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Contents
Acknowledgements ix
Abbreviations x
Introduction xiii
Acknowledgements ix
Abbreviations
ACOA Atlantic Canada Opportunities Agency
ADM assistant/associate deputy minister
AECL Atomic Energy of Canada Limited
BDBC Business Development Bank of Canada
CBC Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
CCF Co-operative Commonwealth Federation
CCRA Canada Customs and Revenue Agency
CHRO (Office of the) Chief Human Resources Officer
CHST Canada Health and Social Transfer
CRTC Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission
CSIS Canadian Security Intelligence Service
CSPS Canada School of Public Service
DM Deputy Minister
EMIS expenditure management information system
FIRA Foreign Investment Review Agency
FPRO Federal–Provincial Relations Office
GST goods and services tax
HRDC Human Resources Development Canada
MBO management by objectives
MFR managing for results
MP member of parliament
NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement
NCR National Capital Region
NDP New Democratic Party
NEB National Energy Board
NEP National Energy Policy
NFB National Film Board
NPM new public management
OPMS operational performance measurement system
PAC Public Accounts Committee
PBO parliamentary budget officer
PCO Privy Council Office
x Thinking Government
PEMS policy and expenditure management system
PM prime minister
PMO Prime Minister’s Office
P&P Priorities and Planning Committee
PPBS planning-programming-budgeting system
PSC Public Service Commission of Canada
PSIC Public Service Integrity Commission
PSLRA Public Service Labour Relations Act
PSLRB Public Service Labour Relations Board
PSMA Public Service Modernization Act
PSSRA Public Service Staff Relations Act
RCMP Royal Canadian Mounted Police
TB Treasury Board of Canada
TBS Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat
ZBB zero-based budgeting system
Abbreviations xi
We cannot work or eat or drink; we cannot buy or sell or own anything; we cannot
go to a ball game or a hockey game or watch TV without feeling the effects of
government. We cannot marry or educate our children, cannot be sick, born or
buried without the hand of government somewhere intervening. Government
gives us railways, roads and airlines; sets the conditions that affect farms and
industries; manages or mismanages the life and growth of the cities. Government
is held responsible for social problems, and for pollution and sick environments.
Government is our creature. We make it, we are ultimately responsible for it, and,
taking the broad view, in Canada we have considerable reason to be proud of it.
Pride, however, like patriotism, can never be a static thing; there are always new
problems posing new challenges. The closer we are to government, and the more we
know about it, the more we can do to help meet these challenges.
–Senator Eugene Forsey, How Canadians Govern Themselves, 1981, p. 1
Introduction
“My friends,” said a beaming Justin Trudeau to the Canadian history. To bolster their credibility as
Canadian people on the evening of October 19, a government-in-waiting, the New Democrats
2015, election night in Canada, “we beat fear with promised that their traditionally progressive social
hope. We beat cynicism with hard work. We beat and environmental policies would be married to
negative, divisive politics with a positive vision that economic policies of fiscal prudence, with the
brings Canadians together. Most of all, we defeated NDP assuring Canadians that a New Democratic
the idea that Canadians should be satisfied with government would always run balanced budgets.
less…. In Canada, better is always possible.” Meanwhile, both the Greens under Elizabeth May
The 2015 federal election was historic. It pitted a and the Bloc Québécois headed by Gilles Duceppe
variety of opposition parties against the governing offered their respective and earnest approaches to
Conservatives led by Prime Minister Stephen sustainable environmental and socio-economic
Harper, a man and a leader who had utterly domin- development and Quebec’s special place in the
ated Canadian politics since he first came to power country. But it was the Liberals under Justin
in 2006. The election very much became a referen- Trudeau, running his first campaign as a party
dum on the Harper legacy, and the Conservative leader, who stole the show. With polls consistently
base—32 per cent of the electorate—remained showing that some 70 per cent of Canadians were
loyal to their leader and his vision of a Canada opposed to Stephen Harper’s leadership of the
marked by low taxes, business-friendly economic country, the question became which of the oppos-
policies, sensible environmental rules and regula- ition parties might Canadians coalesce around as
tions that do not harm Canada’s role as an energy a viable alternative to the Harper Conservatives.
superpower, a small state that does not threaten the Day after day, Trudeau promised Canadians
private sector, laws reflecting Canadians’ desires to what many of them wanted to hear: that a Liberal
get tough on crime, and a principled foreign policy government would cut taxes on the middle class
rooted to the muscular defence of our allies and while increasing them on the very rich; that a
opposition to our enemies. But after almost ten Liberal government would kick-start a sluggish
years in power, most Canadians were ready, more national economy and generate jobs by investing
than ready, for a change. in national infrastructure spending; and that to
The New Democrats, led by Thomas Mulcair, do so, a Liberal federal government would not
had served as the Official Opposition since 2011, be afraid to run modest deficits for three years
and with strong public opinion polls leading before rebalancing the federal budget by 2019,
into the election campaign, they were hoping to just in time for the next general election. Trudeau
form the first-ever NDP federal government in also spoke in favour of stronger environmental
Introduction xiii
protection, of getting serious with climate change A PIC T U R E OF POLIT IC S
policy and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. He
talked about the need to put more money into arts The 2015 election was, indeed, historic, highlighting
and culture and the CBC. And he affirmed that that some elections do present Canadians with real
Canadian foreign policy had to change. It was time alternatives and that electoral outcomes matter. It
for Canada to be less bellicose on the world stage, was also an emotional roller-coaster for Canadians
to be more concerned about fighting the causes of of all political persuasions. For Conservatives and
conflicts rather than just simply bombing terror- New Democrats, Greens and Blocistes, it brought
ists, and that humanitarian relief efforts, such as bitter disappointment and some degree of anger;
settling tens of thousands of Syrian refugees, had for Liberals it meant joy and vindication. And
to become a major focus of Canada’s role on the for many Canadians of a centre-left disposition,
world stage. it promised relief from a tumultuous decade of
But most importantly, Justin Trudeau simply Conservative rule, a decade marked by deep
told Canadians that he offered them a different ideological debate regarding the nature of public
style of leadership. Rather than the cold, authori- policies, the role of the state in this society, and
tarian, hyper-partisan and divisive leadership of the type of leadership that Canadians need and
Stephen Harper, he promised them “sunny ways.” deserve. To fully appreciate the magnitude of the
In contrast to Harper’s negativism and nasty change that occurred on election night 2015, you
closed-mindedness, Trudeau spoke in favour of need to remember what the previous decade was
openness, transparency, cooperation, and consul- like in the political life of Canada.
tation. He would be a prime minister who would In the election that first brought them to power,
meet with and listen to Canadians, from premiers Harper and his party promised that a new govern-
and mayors down to ordinary Canadians, and ment would mean a new future for Canada. The
especially younger Canadians, those most suscept- scandals and corruption of the old Liberal admin-
ible to thinking that our system of government istrations of Jean Chrétien and Paul Martin would
doesn’t speak to or work for them. With such a be swept away, and the new government would
message of hope and change, Justin Trudeau pledge itself to accountability, transparency, and
created a rising tide of Liberal red across the coun- openness in its operations. New and decisive
try on the evening of October 19, 2015. On that leadership would put an end to the years of dith-
night, the Harper government and its decade in ering and incompetent public policy making. The
power came to a crashing end. The Conservatives Conservatives assured Canadians that the military
were out; the New Democrats, the Greens, and the would be strengthened; that the country would be
Bloc were down; and the Liberals were in. And as a firm ally of the United States, especially in its
many Canadians noted over the following days and War on Terror and the conflict in Afghanistan;
weeks, as the new Trudeau cabinet got down to and that the new government would get tough on
governing, it felt like “we got our country back.” crime. And Stephen Harper repeatedly committed
a Conservative government to sound economic
Introduction xv
could not win. He won minority governments in economy, protect that province’s forestry and agri-
2006 and 2008 and then won his first and only cultural sectors from American competition, or
majority government in the election of 2011. It was advance Québécois culture. And all the opposition
following this election defeat that the Liberal Party parties found the Conservative government sorely
opted for Justin Trudeau, the son of former Prime lacking in its environmental policies, especially its
Minister Pierre Trudeau, as their new leader and position on global climate change. They stressed
would-be saviour. that Stephen Harper was a climate change denier
While Conservatives hailed Stephen Harper as a prior to his entry into federal politics and that as
great prime minister with towering political know- prime minister he obstructed the development of
ledge and tactical skill, his opponents damned an effective global treaty that would impose hard
him as narrow-minded and ideologically driven, reductions on greenhouse gas emissions, help to
excessively partisan and mean-spirited, a domin- develop carbon taxes, and promote green energy
eering and controlling leader with a limited vision alternatives to carbon fuels.
for Canada and out of touch with broader social Many critics also pointed at what they saw as
undercurrents. “I don’t get into that second guess- an authoritarian and autocratic style of leader-
ing of myself publicly,” he once remarked, but some ship. Liberals and New Democrats condemned
thought he should do a little more self-assessment. the centralization of power in the Prime Minister’s
Those on the left disliked almost everything about Office, whereby the prime minister and his key
Harper’s government but were often divided on communications advisers tightly scripted all state-
how far to push their opposition. Critics noted ments by ministers, their staffers, and senior public
that cuts to the GST and corporate tax rates, by servants. Opposition party leaders complained
reducing the funding flowing to the federal govern- that, far from opening up the process of govern-
ment, also limited the social and economic policies ment and making public sector management more
it could promote. transparent and accountable, the prime minister
Liberals criticized the Harper government had stifled openness in government through
for failing to provide a national, publicly funded his obsession with controlling the message and
system of child care and adequate funding for the his obvious distaste for criticism. It came to be
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC). New noted by journalists on the Ottawa beat that the
Democrats attacked it for excessive spending on Harper government came to view the opposition
the military at the expense of social programs, not as different political parties to be challenged
for attacking unions and public sector employees, in debate but as enemies to be ridiculed and
for bringing Canada deeper into the conflict in denounced. Opposition MPs observed that public
Afghanistan, and for abjectly supporting the US servants felt muzzled, that officers of parliament
War on Terror with its concomitant problems of who challenged government policy assumptions
human rights abuses at home and abroad. Bloc risked punitive budget cutbacks, that the prime
Québécois antagonists challenged the Harper minister would even personally attack the Chief
government on its failure to promote the Quebec Justice of the Supreme Court of Canada, and that
Introduction xvii
came to be seen as the one man who could oust engages in regional and economic development,
Harper, and he rode that wave to victory on sometimes through Crown corporations, and
October 19, 2015. supports Canadian culture and identity by such
And what now? Will Canadians get a better means as the programming of the CBC, the broad-
government? One that is more open and respon- cast regulations of the Canadian Radio-television
sive to Canadians’ wants and needs? Will the and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC),
Trudeau government be more accountable? Will and the work of the Commissioner of Official
it be smarter? In the years leading up to the next Languages.
election in 2019 will we see a stronger economy But has this consensus been weakening in
and better environmental policies? More jobs? recent decades? Have we been witnessing a shift
Economic diversification? Better health care and in federal politics from a liberal centre to a newly
educational funding? Greater action on reducing constructed conservative one? Did the Harper
social inequality while addressing the many prob- years truly change the way politics and government
lems still faced by Indigenous Canadians, recent work in this country? Does the state, and especially
immigrants, and women? Will Canadian foreign for our purposes the federal government, still play
policy be stronger and more effective, or not? The a significant role in the life of this country? And
Trudeau government came into office with high should it? Beginning with the Mulroney govern-
expectations. But such expectations often plant the ment’s privatization initiatives of the 1980s and the
seeds of bitter disappointment, of hopes unfulfilled. deficit cutting of the Chrétien government in the
mid-1990s, the operational impact of the federal
government has been steadily declining. For
THE FUNDAMENTALS example, no new major federal social program has
been launched in this country since the introduc-
This short review of recent political issues and tion of medicare through the Canada Health Act
opinions illustrates a basic truth: Canadian polit- in the mid-1960s. The last social policy initiative
ical debate tends to revolve around the role and of the federal and provincial governments on that
function of government. And as recent years have scale was the creation of the Charter of Rights
shown, this discussion can get emotional. and Freedoms, which became law in 1982. Both
Despite modern consensus that governments these undertakings, now seen as cornerstones
will respect and nurture a mixed economy in of the modern Canadian social welfare state, are
which the private sector takes the lead in promot- decades old. And since the late 1980s, so-called
ing growth, employment, and capital generation, conventional wisdom has suggested that we can
the public sector is nevertheless accorded a strong no longer afford significant new social programs
role in social welfare and regulation of the private such as a national public child care system, the
sector to ensure the maintenance of health and addition of pharmacare to the Canada Health Act,
safety standards, labour and human rights, and or publicly funded postsecondary institutions
environmental protection. The public sector also that eliminate tuition costs to students. But this
Introduction xix
to understand. Chapter 1 therefore offers a basic to adopt a similar style of governance. We exam-
introduction to Canadian government: the paradox ine the evolution of this style and the tensions it
of public perception it faces; its scope and presence attracts in a period of competing demands for
in the life of this country’s citizens; and the range a smaller, less costly government that provides
of issues, policies, programs, and problems that greater services. The push–pull between econom-
governments, public services, and public sector ical and effective government is accentuated by
management must daily confront. rival demands for fiscal prudence, greater national
Regardless of its complexity, however, the role security against international terrorism, and
of the state has always been central to political enhanced social and environmental programming.
debate in this country, and that debate continues As views of the state’s role have waxed and
to divide public opinion. Chapter 2 probes the vari- waned, however, one core truth remains: the state
ous ideological positions that have had, and are will always have a major role to play in the lives
having, a profound impact on the practical life of of Canadians. Public administration and public
governments and their relationship to Canadians. sector management will therefore continue to be
While conservative, social democratic, and liberal important subjects of study for those wishing to
approaches to politics and the role of the state have know how this country is governed, why govern-
all been significant to the development of Canadian ment power is exercised in certain ways and for
public sector management, the most influential whose benefit, and how the exercise of such power
stream of thought has been liberalism, the vision of can be improved.
the broad political centre. Most governments in this Chapters 3 and 4 offer a close view of the
country, and especially those in Ottawa, have taken keystone institutions of the federal government
a moderate approach to socio-economic policy, and an assessment of the power relations within it.
attempting to balance fiscal prudence and concern Prime ministerial power, cabinet decision making,
for economic growth and stability with progressive and ministerial responsibility are crucial topics
policies on social welfare, human rights, regional here, as well as the complex relationship between
and cultural development, and the environment. elected politicians and unelected public servants.
This text explores the ways in which federal govern- Chapter 4 looks particularly at the current nature
ments have sought a liberal and pluralistic approach of the federal cabinet and the increasing concentra-
to public policy and administration through prac- tion of political and administrative power in the
tical reasoning, adaptation, and response based on hands of the prime minister and his or her clos-
these principles; that is, how governments have est associates. While analysis of the federal level
developed the ability to synthesize practical know- of government takes centre stage, much of the
ledge with a theoretical understanding of how the understanding gained in these chapters relates to
world works and how governments should respond provincial governments and their inner workings
to the needs of citizens. as well.
While Canadian governments have come and Chapter 5 introduces public sector management
gone over the past half-century, they have tended theory and summarizes ways of thinking about
xx Thinking Government
management, public sector organizational behav- principle in hiring and promotion; the pros and
iour, and improving the quality of policy making cons of public service collective bargaining and
and program delivery. This chapter devotes special public sector unions’ right to strike; and the merits
attention to the distinguishing features of the and demerits of affirmative action and employment
public sector. It contrasts the long-standing ideals equity policies.
of rational management and decision making with Chapter 8 reviews contemporary public sector
the equally long-lasting notions of incrementalism, management reforms that are altering both the
bounded rationalism, crisis management, and federal and provincial orders of government. I
bureaucratic politics. look at the concept of the reinvention of govern-
To understand power relationships and manag- ment, the theory of new public management, and
erial thought, we need to make a close study of the demonstrable impact that such initiatives have
core aspects of public sector management. The had on the practice of public administration. While
managerial side of government is crucial to its these new approaches can be thought-provoking
effective functioning, yet it is precisely this feature and influential as governments seek to “do more
of public administration that has been ignored in with less” in times of fiscal restraint, both their
most previous studies and understood little by theoretical underpinnings and their practical
most Canadians. Chapter 5 therefore also analyzes usefulness have come in for severe criticism.
the principal managerial components: financial Although a fundamental transformation in the
management, human resources management, nature and role of government is both unlikely
administrative law, service delivery, public sector and undesirable, we have been witnessing a
ethics, accountability, and leadership. And again, less dramatic yet significant reform, with much
although the main focus is federal, many of the debate over the pluses and minuses. Governments
organizational features, administrative dynamics, are trying to deliver policies and programs to
managerial issues, and basic power relations apply Canadians by more economical, efficient, effect-
to provincial governments and their public services ive, respectful, and accountable processes. Chapter
as well. 8 explores the nature of these actions and the
Chapter 6 narrows the focus to address the policy and management directions that the federal
key issues of financial management: public sector government is carving out for itself. I devote
budgeting; the nature of budget systems; deficit specific attention to the issue of service delivery, a
and debt control; fiscal restraint policy; and the concern of growing importance to many govern-
choices that present themselves to governments ment offices.
as they struggle to enter today’s world of balanced Chapter 9 studies the related concepts
budgets, surplus revenues, and new policy and of accountability and public sector ethics.
program options. Accountability has always been a central concern
Chapter 7 then reviews the central issues in of governments, public sector management, and
human resources policy: human resources manage- indeed the public. Accountability is an amalgam
ment systems; the nature of patronage; the merit of ministerial, legal, and social responsibility, as
Introduction xxi
governments and their public services are called ought to go beyond the normal routine of policy
upon to respond effectively to all three of these development and program implementation to
duties. Crucial in this arena is the concept and become creative agents of governmental change
practice of public sector ethics, which continue to and reform.
have a vital role in effective government and public Canadian citizens still have very high expecta-
sector management. I stress the importance of eth- tions of their governments, but many feel apathy
ics while highlighting the difficulties that govern- and cynicism over the way those expectations are
ments have in putting codes of ethics into practice. met. Governments and public sector managers
Finally, Chapter 10 assesses the future of public need to be more visionary and proactive if they
sector management, particularly with respect to the are to combat those attitudes as they confront our
characteristics of both effective and failed leader- current national challenges. They must also be
ship. One of the key arguments flowing through more forthright and persuasive in defending the
this work is that we can and should have the high- role of the state, even as that role is modified by
est calibre of leadership within our governments. the exigencies of an ever-changing socio-economic
As students we need to study the nature and prac- environment. The state will always be called upon
tice of government leadership, and as citizens we to play a significant role in the life of this country;
have a duty to insist upon it. we need to ensure that the state leadership, and
especially its permanent senior managerial ranks,
are fully trained, capable, and knowledgeable.
THE DUTIES OF TH E STAT E And what about the job of citizens? Our offi-
A N D THE CITIZENRY cials undertake a complex and important mission
on our behalf. We should appreciate this mission,
The paradox of perception versus reality regarding understand the issues involved in the work of
the state needs to be addressed on two fronts. The government, and develop good critical faculties
public requires a better understanding of the role, to assess the merits and demerits of government
strengths, and limitations of public sector action. leadership.
And governments—senior public service manage- This book aims to be both informative and
ment in particular—must become better leaders critical. We need to think about government,
within the state and within society. It isn’t enough just as we need a government that can think and
to provide effective and responsible administra- act strategically and effectively, responsibly, and
tion of public services. Our leaders and managers responsively. All this is a civic duty.
Bricker, Darrell, and John Ibbitson. 2013. The Big Shift: The Seismic Change in Canadian Politics,
Business, and Culture and What It Means for Our Future. Toronto: Harper Collins.
Finn, Ed. 2015. Canada After Harper: His Ideology-Fuelled Attack on Canadian Society and Values, and
How We Can Resist and Create the Country We Want. Toronto: James Lorimer and Company.
Harris, Michael. 2014. Party of One: Stephen Harper and Canada’s Radical Makeover. Toronto: Viking.
Ibbitson, John. 2015. Stephen Harper. Toronto: Signal/McClelland and Stewart.
Martin, Lawrence. 2010. Harperland: The Politics of Control. Toronto: Viking Canada.
Rae, Bob. 2015. What’s Happened to Politics? Toronto: Simon and Schuster Canada.
Introduction xxiii
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CAPITOLO CLXXIX.
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Concordato. Pace di Presburgo. Regno d’Italia.