❖ Prithvi: A short-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile designed for tactical strikes against enemy targets.
❖ Range:
1. Prithvi 1: 150km, one stage
2. Prithvi 2: 250km, one stage
3. Prithvi 3: 350km, Two-stage
❖ Agni: An intermediate-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile capable of delivering nuclear warheads.
❖ Trishul: A short-range low-level surface-to-air missile designed to intercept incoming aircraft and missiles.
❖ Akash: A medium-range surface-to-air missile providing defense against medium-range air targets.
❖ Nag: A third-generation anti-tank missile designed to destroy enemy armored vehicles.
Agni Missile:
❖ India's Agni missile family, was developed under the Integrated
Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP).
❖ The successful training launch of the Agni-3 Intermediate
Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM) reaffirms India's defense
capabilities.
❖ The Agni-3 IRBM boasts an impressive range exceeding 3,000
kilometers and can carry a substantial payload of over 1.5
tonnes.
3
News:
❖ Recently, India successfully carried out the night trials of the Agni-
V nuclear−capable ballistic missile.
❖ This advanced surface-to-surface missile was developed under the
IGMDP.
❖ Agni 5 missile has multiple Independently Targeted Re-entry vehicle
(MIRV) technology.
❖ MIRV: The MIRV technology means a single missile can carry
multiple warheads. It ensures that a single missile can deploy
multiple warheads at different locations.
❖ Developed by DRDO under Diyastra Mission.
❖ The Agni-V missile employs fire-and-forget technology, enabling
it to self-navigate toward its target after launch.
❖ Top Speed of Agni-V: 24 Mach ( 1 Mach = 760 miles/hr)
Types of missiles based on speed:
❖ Subsonic missile: Missiles that travel slower than sound are called subsonic missiles.
❖ Supersonic: Missiles that travel faster than the speed of sound (Mach 1) but less than Mach 5 are called
"supersonic.
❖ Hypersonic missile: The term "hypersonic" means that the speed of missiles should be at least five times faster
than the speed of sound (over Mach 5).
Different Agni Missiles Ranges
Agni 1 Approx 750 km
Agni 2 2000 km
Agni 3 3000 to 3500 km
Agni 4 4000 km
Agni 5 5000 to 8000 km

4
BrahMos:
❖ BrahMos is a universal long-range supersonic cruise missile system that can be launched from land, sea, and
air against surface and sea−based targets.
❖ It is a collaboration between India (DRDO) and Russia (NPO Mashinostroyenia).
❖ Its name represents the Brahmaputra and Moskva rivers.
❖ It is a two-stage missile with a solid propellant booster engine as the first stage and a liquid ramjet as
the second stage.
❖ It operates at the fire-and-forget principle.
Why in the news?
❖ Recently, the Philippines signed a deal for the purchase of BrahMos
supersonic cruise missiles.
❖ Recently, the Ministry of Defense signed a Rs 1700 crore contract with
BrahMos Aerospace Pvt Ltd to buy additional dual−role capable BrahMos
missiles for the Indian Navy.
❖ In April 2022, an anti−ship version of the BrahMos supersonic cruise missile
was successfully test-fired jointly by the Indian Navy and the Andaman and
Nicobar Command.
❖ In January 2022, an extended-range sea-to-sea variant of the BrahMos supersonic cruise missile was test-fired
from stealth-guided missile destroyer INS Visakhapatnam.
5
Characteristics of Ballistic and Cruise Missile:
Other Similar Missile Systems:

❖ Chinese HD-1 supersonic missile is a comprehensive weapon system consisting of missile, launch, command
and control, target indication, and comprehensive support systems.
❖ Tomahawk (used by the U.S. and its allies) is a long−range, all−weather, subsonic cruise missile that
launches from ships and submarines and can strike targets precisely from 1,000 miles away.
❖ Israel’s Sea Breaker, the 5th generation long-range, autonomous, precision-guided missile system, is meant
to hit high−value maritime and land targets.
❖ P-800 Oniks/Yakhont is a Russian supersonic anti−ship cruise missile that has an effective guidance
system and is a fire−and−forget missile.
6
S-400:
❖ India is on track for sanctions waiver from the US for buying the
Russian S−400 missile system.
❖ S−400 is a mobile long-range surface-to-air missile (LR-SAM)
system.
❖ Equipped with four different missiles, it can engage enemy aircraft,
ballistic missiles, and Airborne Warning And Control System
(AWACS) planes at 400 km, 250km, medium−range 120km and short-
range 40km.
❖ It can engage 80 targets at one time with a response time of 9-10 seconds.
❖ In October 2018, India signed a 5 billion $ deal with Russia to buy five units of the S-400 air defense missile
systems.
❖ The Biden administration is not about to sanction India anytime soon for buying S−400 air defense missile
systems from Russia (March 2023)
Barak:
❖ This is a Ship-to-Air missile developed jointly by India and Israel.
❖ Its strike range is up to 150 Km.
❖ This air defense system has been deployed on Indian warships and can protect
them from airborne targets.
Anti-Tank Guided Missiles (ATGM):
❖ DRDO successfully test-fired indigenously developed laser-guided ATGMs from Main Battle Tank
(MBT) Arjun.
❖ ATGM employs a tandem high explosive anti-tank (HEAT) warhead to defeat Explosive reactive armor
(ERA) protected armored vehicles.
❖ Also, it has a multi-platform launch capability.
Other Anti-Tank Missiles:
❖ Nag: It is a third-generation fire-and-forget missile developed for mechanized formations to engage heavily
fortified enemy tanks.
❖ Helina: It has a maximum range of seven kilometers and has been designed and developed for integration on
the weaponized version of the ALH (Advanced Light Helicopter).
7
❖ The missile system has all-weather, day, and night capability and can defeat battle tanks with conventional
armor as well as explosive reactive armor.
❖ Man Portable Anti-Tank Guided Missile (MPATGM): DRDO

successfully flight-tested the final deliverable configuration of MPATGM.
❖ The indigenously developed anti-tank missile is a low-weight, fire & forget
missile and is launched from a man-portable launcher, integrated with thermal
sight.
❖ Missile has a miniaturized infrared imaging seeker and advanced avionics for
onboard control and guidance.
❖ SANT: It is a Smart Stand−off Anti−Tank Missile being developed for launch
from the Mi−35 Helicopter for the Air Force’s anti−tank operations.
❖ ATGM for MBT Arjun: ATGM for MBT Arjun is a laser-guided, precision-guided munition that is launched
from the 120mm rifled gun of the Arjun tank to engage and defeat Explosive Reactive Armour−protected
armored targets.
Vertical Launch Short Range Surface-to-Air Missile (VLSRSAM):

❖ DRDO successfully flight tested indigenously designed and
developed VLSRSAM.
❖ VL−SRSAM, a ship-borne weapon system, is to strike aerial threats
at close ranges (40 to 50 km at an altitude of around 15 km),
including sea−skimming targets.
❖ Its design is based on Astra missile, which is a Beyond Visual
Range Air to Air missile.
8
Astra Mk-1 Missile:

❖ The Astra project was officially launched in the early 2000s.
❖ Around 2017, the development phase of the Mk-1 version was complete.
Several successful tests have been conducted since 2017 from Sukhoi-30
MKIs.
❖ It is a Beyond Visual Range (BVR), Air-to-Air Missile (AAM)
❖ The range for Astra Mk−1 is around 110 km
❖ It is developed by DRDO
Pralay Missile:
❖ The maiden flight test of the Pralay missile was successfully conducted by DRDO.
❖ Indigenously developed surface-to-surface missile.
❖ It has a range of 150-500 kilometers with an accuracy of less than 10 meters.
❖ It has a guidance system that includes state-of-the-art navigation mechanisms and
integrated avionics
Project Kusha:
❖ India is set to deploy its own Long-Range Surface-to-Air Missiles (LR-SAM)
defence system Project Kusha by 2028-29.
❖ Project is designated under the purview of the Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO).
❖ Will be designed to detect and destroy a wide array of threats, including stealth fighters, aircraft, drones and
cruise missiles.
❖ Will comprise three layers of surface-to-air missiles, each designed to engage targets at different ranges
capable of hitting at 150, 250, and 350 km.
Other Air Defence Systems:
❖ Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD)- USA
❖ Iron Dome System: Israel
❖ David sling Air Defence system:
9
Types of Aircraft India has:

Light Combat Aircraft (LCA):
❖ Only attack helicopter in the world that can land and take off at an altitude of 5,000 meters with a considerable
load of weapons and fuel.
❖ uses radar-absorbing material to lower radar signature and has a significantly crash-proof structure and landing
gear.
❖ A pressurized cabin offers protection from Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical (NBC) contingencies.
❖ It is equipped with a countermeasure dispensing system that protects it from enemy radars or infrared seekers
of enemy missiles.
News:
❖ Recently, the Defence Acquisition Council (DAC) has sanctioned Rs 2.23 lakh crore for the procurement of
97 Tejas Light Combat Aircraft (Mark 1A) and 156 Prachand Light Combat Helicopters (LCH), underscoring
India's commitment to bolster its armed forces' combat capabilities. (Dec 2023)
❖ The procurement plan aims to source 98% of its total needs from domestic industries, providing a significant
boost to the Indian defense industry in its pursuit of 'Aatmanirbharta' (self-reliance).
Tejas LCA (Light Combat Aircraft):
❖ It is a single-engine multi-role combat aircraft.
❖ It is the replacement of the MIG-21.
❖ Developed by HAL, Bengaluru.
❖ In 2016, the first batch of Tejas was commissioned in the air force.
❖ After that Tejas Mark 1A was developed which is an advanced version of Tejas with forty improvements.
❖ Tejas Mark II will be developed till 2025-26.
❖ TEDBF (Twin Engine Deck Based Fighter) is going to be the replacement of MIG-29 on aircraft carriers of
India.
Tejas Mk 2:
❖ Tejas Mk-2 is a single-engine aircraft designed by India’s Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) and
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
❖ The Tejas jet has been touted as one of four leading light combat aircraft (LCA) in the world today.
Rafale:
❖ It is called a Medium Multirole Combat Aircraft (MMCA). • Speed is around
2222 km/hr.
❖ Payload: 9500 kg • Flight Range: 3700 km
❖ It has been developed by Dassault Aviation, France.
❖ It has Mid-Air Fueling capacity.
❖ According to the contract of 2016, India will get 36 Rafael in readyto-fly
position, and after that technology transfer will be done so that India can make
Rafael on its own.
10
Types of Submarine/ Ships of India:

Kalvari Class Submarine:
❖ It is based on the scorpene submarine of France (diesel-electric submarine, attack submarine).
❖ It is developed under Project 75. Under this project, India will develop 6 submarines.
❖ Out of 6, 5 submarines are already in service. They are:
❖ INS Kalvari (Dec 2017 commissioned)
❖ INS Khanderi (Sept 2019 commissioned)
❖ INS Karanj (March 2021 commissioned)
❖ INS Vela (Nov 2021 commissioned)
❖ INS Vagir (Jan 2023 commissioned)
INS Vagsheer:
❖ It is under sea trial. The other five have already been inducted into the service.
❖ After the completion of Project-75, a new project will be known as Project-75 Alpha to develop 6 more diesel
attack submarines.
Project 75:
❖ Project-75 (I) envisages the indigenous construction
of six modern conventional submarines with
contemporary equipment, weapons & sensors
including Fuel-Cell AIP (Air Independent
Propulsion Plant), advanced torpedoes, modern
missiles, and state-of-the-art countermeasure
systems.
11
Project Sanjay:
❖ The Indian army aims to transform into a “future-ready, lethal, agile and technology-driven armed force” for
which it has initiated Project Sanjay which shall develop an automated and dedicated intra-communication
system.
❖ Aim to build the Indian army’s Battlefield Surveillance System (BSS) and provide commanders and staffers
with a composite operational picture that shall help in fast decision-making.
Thermo-barbaric bomb:
Consists of a fuel container with two separate explosive charges:

❖ When it hits its target, the first explosive charge opens the container and widely scatters the fuel mixture as a
cloud.
❖ A second charge then detonates the cloud, resulting in a huge fireball, a massive blast wave, and a vacuum that
sucks up all surrounding oxygen.
Neerakshi:
❖ India launched its first of its kind Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) named ‘Neerakshi.
❖ Can be used for mine detection, mine disposal, underwater surveys etc.
❖ endurance of four hours and can go up to 300 meters deep.
❖ Developed in collaboration with Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers (GRSE) Ltd and MSME entity
Aerospace Engineering Private Ltd (AEPL).

1
DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Lecture - 31
Miscellaneous Topics
2
Miscellaneous Topics
Polymers:
Types of Bonds:
❖ Covalent Bonds: A covalent bond is made from sharing electrons between atoms.
❖ Ionic Bond: Ionic bond is a type of chemical bond that involves a transfer of electrons from one atom or
molecule to another atom or molecule.
❖ Hydrogen Bonding: Hydrogen bonds are weaker than covalent and ionic bonds.
3
Applications of Polymers:
❖ Polystyrene (PS):
➢ A versatile polymer widely used in the packaging sector.
➢ PS finds applications in bottles, toys, containers, trays, disposable tableware, television cabinets, and lids.
➢ It also serves as an excellent insulator.
❖ Polyvinyl chloride (PVC):
➢ PVC is commonly used for manufacturing sewage pipes.
➢ Also utilized in electric wires as an insulator.
❖ Polypropylene (PP):
➢ PP is used in textiles, packaging, stationery, plastics, aircraft, construction, rope, and toys due to its high
strength, chemical resistance, and lightweight properties.
❖ Urea-formaldehyde resins:
➢ A versatile synthetic resin with applications in adhesives, molds, laminated sheets, and unbreakable
containers. Its strength, durability, and resistance to heat make it suitable for these applications.
❖ Bakelite: Bakelite is used in electrical switches, food items, toys, jewelry, guns, and insulators due to its
durability and resistance to heat and chemicals.
Samudrayaan Mission:
❖ According to the Ministry of Earth Science, the Samudrayaan Mission is expected to be realized by 2026.
❖ The mission aims to send three personnel to a 6000-meter depth in a vehicle called ‘MATSYA 6000’ to
explore deep-sea resources like minerals.
❖ 'The MATSYA 6000' vehicle is being designed and developed by the National Institute of Ocean
Technology (NIOT), Chennai under the Ministry of Earth Science.
❖ It is India's first unique manned ocean mission and part of the Rs 6000-crore Deep Ocean Mission.
Particle Physics:
4
❖ The Standard Model comprises 17 fundamental particles. Only the electron and the photon were known a
century ago.
❖ These 17 fundamental particles are categorised into two groups: fermions and bosons.
Fermions:
❖ Fermions are subject to the Pauli Exclusion Principle which states that no particle can exist in the same state
in the same place at the same time. Thus Fermions are solitary.
❖ Only one Fermion may occupy any quantum state – the Fermionic solitariness of electrons is responsible for
the structure of molecular matter (in fact for all ‘structure’ in the universe).
❖ The degeneracy pressure that stabilizes white dwarf and neutron stars is a result of fermions resisting further
compression towards each other.
❖ Fermions are usually associated with matter while Bosons are the force carriers.
Bosons:
❖ All Bosons have either zero spin or an even integer spin.
❖ Bosons are gregarious(present everywhere).
❖ Bosons may occupy the same quantum state as other bosons, for example in the case of laser light which is
formed of coherent, overlapping photons.
❖ The more bosons there are in a state the more likely that another boson will join that state (Bose condensation).
❖ The name boson was coined by Paul Dirac to commemorate the contribution of the Indian physicist Satyendra
Nath Bose in developing, with Einstein, Bose-Einstein statistics—which theorizes the characteristics of
elementary particles.
5
Higgs Boson:
❖ Peter Higgs published in Physical Review Letters(PRL) that proposed that
spontaneous symmetry breaking in electroweak theory could explain the
origin of mass of elementary particles in general and of the W and Z bosons
in particular.
❖ This Higgs mechanism predicted the existence of a new particle, the Higgs
boson.
❖ It is the fundamental particle associated with the Higgs field, a field that
gives mass to other fundamental particles such as electrons and quarks.
❖ Without it, atoms wouldn’t stick together, and there would be no stars,
planets, or us.
6
❖ According to the Standard Model of particle physics, particles gain their mass by interacting with a field called
the Higgs field.
❖ The Higgs field is hypothesized to exist everywhere in space, even in a vacuum, and has a non-zero value.
❖ Particles like photons, which make up light, interact weakly with the Higgs field and have no mass.
❖ Particles like electrons and quarks, which make up protons and neutrons, interact strongly with the Higgs field
and acquire mass.
❖ Experiments conducted at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN in 2012 confirmed the existence of the
Higgs boson.
❖ The Higgs boson could lead to discoveries of new particles or reveal connections between forces we never
knew existed.
Large Hadron Collider (LHC) :
❖ World’s largest and most powerful particle accelerator.
❖ European Organisation for Nuclear Research (CERN) built LHC
between 1998 and 2008 in collaboration with over 10,000
scientists from hundreds of universities and laboratories.
❖ It lies in a tunnel 27 kilometers in circumference and as deep as
175 meters beneath the France-Switzerland border near Geneva.
❖ Inside LHC, two high-energy particle beams of protons are
directed at each other at nearly the speed of light and made to
collide in the 27- kilometer ring of superconducting magnets.
❖ They are guided around the accelerator ring by a strong magnetic
field maintained by superconducting electromagnets.
❖ These collisions generate new particles and using detectors
scientists study their properties and interactions, providing
insights into the fundamental laws of the universe.
❖ The ATLAS experiment (short for "A Toroidal LHC Apparatus") detects the tiny subatomic particles created
after beams of particles smash into each other at near-light speed at the LHC.
Nemastocyst:
❖ Nematocysts or cnidocysts represent the common feature of all cnidarians.
❖ Nematocysts or cnidocytes are large organelles produced from the Golgi apparatus as a secretory product
within a specialized cell, the nematocyte or cnidocyte.
❖ Nematocysts are predominantly used for prey capture and defense, but also for locomotion.
7
Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances:

❖ They are man-made chemicals used to make nonstick cookware, water-repellent clothing, stain-resistant
fabrics, cosmetics, firefighting forms, and many other products that resist grease, water, and oil.
❖ They can migrate to the soil, water, and air during their production and use.
❖ Most PFAs do not break down, they remain in the environment for long periods.
❖ Further, some of these PFAs can build up in people and animals if they are repeatedly exposed to the chemicals.
❖ they are called Forever chemicals because they tend to stick around in the atmosphere, rainwater, and soil for
long periods.
❖ PFAs are also listed in the Stockholm Convention.
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is an international environmental treaty, signed on

22 May 2001 in Stockholm and effective from 17 May 2004, that aims to eliminate or restrict the production and
use of persistent organic pollutants.
8
Saas Technology:
❖ The data can be accessed with an internet connection or web browser on any device at any location.
❖ The fundamental distinction between SaaS delivery and the On-premise model is that, in SaaS, customers have
to maintain hardware and not worry about upgrades and data security.
❖ Users’ pay for SaaS is more cost-effective instead of purchasing multiple software licenses for multiple
computers. This is a very cost-effective advantage.
❖ SaaS has many business applications. It includes file sharing, email, calendars, customer retention
management, and human resources.
Q. With reference to "Software as a Service (SaaS)", consider the following statements:

1. SaaS buyers can customise the user interface and can change data fields.
2. SaaS users can access their data through their mobile devices.
3. Outlook, Hotmail and Yahoo! Mail are forms of SaaS.
Which of the statements given above are correct? (2022)
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3
(d) 1, 2 and 3 Correct
9
Nobel Prize:
❖ 2022 Nobel Prize was awarded for the development of click chemistry and bioorthogonal chemistry.
❖ Awardees: The prize was given to Carolyn R. Bertozzi (USA), Morten Meldal (Denmark), and K. Barry
Sharpless (USA).
10
Click Chemistry:
❖ Click chemistry, pioneered by K. Barry Sharpless, introduced a new concept for chemical reactions,
emphasizing simplicity, efficiency, and selectivity.
❖ This approach has transformed the way chemists synthesize new compounds, accelerating the discovery of
novel drugs and materials.
❖ K. Barry Sharpless and Morten Meldal have laid the foundation of click chemistry.
❖ Instead of trying to make carbon atoms react with each other, click chemistry focuses on using smaller
molecules that already have a complete carbon frame.
❖ One such reaction is Copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) which is now widely used in
medicinal chemistry
Bioorthogonal Chemistry: Exploring the Living World with Precision
❖ Carolyn R. Bertozzi and Morten Meldal expanded the concept of click chemistry into the realm of biology,
introducing bioorthogonal chemistry.
❖ This approach allows for the selective labeling and modification of biomolecules within living systems without
interfering with their natural functions.
Significance of the Work:
❖ Expanding Pharmaceutical Possibilities: Click chemistry has facilitated the development of enzyme
inhibitors, receptor ligands, and various pharmaceuticals, including anticancer agents, antimicrobials,
herbicides, and photo stabilizers. It has revolutionized the synthesis of complex molecules with potential
therapeutic applications.
❖ Unveiling Biological Mysteries: Click and bioorthogonal chemistry have enabled the mapping of intricate
biological processes, such as DNA replication and protein synthesis. These techniques have provided
unprecedented insights into the inner workings of living systems.
❖ Probing Cellular Secrets: Bioorthogonal reactions have opened a window into the functioning of cells,
allowing scientists to track biological processes with precision. These tools have revolutionized the study of
cellular dynamics and signaling pathways.
❖ Enhancing Cancer Therapy: The development of click and bioorthogonal chemistry has led to improved
targeting of cancer pharmaceuticals, enhancing their effectiveness and reducing side effects. These techniques
have revolutionized cancer treatment strategies.
Nobel Prize: Physiology Or Medicine 2022:
❖ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2022 was awarded jointly
to Svante Paabo, a Swedish biologist, for his discoveries concerning
ancient DNA.
❖ His groundbreaking work has revolutionized our understanding of human
evolution and shed light on the genetic connections between modern
humans and extinct hominin relatives.
❖ He developed innovative techniques to isolate and amplify ancient DNA,
enabling scientists to study the genomes of extinct species like
Neanderthals and Denisovans.
❖ By comparing the genomes of modern humans with those of extinct
hominins, he has revealed the extent of interbreeding between these
groups and identified genetic traits that have been passed down from our ancient ancestors.
11
The image illustrates the concept of human migration

by depicting the spread of Neanderthal and Denisovan
DNA in modern human populations. The map shows
the world with varying percentages of Neanderthal and
Denisovan DNA represented by different colors.
❖ Human Migration Patterns: The historical
movement of human populations out of Africa
and across the globe. This migration led to
encounters and interbreeding between different
hominin groups, including Neanderthals and
Denisovans.
❖ Genetic Admixture: The varying percentages of
Neanderthal and Denisovan DNA in modern
humans reflect the extent of interbreeding that
occurred between these groups. This genetic
admixture is a testament to the complex history of
human migration and interaction.
12
❖ Global Distribution of Neanderthal and Denisovan DNA: The image shows that Neanderthal DNA is more
prevalent in Eurasian populations, while Denisovan DNA is more concentrated in Oceanian populations. This
distribution reflects the geographical locations where these hominin groups were primarily found.
Physiology Or Medicine 2023:
❖ Discovery earned Katalin Kariko and Drew Weissman the 2023 Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine. Their work focused on modifying messenger RNA
(mRNA) to make it more suitable for therapeutic applications, particularly in the
development of vaccines.
Quantum Material: Quantum material allows us to exploit some of the unique properties of quantum physics.
Examples are Quantum computing and material science.
Artemis Accord:
❖ It is established by the U.S. State Department and NASA with seven other founding members: Australia,
Canada, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the United Arab Emirates, and the United Kingdom in 2020 for setting
common principles to govern civil exploration and use of outer space, the moon, Mars, comets, and asteroids,
for peaceful purposes.
❖ It builds upon the foundation of the Outer Space Treaty of 1967.
➢ It is a multilateral pact under the United Nations, and serves as the foundation for international space law.
➢ The treaty emphasizes space as a shared resource for humanity prohibits national appropriation, and the
peaceful use of space.
❖ Recently, India's Prime Minister announced India's decision to join the Artemis Accords during a visit to the
United States. India became the 27th country to sign the nonbinding Artemis Accords.
13
Commitements under the Artemis Accords:

❖ Peaceful Purposes: The Artemis Accords emphasize that space exploration should be conducted solely for
peaceful purposes, ensuring that scientific discovery and international cooperation remain the primary
objectives.
❖ Common Infrastructure: Signatories agree to work towards establishing shared infrastructure in space,
promoting interoperability and resource sharing to enhance the efficiency of space exploration efforts.
❖ Registration and Data Sharing: Transparency and open communication are crucial for responsible space
exploration. Signatories commit to registering relevant space objects and sharing scientific data promptly.
Private entities are exempt unless acting on behalf of a signatory.
❖ Preservation of Heritage: Recognizing the historical and scientific significance of celestial bodies,
signatories pledge to preserve historic landing sites, artifacts, and evidence of past activities, safeguarding the
legacy of space exploration.
❖ Utilization of Space Resources: The Accords promote the sustainable utilization of space resources, ensuring
that such activities support safe and responsible exploration and do not interfere with the endeavors of other
signatories.
❖ Mitigation of Debris: Recognizing the growing concern of space debris, signatories commit to minimizing
the creation of orbital debris and implementing measures to mitigate its impact on space activities.
NISAR Mission:
❖ NISAR (NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar) has been built by space agencies of the US and India under
a partnership agreement signed in 2014.
❖ It is expected to be launched in January 2024 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre into a near-polar orbit.
❖ The satellite will operate for a minimum of three years.
❖ It is a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) observatory.
❖ NISAR will map the entire globe in 12 days.
❖ NISAR will be the first radar of its kind in space to systematically map Earth, using two different radar
frequencies (L-band and S-band) to measure changes in our planet's surface less than a centimeter across.
14
❖ It is a 2,800 kilograms satellite consisting of both L-band and S-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
instruments, which makes it a dual-frequency imaging radar satellite.
❖ While NASA has provided the L-band radar, GPS, a high-capacity solid-state recorder to store data, and a
payload data subsystem.
❖ ISRO has provided the S-band radar, the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) launch system
and spacecraft.
Applications:
❖ Earth Science
❖ Disaster Management
❖ Agriculture: Soil moisture, land use
❖ Infrastructure monitoring: urbanization, deforestation
❖ Climate change
Reusable Launch Vehicle Technology:
❖ Recently, ISRO successfully demonstrated a precise landing experiment for a Reusable Launch Vehicle
(RLV) at the Aeronautical Test Range (ATR), Chitradurga, Karnataka.
❖ Development of essential technologies for a fully reusable launch vehicle to enable low-cost access to space.
❖ In the future, this vehicle will be scaled up to become the first stage of India’s reusable two-stage orbital
(TSTO) launch vehicle.
❖ Recently ISRO successfully landed” Pushpak” India's first reusable vehicle.
Isro Successfull Lands 'Pushpak', India's First Reusable Launch Vehicle

Pushpak news: The outcomes of the test were "excellent and precise", said sources in the Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO).
15
❖ The RLV-TD will be used to develop technologies like hypersonic flight (HEX), autonomous landing (LEX),
return flight experiment (REX), powered cruise flight, and Scramjet Propulsion Experiment (SPEX).
❖ By using RLVs the cost of a launch can be reduced by nearly 80% of the present cost.
16
Additional content:
❖ The RLV that ISRO is building has only two stages to propel the vehicle into orbit. Once the fuel in the first
stage has been expended, the vehicle will shed it, and carry on with the second stage.
❖ Once it has been shed, the first stage will autonomously re-enter the atmosphere and land at a predetermined
location. After some maintenance, it will be available for reuse.
Zero Orbital Debris:
POEM:
❖ developed by the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC).
❖ It repurposes the fourth stage of a PSLV rocket into a stable orbital station for conducting in-space scientific
experiments with diverse payloads.
❖ Its inaugural use occurred during the PSLV-C53 in June 2022.
❖ According to ISRO, POEM has a dedicated Navigation Guidance and Control (NGC) system for attitude
stabilization, which stands for controlling the orientation of any aerospace vehicle within permitted limits.
❖ It was launched as part of the PSLV C-58 mission on 1st January 2024.
❖ After deploying the XpoSat satellite, the fourth stage was transformed into POEM-3 and lowered to a 350-km
orbit, significantly reducing the risk of space debris generation.
17
X-ray Polarimeter Satellite:

News:
❖ Recently, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has launched its first X-ray Polarimeter Satellite
(XpoSat) to study X-ray polarisation and its cosmic sources, like Black holes, Neutron stars, and Magnetars.
❖ The mission is propelled by the PSLV-C58 rocket in Low Earth Orbit.
❖ XPoSat is only the world's second mission dedicated to X-ray polarization in the medium X-ray band.
❖ NASA's Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE), launched in 2021, was the first such mission by a space
agency.
❖ Entirely built by two Bengaluru-based institutes—ISRO’s UR Rao Satellite Centre and Raman Research
Institute—XPoSat's development began in 2008, with a formal agreement signed with ISRO in 2015.
❖ XPoSat is designed to study X-ray polarization in the medium X-ray band, offering insights into celestial
sources' radiation mechanisms and geometry.
❖ The satellite carries two main payloads, POLIX (Polarimeter Instrument in X-rays) and XSPECT (X-ray
Spectroscopy and Timing).
18
INFUSE Mission: (Integrated field ultraviolet Spectroscope Mission):

❖ INFUSE was launched from the white sands missile range in New Mexico.
❖ It was launched to study Cygnus Loop Supernova Remnant.
Dry Ice:
❖ It is the common name for the solid carbon dioxide (CO2 ).
❖ It gets this name because it does not melt into a liquid when heated; instead, it changes directly into a gas (a
process known as sublimation).
❖ It is manufactured by compressing and cooling gaseous CO2.
❖ It is considered lethal for human health.
❖ Applications: Hospitals & Clinics, Food Processing & Distribution, Industrial Cleaning and Technical
Processes and Theatrical and Special Effects


66320d5f57bd0500186c3afa_##_Science &amp; Technology - Compilation Notes PDF Only

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

66320d5f57bd0500186c3afa_##_Science &amp; Technology - Compilation Notes PDF Only

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

66320d5f57bd0500186c3afa_##_Science &amp; Technology - Compilation Notes PDF Only

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Compilation of

Daily Class Notes

Science & Technology

Introduction to the Subject, Information Technology (Part-1)

(Type Of The Question: Direct and related to current affairs)

Q. Consider the following activities: (UPSC-2020)

❖ NCERT books from classes 6th to 10th of the Science subject.

❖ Big Data analysis

The Impact of Information Technology (IT) on Society:

Characteristic Analog signal Digital signal

Representation Represented by a smooth line on a Represented by a series of discrete values, such

Transmission Transmitted as a continuous wave. Transmitted as a series of bits.

Noise immunity More susceptible to noise Less susceptible to noise interference.

Bit interval: Time required to send a single bit.

Information Technology (Part - 02)

Various Modes Of Network Connections:

Site-to-site VPN connects individual networks to each other.

Near Field Technology (NFC) :

Differences between RFID and NFC:

Information Technology (Part 3)

Network Slicing In 5G:

❖ Open RAN will create a multi-supplier

Information technology (Part-4)

What is Blockchain Technology?

How blockchain technology can be used in elections?

Applications of blockchain technology:

The National Level Blockchain Framework (NLBF):

Virtual reality (VR):

Augmented reality (AR) is an enhanced

Issues with the DarkNet:

❖ Micro: From 250 grams to 2kg.

Drone Regulations in India:

National Counter Rogue Drone Guidelines:

Recently drone attacks have been often in the news:

Methods to control drones:

Applications of Machine learning and Deep learning?

C. Chatbots for Assistance

GLOBAL PARTNERSHIP ON AI (GPAI)

What are Cryptocurrencies?

Challenges in rolling out National Digital Currency:

Types of dark patterns:

General Biology - Part - 1

Example: (Animal cell)

 Functions of the cell wall:

General Biology (Part – 01)

Q. In the context of hereditary diseases, consider the following statements: (2021)

Q. With reference to mitochondrial replacement therapy, consider the following statements:

❖ Blood has the following features:

White Blood Cells (WBCs):

❖ Antigens: These are proteins or other

Blood Group Matching Table:

The Five Kingdoms are:

Q. Consider the following statements:

Human Health and Diseases

Communicable Diseases Non-Communicable Diseases

2. They are caused by pathogens. 2. Caused by deficiency of nutrients or due to allergy

3. Person to person transmission possible. 3. Person to person transmission not possible.

4. Example: Malaria, AIDS, Cold, Tuberculosis 4. Example: Cancer, Allergies, Diabetes

Common Human Diseases

66320d5f57bd0500186c3afa_##_Science & Technology - Compilation Notes PDF Only

66320d5f57bd0500186c3afa_##_Science & Technology - Compilation Notes PDF Only

66320d5f57bd0500186c3afa_##_Science & Technology - Compilation Notes PDF Only