ALTE RNATORS Generator)

(Synchrongus
Basic Pinciples
*A.C,generators or alter nators operate on the same fundoamental princi ples of
electromagnetic induction as d.c: generators.
*consist ot an armature winding and magnetie field
In d.c. generators, the grmature rotates and the field system is statio nary,
the arrangement in qlter nators is just the reverse of it.
•A.C.
ge nerators are usually called alternators, they must be driven at a very
definito Oo nstont speed,usually reftered to as synchronous speedl, for which

reason these machines are freguently called synchronous alter nators or synchronous

generators.
• this suynchronous machines are used to convert mechanical power to a.
electric power the mechanicoal power is usually applied to the rotor field.

Synchronous Gene rator Construction

*{n a sync hronous aeneroator, a dc ourrent is applied, to the rotor winding
which produces a totor "magnotic Pield. The rotor of the generator is thenturned by a
prime mover,,producing a rotating mognetic ficld within the machine.This rotating
magnetic field inducs a thre- phase set of volt ages within the stator windlings \arm.
winding) of genc rotor:
"To terms commonluy used to describe the windings on a machine:
(O- Field windings a.k.a. rotor windings
applies to the windings that produce he main mag netic ficld in a machine
•for synchronous machines, the feld windings are on the rotor.

co- Armature windings a-ka.

windings stator
•applis to tne windings where the main votage is induced.
•tor synchronous machines, he stator and armature windinge are used intechangeobly
(
•When the rotor fotates,the stator condu ctors being stationary)are ut by the mag netic
flux, hence they have induced emf. produced in them.

Stationary Armature
• Advantoges of having stationary armature
(i)Output carrent is delivered to the load without paesing throughbrush cantacts
()Easier to insu lote the stationary armature winding For high AC volHage
iü) Armature winding can be easlly bra ced to prevent defor mation which could be
produced by mechanicoal ond clectrical stresses
(iv) The low voltage field can be eonstructed higher speed of rotation for inereased

output and eficieney

(v)The armature winding is coo led more reodily because the stator core can
be made large enough to accormmodate more air passages and cooling
ducts.
Note: Al alternators above 5kVA employ a stationary armature (or stator)and a
revolving d-e. ficld.

Stator Frame and Sator Cote

Stator Frame

•tis used for holding the armature stampings and windings in position.
•Low- speed large-diameter aternatorshave frames which beca use of eose of

manufacture, are cast in sectons.

Stotor Core

•The armature core is su pported by the stotor frame and is built up of laminations
of special mognetic iron or stel alloy, The core is laminated to minimise loss
due to eddy currents.
Construction of Aer nator
An aternator has 3-phase winding on the stator and a do field winding on the rotor.
45 Stator

is the stationary part of themachine and s built up of shect-stoel laminations

having slots on its inner periphery. A 3phase winding is placed in these slots and

Serves asthe armature winding of the alternator, the ar mature winding is usually
con nected in star.
2) Rotor
•The rotor carries a ficld winding which is supplied with direct eurrent through
two slip rings by a sepoarate d-c. source or what is known as an Exciter.

Rotor
Two types of rotors used in alternators arei
1)Salicnt (or projecting pole ty pe
Inthis type,salient or projecting poles are mo u nted on a large circular seel frame
which is fixed to the shaftof the alternator •It is used in low and medium speed
-Salicnt Pole (engine driven) alterna tors.
S RPM
Low speed- I20o or less

Field winding supply RPM

High speed- 1200 or more
t-slip Rings

"The individual windings are connected in series in such a way that when
field pole,
the

field winding is cnergized by the dc. exciter, adjacent poes have oposite polarities.
• Low and medium speed alternators (120 -400 f.p.m) such as thase driven by dicsel
engines or water tur bines have salient pole type rotors due to the fo lowing reasons:

(o)The salient fieldpolcs would cause on excessive windage loss if driven at high
speed and would tend to produce nojse.
(b) Salient pole construction cannot be made strong enough to withstand the
mechanical stresscs to which they may be subjected at higher speds. Since a
frequency of 50 Hz is we must
fequired, use a large number of poles on the rotor

of slow -speed Low-specd rotdrs always possess a large diameter

aliernators.
to prouide the necessary space for the poles. Conse quently, salient-pole type
rotors have large diameers and short axial engths.
2) Non- salient (or cylindrical)pole type
othe rotor is made of smoo th solid forged- steel radial cylinder having a num ber of

slots along the outer periphery.

•the ficeld windings are em bedded in these slots and are conneeted in series to
the slip rings through which they art energized by the d.c. exciter.
the regions forming thepoles areusuallyleft unsl otted as shown
Noy-sicnt •it is clear that the poles for med are non-salient, they
Field.
do not project out from the rotor surface.
windng
•fhe central polar areas are Sorrounded by the ficld

windings placed in slots.

•High-speed alternators(1500 or 3000 rpm) are driven by steam turbines and use
non-salient type rotofs due to the follo wi ng feasons:
(a) this type of construction has mechanical robustness and gives noiseless aperation
at high speeds
(bThp flux distribution around the periphery is nearly a Sine wave and henco a
better emf waveform is obtained than in the case of salientpole type.

•Steom turbinc alternators and turbo alternators posstss 2 or 4 poles and have
Small diameters and very long axial lengths.
•The cylindrical construction of the rotor gives better bolo nco and quieter- ope ration
and less windage losses.
Speed and Frequency
• The frequency of induced e.mf in the armature conductors depends upon speed
and the'number of poles.
Let P= total number of magnetic poles or rot or poles
N rotative Speed of the rotor in t. p. m.
f: fequency ot generated emf in Hz
•Consider a stator conductor that, is suceessively swept by the Ngnd S poles of the
rotor. fa gositive yoltage js induced when a N-pole sweeps across the conductor, a
Similar negative yoltage is induced when a S-pole sweeps by. Ths mea ns that one

completeaycle of e.m.t. isgenerated inthe conductor as a pair of poles passes it i.e,

one N pole and the adjacertfollowing S-pole. The same is true for every other
armoture conductor.
Since one cycle of em.f is produced when a pair of poles passes post a conductor;
the number of cycdes of e-mt produced in one revolutionof the rotor is equal to the
number of pair of poles.

therefore No. of cycles/tevolution No- of pairs of poles/2 Pl2

No- of evolutions/second N/G0
No. of cycles/second (P2) (NG0) = NP/120
But the num ber of cycles of emf per second is its frequency
in Hz N fx120
120 P

•N is known as the synchronous speed, because it is the speed at which an alter nator
must run, in order to generate an emf of the required frequency. In fact,for a given
frequencyand given number of poles, the speed is fixed. For producing a frequency of
Go Hz, the aternator will have to run at the follo wing specd.
No. of poles 4 12 24 36
Speed (r-p.m) 3600 1800 1200 G00 300 200
•It is clearfrom the above that because of slovw rotative speedsof engine-driven alternators,
their number of poles is much greater as com pared to that of the tur bo-generatos which
run at very high speeds.

AC Armature Windings
• A.C- armature winšingsare usually summetricallydistributed in slots around the omplete
circum ferenct of the armature.A.C- arma ture windings are generally open circuit type ie.,
both ends are brought out. An open-circuit winding is one that does not close on itself
iey a closcd eircuit will not be formed until some xternal connection is made to a source

or load
The tuo types of armature windings most co mmOnly ued for 3-phase. alter nators are:

(0 single layer winding

brigal ya riously referred to as concentric of chain winding
|20 •it shows si ngle-layer, one turn, tull pitch winding tor a four-pole gern.
12 slots,

•6 phase
4 poles
passes
. pole pitch3
1,4,7,and finishes at
throug
slots

l0

Y phase passts through,,and finishes at 12

12 •B phase passes throuçhh 5,8, H,and Einishcs at 2

Note:No. of slots No. of coils

•No. of slots = No.of coil sides

-slot -coil side 1 •When eoch side of a coil occupies a slot completely
without any other coil lying on top
 C)dou ble layer winding Coilz
-slot
Note: No. of slots = No. of coils
the two coils or coil side are stacked
on one slot or on one side of the
Coil side other.

Head •
is either Waye -wound or lap- wound
terminal Connectior, Tail terminal
Pointofcoils

lwo im portant points regarding his winding :

(a)no. of slots = no. of poles x no. of phase
¿e,the stotor of a 4pole, phase alternator will 3 have 12 slots.
•lt is multiple of l2 which may have 24,3, 48, etc.
(b)no.of stotor slots no.of coile

'each slot contains two coilsides, one at the bottom of the slot and the
other at the top.
POLE PITCH
• 180° electrical is im portant in ths to pic.

For exam ple let us consider 2 poles, (8 stots arma ture of an alternator
pole pitch no- of slots 32 qslote =180electrical
no. of poles
Slot angle (P)
• Slo ang le( B)= 180electrical
Pole pitch

"
•
the
Exoa
phase dilerence
nple: 2 poles, (8 slots
contri buted by one slot in degrees electrieal is caled slot angle.

Pole pitch 8 q slots = 80 clectrical

2
i. p= (86° ele ctrical 20°

WYE AND DELTA CONNECT|ONS

R

Terminals
Terminals
R

DELTA - connection

WYE (Y) connection

-

•For co nnection, R, Yi, and B, are joined

together to form the stor-poin t. 1hen, ends
R2, Ya, and Bz are connected to the ter minals.
•For delta-connection, R2 and Yi, Y2 and Bi, B and K, afe connected together ond terminals
leods are brought out from their junctions.
 Fuu PITCH LSHORT PITCH(FRACTIO NAL PITCH)

Coil Span
•the angular distance between the two sides of the coil

Note: Coil Span= no of slots

2
no. of poles
side 180°Side
electrical
Coil
span

Full Pitch Pole Pitch slots

• 180°electrical coil span
txr ple: 4 poles, 24 slot

180 180

SHort Pitch or Fractional itch (jelectrical degree new

•less than 80° electrioal • Coil spah & Pole pitch
• 4 poles, 24 sots, Pole itch-o, Coil span =5
•Short Pitch is used because of the follo wingadvantages:
(0They save copper of end connections

(OThey improve the wavefor n of the generated emt

()eddy current and ysteresis loSSES are reduced thereby increasing the efficiney
But the total voltoge reduced.

PITCH FACTOR OR COIL SPAN(Kpor e)

yector sun the induced e,m.fes per coil.
of

arithmetic sum of the induced e-m.f.s per coil

Note:lt is alwaysles than unity (1)
Kc= CoS Full-pitch
2
The value of a will usually be given in the qucstion if not,then acsume ke-1

WINDING FACTO R (Kw) Ig0°

•let m No. of slots/ phase / pole pole pitch slots/pole

m= Slots
Ku= kp kd Pole pitch=n
pole xphase
DiSTRIBUT|ON FACT OR CKd) Effect of Harmonics on fitoh and

kd= e.m.f orith distri buted winding. Distributior Factors (Kd)

em.f with concentrated winding (c)Pitch Factor (kp) (K)
BD note: the alter nator is 2
|kd- Sin m 2 if
Kccog
the
m sin p/2 star-tonnected,

(Ejine) =4x
line voltoge
Brd harmonic
phast voltoye
|Eline (3x Sthh harmonic
EQUAT I0 N OF INDUCED EM. (4)Dstri bution factor
No. of conductors ERMS 4443QT volt Kd= Sim m Pl2
f=freguency CH m sin B/2
Q=Fluxl pole (w) Actually available voltage lphase: kd* sin m Pl2
Tno of turns Iphase E 444Kc Kd fOT vof
T=z(total no. of turns

2=2T Ke or kp= Cos 2l phase

kdg= Sin 3 mely
m5in 3Plz

p-no of poles k= from factor

voltogo
kdo Sin 5m 2
we angle(electrioal) msin 5B/2
ALTERNATOR ON LOAD

The three phases can be either Yor A connected

+
RA EA

XLtXAR Eolph) UXs. Eou-)

Uxs JXs

Eotp h
EAg
EAS
Eo(L-L) RA jXs EA2

Uxs

RA

Equivalent Circuit Per Phase

Ra Ra

Ia

reactance due
XAR= eguivalent to ARMATURE REACTION PF
XL LEAKAGE REACTA NCE
I unity

RA=ARMATURE RESISTANCE E (VtIa Ra ax?

Eo(ph)= No Load PHASE INDUCED VOLTAGE
E-]NDUCED VOLTAGE After allowing Armature Reaction

Veph)- terminal
() Eo = VW cos0+IaRa)'+(Vsin Q+IoXs)
Ia- LINE ARMATURE CU RRENT
VE 3 (Vph) For Y-connctio
Xs SYNCHRONOUS REACTANCE
ZsSYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE Ve) Vpn e- For A- connectiow
EA Inter nal emf after armreaction
Ven= EALon)-Ia GXs)-Toa Ra
FORMULAS Vph= EALpn)--Ia (RatjK5)
E- V+1(6tx)
Eo(pn)= Vp +Ia(RatJXe) > Eocph)= EA(ph) +taXAR Pf. = Cos
Xs= XLt XAR Q= cos'(pt) form recta ngul ar
polar

Zs RatJXs Eo= Vph +Ia RatXs) (

Zs Ro?+X6 Xs= Z5 Rat

IL:3(Iph)
% Requlation* VNL-YEL x (o0%
EA(L) * 3 (EAph)
Eo-
Vrated
Vrateo or per phnso

S- V-y IL 3 VFL Eo EAph) +Ia(iXAR)J

S=3 Ven Lpn

S V* Pout-
fout-
3 Vr.I,
(3V.IL(p:.f)
cos )
4-output Power in Line

EA Yph +La
EA:o3(EA(ph)) pokar f. left fout 3ynA cos4output Power in Phase

Pout= 3VphLa (pf)

fOWER FACTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS_ OF A LOADED ALTERNATOR.

(a) LAGGINGPOWER FACTOR (P is negative)

• Ia Lags V

IaRa /Ia
Eocen taXAR Ia Xs 1 lo
taXs

(b) UNITY POWER FACTOR(U PF)

La and Vegh) are inthe same direction

PF cos) - coso°= 1
Eotph) IaXs

Ia Vpn)TARa

(C) LEADING POWER FACTOR (Ø is positive)

Ia Leado Veph)

V(ph) > Eolph)

EoCph)

Veph)

POWER TRIANGLE
SOH CAH TOA
r(VAR)
(VA) CAH TOA
SOH
S Power SinQ= Cos) Ton=p
Hypotenuse ive

Q=s(Sind) p- s(iab) Q- P(Tand)

Agparent
S Cos P Tan
Opposite
Sjn
Active Power(WatHs)
6Reock
P
Adjacent
Real Power
 Example 81.1:

Calca late the pitch factor tor the under-given windings: (a) 3o stator sloto, 4 poles,
coil span -8
(5)72stator slots, o poles, coil spon to 10 and (o qG stator slots,G polcs,

l
Coil span lto 12.

Solution:
(a) kp = Cos()

p
I80°
36/4
4
20 /slot/lPole
20e
(6) slots/pole

|-10= 96ote
12-4=3slots
(2slots

x(G°=4s
(c)

|
Sbpole
|to 12:
slots

ll- 26°
lo stot

..80-7x20)
=180-14
Kp cos () llo-l|=5x ll.25°

()
kp= 0.q234

Kp- cos () kpcos

kp- 0.8819

Example 37.2: page 1414

Given:
3o slots, 4 pole, single layer,
3-phase.
Req uired:
Kd ?
Solution:
Kd = Sin m 2
msin (2)
m slot 3
Pole x Phase 4 x3
I80 180 180D
20°
B pole piteh Slot/pole

: kd= sinl3(2,))

kd= 0.
3qGA8
(2) Sin

Example 37.3/Page 144

Given:
P-30°(electrical phase displacemet)
m=o (
sik cojils in series), 10Vrmsemf/coil
Required:
e.mf. =? Arithmetic sum of vo ltage induced in o coils 6x\0=GOV
DoMkd= sin [o(22)]- 0. G43A5 Vector sum = kd xarith metic Sum
Gsin (2) =0.G435x 6o
38.64v
Example 37.4 /Page 44
Given:
Required:
4slots/pole,
Kd=?
()m-a, () x9=4,(iüt) Go° o-3 m

Solution:,
(9)
kdeInsin mCB2) (iüdkds sin[3(0)]
l0) (ic) kd- sin[G(9))
()
m

m=9, P26° 6sin ) 3sin

kd= sina(2%)) Kd=0.8312) |Kd=0.9598
4sin (2)
kd= 0.G399
Example 37.5/ page Alb
Given:
Pole pitch (YP) (89lbtspole ,coil piteh (Y9) = to |b 15slots

1
Requi red:

Kp= ? in () fundamental, ()3rd har monic, tiiu) 5th har mo nic,(iv) 7th harmonic
Solution:

(i) kp=cOs3o42 (iiü)kp tos 5d/2 (iv) Kp- cos 70y2

:B (o° -Cos 1(3)]
d (18- 15)(16)
Kpz0-70 71
=0-2688, ko 0.2S88

Kp cos 3072
Ke=0.9654

Example 37.0/page 14l6

Given:
3-phase, lo-pole,Y- connection, 44 slots,
Z- 10 x 144=
1440 conductors, 0= 0-03 Wb,
N= 375 rpm, Full pitch :. Kp=1
Rzguired:
Epn, E
Solution:
sin m 2 Sin [34)]
f=
|20
NP=(375)(16)
120
hase kd= msin B 3
sin (2%)
kd= 0.9648
Eph=222 Kpkdf Q2
*222 (1) (0.9698)(50)(o.03)(480)
Slots
m pole x phase Eph= 1534. 4 V
144
l6 x3 E+y > \b34- 14 N3
m=3 Eu-Ly 2657.22 V
B=slosx{8% =20
pole

Example 37.-/page 4lb

Given:

tconn,3phase, o-pole, N- l200 rpm, b-ol Wb,

54 each coil
slots has 8 turns and the coil
is chorded by 1 slot

Required:
Eotph), Eot-)
Solution:

Z-54x8 44 omphase Eo(ph) 222 kp kdf bZ

=222(o48A8)lo.4548)(oo)(o)(144)
(12007(> (GOHz V
|Eotph)= l812.99

m=3 Eo(L-)* |812-4443

180 -20° |Eou-)= 3140.14y

Kp cos
(
kp-0.988
kd- sinls(A)]
3sin (2
Kd= 0.4698
Example 37.8l page 1416
Given:
3-phasc, lo- pole, 144 slots, Z ph=(4)(44)/3- 192 conphase, N= 375 t-p.m.
Q- 5x|02 wb, Ys looil span)² 150%
Required:
Eocph) •?
Solution:
kp Cos ( IRQ 180 ) kde sin[3(4)1 Eotpn)* 2-22 kpkd f 0Z
kp 0.9G54 3sin (2) =292(0-9G54)(0-46A8) (50)(6x|o)(42)

m33 Kd=0. 9598

f (315)(1
Eoph) q87- 84 v

-5OHz
P9aY(16 20° 120

Example 314 /page 14n (Hs complicaed)

Example 37.10/ page 1A18

Given:
Zs(4)(G0) /3 80cond/phase, Coils are shortpitched
Apole, 3phase, f-5OHz, Y-conn, 60slots,

by 3 slots, phase spread G0e, 0.943 Wb.

Required:
Eo(ph) ?
Solution: (80)
0Z =2.22(0.951)(09567)(50)(0.43)
m=Go/(4(3) =5 kd= sinl((272)] Eoph) 2-22 Kpkd f

5sin (122) Eotph) 769. 50V

B (80/(o04)=12°

kd=0.4567
or phase spread m
EocL-L) 7GI9-5043
I3 197.37V
3x 12° = 36° Eo(u-L)

kp cos (36/2) = 0.951l

Example 37.11/pago 4I8

37. 12/ page 1414

Example
Given:
40tz, IF 2.4A
300V, f-G0Hz,Ir- 3-6A,
f
E,
Required:
Ez=?
Solution:

E, IFz S2
Ez

= (300) (2.4(40)
(3-6)(60)

E l60v
Example 37.13/page \A19
Given:
Opole, 3- phasc, f•50H2, m 2, 4cond. per slot, Ys= l650°, 0-12Wb-).
Required:
Eotph)= ?
Solution:

m slots
kp= cos(180- 150/2) Eotph)*2-22 kpkd f 02
polex phasc
kp0.9654 2.22(0.4%EA)(0.9G54) (50)(0-12)(80)
slots mlpolo)
(phase) kd sin[2(a0)] Eotph)= q94. I7 V)
2 sin(30/A
slots=60 Kd= 0.9654
Z ph (4)(G0)/380
B (80/(6010)=30°

Example 37. 14/ page AA

Example 37.15 (b/age 420

Given:

eonn, 4-pole, Q*0-12Wb, m=4, cond/slot s4,Ys \60°e

Required:
Eot-Ly *? Eo (pn) 2-22 kpkd & 0Z
Solution: G4)
=2.22 (6-9GSA)(0.4571(50)(0-42)(
slotsm xpolex phase Eotph)788.58 V
slots =43
(4)(4)(3)

Zzh-48)(4)/3 64condse Eo(-) = 788-58 3

Eotu-Ly* 1365.86 V
kp* cos(l80- 150/2)
kp O. 4b5
B(80
(48+4)

kd- sin[4(15%2)1
4sin (15l2)
kd= 0.4577
Example 31.l6
A 3-phase, star-connected alter nator suplics a laad of d0 MW at pf 0-85 lagging
and at lkv (terminal Voltage) Ik resistanco is 0.1 ohm per phase and synchronous (eactance
0.ooaphase. Calculate the ine value of e.m-f. generated.
Given: Vs Va Pout= |0x Jo"W
Xs Ra
3-phase,connection, Pui 10 MW, pf. -0.86, (agging,
lkV, Ra012, Xs0.GGa,
Da
terminal voltoge
Required:

EALL-L) ?
Solution:
With Load (Fullload), not per phase com putation
Beal PoWer
FL. output current = Beal power outeut(Pout) 3
Pout Vr I (p.f)

B()xpower factor Iuout

3 (1,000) (0.85) p.f cos )
IL 617.49 A=a Q= cos'(pf)-cos (0.85)

Q- 31. 74, lagging

EALph) Vph+ Ia jXe) +Ia(Ra)
IaXe
Vph io00 > G36o, 35V
V3
Eo= Vph + Ia lBa+jXs)
= 6350.8520)+(o17.442-31.79)(o.l+j0.GG)
Eo= GG 25.47 2.72°

Eo= GG 25.47 \V

FALL-L)V3(GG5.47)
|EALL) ll,475. G5V

Exa m ple37. 17(0)

is 0.5S2, On short
2200V, 50Hz, 440 KVA, 1phase,
alteaator
of a
The effective resistane motNe force on
current of 200A. The
electro
current of 40A gives the full
load
circuit, a field
the synchronous im pedancc
excitation is ll60V. Caleulate
Open-circuits with Same field

and reactance.
Solution: Zs Ra?+X
|160V
Zs Open- Circuit (o.c.) voltage
current 200 Xs zs-Ba582-0.52
Short- Circuit (S.C)
Xs G78s2
Z5= 5.82
0:0162 ond an
Exanple 37.17(b) cffective ar mature fesistance of
A G0KVA, 220V, 50Hz,
1-0aternator has the ar mature when the
voltage ind uced in
of 0.07s2. Compute the
armature kage
leareactance
rated current at a load power
foctor of unitylb) 0-7,Jogging ( and (0) 6-7 leading

alternator is delivering

Given: o0 KVA, Vp220V,f-5047, Ra0.0lb

S-
XL=0-07S2 ,
Required: E?
Solution: =0.7 lead (=45
57
(a)
S=VI
=a
pf.1
T9oxe3
226 =
(6p.f.:0.7. lag
45.67°"

E- 220/0+212:73/-45.57(0-0lGtj0.0)
(c)pf.
E 220 40+ 272-73/A5.67
-210.0724.5°
(0.016 tj00

la= 272.73A JE 210. o7V|

=230.9|L2.48V
EVla (Ratix)
E 236.qlV
- 220L0* 272-73/0°(0-O16+j0.07)

E 225. I724.8V
E225.|7 V)
EXam ple 37. I8 ()
Ina 50 KVA, star-connected, 440V,3- phase, 50 Hz
alter nator, Hhe elfective at mature
fesistance is o.252 per phas. The synchro rous reacta nce is 329 per phase ond leakage reocance
is 0-52per phase. Determint at rated load andunity power factori(a) lnter nal emf Ea
tb)no- load emf Eo (c) percentage regulationon full-load (8) value of sy nchfonous
eactance which replaces ar mature reaction.
Given:
S
k VA,Y-connected, Vrated 44OV, fG0Hz, fa 0.262, Xe= 3.2 05s
Required:

Ea Eo,
Solution:
% Regulation ,XAR
<AR Re

Ec
Ia 440

=254 V

Eapn= Vph +Ia (Aa tjxL)

(9) (B)Eo*Eaph)+ IalRatjXR)
S=VIV3 Xs= Xe tXAR
T: 44013 XAR-X5-XL3:2-0.6
laG5.GlA XAR 2.7S2
Eo272:34LG9tG6.GIL0° (o.25tj2-)
Ea cph) =24LO°+G6.GILd(o-25tjo€) = 356. 452B0.21°v
=272.39LG.92° Eo 355.46 V |Additional:
Eatph) 272.39V Eo(e-1)-365:4513
PF=o.8, lagging
Eolr) =G6.6o V b=cos (PF)-30.8T
Eau-) 272.34 13 = 47179V
Eo Yph tIa (Bat xs)
()% Req= VNL- YFL (d)Xs= XL+XAR = 254L0° + G6.GI2-3697(0-25+J 3-2)
YFL XARXS-X Eo= 423.722|.41° = 423. 70
or - EoVph
Vph
-355.4S- 254 xI00%
y l00%
|XAR =
-32-05
2-7s2 -
@PF-0.8,
Z0-87
leading

254 > 227,02/6| S6

-39.946 E 227.02 Y,,
Example 37,19:
Find the synchronous inm pedance and feacance of on altenatot in which a qiven field current
produces an armatutt cufrent of 200A on shortcircuit and a generoted emf of 50V on open
circuit.The armaure fesistance is 0-|92. To what induced voltage must tbe oter notor be excited

ifitis to deliver a lood of (00A at a pfof 0.8 laoging, with aterminal vooge of 2004
Given:
S.c- currente 200A, o-C- Voltage-50V, Ba =0.|2,Ia- l00A, p.f-0.8 lagging, V 200V.
Bequired:

Vphz |l6.47V cos (o.8)

Solution!
-3.87° lagaing
EoVpht La(Ra tj Xs)

|s.4720'+ l00/-30.81° (o4+jo- 23)

Z6= 0-CG0
S.C 2)
:
E

137.82L6.|6°y
Eoph 137.83
Zs= 0.2GI
X5=(o-25)- (o1) Eo = V+Ial( Ra tj<)
Xs=0.232 Eo =200+(100/-30.87)(o1+j023)
222.lGZ320°V
E,=Z22. IS V
Example 37. 22/ page 434
Given: Per PnaSC

conn, S- (600KVA, V= 13,50Ov Ba: |.5 Xe= 309 p I280 kw,PF*08 leading
Red

% Requ lation
Solution:
$: cos'LPF) 3o. 87°leading
Ia= S l600xl0 Eoph Yph t la (Ra t Xé)
135003 =7794.23L0°+ (68.432
36.87°)(:5+j30)
la 68. 43 A G859.59 2 14.38° V

Eoph = G85. 59 V
Vph 13500

% Rug Eoph - Ygb y00%% - A1.59-7144-23. x 00%

Vph 7744.22V 7744.23.

Example 31- 23/ page 435

Given:
3phast, lORVA (S), Ve400 V, f-50 Hz, V-conn, PF= 0.8 lag, Raó 52, Xs- \04.
Required:

7o Regulation
Solution:
S=VIa3 Q- g0.87, lag
Eotph) Vph + Ia (RatjXs)
40013 * 230.94 20°+ (14-432-36-87°)(0stj o)
La= 14. 43A =341.85Z18.q1°V
Eoph) 34.86 V

Vph 230.44V % Reg VNL - VEL xI00, AL85- 280.94 x\00%

VFL 230.4
Reg- 48. 03%

Example 37.24/ pngo 435

Given:
3-phase, S-6000 KVA, V=Gl0ov, Y- cown, 2 pole, $-G0Hz,I- 125A, 0.c-volt.= 8000N,
S.C current 800A, the resistance drop is 3%,PF=0.3 \agging

Required:
o Rgulatio
Solution:
n=?
Eo ph= Vph + Ia(Ratj Xs)

Venbo00/3 a3810.51 L0° +(524.862-g6.87) (0.2178+j5.7654)

-38]0.51x O.03 Vehla ba G182.74222.3G°V
Vph |14.32V Eoph =GI82-76
Vph= 38/0.S) -I14.32
S=VIaB 524.3%
% Reg VNL- VEL i00% " 182.76 - 3810.51 l60%
Iu 9_= G000x0 Ra 0. 2178 VFL 3810.sI

V/3 Go0 43
Io= 524.8 A Xs-Z- Ba |2Reg G2. 26%
-1)(0-118
Zs- 0.C- yolt

S. C- curr.
00
800
Xs- 5.7G54

Zs 5.772 -36.87° lag

TuTORIAL PROBLEM NO. 3-2 /Poge 148
Prob lem 1
Given:
S.c. currents l60A, 0-c- voltoge a00y, Ia G0A
Required:
EA ?
Solution:
Z6 0.c. voltagc Ea* ZsIa
S.C currents

Ea 300V
I50

Problem 2
Given:
V*500, S= 50 kVA, 10,Ra- 0.29,5.C. current = 200A,0.C- voltage 450, PFz 0-b,lag
Required:

% Regulation
Solution:
Vph 500/3 Zs 0.C. Volt. = 4s0 Eo Vph tIa LRa+jX>)
Vph 238.68V S-C curr. 200 238G8L0°+(57-742-36.81)(0-2+j 2.24)
Zs 2.252 = 381.777214.423°V
S= VIa 3 Eo 381.777V
Xs-Zs- Ra?
((225)2-(o.-7 o Reg= VNL - VEL
NFL
I0O = 87.777-288.G8 x (00%
288.48
> 50x\03 X6= 2-24|2
500 3 Q= cos'(o8) 34.3%
la=57.74 A = 30.87°
Po Reg

Problem 3
Given:
3-phast, Yconn, S IG00 KVA, V° 13,500V, Ral5e, Xs*302, P= 1280 KW, 0.8 p.f- lead,0pt. \ag

fRequired:

% Regulation
Solution:
S= VIa 3 (a) Eo Vph tIa (atiks)
7744. 228GA(68.42723%.8T)(-5tj80)
Eo 6854G2 N

13500 13
Ia-G8.427A %feg = 6859-2-7794:2280 (00%
7704-228%
= o-87° Po Reg-.q4%|

Vph 13500/3 (b)Eo=7794-228% +(O8.4211-B87)(54330)

Eo= q244. 17V
Vph 7794. 2286V

% Reg= 9244:(7- 704 2230 x O0%

7704-2280
% heg= 18 60%
Problem 4:
Given:

Ve g000V, Ia lo0A, PF=03 lending, S.C current (00A, 0.C- Votage- b00V, Ra* 0.84
Required:
% Regulation
Solution:

Vph 2000/B = 36-87°

Vph- l154.70V Eo Vph ta(RatjX)

-|164. 70Z0°(00/30.81)o:8+j494)
Zs= 500 = l0 23. 202 25. G7°V
|00 Eo = l023. 20 V

Rea |023-2%- ll5470. x lo%

Xs=52- 0.32 ll54-70
Xs=4.442 oRegI.38%
Proble n 5:
Given:
S.c. = 250A,0.C. = S00V,Ia*25OA, V-6.GkV, 0.8p-f. laggg
Reguired:
Eo, % Rugulatior
Solution:
Zs |500
250
Zs=S2

problem G:
Given:
V 500V, S- b0 kVA, Ra= 0.22, Ise* 200A, Voc 450\, 0.8 pf lagging
Required:

25, Xs, % Reg.

Solution:

Zs 45O Eo= Vph tIa(RatjXs)

200
288-6820° (57-74 3687)\0.2j 2:24)
|Zs= 2.25n| 387. 13/4.42 V
Eo 38773V
Xs =25- Ra?
-2252- 0.22 % Rg 38.73-288.8x(00%
|Xs 2.242 288.G8
% Req.= 34.31%
S= V Ial3
Ia =5
50xI03

Ia57.74A

Vph= 500W3
Vphh 288.G8V
Given:
A-conn., 48oV
X6= 0.|2, Ba0.016h
Vere, P4, f-G0Hz,IL- 12004, PF 0.8 lag lead, FW ,
a4O KW IL- 20kW,

Solution: load no load

Ra0.o15n Ra
|20
IaIL/3=|2095
N (Go)(120 Vdo Vdo VAL480V
4 30.87° Veh=48v

N 1800 rpm
2

. (6)no load
V= 480V>Eo
From the occ
|Ig=4.6 A
(d) Pout
Z6

i480)cos (8147")|
(c) @ load o-10|

Q- 30.81,log fout 798,574- 35W

=1200 OR
Pout 3Vph Ja CosQ or 3Vph la PF
labaz.82-36.81'A (
=3(480) G92.82)(0.8)'
Pout= 798,27. 67 W, ba8kw
Eon) = Vph+Ia (8atixe)
48020°+(G92822-36.3T) (0-015+j0-1) Pin,aFwIL +SCL+ Pout
Statar C-u. Loss (sc)=3(Ta(Ra)
Eotph) 532.loL5-30° V
=3(A282) (0-o15)
Eotp =2|.6 kw
0 vph
S.30
Pincs6) 40kWt 3DkWt2l.oKWt 793 kw
0-Bo.87 Pin36)= 534.6 KW,

Pout.= x(00%

)
= 32.l6 n Pin 884.GK
Eotph)

Is from the 0co is eaual to|5.7A 89.70ot

Eotph)-/(Vph cos +Ia

Ra)+(Yphsind-Taxe)?
= (480cos (su87) +(GA2.82) (o.oIS))(480sin3o31)-(64Z82)(0)?

Eotp)x 4so.98 My
OR Eocph)= Vph +IaCRatj Xs)
=
480 + (GA2-82/0-87)(0-015 +j0-)

Eo(gh)= 460,482786° v, I4.1A

9) fdev 3Eph Ia Cos (6+0)

3320(6A2-82) Cos (6.3+36.87)
= 814,773.0719 Wy

= 955 x (39,773.07)
[800

do) 4344. 35 N-m

Exa mple 37.20/ page 1435
Given:
Vy 2000 V, tphase alternator,. Ia 100A,
IFL 100A(short-circait), oc volts S0DV, Ra 6-8n
Required:
% regulation: ()unity pt
()0-8 leading
Solu tion:
() p-f.

o7llagging pf

Lalo0A
() Eo Yr +Ia (Ratj Xe)
- 2000/6°+(0020°(0.8+j4.935G)
Ev:z00c volts =2137.76213.35°V
Eo 2131.76 V

Zs 0-C volts 500 7o Keg. Eo- VT. xLoO % orYNL- VEL x \00%
S.C-current l00 V VFL
= 2137.7G- 2000 x (00%
2000
Z5 Xs +RaXoZ6-Ra % Reg- G.89 %l
Xs (5)2-(0-8)2
Xs>4,43562 (ic) p.f:* o.8, =cos (pf),leading
Q =34.87°
(i) p.f. 07,
44.77
lagging
Eo Vr +Ia (hatiXS)
(0-8+j 4.4356)
2000 o°+ (10023G-87)
Eo 2000O +((00%44.77)(08y4938) = 1822.49 / 14. D°
.47°v = 1822-44 V

|
=2422-3I2 Eo

Eo 2422-31 v

7% Reg, l822.49-2000 x \00%

% Reg.2422.31-2000 x (06% 2000
2000 o Reg -8.38%
Keg. 21-12%|

Example 3.-21/ page 433

Given:
S 100 KVA, Yr= 3000V, -50Hz,3 phase connect, kas 0.22,Ia=40A ,S.C-current=200A,
O.c volts lo40V, PF- 08, lagging, PF- 0.8 \eoding.
fequired:
% Requlation at 0-8 lagging and leading (C):
Solutjon: Eogh-(132os)+((4,25236.81)
Zs0C yolts /phase Veh (o2+)24)
S.C-current/phase Vpn=|732. 05 V = |70|.28L1.63N
Zs (040//3 = 32 () Eoph= |70l·28 V
200 Eo =\ph +Ia (RatjX)
- I7320G£0(4:252-34.8T)(02+j2.49)|% Reg= I701-28-1782.05 x (00%
Xs=Z,2- Ra? FI770.20/1, 42° V 1732. O5
=((3 -(02)2 to |770. 20V |%Regu-l78%
XS 2.q92
%Reg= Eo ph- Vpr x |00%

La S3
Vr 300043
Vpn

- |770-20-1732 0S x (o0%
1732-0S
Iu |9.25A % Reg- 2-20 %
txample 37. 25/poge HBS
Given:

Bphase, fo 50Hz, Y-conn, S•2000 KVA, V= 2300V, S.C.current 600A, 0.CG votage q0oV,
Raphase w O.124/2 0.06s

Required:
7 Regulation
Solution:
:uPF and 0.3p-f lagging

(0) Eopa Vph t Ia(Rati

Xô)
S.C Cur. & 1325.91+(502.0420°)(0-06 tj o-86)

E 1423. I2I7.66°V
2000x l Eotph) 1423-|l V
2s0.80G2 (2900)(V3)
Ja 502.04 A % Rug VNL-VrLyo09% A23.||-1325:4l x(o0%
Xs*((0-866) (006 VFL 1325,9|

= cos' (0.8) |?% Reg= 7.33

Q- 36-87,lag
Vph 2300/43 (it) Eoçn) Vph+Ia(Ratix)
Vph 1325, alV 13254120°+ (s02.04L- 36.8)(o.06tj 0-8%)
l642.022||- 50°V

foLeh) = lG42-02V
EoLph)
Eo(p
% Reg = lo42. 02- 13254L x (0o°
YPh 1325:4|

P% Reg 23,84%

Example 31-26/page 430

Qiven:

S= 2000KVA,
Required:
V=l|KV, 3phase , Y- conn., Ra-0.32, Xs* 52,PF= 0.8 leoding

Eotu)
Solution:
S= VIal3 Eotph) Upn t IalRatjX)
= 6350.85Z0°+(04.41236-87°)(o.3+j6)
Vg = G076.9924. 4° V
- 2000x (03 Eotph) G076.99V

Ia= l04.47A

Yphlb0)/B
Vph= G250.85V

o= 36.87
 foWER FLOW IN ALTER NATORS Ra
TORQUE DEVELOPED

Pdevelo p Pout
Prime E
Mover

iPeonv fout Pdev, - C.U. Losses Tdev

TeM.
Pdev.= Pin-PW Pdey. = Pout t C.u Lasses
Cem. =Tdey. +CFwIL
Armature/
Stator Tdey, =9-55 x Pae s N-m)
(FW+I) C.u: LosseS
N
Excitation (SC L)
Losse6 3Ia Ra
Fiction ewindage
Losses
LIron Losses
SYNCHRONous IMPEDANCE METHOD
E,
4
POWER DEVELO PED
..EF IZs
Zs E (open- circuit)
Eph
(0.C)
Ishort-circuit)

Current
Zs xs+ Ra
Vp S.C,
E.M.F.
Ia Ra S.CoC

6= torque angle Field -Current

If(Amp-Tutns)
$* power factor angle
D
By Phytago rean Theoremi
Ang le
(30)

G)
Pout

fdev.
|3
3
3Vph Tacos
VLIa cos Q
Eph Io cos (6+0)
Q-A
~ - Eoph Iaha C
IaXs
Point 0BD:

.
oD>Eoph
Eoph
Only No
Magn itude laggirg
o8² +BD2
PP

3 Eu Iacos (6+0) Y 8 Vph or Eorph)- (phcas +LaRa Y+(Vphsin:a

PF
leading
Ph
A % Vot. Req Eoleh)-Vehx|00%
Vph

OR THE EQUATION FOR POWER DEVELOPED

Fron the Vector Dioag ram: t- convert to recto nguar

la-E-V form
Zs
cos (0-8)+jsin
25
-E28-VZ0º
S= YE cos (&-8)-
Zs
cost@) +|Esin(-&)-ysin(0)
Zs

Beoltrue power Lmaginary Reactive Power

(P) (0)
Conjugate the Ja:
Io“ E8 - ZS
d 4- subst.in
There forC:
Ra) = VE As(b-8)
25
COs - y cos ()
VE Cos (0-5)- caslo)
For large Alternators:(Use when Ba-)
only
•usually if Xs2 Ra, a is neg lected for S-G.
OR fs)-3 Yph Iacos
• Ra now is assumed to be 0,then Q = 90° and Xs Zs

:Pout(u6)* VE cos (a0*- $)

CoS(0o- -
8)- y costo°- YE Cosl90°-5)8)
:Post VE sin & max outpt when f-40°,sin (90°)>1
XS
fout(z¢)max VE
When Ra-o
 and A connected alter nato rs

°In Y- connected ater nator:

Ia =IL or IL Ia

LOAD
V-Le 3 Vph or Vph Vit

IL • In Denltoa connected alternator:

LOAP
IL 3 Ia or ta- IL
Ra

Exa m ple 5-2 from the Book of Chapman

A 480 V, GO Hz, 4-connected, four -pole Synch ronous gonerator has the 0CG .This generator
has a synchronous reactance of o.ls and an armature resisance of 0.0152, full lood, t
the machine supplies 1200A at 0.8 PF lagging. Under full load conditions, the friction and
windage losses are 40kW, and the core losses are 30kw. lqnor any field circuit losses.
(a)What is the sped of rotation of this gene rator ?

(6 How much Pield current must be supplied to the generator to make the terminal voltage 480V
at o load ?
(c) f Hhe generator is nowconnected to a ood and the load draws |200A ot 08 PF lagging, how

much ficld current will be equired to keep the terminal voltage equal to 480N.
(a)How much power is the generator now supplying? How much power is supplied to the
qenerator by the prime mover? What is his mchine's overall efficiency?
(e) fthe generator's load were suddenly disconnected tromthe line, what would happen to its

terminal voltage ?
()Finally Suppose that the generatoris connccted to a load drawing 1200A ot 08 PF
leading How much field current would be required to keep V at 480V ?
(G Find the Power deve loped and Torque developed.
OCC

V 500

406
votoge,
300
terminal
200

100
open-circuit
Field current, A
 t xam ple 5-3/Chapman pagt 294
Given:
Y connected A.,P-6, f50 Ha, V, 480V, Xson*14,1a- 604, PF-08 lagging, FwIL» \5W,
GOHz @ Full load
CI |KW, Ra=02, sCL=OW,
Required:

(0> N, (b) Vif 1 PF= 0.8lagging,2) PF=1, 39PF 0-8 \eading, () if PF=0.8 lagaing,

()shafttorque (Tde % voltage regulation at o.8 PF lögging 1F,@ o8PF\eoding

Solution:
Ras0a
Xs=12 Raso

Voc
Voo (Eopr*271% Von:
OEotpn)=480V//3
-277-13

QNo load
fout (oo%
(a) N= 120f =(|20) (Bo) ()2=Pin
P Pout 3 Vph Ia PF
N= |000rpm 3(236.4)Go)(0.8)
Pout= 34 |14-36 W
N- (20).(60) Core loss + SCL
in Rout+ FWIL+

N= \200rpm =34114 34L6l03+ lxlo+0

(b) cos{PF) x(00%

30614.3G
cos(0.3)
-3o.87°
(9 Eogh VphtIa Li Xs)

277:13 Vphi
(6OL-36.87)(31)
()Tdey= 4-55 (dex
N
Rect form
277.(3ZS= Vph fG0253.13)aCony.
13sin 6 =VphtbOcossa
13+j0sin Pdey=3EphIa cos(S+0)
277. (3cos 8*j277- cos(947°+36-3)
-3(277.13 )(G0)
-

side to get 8:
Eauate imagin ary Pdev= 34438,38
yW
53.13
g277- 13sin Sg60sin
&asin' 60sin 53.13) Cdev= q-s5/3448-8
277.13/ 1200
8=9.47 tdev 24.07 N-m
real side: to get
Vph'
Equate GoL90
277-13cos &
= Vph + 6ocos 53.13° (b)(0 Eopk =Vph +Ia (i Xs)
=Vphto0 cos 53-13
277.1328= Vgh tl 6020°)
(G1D
277. 13cos(9,97°)
60cos53.13 tbo cos q0° +j60sin0e-)
Vph277-13cos(a.97)- 277-13 cos 8+j277-13 sinS = Vph

Veh 236,94 V,
imaginary side :of eq-)
Ve=410.34 (e) 1) % Reg.N VFL
VEL x 00% Equate
277.3sin&so0sin9
8= sin|G0 sin9o) I2.50
277:13
236.44
part of eg- :
Eauate rcal
% kege le9%:% 277- (3 cos Vph tG0 cos q0°
= Veht b0cog90
277-13 Cos (12-6)
()% Rug: 27713-270.56 x(00%
Vph 277|3cos l2-5° GOcos90°
270.56
Vphe 270. 56
Reg. 2:43 %

94x o0% Voh 308.94 V

277 13- 208. (3)
(3)% Reg.5
308.44
 VOLTAGE REGULATION
*the voltage regulatior of an alter nator is, defined as the change in terminal voltage
from no-load to full-load (the speed and ficld excitation being consant) divided by fultload voltage.

% Voltage Regulation = No- load votage - Full- lood voltage. x (00%

Full-load Noltage
%NR= EosVgl y l00
Vph

PF= 0.8leod
Racteffective) 1·x Ra lác)
(volts)
The foctors affecting the change in votoge of an alt:afe:
PF1-0
voltage
()Iaka drop in armature winding
()Iak drop in armature winding
\wPF=0.8 lag
tüi) Voltage changedue to armatue reaction
Fuload
Terminal
Load current (am peres)
DETERMINATION OF VOLTAGE RFGILATION AND METHODS Eoc
1) Direct loading (for smallmachines) Isc (Irated)
- load the machine to its rated capacity. Isc
Method
(
2)Analytical
Synchronous Impedance Method
(6) The Ampere-turn or MMF Method
(z5)

(c) Zero PF Method

Allthese me thods feaquires:

-Is, Irated

1) Armature lor stator) resista nce,Ra

2) Open-circuit /No-load characteristic (0.c-c)
3) Short-circuit characteristic (S.c-c) Ig
Ra leff)

X6=Z- Bateet

MMF METHO D OR AMPE RE-TU RNS METHOD

This method also uti zes 0.C. and S-C• data, but
li isthe con verse of the E- M.F. mehod in the

sense that ar ma ture leakage reactance (Xt) is treated as am additional armature (eaction. In
other words, itis assu med that the change in ter minal Po( Potential Diffe nce) on load is due re

entirel y to armature reaction (and due to the oh mic resistance drop which, in most coses is negligibe)

The Field A-Tr. (Am pere -turn) required to produce a voltage of Von Rultlod is the vector sum of
the following:

L) Field A.-t. required to produce V(or if Ra is to be taken into account, then V+IaBa cos0) on no

load.This can be found from 0.c.C. CATA)

(i) Field A.T. required to overcome the de magnetising effect of oarmature reocion on full load.

This value is found from short circuit test. the fiald A-T. req uired to prod uce tull-load current

on short -cir cuit balances the armature reaction and the impedance drop (AT).

IaXs
Eo
AT
ATI Eas Ia

JaXs
IAT2

VTaßa yaßa
AZ
LAGGING LEADING PF
UNITY PF PF

B IeB
If2

a0 q0

IA A If,

by cosine Law: I=Ipí +If-2 Is, Ig, c0s (4010)

by complex numbers: If= I, Z0° +Ig2/B

 Exa mple 31. 30/ 1440
Given:
S 3.5 MVA, Y-conn ected at., Vrated » 41G0V,fo50Hz, Is- 200A,0•8 p.f lagging, Ra-0,
0.C.C- þata:
o 50 |00 160 200 250 300 350 400 450
Field Current (Amps)
l620 3150 4160 4760 5130 5370 5550 5450 5750
ratelV) E. M-FL-)(Volts
tota() E. M-Fph) (Voltslphase)
435 l88 2401 2742 29G1 3100 3204 3202
Required:

Calculateby )
Synchroous impedarnce method
(w)ampere-turnmethod the full load voltage regulation at 0.8 p-f- lagging
Vph
Solution:
3202
• Graph 0CC use phase value
3204
If=200A
3100
Eotph) 2742 V
2401
If- 200A
2742
S-3V Iasco 4804
lacs) S & Full load
2401

1818

3.5x10 436

3 4160
50 100 150 200
Iacse 48o Ae Full load current

(0) by
Zs Eo

Ia(st)
(o.c) :
synchronous Im pedance
2142
486
Method

Veh 4160/3
Vph=240|V
Zs= 5.64.2
i. Xs= 5.642,because Ra0 Eocph)

Xs= 5.64n .46 IaRa

ta=480A PF 0.8 lag

Voo e YEoph) V 2401Y =34.87°

Eo = Vph+ la(3Xs)
* 2401 20° +(486L-3l, •87°)(j5.4)
Eo= 4601.69228.46° 8
VR 4601. G9-24oi kIO0%
2401

VR- 91.Go )called pessimistic

(i)VR by MMF Method (PF load = 0.8lag)

e30.870
ao. P:po+30.8 7% (80
B=53.13°

4,- (from occ)

150A
Scc)
f, 200A (from

= 15020°+ 200253.13°
If= 313.85/30. GS A
From the 0cC o taph if Ig=313.8Sthen Eo 3140
Small VR
V6-3140240l x(00% VR= 30.78%|is called
240l optimistic