ebook download (Original PDF) Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, 9th Edition all chapter

(Original PDF) Fundamentals of
Engineering Thermodynamics, 9th

Edition
Go to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/product/original-pdf-fundamentals-of-engineering-thermodyn
amics-9th-edition/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
(eBook PDF) Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics,

8th Edition
http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-fundamentals-of-
engineering-thermodynamics-8th-edition/
(eBook PDF) Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach 9th

Edition
http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-thermodynamics-an-
engineering-approach-9th-edition/
(eBook PDF) Introduction to Chemical Engineering

Thermodynamics 9th Edition
http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-introduction-to-
chemical-engineering-thermodynamics-9th-edition/
Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 9th

Edition - eBook PDF
https://ebooksecure.com/download/introduction-to-chemical-
engineering-thermodynamics-ebook-pdf/
(eBook PDF) Fundamentals of Thermodynamics, 10th
Edition
thermodynamics-10th-edition/
(eBook PDF) Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach in

SI Units 9th Edition
engineering-approach-in-si-units-9th-edition/
Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach 9th Edition

Yunus A. Çengel - eBook PDF
https://ebooksecure.com/download/thermodynamics-an-engineering-
approach-ebook-pdf/
(eBook PDF) Fundamentals of Thermodynamics 8th Edition

by Borgnakke
thermodynamics-8th-edition-by-borgnakke/
(eBook PDF) Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach 8th
engineering-approach-8th/
Contents
1 Getting Started 1
2.2.7 Further Examples of Work in Quasiequilibrium
Processes 35
2.2.8 Generalized Forces and Displacements 36
1.1 Using Thermodynamics 2 2.3 Broadening Our Understanding of Energy 36
1.2 Defining Systems 2 2.4 Energy Transfer by Heat 37
1.2.1 Closed Systems 4 2.4.1 Sign Convention, Notation, and Heat Transfer Rate 38
1.2.2 Control Volumes 4 2.4.2 Heat Transfer Modes 39
1.2.3 Selecting the System Boundary 5 2.4.3 Closing Comments 40
1.3 Describing Systems and Their Behavior 6 2.5 Energy Accounting: Energy Balance for Closed
1.3.1
Macroscopic and Microscopic Views Systems 41
of Thermodynamics 6 2.5.1 Important Aspects of the Energy Balance 43
1.3.2 Property, State, and Process 7 2.5.2 Using the Energy Balance: Processes of Closed
1.3.3 Extensive and Intensive Properties 7 Systems 44
1.3.4 Equilibrium 8 2.5.3 Using the Energy Rate Balance: Steady-State
1.4 Measuring Mass, Length, Time, and Force 8 Operation 47
1.4.1 SI Units 9 2.5.4 Using the Energy Rate Balance: Transient Operation 49
1.4.2 English Engineering Units 10 2.6 Energy Analysis of Cycles 50
1.5 Specific Volume 11 2.6.1 Cycle Energy Balance 51
1.6 Pressure 12 2.6.2 Power Cycles 52
2.6.3 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 52
1.6.1 Pressure Measurement 12
1.6.2 Buoyancy 14 2.7 Energy Storage 53
1.6.3 Pressure Units 14 2.7.1 Overview 54
1.7 Temperature 15 2.7.2 Storage Technologies 54
1.7.1 Thermometers 16 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 55
1.7.2 Kelvin and Rankine Temperature Scales 17
1.7.3 Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales 17
1.8 Engineering Design and Analysis 19 3 Evaluating Properties 57
1.8.1 Design 19
1.8.2 Analysis 19 3.1 Getting Started 58
1.9 Methodology for Solving Thermodynamics 3.1.1 Phase and Pure Substance 58
3.1.2 Fixing the State 58
Problems 20
3.2 p–υ –T Relation 59
Chapter Summary and Study Guide 22
3.2.1 p–υ –T Surface 60
3.2.2 Projections of the p–υ –T Surface 61
2 Energy and the First Law 3.3 Studying Phase Change 63
of Thermodynamics 23 3.4 Retrieving Thermodynamic Properties 65
3.5 Evaluating Pressure, Specific Volume,
2.1 Reviewing Mechanical Concepts of Energy 24 and Temperature 66
2.1.1 Work and Kinetic Energy 24 3.5.1 Vapor and Liquid Tables 66
2.1.2 Potential Energy 25 3.5.2 Saturation Tables 68
2.1.3 Units for Energy 26 3.6 Evaluating Specific Internal Energy
2.1.4 Conservation of Energy in Mechanics 27 and Enthalpy 72
2.1.5 Closing Comment 27
3.6.1 Introducing Enthalpy 72
2.2 Broadening Our Understanding of Work 27 3.6.2 Retrieving u and h Data 72
2.2.1 Sign Convention and Notation 28 3.6.3 Reference States and Reference Values 74
2.2.2 Power 29 3.7 Evaluating Properties Using Computer
2.2.3 Modeling Expansion or Compression Work 30 Software 74
2.2.4
Expansion or Compression Work in Actual
Processes 31 3.8 Applying the Energy Balance Using Property
2.2.5
Expansion or Compression Work in Tables and Software 76
Quasiequilibrium Processes 31 3.8.1 Using Property Tables 77
2.2.6 Further Examples of Work 34 3.8.2 Using Software 79
Contents vii
3.9 Introducing Specific Heats cυ and cp 80 4.6 Nozzles and Diffusers 117
3.10 Evaluating Properties of Liquids and 4.6.1 Nozzle and Diffuser Modeling Considerations 118
Solids 82 4.6.2 Application to a Steam Nozzle 118
3.10.1 Approximations for Liquids Using Saturated 4.7 Turbines 119
Liquid Data 82 4.7.1 Steam and Gas Turbine Modeling
3.10.2 Incompressible Substance Model 83 Considerations 120
3.11 Generalized Compressibility Chart 85 4.7.2 Application to a Steam Turbine 121
–
3.11.1 Universal Gas Constant, R 85 4.8 Compressors and Pumps 122
3.11.2 Compressibility Factor, Z 85 4.8.1 Compressor and Pump Modeling
3.11.3 Generalized Compressibility Data, Z Chart 86 Considerations 122
3.11.4 Equations of State 89 4.8.2 Applications to an Air Compressor
3.12 Introducing the Ideal Gas Model 90 and a Pump System 122
4.8.3 Pumped-Hydro and Compressed-Air Energy
3.12.1 Ideal Gas Equation of State 90
Storage 125
3.12.2 Ideal Gas Model 90
3.12.3 Microscopic Interpretation 92 4.9 Heat Exchangers 126
3.13 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heats 4.9.1 Heat Exchanger Modeling Considerations 127
of Ideal Gases 92 4.9.2 Applications to a Power Plant Condenser and
Computer Cooling 128
3.13.1 ∆u, ∆h, cυ , and cp Relations 92
3.13.2 Using Specific Heat Functions 93 4.10 Throttling Devices 130
3.14 Applying the Energy Balance Using Ideal 4.10.1 Throttling Device Modeling Considerations 130
4.10.2 Using a Throttling Calorimeter to Determine
Gas Tables, Constant Specific Heats, and
Quality 131
Software 95
3.14.1 Using Ideal Gas Tables 95 4.11 System Integration 132
3.14.2 Using Constant Specific Heats 97 4.12 Transient Analysis 135
3.14.3 Using Computer Software 98 4.12.1 The Mass Balance in Transient Analysis 135
3.15 Polytropic Process Relations 100 4.12.2 The Energy Balance in Transient Analysis 135
4.12.3 Transient Analysis Applications 136
4 Control Volume Analysis Using

Energy 105 5 The Second Law of
Thermodynamics 145
4.1 Conservation of Mass for a Control Volume 106
4.1.1 Developing the Mass Rate Balance 106
5.1 Introducing the Second Law 146
4.1.2 Evaluating the Mass Flow Rate 107
5.1.1 Motivating the Second Law 146
4.2 Forms of the Mass Rate Balance 107 5.1.2 Opportunities for Developing Work 147
4.2.1 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Mass Rate 5.1.3 Aspects of the Second Law 148
Balance 108
5.2 Statements of the Second Law 149
4.2.2 Steady-State Form of the Mass Rate Balance 109
4.2.3 Integral Form of the Mass Rate Balance 109 5.2.1 Clausius Statement of the Second Law 149
5.2.2 Kelvin–Planck Statement of the Second Law 149
4.3 Applications of the Mass Rate Balance 109 5.2.3 Entropy Statement of the Second Law 151
4.3.1 Steady-State Application 109 5.2.4 Second Law Summary 151
4.3.2 Time-Dependent (Transient) Application 110
5.3 Irreversible and Reversible Processes 151
4.4 Conservation of Energy for a Control Volume 112 5.3.1 Irreversible Processes 152
4.4.1 Developing the Energy Rate Balance for a Control 5.3.2 Demonstrating Irreversibility 153
Volume 112 5.3.3 Reversible Processes 155
4.4.2 Evaluating Work for a Control Volume 113 5.3.4 Internally Reversible Processes 156
4.4.3 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Control Volume
5.4 Interpreting the Kelvin–Planck Statement 157
Energy Rate Balance 114
4.4.4 Integral Form of the Control Volume Energy Rate 5.5 Applying the Second Law to Thermodynamic
Balance 114 Cycles 158
4.5 Analyzing Control Volumes at Steady State 115 5.6 Second Law Aspects of Power Cycles Interacting
4.5.1 Steady-State Forms of the Mass and Energy Rate with Two Reservoirs 159
Balances 115 5.6.1 Limit on Thermal Efficiency 159
4.5.2 Modeling Considerations for Control Volumes at 5.6.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for Power
Steady State 116 Cycles 160
viii Contents
5.7 Second Law Aspects of Refrigeration and Heat 6.9 Entropy Rate Balance for Control Volumes 200
Pump Cycles Interacting with Two Reservoirs 161 6.10 Rate Balances for Control Volumes at Steady
5.7.1 Limits on Coefficients of Performance 161 State 201
5.7.2
Corollaries of the Second Law for Refrigeration and 6.10.1 One-Inlet, One-Exit Control Volumes at Steady
Heat Pump Cycles 162 State 202
5.8 The Kelvin and International Temperature 6.10.2 Applications of the Rate Balances to Control
Scales 163 Volumes at Steady State 202
5.8.1 The Kelvin Scale 163 6.11 Isentropic Processes 207
5.8.2 The Gas Thermometer 164 6.11.1 General Considerations 207
5.8.3 International Temperature Scale 165 6.11.2 Using the Ideal Gas Model 208
5.9 Maximum Performance Measures for Cycles 6.11.3 Illustrations: Isentropic Processes of Air 210
Operating Between Two Reservoirs 166 6.12 Isentropic Efficiencies of Turbines, Nozzles,
5.9.1 Power Cycles 167 Compressors, and Pumps 212
5.9.2 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 168 6.12.1 Isentropic Turbine Efficiency 212
5.10 Carnot Cycle 171 6.12.2 Isentropic Nozzle Efficiency 215
5.10.1 Carnot Power Cycle 171 6.12.3 Isentropic Compressor and Pump Efficiencies 216
5.10.2 Carnot Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 172 6.13 Heat Transfer and Work in Internally Reversible,
5.10.3 Carnot Cycle Summary 173 Steady-State Flow Processes 218
5.11 Clausius Inequality 173 6.13.1 Heat Transfer 218
6.13.2 Work 219
6.13.3 Work in Polytropic Processes 220
6 Using Entropy 177
6.1 Entropy–A System Property 178 7 Exergy Analysis 225

6.1.1 Defining Entropy Change 178
6.1.2 Evaluating Entropy 179 7.1 Introducing Exergy 226
6.1.3 Entropy and Probability 179
7.2 Conceptualizing Exergy 227
6.2 Retrieving Entropy Data 179 7.2.1 Environment and Dead State 227
6.2.1 Vapor Data 180 7.2.2 Defining Exergy 228
6.2.2 Saturation Data 180 7.3 Exergy of a System 228
6.2.3 Liquid Data 180
7.3.1 Exergy Aspects 230
6.2.4 Computer Retrieval 181
7.3.2 Specific Exergy 230
6.2.5 Using Graphical Entropy Data 181
7.3.3 Exergy Change 232
6.3 Introducing the T dS Equations 182
7.4 Closed System Exergy Balance 233
6.4 Entropy Change of an Incompressible 7.4.1 Introducing the Closed System Exergy Balance 233
Substance 184 7.4.2 Closed System Exergy Rate Balance 236
6.5 Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas 184 7.4.3 Exergy Destruction and Loss 237
6.5.1 Using Ideal Gas Tables 185 7.4.4 Exergy Accounting 239
6.5.2 Assuming Constant Specific Heats 186 7.5 Exergy Rate Balance for Control Volumes at Steady
6.5.3 Computer Retrieval 187 State 240
6.6 Entropy Change in Internally Reversible Processes 7.5.1 Comparing Energy and Exergy for Control Volumes
of Closed Systems 187 at Steady State 242
6.6.1 Area Representation of Heat Transfer 188 7.5.2 Evaluating Exergy Destruction in Control Volumes at
6.6.2 Carnot Cycle Application 188 Steady State 243
6.6.3
Work and Heat Transfer in an Internally Reversible 7.5.3 Exergy Accounting in Control Volumes at Steady
Process of Water 189 State 246
6.7 Entropy Balance for Closed Systems 190 7.6 Exergetic (Second Law) Efficiency 249
6.7.1 Interpreting the Closed System Entropy Balance 191 7.6.1 Matching End Use to Source 249
6.7.2 Evaluating Entropy Production and Transfer 192 7.6.2 Exergetic Efficiencies of Common Components 251
6.7.3
Applications of the Closed System Entropy 7.6.3 Using Exergetic Efficiencies 253
Balance 192 7.7 Thermoeconomics 253
6.7.4 Closed System Entropy Rate Balance 195 7.7.1 Costing 254
6.8 Directionality of Processes 196 7.7.2 Using Exergy in Design 254
7.7.3 Exergy Costing of a Cogeneration System 256
6.8.1 Increase of Entropy Principle 196
6.8.2 Statistical Interpretation of Entropy 198 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 260
Contents ix
8 Vapor Power Systems 261

9.12.2 Velocity of Sound and Mach Number 351
9.12.3 Determining Stagnation State Properties 353
9.13 Analyzing One-Dimensional Steady Flow in Nozzles
8.1 Introducing Vapor Power Plants 266 and Diffusers 353
8.2 The Rankine Cycle 268 9.13.1 Exploring the Effects of Area Change in Subsonic
8.2.1 Modeling the Rankine Cycle 269 and Supersonic Flows 353
8.2.2 Ideal Rankine Cycle 271 9.13.2 Effects of Back Pressure on Mass Flow Rate 356
8.2.3 Effects of Boiler and Condenser Pressures on the 9.13.3 Flow Across a Normal Shock 358
Rankine Cycle 274
9.14 Flow in Nozzles and Diffusers of Ideal Gases with
8.2.4 Principal Irreversibilities and Losses 276
Constant Specific Heats 359
8.3 Improving Performance—Superheat, Reheat, and 9.14.1 Isentropic Flow Functions 359
Supercritical 279 9.14.2 Normal Shock Functions 362
8.4 Improving Performance—Regenerative Vapor Chapter Summary and Study Guide 366
Power Cycle 284
8.4.1 Open Feedwater Heaters 284
8.4.2 Closed Feedwater Heaters 287
10 Refrigeration and Heat Pump
8.4.3 Multiple Feedwater Heaters 289 Systems 369
8.5 Other Vapor Power Cycle Aspects 292
8.5.1 Working Fluids 292 10.1 Vapor Refrigeration Systems 370
8.5.2 Cogeneration 293 10.1.1 Carnot Refrigeration Cycle 370
8.5.3 Carbon Capture and Storage 295 10.1.2 Departures from the Carnot Cycle 371
8.6 Case Study: Exergy Accounting of a Vapor Power 10.2 Analyzing Vapor-Compression Refrigeration
Plant 296 Systems 372
Chapter Summary and Study Guide 301 10.2.1 Evaluating Principal Work and Heat Transfers 372
10.2.2 Performance of Ideal Vapor-Compression
Systems 373
9 Gas Power Systems 303 10.2.3
Performance of Actual Vapor-Compression
Systems 375
10.2.4 The p–h Diagram 378
9.1 Introducing Engine Terminology 304
10.3 Selecting Refrigerants 379
9.2 Air-Standard Otto Cycle 306 10.4 Other Vapor-Compression Applications 382
9.3 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle 311 10.4.1 Cold Storage 382
9.4 Air-Standard Dual Cycle 314 10.4.2 Cascade Cycles 383
10.4.3 Multistage Compression with Intercooling 384
9.5 Modeling Gas Turbine Power Plants 317
10.5 Absorption Refrigeration 385
9.6 Air-Standard Brayton Cycle 318
10.6 Heat Pump Systems 386
9.6.1 Evaluating Principal Work and Heat Transfers 318
10.6.1 Carnot Heat Pump Cycle 387
9.6.2 Ideal Air-Standard Brayton Cycle 319
10.6.2 Vapor-Compression Heat Pumps 387
9.6.3 Considering Gas Turbine Irreversibilities and
Losses 324 10.7 Gas Refrigeration Systems 390
9.7 Regenerative Gas Turbines 326 10.7.1 Brayton Refrigeration Cycle 390
10.7.2 Additional Gas Refrigeration Applications 394
9.8 Regenerative Gas Turbines with Reheat and 10.7.3 Automotive Air Conditioning Using Carbon
Intercooling 329 Dioxide 395
9.8.1 Gas Turbines with Reheat 329 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 396
9.8.2 Compression with Intercooling 331
9.8.3 Reheat and Intercooling 335
9.8.4 Ericsson and Stirling Cycles 337 11 Thermodynamic Relations 399
9.9 Gas Turbine–Based Combined Cycles 339

11.1 Using Equations of State 400
9.9.1 Combined Gas Turbine–Vapor Power Cycle 339
9.9.2 Cogeneration 344 11.1.1 Getting Started 400
11.1.2 Two-Constant Equations of State 401
9.10 Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle Power 11.1.3 Multiconstant Equations of State 404
Plants 344
11.2 Important Mathematical Relations 405
9.11 Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion 346 11.3 Developing Property Relations 408
9.12 Compressible Flow Preliminaries 350 11.3.1 Principal Exact Differentials 408
9.12.1 Momentum Equation for Steady One-Dimensional 11.3.2 Property Relations from Exact Differentials 409
Flow 350 11.3.3 Fundamental Thermodynamic Functions 413
x Contents
11.4 Evaluating Changes in Entropy, Internal Energy, 12.7 Psychrometric Charts 484
and Enthalpy 414 12.8 Analyzing Air-Conditioning Processes 486
11.4.1 Considering Phase Change 414 12.8.1 Applying Mass and Energy Balances to
11.4.2 Considering Single-Phase Regions 417 Air-Conditioning Systems 486
11.5 Other Thermodynamic Relations 422 12.8.2 Conditioning Moist Air at Constant Composition 488
11.5.1 Volume Expansivity, Isothermal and Isentropic 12.8.3 Dehumidification 490
Compressibility 422 12.8.4 Humidification 493
11.5.2 Relations Involving Specific Heats 423 12.8.5 Evaporative Cooling 494
11.5.3 Joule–Thomson Coefficient 426 12.8.6 Adiabatic Mixing of Two Moist Air Streams 496
11.6 Constructing Tables of Thermodynamic 12.9 Cooling Towers 499

Properties 428 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 501
11.6.1 Developing Tables by Integration Using p–υ –T and
Specific Heat Data 428
11.6.2 Developing Tables by Differentiating a
Fundamental Thermodynamic Function 430
13 Reacting Mixtures and
11.7 Generalized Charts for Enthalpy and Entropy 432
Combustion 503
11.8 p–υ –T Relations for Gas Mixtures 438

13.1 Introducing Combustion 504
11.9 Analyzing Multicomponent Systems 442 13.1.1 Fuels 505
11.9.1 Partial Molal Properties 443 13.1.2 Modeling Combustion Air 505
11.9.2 Chemical Potential 445 13.1.3 Determining Products of Combustion 508
11.9.3 Fundamental Thermodynamic Functions 13.1.4 Energy and Entropy Balances for Reacting
for Multicomponent Systems 446 Systems 511
11.9.4 Fugacity 448
13.2 Conservation of Energy—Reacting Systems 511
11.9.5 Ideal Solution 451
11.9.6 Chemical Potential for Ideal Solutions 452 13.2.1 Evaluating Enthalpy for Reacting Systems 511
13.2.2 Energy Balances for Reacting Systems 514
Chapter Summary and Study Guide 453 13.2.3 Enthalpy of Combustion and Heating Values 520
13.3 Determining the Adiabatic Flame Temperature 523
12 Ideal Gas Mixture and 13.3.1 Using Table Data 523
Psychrometric Applications 457 13.3.2 Using Computer Software 523
13.3.3 Closing Comments 525
12.1 Describing Mixture Composition 458 13.4 Fuel Cells 526

13.4.1 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell 527
12.2 Relating p, V, and T for Ideal Gas Mixtures 461 13.4.2 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell 529
12.3 Evaluating U, H, S, and Specific Heats 463 13.5 Absolute Entropy and the Third Law of
12.3.1 Evaluating U and H 463 Thermodynamics 530
12.3.2 Evaluating cυ and cp 463
13.5.1 Evaluating Entropy for Reacting Systems 530
12.3.3 Evaluating S 464
13.5.2 Entropy Balances for Reacting Systems 531
12.3.4 Working on a Mass Basis 464
13.5.3 Evaluating Gibbs Function for Reacting Systems 534
12.4 Analyzing Systems Involving Mixtures 465
13.6 Conceptualizing Chemical Exergy 536
12.4.1 Mixture Processes at Constant Composition 465
13.6.1 Working Equations for Chemical Exergy 538
12.4.2 Mixing of Ideal Gases 470
13.6.2 Evaluating Chemical Exergy for Several Cases 538
12.5 Introducing Psychrometric Principles 474 13.6.3 Closing Comments 540
12.5.1 Moist Air 474 13.7 Standard Chemical Exergy 540
12.5.2 Humidity Ratio, Relative Humidity, Mixture
13.7.1 Standard Chemical Exergy of a Hydrocarbon:
Enthalpy, and Mixture Entropy 475
CaHb 541
12.5.3 Modeling Moist Air in Equilibrium with Liquid
13.7.2 Standard Chemical Exergy of Other Substances 544
Water 477
12.5.4 Evaluating the Dew Point Temperature 478 13.8 Applying Total Exergy 545
12.5.5 Evaluating Humidity Ratio Using the 13.8.1 Calculating Total Exergy 545
Adiabatic-Saturation Temperature 482 13.8.2 Calculating Exergetic Efficiencies of Reacting
12.6 Psychrometers: Measuring the Wet-Bulb and Systems 549
Dry-Bulb Temperatures 483 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 552
Contents xi
14 Chemical and Phase 14.4.3 Ionization 574

14.4.4 Simultaneous Reactions 575
Equilibrium 555 14.5 Equilibrium between Two Phases of a Pure
Substance 578
14.1 Introducing Equilibrium Criteria 556 14.6 Equilibrium of Multicomponent, Multiphase
14.1.1 Chemical Potential and Equilibrium 557 Systems 579
14.1.2 Evaluating Chemical Potentials 559 14.6.1 Chemical Potential and Phase Equilibrium 580
14.2 Equation of Reaction Equilibrium 560 14.6.2 Gibbs Phase Rule 582
14.2.1 Introductory Case 560 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 583
14.2.2 General Case 561
14.3 Calculating Equilibrium Compositions 562 Appendix Tables, Figures, and
14.3.1 Equilibrium Constant for Ideal Gas Mixtures 562
14.3.2
Illustrations of the Calculation of Equilibrium Charts A-1
Compositions for Reacting Ideal Gas Mixtures 565
14.3.3 Equilibrium Constant for Mixtures and Solutions 569 Index to Tables in SI Units A-1
14.4 Further Examples of the Use of the Equilibrium Index to Tables in English Units A-49
Constant 570
Index to Figures and Charts A-97
14.4.1 Determining Equilibrium Flame
Temperature 570
14.4.2 Van’t Hoff Equation 573 Index I-1
Chapter 1
Getting Started
Introductory Concepts
and Definitions
© digitalskillet/iStockphoto
Medical professionals rely on measurements of pressure
and temperature, introduced in Secs. 1.6 and 1.7.
Engineering Context LEARNINg outcomes
When you complete your study of this

Although aspects of thermodynamics have been studied since ancient
times, the formal study of thermodynamics began in the early nineteenth chapter, you will be able to...
century through consideration of the capacity of hot objects to produce xplain several fundamental concepts used
• E
work. Today the scope is much larger. Thermodynamics now provides throughout the book, including closed
essential concepts and methods for addressing critical twenty-first-century system, control volume, boundary and
issues, such as using fossil fuels more effectively, fostering renewable
surroundings, property, state, process, the
energy technologies, and developing more fuel-efficient means of trans-
distinction between extensive and intensive
portation. Also critical are the related issues of greenhouse gas emissions
and air and water pollution. properties, and equilibrium.
Thermodynamics is both a branch of science and an engineering • I dentify SI and English Engineering units,
specialty. The scientist is normally interested in gaining a fundamental including units for specific volume, pressure,
understanding of the physical and chemical behavior of fixed quantities and temperature.
of matter at rest and uses the principles of thermodynamics to relate the
• D
escribe the relationship among the Kelvin,
properties of matter. Engineers are generally interested in studying sys-
Rankine, Celsius, and Fahrenheit temperature
tems and how they interact with their surroundings. To facilitate this,
thermodynamics has been extended to the study of systems through scales.
which matter flows, including bioengineering and biomedical systems. • A
pply appropriate unit conversion factors
The objective of this chapter is to introduce you to some of the during calculations.
fundamental concepts and definitions that are used in our study of en- • A
pply the problem-solving methodology used
gineering thermodynamics. In most instances this introduction is brief,
in this book.
and further elaboration is provided in subsequent chapters.
1
2 Chapt er 1 Getting Started
1.1 Using Thermodynamics

Engineers use principles drawn from thermodynamics and other engineering sciences, includ-
ing fluid mechanics and heat and mass transfer, to analyze and design devices intended to meet
human needs. Throughout the twentieth century, engineering applications of thermodynamics
helped pave the way for significant improvements in our quality of life with advances in major
areas such as surface transportation, air travel, space flight, electricity generation and trans-
mission, building heating and cooling, and improved medical practices. The wide realm of
these applications is suggested by Table 1.1.
In the twenty-first century, engineers will create the technology needed to achieve
a sustainable future. Thermodynamics will continue to advance human well-being by
addressing looming societal challenges owing to declining supplies of energy resources: oil,
natural gas, coal, and fissionable material; effects of global climate change; and burgeoning
population. Life in the United States is expected to change in several important respects by
mid-century. In the area of power use, for example, electricity will play an even greater role
than today. Table 1.2 provides predictions of other changes experts say will be observed.
If this vision of mid-century life is correct, it will be necessary to evolve quickly from
our present energy posture. As was the case in the twentieth century, thermodynamics will
contribute significantly to meeting the challenges of the twenty-first century, including using
fossil fuels more effectively, advancing renewable energy technologies, and developing more
energy-efficient transportation systems, buildings, and industrial practices. Thermodynamics
also will play a role in mitigating global climate change, air pollution, and water pollution.
Applications will be observed in bioengineering, biomedical systems, and the deployment of
nanotechnology. This book provides the tools needed by specialists working in all such fields.
For nonspecialists, the book provides background for making decisions about technology re-
lated to thermodynamics—on the job, as informed citizens, and as government leaders and
policy makers.
1.2 Defining Systems

The key initial step in any engineering analysis is to describe precisely what is being studied.
In mechanics, if the motion of a body is to be determined, normally the first step is to define
a free body and identify all the forces exerted on it by other bodies. Newton’s second law of
motion is then applied. In thermodynamics the term system is used to identify the subject of
the analysis. Once the system is defined and the relevant interactions with other systems are
identified, one or more physical laws or relations are applied.
system The system is whatever we want to study. It may be as simple as a free body or as complex
as an entire chemical refinery. We may want to study a quantity of matter contained within a
closed, rigid-walled tank, or we may want to consider something such as a pipeline through
which natural gas flows. The composition of the matter inside the system may be fixed or may
be changing through chemical or nuclear reactions. The shape or volume of the system being
analyzed is not necessarily constant, as when a gas in a cylinder is compressed by a piston or
a balloon is inflated.
surroundings Everything external to the system is considered to be part of the system’s s urroundings.
boundary The system is distinguished from its surroundings by a specified boundary, which
may be at rest or in motion. You will see that the interactions between a system and its
surroundings, which take place across the boundary, play an important part in engineering
thermodynamics.
Two basic kinds of systems are distinguished in this book. These are referred to, respec-
tively, as closed systems and control volumes. A closed system refers to a fixed quantity of
matter, whereas a control volume is a region of space through which mass may flow. The term
control mass is sometimes used in place of closed system, and the term open system is used
interchangeably with control volume. When the terms control mass and control volume are
used, the system boundary is often referred to as a control surface.
1.2 Defining Systems 3
TA B L E 1.1 Selected Areas of Application of Engineering Thermodynamics
Aircraft and rocket propulsion

Alternative energy systems
Fuel cells
Geothermal systems
Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converters
Ocean thermal, wave, and tidal power generation
Solar-activated heating, cooling, and power generation
Thermoelectric and thermionic devices Solar-cell arrays
Wind turbines
Automobile engines
Bioengineering applications
Biomedical applications
Combustion systems Solar-cell arrays
Compressors, pumps
Cooling of electronic equipment
Cryogenic systems, gas separation, and liquefaction
Fossil and nuclear-fueled power stations
Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning systems Surfaces with thermal
Absorption refrigeration and heat pumps control coatings
Vapor-compression refrigeration and heat pumps International Space Station
Steam and gas turbines
Power production
Propulsion
Surfaces with thermal Steam generator
control coatings
International Space Station
Electric
Combustion Stack power
gas cleanup
Steam generator
Turbine
Electric Coal Air Steam C
Generator t
Combustion Stack power
gas cleanup Condenser
Ash
Condensate
Cooling water
Turbine
Coal Air Steam Refrigerator Cooling Electrical power plant
Generator tower
Condenser
Ash
Condensate
Cooling water
Fuel in
Refrigerator Electrical power plant Vehicle engine
Compressor Combustor
Turbine
Trachea
Air in Lung
Hot gases
out
Fuel in
Compressor Combustor
Turbine
Air in Hot gases Turbojet engine

out
Heart
Turbojet engine Biomedical applications

TAB L E 1. 2 Predictions of Life in the United States in 2050
At home
• Homes are constructed better to reduce heating and cooling needs.
• Homes have systems for electronically monitoring and regulating energy use.
• Appliances and heating and air-conditioning systems are more energy-efficient.
• Use of solar energy for space and water heating is common.
• More food is produced locally.
Transportation
• Plug-in hybrid vehicles and all-electric vehicles dominate.
• One-quarter of transport fuel is biofuels.
• Use of public transportation within and between cities is common.
• An expanded passenger railway system is widely used.
Lifestyle
• Efficient energy-use practices are utilized throughout society.
• Recycling is widely practiced, including recycling of water.
• Distance learning is common at most educational levels.
• Telecommuting and teleconferencing are the norm.
• The Internet is predominately used for consumer and business commerce.
Power generation
• Electricity plays a greater role throughout society.
• W
ind, solar, and other renewable technologies contribute a significant share of the nation’s
electricity needs.
• A
mix of conventional fossil-fueled and nuclear power plants provides a smaller, but still
significant, share of the nation’s electricity needs.
• A smart and secure national power transmission grid is in place.
1.2.1 Closed Systems

closed system A closed system is defined when a particular quantity of matter is under study. A closed sys-
tem always contains the same matter. There can be no transfer of mass across its boundary. A
special type of closed system that does not interact in any way with its surroundings is called
isolated system an isolated system.
Figure 1.1 shows a gas in a piston–cylinder assembly. When the valves are closed, we can
consider the gas to be a closed system. The boundary lies just inside the piston and cylinder
walls, as shown by the dashed lines on the figure. Since the portion of the boundary between
Boundary
Gas the gas and the piston moves with the piston, the system volume varies. No mass would cross
this or any other part of the boundary. If combustion occurs, the composition of the system
changes as the initial combustible mixture becomes products of combustion.
1.2.2 Control Volumes

In subsequent sections of this book, we perform thermodynamic analyses of devices such as
turbines and pumps through which mass flows. These analyses can be conducted in principle
by studying a particular quantity of matter, a closed system, as it passes through the device.
In most cases it is simpler to think instead in terms of a given region of space through which
mass flows. With this approach, a region within a prescribed boundary is studied. The region
Fig. 1.1 Closed system: A gas is called a control volume. Mass crosses the boundary of a control volume.
in a piston–cylinder assembly. A diagram of an engine is shown in Fig. 1.2a. The dashed line defines a control volume
that surrounds the engine. Observe that air, fuel, and exhaust gases cross the boundary. A
control volume schematic such as in Fig. 1.2b often suffices for engineering analysis. Control volume applica-
tions in biology and botany are illustrated is Figs. 1.3 and 1.4 respectively.
1.2 Defining Systems 5
Fuel in
Air in Air in
Driveshaft
Exhaust
gas out
Fuel in
Driveshaft
Exhaust
gas out
Boundary (control surface)
Boundary (control surface)
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.2 Example of a control volume (open system). An automobile engine.
1.2.3 Selecting the System Boundary

The system boundary should be delineated carefully before proceeding with any thermody-
namic analysis. However, the same physical phenomena often can be analyzed in terms of
alternative choices of the system, boundary, and surroundings. The choice of a particular
boundary defining a particular system depends heavily on the convenience it allows in the
subsequent analysis.
In general, the choice of system boundary is governed by two considerations: (1) what
is known about a possible system, particularly at its boundaries, and (2) the objective of the
analysis.
For Example
Figure 1.5 shows a sketch of an air compressor connected to a storage tank. The system
boundary shown on the figure encloses the compressor, tank, and all of the piping. This
boundary might be selected if the electrical power input is known, and the objective of
the analysis is to determine how long the compressor must operate for the pressure in the
tank to rise to a specified value. Since mass crosses the boundary, the system would be a
control volume. A control volume enclosing only the compressor might be chosen if the
condition of the air entering and exiting the compressor is known, and the objective is to
determine the electric power input.
Ingestion Solar
CO2, other gases
(food, drink) radiation
CO2, other gases Air
Air Lungs
CO2 O2 Boundary
Ingestion Gut (control surface)
(food, drink) Boundary CO2
(control Circulatory system
Body O2 Photosynthesis
surface)
tissues (leaf)
Kidneys
Excretion
(waste products)
Heart
Excretion Excretion
(undigested food) (urine) H2O, minerals
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.4 Example of a control volume (open
Fig. 1.3 Example of a control volume (open system) in biology. system) in botany.
Air
Tank
Air compressor
Fig. 1.5 Air compressor and

+
storage tank. –
TAKE NOTE...
Animation Animations reinforce many of the text presentations. You can view these animations by
going to the e-book, WileyPLUS course, or student companion site for this book.
System Types Tabs a, Animations are keyed to specific content by an adjacent icon.
b, and c The first of these icons appears here. In this example, the animation name “System
Types” refers to the animation content while “Tabs a, b, and c” refers to the tabs of the
animation recommended for viewing now to enhance your understanding.
1.3 Describing Systems and Their Behavior

Engineers are interested in studying systems and how they interact with their surroundings. In
this section, we introduce several terms and concepts used to describe systems and how they
behave.
1.3.1Macroscopic and Microscopic Views

of Thermodynamics
Systems can be studied from a macroscopic or a microscopic point of view. The macro-
scopic approach to thermodynamics is concerned with the gross or overall behavior. This
is sometimes called classical thermodynamics. No model of the structure of matter at the
molecular, atomic, and subatomic levels is directly used in classical thermodynamics.
Although the behavior of systems is affected by molecular structure, classical thermody-
namics allows important aspects of system behavior to be evaluated from observations of
the overall system.
The microscopic approach to thermodynamics, known as statistical thermodynamics, is
concerned directly with the structure of matter. The objective of statistical thermodynamics is
to characterize by statistical means the average behavior of the particles making up a system
of interest and relate this information to the observed macroscopic behavior of the system.
For applications involving lasers, plasmas, high-speed gas flows, chemical kinetics, very low
temperatures (cryogenics), and others, the methods of statistical thermodynamics are essen-
tial. The microscopic approach is used in this text to interpret internal energy in Chap. 2 and
entropy in Chap 6. Moreover, as noted in Chap. 3, the microscopic approach is instrumental in
developing certain data, for example ideal gas specific heats.
For a wide range of engineering applications, classical thermodynamics not only pro-
vides a considerably more direct approach for analysis and design but also requires far fewer
mathematical complications. For these reasons the macroscopic viewpoint is the one adopted
in this book. Finally, relativity effects are not significant for the systems under consideration
in this book.
1.3 Describing Systems and Their Behavior 7
1.3.2 Property, State, and Process

To describe a system and predict its behavior requires knowledge of its properties and how
those properties are related. A property is a macroscopic characteristic of a system such as property
mass, volume, energy, pressure, and temperature to which a numerical value can be assigned
at a given time without knowledge of the previous behavior (history) of the system.
The word state refers to the condition of a system as described by its properties. Since state
there are normally relations among the properties of a system, the state often can be specified
by providing the values of a subset of the properties. All other properties can be determined
in terms of these few.
When any of the properties of a system changes, the state changes and the system is said
to undergo a process. A process is a transformation from one state to another. If a system process
exhibits the same values of its properties at two different times, it is in the same state at these
times. A system is said to be at steady state if none of its properties changes with time. steady state
Many properties are considered during the course of our study of engineering thermo-
dynamics. Thermodynamics also deals with quantities that are not properties, such as mass
flow rates and energy transfers by work and heat. Additional examples of quantities that are Animation
not properties are provided in subsequent chapters. For a way to distinguish properties from Property, State and
nonproperties, see the following box. Process Tab a
Distinguishing Properties from Nonproperties if the value of a quantity is independent of the process between two
states, then that quantity is the change in a property. This provides a
At a given state, each property has a definite value that can be assigned test for determining whether a quantity is a property: A quantity is
without knowledge of how the system arrived at that state. The a property if, and only if, its change in value between two states is
change in value of a property as the system is altered from one state independent of the process. It follows that if the value of a particu-
to another is determined, therefore, solely by the two end states and lar quantity depends on the details of the process, and not solely on
is independent of the particular way the change of state occurred. the end states, that quantity cannot be a property.
The change is independent of the details of the process. Conversely,
1.3.3 Extensive and Intensive Properties

Thermodynamic properties can be placed in two general classes: extensive and intensive. A
property is called extensive if its value for an overall system is the sum of its values for the extensive property
parts into which the system is divided. Mass, volume, energy, and several other properties
introduced later are extensive. Extensive properties depend on the size or extent of a system.
The extensive properties of a system can change with time, and many thermodynamic anal-
yses consist mainly of carefully accounting for changes in extensive properties such as mass
and energy as a system interacts with its surroundings.
Intensive properties are not additive in the sense previously considered. Their values are intensive property
independent of the size or extent of a system and may vary from place to place within the sys-
tem at any moment. Intensive properties may be functions of both position and time, whereas
extensive properties can vary only with time. Specific volume (Sec. 1.5), pressure, and tem-
perature are important intensive properties; several other intensive properties are introduced
in subsequent chapters.
For Example
To illustrate the difference between extensive and intensive properties, consider an
amount of matter that is uniform in temperature, and imagine that it is composed of
several parts, as illustrated in Fig. 1.6. The mass of the whole is the sum of the masses
Animation
of the parts, and the overall volume is the sum of the volumes of the parts. However, the
temperature of the whole is not the sum of the temperatures of the parts; it is the same Extensive and Intensive
for each part. Mass and volume are extensive, but temperature is intensive. Properties Tab a
Fig. 1.6 Figure used to discuss

the extensive and intensive
property concepts. (a) (b)
1.3.4 Equilibrium
Classical thermodynamics places primary emphasis on equilibrium states and changes
equilibrium from one equilibrium state to another. Thus, the concept of equilibrium is fundamental. In
mechanics, equilibrium means a condition of balance maintained by an equality of opposing
forces. In thermodynamics, the concept is more far-reaching, including not only a balance
of forces but also a balance of other influences. Each kind of influence refers to a particular
aspect of thermodynamic, or complete, equilibrium. Accordingly, several types of equilib-
rium must exist individually to fulfill the condition of complete equilibrium; among these are
mechanical, thermal, phase, and chemical equilibrium.
Criteria for these four types of equilibrium are considered in subsequent discussions. For
the present, we may think of testing to see if a system is in thermodynamic equilibrium by
the following procedure: Isolate the system from its surroundings and watch for changes in its
observable properties. If there are no changes, we conclude that the system was in equilibrium
equilibrium state at the moment it was isolated. The system can be said to be at an equilibrium state.
When a system is isolated, it does not interact with its surroundings; however, its state
can change as a consequence of spontaneous events occurring internally as its intensive prop-
erties, such as temperature and pressure, tend toward uniform values. When all such changes
cease, the system is in equilibrium. At equilibrium, temperature is uniform throughout the
system. Also, pressure can be regarded as uniform throughout as long as the effect of gravity
is not significant; otherwise, a pressure variation can exist, as in a vertical column of liquid.
It is not necessary that a system undergoing a process be in equilibrium during the
process. Some or all of the intervening states may be nonequilibrium states. For many such
processes, we are limited to knowing the state before the process occurs and the state after the
process is completed.
Measuring Mass, Length,

1.4
Time, and Force

When engineering calculations are performed, it is necessary to be concerned with the units
of the physical quantities involved. A unit is any specified amount of a quantity by comparison
with which any other quantity of the same kind is measured. For example, meters, centime-
ters, kilometers, feet, inches, and miles are all units of length. Seconds, minutes, and hours are
alternative time units.
Because physical quantities are related by definitions and laws, a relatively small number
of physical quantities suffice to conceive of and measure all others. These are called primary di-
mensions. The others are measured in terms of the primary dimensions and are called secondary.
For example, if length and time were regarded as primary, velocity and area would be secondary.
A set of primary dimensions that suffice for applications in mechanics is mass, length,
and time. Additional primary dimensions are required when additional physical phenomena
come under consideration. Temperature is included for thermodynamics, and electric current
is introduced for applications involving electricity.
base unit Once a set of primary dimensions is adopted, a base unit for each primary dimension is
specified. Units for all other quantities are then derived in terms of the base units. Let us illustrate
these ideas by considering briefly two systems of units: SI units and English Engineering units.
1.4 Measuring Mass, Length, Time, and Force 9
TA B LE 1.3 Units for Mass, Length, Time, and Force
SI English
Quantity Unit Symbol Unit Symbol
mass kilogram kg pound mass lb
length meter m foot ft
time second s second s
force newton N pound force lbf
(= 1 kg ⋅ m/s )
2
(= 32.1740 lb ⋅ ft/s )
2
1.4.1 SI Units
In the present discussion we consider the SI system of units that takes mass, length, and time
as primary dimensions and regards force as secondary. SI is the abbreviation for Système
International d’Unités (International System of Units), which is the legally accepted system
in most countries. The conventions of the SI are published and controlled by an international
treaty organization. The SI base units for mass, length, and time are listed in Table 1.3 and SI base units
discussed in the following paragraphs. The SI base unit for temperature is the kelvin, K.
The SI base unit of mass is the kilogram, kg. It is equal to the mass of a particular cyl-
inder of platinum–iridium alloy kept by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures
near Paris. The mass standard for the United States is maintained by the National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST). The kilogram is the only base unit still defined relative to
a fabricated object.
The SI base unit of length is the meter (metre), m, defined as the length of the path traveled
by light in a vacuum during a specified time interval. The base unit of time is the second, s.
The second is defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation associated with
a specified transition of the cesium atom.
The SI unit of force, called the newton, is a secondary unit, defined in terms of the base
units for mass, length, and time. Newton’s second law of motion states that the net force acting
on a body is proportional to the product of the mass and the acceleration, written F ∝ ma. The
newton is defined so that the proportionality constant in the expression is equal to unity. That
is, Newton’s second law is expressed as the equality
F = ma (1.1)
The newton, N, is the force required to accelerate a mass of 1 kilogram at the rate of 1 meter
per second per second. With Eq. 1.1
1 N = (1 kg)(1 m/s2 ) = 1 kg ⋅ m/s2 (1.2)
For Example
To illustrate the use of the SI units introduced thus far, let us determine the weight in
newtons of an object whose mass is 1000 kg, at a place on Earth’s surface where the ac-
celeration due to gravity equals a standard value defined as 9.80665 m/s2. Recalling that
the weight of an object refers to the force of gravity and is calculated using the mass of the
object, m, and the local acceleration of gravity, g, with Eq. 1.1 we get
F = mg
= (1000 kg)(9.80665 m/s2 ) = 9806.65 kg ⋅ m/s2
This force can be expressed in terms of the newton by using Eq. 1.2 as a unit conversion
factor. That is,
 kg ⋅ m  1N
F =  9806.65  = 9806.65 N
 s2  1 kg ⋅ m/s2
10 Ch apter 1 Getting Started
TAKE NOTE...
Observe that in the calculation of force in newtons, the unit conversion factor is set off
by a pair of vertical lines. This device is used throughout the text to identify unit con-
versions.
TA BLE 1 .4 SI Unit Prefixes Since weight is calculated in terms of the mass and the local acceleration due to gravity,
the weight of an object can vary because of the variation of the acceleration of gravity with
Factor Prefix Symbol
location, but its mass remains constant.
12
10 tera T
9
10 giga G
For Example
106 mega M
If the object considered previously were on the surface of a planet at a point where the
103 kilo k acceleration of gravity is one-tenth of the value used in the above calculation, the mass
102 hecto h would remain the same but the weight would be one-tenth of the calculated value.
−2
10 centi c
−3
10 milli m SI units for other physical quantities are also derived in terms of the SI base units. Some
10−6 micro µ of the derived units occur so frequently that they are given special names and symbols, such
10−9 nano n as the newton. SI units for quantities pertinent to thermodynamics are given as they are intro-
−12 duced in the text. Since it is frequently necessary to work with extremely large or small values
10 pico p
when using the SI unit system, a set of standard prefixes is provided in Table 1.4 to simplify
matters. For example, km denotes kilometer, that is, 103 m.
1.4.2 English Engineering Units

Although SI units are the worldwide standard, at the present time many segments of the engi-
neering community in the United States regularly use other units. A large portion of America’s
stock of tools and industrial machines and much valuable engineering data utilize units other
than SI units. For many years to come, engineers in the United States will have to be conver-
sant with a variety of units.
In this section we consider a system of units that is commonly used in the United States,
English base units called the English Engineering system. The English base units for mass, length, and time are
listed in Table 1.3 and discussed in the following paragraphs. English units for other quantities
pertinent to thermodynamics are given as they are introduced in the text.
The base unit for length is the foot, ft, defined in terms of the meter as
1 ft = 0.3048 m (1.3)
The inch, in., is defined in terms of the foot:
12 in. = 1 ft
One inch equals 2.54 cm. Although units such as the minute and the hour are often used in
engineering, it is convenient to select the second as the English Engineering base unit for time.
The English Engineering base unit of mass is the pound mass, lb, defined in terms of the
kilogram as
1 lb = 0.45359237 kg (1.4)
The symbol lbm also may be used to denote the pound mass.
Once base units have been specified for mass, length, and time in the English Engineering
system of units, a force unit can be defined, as for the newton, using Newton’s second law
written as Eq. 1.1. From this viewpoint, the English unit of force, the pound force, lbf, is the
force required to accelerate one pound mass at 32.1740 ft/s2, which is the standard acceleration
of gravity. Substituting values into Eq. 1.1,
1 lbf = (1 lb)(32.1740 ft/s2 ) = 32.1740 lb ⋅ ft/s2 (1.5)
With this approach force is regarded as secondary.

1.5 Specific Volume 11
The pound force, lbf, is not equal to the pound mass, lb, introduced previously. Force and
mass are fundamentally different, as are their units. The double use of the word “pound” can
be confusing, so care must be taken to avoid error.
For Example
To show the use of these units in a single calculation, let us determine the weight of an object
whose mass is 1000 lb at a location where the local acceleration of gravity is 32.0 ft/s2. By
inserting values into Eq. 1.1 and using Eq. 1.5 as a unit conversion factor, we get
 ft  1 lbf
F = mg = (1000 lb)  32.0  = 994.59 lbf
 s  32.1740 lb ⋅ ft/s2
2
This calculation illustrates that the pound force is a unit of force distinct from the pound
mass, a unit of mass.
1.5 Specific Volume

Three measurable intensive properties that are particularly important in engineering thermo-
dynamics are specific volume, pressure, and temperature. Specific volume is considered in this
section. Pressure and temperature are considered in Secs. 1.6 and 1.7, respectively.
From the macroscopic perspective, the description of matter is simplified by considering
it to be distributed continuously throughout a region. The correctness of this idealization,
known as the continuum hypothesis, is inferred from the fact that for an extremely large class
of phenomena of engineering interest the resulting description of the behavior of matter is in
agreement with measured data.
When substances can be treated as continua, it is possible to speak of their intensive ther-
modynamic properties “at a point.” Thus, at any instant the density ρ at a point is defined as
 m
ρ = lim   (1.6)
V →V ′  V 
where V′ is the smallest volume for which a definite value of the ratio exists. The volume V′
Animation
contains enough particles for statistical averages to be significant. It is the smallest volume for
which the matter can be considered a continuum and is normally small enough that it can be Extensive and Intensive
considered a “point.” With density defined by Eq. 1.6, density can be described mathemati- Properties Tabs b and c
cally as a continuous function of position and time.
The density, or local mass per unit volume, is an intensive property that may vary from
point to point within a system. Thus, the mass associated with a particular volume V is deter-
mined in principle by integration

m = ∫ ρ dV (1.7)
V
and not simply as the product of density and volume.

The specific volume υ is defined as the reciprocal of the density, υ = 1/ ρ . It is the vol- specific volume
ume per unit mass. Like density, specific volume is an intensive property and may
vary from point to point. SI units for density and specific volume are kg/m3 and m3/kg, re-
spectively. They are also often expressed, respectively, as g/cm3 and cm3/g. English units
used for density and specific volume in this text are lb/ft3 and ft3/lb, respectively.
In certain applications it is convenient to express properties such as specific volume on a
molar basis rather than on a mass basis. A mole is an amount of a given substance numerically
equal to its molecular weight. In this book we express the amount of substance on a molar molar basis
basis in terms of the kilomole (kmol) or the pound mole (lbmol), as appropriate. In each case
we use
m
n= (1.8)
M
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
before the judge, or the governor of the city, and shall have the right
to collect, after the seizure of said pledge, whatever amount may be
deemed equitable, in the opinion of the judge or in that of three
respectable persons. The creditor can afterwards reserve whatever
is due him from the proceeds of the sale of the property pledged,
and the owner of the same shall be entitled to the remainder.
FLAVIUS RECESVINTUS, KING.
IV. Where a Pledge is not Restored when the Debt is Paid.
If anyone who has loaned money upon a pledge and, after the
debt has been paid at the time appointed, should delay the
restoration of the property pledged to its owner; or should sell the
same before the time appointed by law, as aforesaid; or should
appropriate it for his own use; or should bestow it upon another; or
should maliciously refuse to surrender it; he shall be compelled to
restore the pledge intact to its owner, and to pay him, in addition, half
its estimated value.[31] ]——-File:
FLAVIUS CHINTASVINTUS, KING.
V. Where a Person is Liable for many Debts, or has
Committed many Crimes.
Where an individual has been guilty of offences against many
persons, or owes debts to different creditors, he who first establishes
his claim either in writing, or by oral testimony, or by the
acknowledgment of the party himself, and has thereby shown that he
is liable to him for damages, or is indebted to him for money loaned,
shall have the preference; and said person shall be required to
satisfy the claim, regardless of its priority in time; or shall be
sentenced by the judge for the offence he has committed against the
law. Where several parties to whom he is indebted, should proceed
against him at one and the same time, he shall satisfy his obligations
to such persons according to the value of their claims; or, should he
prove insolvent, he shall serve all of them as a slave. But in the
settlement of the claims, it must be taken into consideration by the
judge, that the largest creditor is entitled to the greater portion of the
property, and that the remainder should be divided among the other
creditors as the judge himself may determine. If the debtor should
not have property sufficient to discharge his obligations, as soon as
this fact has been established the debtor shall be given up by the
judge to his creditors, to serve them, for all time, as a slave.
VI. In what way the Debt of a Person who is Dead, or any
Injury he has Committed, shall be Inquired Into.
If the guilt of any person has not been established during his
lifetime, it is undoubtedly monstrous to accuse him of crime after his
death. Where anyone, hereafter attempts to commit such acts, in
order to defraud the heir of a person who is dead, he shall be
restrained by the following law, to wit: that if any person shall accuse
one who is dead of having been guilty of violence toward himself, or
of having fraudulently deprived him of his property, or of having
destroyed it, or of having owed him money, or of having perpetrated
any unlawful act, as provided for in a former law, no credit shall
attach to his assertions, unless he shall be able to indubitably
establish their truth by competent written or oral evidence. And if he
should be able to prove his allegations, and the deceased person
concerned should have left no children, but should have bequeathed
his property to freedmen, or to other persons, the said persons shall
be forced, under the instructions of the judge, to pay, in proportion to
the property they have received, the amount due the creditor of the
deceased. And if the latter should have left children, and they should
have possession of his property, they shall be required to settle all
claims which the creditor has proved to be due him from their father.
If the aforesaid debtor should have died without making any
disposition of his estate, his nearest relatives, or those who claim, or
are in possession of, said estate, shall be liable for his pecuniary
obligations. But if he who is said to have been liable for any such
claims, should die without leaving any property, his children and his
relatives shall be free from all liability and reproach. Where the
deceased leaves some assets, but not enough to satisfy all the
claims against him, and his sons or relatives, or those who are in
possession of his estate, should be unwilling to satisfy the said
claims in full out of their own property, they must immediately deliver
to the creditor all the property which has been left by the deceased.
TITLE VII. CONCERNING THE LIBERATION OF SLAVES, AND FREEDMEN.
I. Where Slaves are Liberated, either by Instruments in Writing, or in the

Presence of Witnesses.
II. Where a Slave Belonging to One, or to Several Persons, is set at Liberty.
III. Concerning Those who Declare that they are Free.
IV. Whether he who is enjoying Liberty, can be Returned to Slavery.
V. Whether he who is Sought to be Returned to Slavery, can be Deprived of
any of his Property.
VI. Whether he who has been Declared to be Free by his Master, in Court,
can be again Reduced to Slavery, on the Demand of said Master.
VII. Where anyone, Influenced by Fear, Asserts that he is a Slave.
VIII. Where a Freeman is Claimed as a Slave; or Where a Slave Declares
Himself to be Free.
IX. For what Reasons Freedom, once Given, shall be Revoked.
X. Where a Freedman Inflicts Injury upon him who Gave him his Freedom.
XI. A Freedman shall not be Permitted to give Testimony against his Former
Master, or against the Children of the Latter.
XII. Freedmen shall not be Permitted to Testify in Court.
XIII. Concerning the Disposition of the Property of a Person who has been set
Free, should he Die without Leaving Legitimate Children.
XIV. Concerning the Conditions Imposed by a Master, where Slaves are
Liberated by an Instrument in Writing.
XV. Concerning the Liberation of Slaves belonging to the Crown.
XVI. Concerning the Property of Slaves belonging to the Crown, who have
been Liberated.
XVII. Neither Freedmen, nor their Descendants, shall either Marry, or act
Insolently towards, the Family of their Patron.
XVIII. Freedmen who have Entered any Religious Order, shall not be Returned
to the Service of their Masters.
XIX. In what manner Royal Freedmen and their Descendants shall Defend the
King, while Serving in the Army; and with whom Those in the Public
Service shall March.
XX. Concerning Freedmen who are Guilty of Transgressions.
ANCIENT LAW.
I. Where Slaves are Liberated, either by Instruments in
Writing, or in the Presence of Witnesses.
If anyone at the point of death, should liberate his slaves either
by an instrument in writing, or in the presence of witnesses; his will
shall be valid, provided it be proved within six months by from three
to five credible witnesses. And if said testator should give anything to
said freedmen, and the fact should be proved by either written or oral
evidence, said freedmen shall be entitled to said property.
II. Where a Slave Belonging to One, or to Several Persons, is

set at Liberty.
If anyone should liberate the slave of another, or one belonging to
several persons, with intent to defraud the master or masters, of said
slave, his act shall be void in law; and whoever sets free the slave of
another, shall be compelled to give one to his master in his place.
But if the master should consent to his emancipation, he shall be
entitled to two slaves in his stead; and the liberated slave shall enjoy
complete freedom; and this law, we decree, shall apply also to
female slaves. If anyone wishes to grant unconditional freedom to
any slave whom he owns in common with another, and such an act
should take place in the presence of a priest or deacon, said
ecclesiastic must prevent it; because the liberation of any slave
made under such circumstances is illegal. Where a party desires to
confer freedom upon a slave, he must first make terms with the other
owners, and obtain the absolute proprietorship of said slave, by
means of money, or by gift of their interest in him; and then, if he
should wish to set him free in the presence of a priest or a deacon,
the act of manumission shall be valid. But if anyone should confer
absolute freedom upon a slave owned in common, in the presence
of a priest or deacon, without the consent of the other owner, or
owners, he shall lose his share of said slave, and his associates
shall be entitled to the same. If, however, he should wish to dispose
of his share of said slave he shall have the right to do so.
ANCIENT LAW.
III. Concerning Those who Declare that they are Free.
If a slave should declare that he is free, the judge shall give him
protection, and afford him time to produce evidence, either written or
oral, establishing the fact of his freedom. But only such time shall be
granted that the service he owes to his master will not be lost, or his
own rights suffer injury.
ANCIENT LAW.
IV. Whether he who is enjoying Liberty can be Returned to
Slavery.
Where any person in the enjoyment of liberty is claimed by
another as a slave, he shall not be immediately delivered into the
possession of the claimant, and the judge must determine previously
whether said claimant shall give security not to treat said person with
injustice or cruelty.
V. Whether he who is Sought to be Returned to Slavery, can

be Deprived of any of his Property.
If anyone should deprive a freeman or one who has been set
free, of any property, and, afterwards, should wish to claim him as a
slave, he must restore what he deprived him of, before prosecuting
his claim.
VI. Whether he who has been Declared to be Free by his
Master, in Court, can be again Reduced to Slavery on the
Demand of said Master.
If anyone, in court should declare by his testimony that a person
was free, and, afterwards, should wish to claim him as a slave, he
shall give the person whom he attempted to oppress another slave,
by way of reparation, and he whom he endeavored to injure shall
remain free.
ANCIENT LAW.
VII. Where Anyone, Influenced by Fear, Asserts that he is a
Slave.
Anyone who, influenced by fear, declares himself to be a slave,
shall not be restrained of his liberty, but shall be brought into court,
and should he prove that he is free, shall be dismissed by the judge;
but if it should be shown that he is a slave, he shall straightway be
returned to his master.
ANCIENT LAW.
VIII. Where a Freeman is Claimed as a Slave; or where a
Slave Declares Himself to be Free.
If anyone wishes to claim a freeman as his slave, he must show
what right he has to his possession and service; and if the slave
should assert that he himself is free, he must, in like manner,
establish the existence of his freedom. The judge must take the
testimony of persons of highly respectable character, and there must
be more than one witness on each side. But if the judge, having
been corrupted by a bribe, should unjustly oppress an innocent
person, he, as well as the claimant, shall immediately be compelled
to pay the penalty prescribed by law in the case of those who render
unjust decrees.
ANCIENT LAW.
IX. For what Reasons Freedom, once Given, shall be
Revoked.
If anyone should liberate a male or female slave, and it should be
proved that this has been done in the presence of two or three
witnesses; that is to say, if he should deliver the instrument granting
freedom to said slave publicly, in the presence of legitimate
witnesses, and should specify in said instrument that the slave
himself should be free from the time said instrument was executed,
without conditions, and with no reservations, whatever, in favor of
himself; he shall have no power to revoke said act of manumission,
unless the liberated slave should be insolent to him, or do him some
injury, or accuse him of some crime; and for the commission of such
offences, his freedom may be revoked. But if the master shall say he
liberated the slave under certain conditions, or with some reservation
of his authority over him, and these facts do not fully appear from the
terms of the written instrument, the witnesses who were present
shall testify concerning the terms of the instrument aforesaid, and,
afterwards, judgment shall be rendered according to what the terms
of said instrument are found to be.
ANCIENT LAW.
X. Where a Freedman Inflicts Injury upon him who Gave him
his Freedom.
If a freedman should wrong his former master in any way; or
should strike him with his fist, or with any weapon; or should pursue
him with false accusations, whereby he may be in danger of his life;
the said master shall have power to reduce said freedman to slavery,
provided he proves the commission of said offences in court.
ANCIENT LAW.
XI. A Freedman shall not be Permitted to give Testimony
against his Former Master, or against the Children of the Latter.
It shall be unlawful for a child, or other heir, to revoke the
manumission of a slave liberated by his father; for the act of a parent
must always be religiously respected by his children; nor shall a
freedman, or any of his descendants, be permitted to testify against
the children of him to whom they are indebted for their freedom; and
if they should offer any testimony of this kind, they shall not be heard
by the court, but shall be reduced to their former servitude. But in
other matters they shall have a right to assert their claims against the
children or grandchildren of their patron, so far as is consistent with
the principles of justice.
XII. Freedmen shall not be Permitted to Testify in Court.
Neither freedmen nor freedwomen shall be permitted to testify in
any cause, except where the testimony of freeborn persons is not
available, as is allowed in the case of slaves; because we deem it
improper that by the evidence of freedmen injury should be done to
those who are freeborn. Persons, however, who are descended from
freedmen, shall be fully competent to testify.
ANCIENT LAW.
XIII. Concerning the Disposition of the Property of a Person
who has been set Free, should he Die without Leaving
Legitimate Children.
Where a liberated slave dies without leaving any legitimate
children, and his patron should have given him anything after he had
been set free; or even if he should have forsaken his service, and
attached himself to another; all his property shall revert to his former
master, or to the heirs of the latter. And if said freedman should
remain on the estates of his patron, and should acquire any property
by the fruits of his labor, half of said property shall belong to the
patron, and the freedman shall have a right to dispose of the other
half at his pleasure. If he should place himself under the protection of
another patron, and, while in his service, he should acquire any
property, the master who liberated him shall be entitled to half of it,
and the other half shall descend to the nearest relatives of the
freedman, whether they be slaves or free; or he shall have the right
to bestow said half of said property upon anyone he may select; but
whatever he received from his former master shall belong to the
latter.
The same rule shall apply in the case of female slaves who have
been liberated, and we add the following provision, as being
conformable to justice, to wit: that no freedman or freedwoman who
has received his or her liberty from either master or mistress, shall
abandon the latter while they are living. And should they venture to
do so, they shall lose the property which they have received, and
shall be forcibly returned to the service of their master or mistress.
XIV. Concerning the Conditions Imposed by a Master, where
Slaves are Liberated by an Instrument in Writing.
When anyone confers liberty upon a slave by an instrument in
writing, and specifies therein that it shall not be lawful for him to
dispose of his own property; and afterwards the person who has
been set free sells it, or gives it away, his act shall be absolutely
void; and his patron, or the children of the latter, shall be entitled to
all of said property. But if no such condition was made, the freedman
shall have a right to do what he pleases with his own possessions;
and should he die intestate, and leaving no legitimate children, even
though his master has inserted no other condition in the instrument
conferring liberty upon him, his patron or the children of the latter,
shall be entitled to his entire estate.
XV. Concerning the Liberation of Slaves belonging to the
Crown.
If no ambiguity should arise in the determination of legal
questions, we should not be under the necessity of making laws for
future generations. For the reason that, under the pretence of liberty
fraudulently asserted by slaves, the public service is often injuriously
affected, and without any prejudice to the well-deserving, but as a
warning to those who act rashly, we hereby decree, that, should
freedom be granted hereafter to a slave of the Crown, the act shall
be invalid, unless confirmed by the royal signature.
ANCIENT LAW.
XVI. Concerning the Property of Slaves belonging to the
Crown, who have been Liberated.
We do not permit freedom to be given to slaves of our court
without our consent, and if this should be done, the act shall be void,
and only that freedom shall be legal which is bestowed under our
direction. And, in like manner, it shall be unlawful for the slaves of
our court to sell their own slaves or lands to freemen; for they shall
have the right to make such sales only to other royal slaves; and if
they should wish to give their lands or slaves to the Church or to the
poor, such gift or disposition by will, shall be void. We, however,
grant the following concession to them for the sake of piety: that they
shall have a right to bestow a certain portion of their property upon
the Church, or the poor, for the benefit of their souls; and if they have
no possessions excepting lands and slaves, we grant them authority
to dispose of said lands and slaves, but only to others of our slaves,
as has been hereinbefore mentioned, and no freeman shall be
permitted to purchase said property; but they shall have the right to
give the proceeds of said sales of lands and slaves to the Church, or
the poor, for the benefit of their own souls, as hereinbefore stated.
THE GLORIOUS RECESVINTUS, KING.
XVII. Neither Freedmen, nor their Descendants, shall either
Marry into, or act Insolently towards, the Family of their Patron.
We occasionally see excessive arrogance displayed by slaves,
and are compelled, at the same time, to pity the degradation of their
masters. For some slaves, after they have obtained freedom, or the
descendants of such slaves, aspire to marry into the family of their
masters; or do some wrong to the children or grandchildren of the
latter. And as an inferior rank is ennobled by the gift of freedom, so,
in like manner, an illustrious race is disgraced by marriage with an
inferior caste. Thus a distinguished family is degraded by such a
connection, through the acts of those very persons who, by its
means, have enjoyed the blessings of liberty. Therefore, that the
splendor of natural lineage may not be deprived of its dignity; and
the slave, remembering his former condition, may not aspire to
privileges to which he is not entitled, and which cannot be granted
him: it is hereby decreed that if any freedman, or the descendants of
said freedman, belonging to the class of manumitted slaves, or
anyone connected with them by affinity or blood, however distantly
related, should attempt to contract marriage with any of the family of
his former master, or with any of his descendants; or should bring
any action at law against them, except for just and legal cause,
either on his own behalf, or on behalf of others; or should inflict any
injury upon them; or should cause them any vexation or annoyance;
or should oppose them as members of an opposite political faction;
he shall be at once delivered up as a slave to those against whom
he committed these offences. And, indeed, it is impious that when a
condition of slavery has been abolished, the dignity of freedom
should be degraded; and that, while the slave is exalted, the master
is abased, and the children of the latter suffer injury, because the
slave has power to inflict it.
XVIII. Freedmen who have Entered any Religious Order, shall
not be Returned to the Service of their Masters.
Any freedman who has been honored by presentation to the
Church by his master, or whom the condition of his emancipation, or
his membership in a religious order, has devoted to the service of the
Church, can under no circumstances whatever, be returned to the
control of his former master, or of his heirs. For whatever is known to
belong to God can never be again subjected to the dominion of man.
THE GLORIOUS FLAVIUS EGICA, KING.
XIX. In what manner Royal Freedmen and their Descendants
shall Defend the King, while Serving in the Army; and with
whom Those in the Public Service shall March.
We attempt to rule the country subject to our crown by the
adoption of just laws, when, for the public good, we provide
defenders who may protect it against enemies. And while there is no
lack of defenders of the throne, it is not improper that the numbers of
the same should, for the purpose of repelling foreign foes, be
increased by the addition of such slaves as have received their
freedom through the royal favor. Wherefore, because it is necessary
that such persons should afford their assistance to those to whom
they are indebted for their liberty, we especially decree by this law,
that all such freedmen and their descendants shall, in time of war, be
included among the guards of the king; and the latter shall assign
them their places in the ranks, and prescribe the duties they shall
perform. And if any freedman should, in time of war, remain at home;
and should not, in obedience to the royal order, join the army with
the rest; he shall be delivered up as a slave to the person from
whom he received his liberty. Those only shall be exempt from this
penalty, who, by order of the king, or the governor, have been
charged with the performance of some other duty; or who were
prevented from joining the army by sickness, or by some other
unavoidable necessity.
FLAVIUS EGICA, KING.
XX. Concerning Freedmen who are Guilty of Transgressions.
We have often heard of freedmen who, after the restraints of
servitude have been removed, desert those who set them free, and
assert that they are the equals of their masters, or of their
descendants. Wherefore, we now, with all due deliberation, publish
the following decree, to wit: that if any person, of either sex, who has
been set free, or any of their children, should be guilty of any subtlety
or deceit, or fraudulent conduct towards their former masters, or
towards their children, grandchildren, or any descendants of the
latter, or should show them any disrespect, at any time, they shall be
immediately returned to slavery. And the children of persons guilty as
aforesaid, shall be delivered up to perpetual servitude, according to
the provisions of a former law.
BOOK VI.
CONCERNING CRIMES AND TORTURES.
TITLE I. CONCERNING THE ACCUSERS OF CRIMINALS.
I. A Slave, Accused of a Crime, may be Demanded of his Master by the

Officials of the District.
II. For what Offences, and in what Manner, Freeborn Persons shall be put to
the Torture.
III. For what Offences, and in what manner Slaves, of Either Sex, shall be put
to the Torture, on account of the Crimes of their Masters.
IV. For what Offences, and in what manner, a Slave, or a Freedman, shall be
Tortured.
V. In what way an Accusation shall be Brought to the Notice of the King.
VI. How Kings should Practise the Duties of Mercy.
VII. He Alone shall be Considered Guilty who Committed the Crime.
ANCIENT LAW.
I. A Slave, Accused of a Crime, may be Demanded of his
Master by the Officials of the District.
Where a slave is charged with a crime, the judge shall first notify
the master, superintendent, or agent, who has control of the
accused, and order him to produce the slave in court; and should he
refuse to do so, the governor of the city, or the judge may compel
him to produce said slave. If the master, or he who has charge of his
affairs, cannot be found, the slave shall be arrested and tried by the
judge.
THE GLORIOUS FLAVIUS CHINTASVINTUS, KING.
II. For what Offences, and in what Manner, Freeborn Persons
shall be put to the Torture.
If moderation is displayed in the treatment of crimes, the
wickedness of criminals can never be restrained. Therefore, if
anyone should, in behalf of the king or the people, bring an
accusation of homicide or adultery against a person equal to him in
rank, or in palatine dignity, he who thus seeks the blood of another
shall first have an opportunity to prove what he alleges. And if he
cannot prove it in the presence of the king, or those appointed by the
royal authority, an accusation shall be drawn up in writing, and
signed by three witnesses; and the accused person may then be put
to the question.
If the latter, after undergoing the torture, should prove to be
innocent, the accuser shall at once be delivered up to him as a
slave, to be disposed of at his will, except that he shall not be
deprived of life. But if he should be willing to make a compromise
with his accuser, he may accept from the latter as large a sum as
may compensate him for the sufferings he has endured. The judge
shall take the precaution to compel the accuser to specifically
describe the alleged offence, in writing; and after he has done so,
and presented it privately to the judge, the torture shall proceed; and
if the confession of him who is subjected to the torture should
correspond with the terms of the accusation, his guilt shall be
considered to be established. But if the accusation should allege one
thing, and the confession of the person tortured the opposite, the
accuser must undergo the penalty hereinbefore provided; because
persons often accuse themselves of crime while being tortured. But if
the accuser, before he has secretly given the written accusation to
the judge as aforesaid, should, either in his own proper person, or by
anyone else, inform the party of what he is accused, then it shall not
be lawful for the judge to subject the latter to torture, because the
alleged offence has become publicly known. This rule shall also
apply to all other freeborn persons. But if the accusation should not
be that of a capital crime, but merely of theft, or of some minor
breach of the law, nobles, or persons of superior rank, such as the
officials of our palace, shall, upon such an accusation, under no
circumstances, be put to the question; and if proof of the alleged
offence is wanting, he who is accused must declare his innocence
under oath.
All persons of inferior rank, and freeborn persons, when accused
of theft, homicide, or any other crime, shall not be tortured upon such
an accusation, unless the property involved is worth more than fifty
solidi. But if the property is of less value than fifty solidi, and the
accused is convicted upon legal testimony, he shall be compelled to
make restitution, as prescribed by other laws; or if he should not be
convicted, after purging himself by oath he shall receive the
satisfaction granted by the law for those who have suffered from an
improper demand for torture.
We hereby especially provide that a lowborn person shall not
presume to accuse a noble or one of higher rank than himself; but if
such a person should accuse another of crime, and proof of the
same should be wanting, the person accused shall at once purge
himself of all guilt by oath, and swear that he never took, nor has in
his possession, the property on account of which he was prosecuted;
and oath having been made, as aforesaid, he who brought the false
accusation shall undergo the penalty for the same, as prescribed by
a former law. But whether the person subjected to the torture is a
noble, one of inferior rank, or a freeman, he must be tortured in the
presence of the judge, or of certain respectable men appointed by
him; and in such a way as not to lose his life, or the use of any of his
limbs; and because the torture must be applied for the space of three
days, if, as the result of accident, or through the malice of the judge,
or the treachery of anyone else, he who is subjected to it should die;
or if the judge, having been corrupted by the bribes of the adversary
of the accused, should not prohibit the infliction of such torments as
are liable to produce death; the judge himself shall be delivered up to
the nearest relatives of the accused person, that, on account of his
injustice, he may undergo at their hands the same sufferings which
he unlawfully inflicted upon the accused.
If, however, he should declare himself under oath to be innocent,
and witnesses who were present should swear that death did not
result from any malice, treachery, or corruption of which he was
guilty, but only as a result of the torture itself; for the reason that the
said judge did not use his discretion to prevent excessive cruelty, he
shall be compelled to pay fifty solidi to the heirs of the deceased; and
if he should not have sufficient property to pay said sum, he shall be
delivered up as a slave to the nearest heirs of the former. The
accuser shall be surrendered to the nearest relatives of the
deceased, and shall suffer the penalty of death, which he suffered
who perished through his accusation.[32]
ANCIENT LAW.
III. For what Offences, and in what manner, Slaves, of Either
Sex, shall be put to the Torture, on account of the Crimes of
their Masters.
No slave, of either sex, shall be tortured in order to obtain
evidence of crime against either his or her master or mistress, unless
for adultery; or for some offence against the Crown, or against their
country; or for counterfeiting, homicide, or witchcraft. And if slaves
tortured for such reasons should be proved to be cognizant of the
crimes of their masters, and to have concealed them, they shall be
punished along with their masters in such way as the king may
direct. But if they should voluntarily confess the truth before being
put to the question, it will be sufficient if they undergo the torture in
order to confirm their testimony, and they shall not suffer the penalty
of death. But any slave of either sex, who, after being put to the
torture for a capital crime, should also implicate his or her master,
and the commission of said crime can be proved by competent
evidence, they shall be subject to the same punishment as their
master.
IV. For what Offences, and in what manner, a Slave, or a
Freedman, shall be Tortured.
Where a slave is accused of any crime, the accuser must, before
the torture is inflicted, bind himself to give to the master in his stead,
another slave of equal value, if the innocence of the slave should be
established. But if the accused slave should be found innocent, and
should die, or be disabled from the effects of the torture, the accuser
must at once give to the master two other slaves, each equal in
value to the one killed or disabled. The one who was injured shall be
free, and remain under the protection of his master; and the judge
who neglected to use moderation in the infliction of torture, and thus
violated the law, shall give to the master another slave equal in value
to the one who perished by torture.
In order that all doubt may be removed concerning the value of
slaves in dispute, no statement of artificial or fraudulent value of the
same shall be accepted; but information of their age and usefulness
shall be obtained by personal examination of the slaves themselves;
and if he who was disabled was skilled in any trade, and he who
injured him when he was innocent possesses no slave proficient in
the same trade, he shall be forced to give to the master a slave
skilled in some other trade; but if he should not have such a skilled
artisan, and he whose slave was injured by the torture should not be
willing to accept another in his stead, then the accuser shall pay to
the master the value of the slave that was injured, according to a
reasonable estimate made by the judge, or by men of respectability
and established character. It must, however, be observed, that no
one shall presume to subject any freeborn person or slave to torture,
unless he shall make oath in the presence of a judge, or his
representative, the master of the slave or his agent being also
present, that through no artifice, fraud, or malice, he is inflicting
torture upon an innocent person. And if, after having been put to the
question he should die, and his accuser should not have the means
to make the reparation required by law, he himself shall be reduced
to slavery, for the reason that he was the cause of the death of an
innocent man. And if anyone, through treachery, should attempt to
subject the slave of another to torture, and the master of said slave
should prove that he was innocent of crime, the accuser shall be
compelled to give to the master of the accused slave another of
equal value, and to reimburse said master for any reasonable
expense that he has incurred in defence of his slave, until, in the
opinion of the judge, full satisfaction has been rendered by the unjust
accuser to the master of the innocent slave.
In case a slave is found guilty of a minor offence, the master, if he
chooses to do so, shall have a right to compound the same; but
every thief shall be scourged according to the degree of his guilt.
Where a master is not willing to give satisfaction for graver offences,
he must immediately surrender the slave to justice. Any freeborn
person who desires to subject a respectable freedman to the torture,
in the case of a capital crime, or of offences of less gravity, shall not
be permitted to do so, unless the value of the property involved in
the accusation amounts to at least two hundred and fifty solidi. But if
said freeborn person should be of inferior rank, and a boar, he may
be tortured, if the value of the property amounts to a hundred solidi.
Where he who is put to the question should, through want of
proper care, be disabled, then the judge who did not exercise
moderation in the infliction of torture, shall pay two hundred solidi to
him who suffered by his negligence; and he who caused him to be
tortured unjustly, shall be compelled to pay him three hundred solidi;
and if he should die while undergoing torture, the judge, as well as
the accuser, shall each pay to the nearest relatives of the deceased
the sums of money aforesaid. And, in like manner, in the case of
freedmen of still lower rank, should anyone of them undergo
mutilation or death, through want of caution on the part of those
employing the torture, half of the sum hereinbefore mentioned as
applying to respectable freedmen shall be paid to him who was
tortured, should he be still living, or, if he is dead, to his heirs.[33]
THE GLORIOUS FLAVIUS CHINTASVINTUS, KING.
V. In what way an Accusation shall be Brought to the Notice
of the King.
If any person should bring a false accusation against another
before the king, and should allege that he has plotted against the
throne, the people, or his country, or that he was committing, or had
committed some act to their prejudice; or had been guilty of some
fraudulent act against the authority of the Crown, or of those
exercising judicial functions; or had executed, or published any
forged document; or had coined any spurious money; or had been
guilty of giving poison, or of practising witchcraft; or of committing
adultery with the wife of another; he who brings accusation of these
and similar crimes, the punishment of which involves the loss of life
and property, where he can establish the truth of his charges, shall,
in no way, be subject to censure. But if his assertions should prove
to be false, and it should be evident that he had only made them

ebook download (Original PDF) Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, 9th Edition all chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

ebook download (Original PDF) Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, 9th Edition all chapter

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ebook download (Original PDF) Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, 9th Edition all chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

(Original PDF) Fundamentals of

Engineering Thermodynamics, 9th

(eBook PDF) Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics,

(eBook PDF) Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach 9th

(eBook PDF) Introduction to Chemical Engineering

Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 9th

(eBook PDF) Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach in

Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach 9th Edition

(eBook PDF) Fundamentals of Thermodynamics 8th Edition

(eBook PDF) Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach 8th

4 Control Volume Analysis Using

6.1 Entropy–A System Property 178 7 Exergy Analysis 225

8 Vapor Power Systems 261

9.9 Gas Turbine–Based Combined Cycles 339

11.6 Constructing Tables of Thermodynamic 12.9 Cooling Towers 499

11.8 p–υ –T Relations for Gas Mixtures 438

12.1 Describing Mixture Composition 458 13.4 Fuel Cells 526

14 Chemical and Phase 14.4.3 Ionization 574

Engineering Context LEARNINg outcomes

When you complete your study of this

1.1 Using Thermodynamics

1.2 Defining Systems

TA B L E 1.1 Selected Areas of Application of Engineering Thermodynamics

Aircraft and rocket propulsion

Air in Hot gases Turbojet engine

Turbojet engine Biomedical applications

TAB L E 1. 2 Predictions of Life in the United States in 2050

1.2.1 Closed Systems

1.2.2 Control Volumes

Fig. 1.2 Example of a control volume (open system). An automobile engine.

1.2.3 Selecting the System Boundary

Fig. 1.5 Air compressor and

1.3 Describing Systems and Their Behavior

1.3.1Macroscopic and Microscopic Views

1.3.2 Property, State, and Process

1.3.3 Extensive and Intensive Properties

Fig. 1.6 Figure used to discuss

Measuring Mass, Length,

Time, and Force

TA B LE 1.3 Units for Mass, Length, Time, and Force

1 N = (1 kg)(1 m/s2 ) = 1 kg ⋅ m/s2  (1.2)

1.4.2 English Engineering Units

The inch, in., is defined in terms of the foot:

1 lbf = (1 lb)(32.1740 ft/s2 ) = 32.1740 lb ⋅ ft/s2  (1.5)

With this approach force is regarded as secondary.

1.5 Specific Volume

and not simply as the product of density and volume.

I. Where Slaves are Liberated, either by Instruments in Writing, or in the

II. Where a Slave Belonging to One, or to Several Persons, is

V. Whether he who is Sought to be Returned to Slavery, can

TITLE I. CONCERNING THE ACCUSERS OF CRIMINALS.

I. A Slave, Accused of a Crime, may be Demanded of his Master by the

You might also like

1 N = (1 kg)(1 m/s2 ) = 1 kg ⋅ m/s2 (1.2)

1 lbf = (1 lb)(32.1740 ft/s2 ) = 32.1740 lb ⋅ ft/s2 (1.5)