Landslide

Landslides, also known as landslips,[1][2][3] are several forms of mass wasting that may
include a wide range of ground movements, such as rockfalls, mudflows, shallow or deep-
seated slope failures and debris flows.[4] Landslides occur in a variety of environments,
characterized by either steep or gentle slope gradients, from mountain ranges to coastal
cliffs or even underwater,[5] in which case they are called submarine landslides.

A landslide near Cusco, Peru, in 2018

A NASA model has been developed to

look at how potential landslide
activity is changing around the world.
 Animation of a landslide in San Mateo
County, California

Gravity is the primary driving force for a landslide to occur, but there are other factors
affecting slope stability that produce specific conditions that make a slope prone to failure. In
many cases, the landslide is triggered by a specific event (such as a heavy rainfall, an
earthquake, a slope cut to build a road, and many others), although this is not always
identifiable.

Landslides are frequently made worse by human development (such as urban sprawl) and
resource exploitation (such as mining and deforestation). Land degradation frequently leads
to less stabilization of soil by vegetation.[6] Additionally, global warming caused by climate
change and other human impact on the environment, can increase the frequency of natural
events (such as extreme weather) which trigger landslides.[7] Landslide mitigation describes
the policy and practices for reducing the risk of human impacts of landslides, reducing the
risk of natural disaster.
Causes

The Mameyes Landslide, in the

Mameyes neighborhood of barrio
Portugués Urbano in Ponce, Puerto
Rico, was caused by extensive
accumulation of rains and, according
to some sources, lightning. It buried
more than 100 homes.

The landslide at Surte in Sweden,

1950. It was a quick clay slide that
killed one person.

Landslides occur when the slope (or a portion of it) undergoes some processes that change
its condition from stable to unstable. This is essentially due to a decrease in the shear
strength of the slope material, an increase in the shear stress borne by the material, or a
combination of the two. A change in the stability of a slope can be caused by a number of
factors, acting together or alone. Natural causes of landslides include:

increase in water content (loss of

suction) or saturation by rain water
infiltration, snow melting, or glaciers
melting;[8]
rising of groundwater or increase of
pore water pressure (e.g. due to
aquifer recharge in rainy seasons, or by
rain water infiltration);[9]
increase of hydrostatic pressure in
cracks and fractures;[9][10]
loss or absence of vertical vegetative
structure, soil nutrients, and soil
structure (e.g. after a wildfire);[11]
erosion of the top of a slope by rivers
or sea waves;[12]
physical and chemical weathering (e.g.
by repeated freezing and thawing,
heating and cooling, salt leaking in the
 groundwater or mineral
dissolution);[13][14][15]
ground shaking caused by
earthquakes, which can destabilize the
slope directly (e.g., by inducing soil
liquefaction) or weaken the material
and cause cracks that will eventually
produce a landslide;[10][16][17]
volcanic eruptions;[18]
changes in pore fluid composition;[19]
changes in temperature (seasonal or
induced by climate change).[20][21]
Landslides are aggravated by human activities, such as:

deforestation, cultivation and

construction;
vibrations from machinery or traffic;[22]
blasting and mining;[23]
earthwork (e.g. by altering the shape of
a slope, or imposing new loads);
in shallow soils, the removal of deep-
rooted vegetation that binds colluvium
to bedrock;
agricultural or forestry activities
(logging), and urbanization, which
change the amount of water infiltrating
the soil.
temporal variation in land use and land
cover (LULC): it includes the human
abandonment of farming areas, e.g.
due to the economic and social
transformations which occurred in
Europe after the Second World War.
 Land degradation and extreme rainfall
can increase the frequency of erosion
and landslide phenomena.[6]

Types

Types of landslide
Hungr-Leroueil-Picarelli
classification
In traditional usage, the term landslide has at one time or another been used to cover almost
all forms of mass movement of rocks and regolith at the Earth's surface. In 1978, geologist
David Varnes noted this imprecise usage and proposed a new, much tighter scheme for the
classification of mass movements and subsidence processes.[24] This scheme was later
modified by Cruden and Varnes in 1996,[25] and refined by Hutchinson (1988),[26] Hungr et al.
(2001),[27] and finally by Hungr, Leroueil and Picarelli (2014).[4] The classification resulting
from the latest update is provided below.
Type of movement Rock Soil

Fall Rock/ice fall Boulder/debris/silt fall

Rock block topple

Topple Gravel/sand/silt topple
Rock flexural topple

Rock rotational slide Clay/silt rotational slide

Rock planar slide Clay/silt planar slide

Slide Rock wedge slide Gravel/sand/debris slide

Rock compound slide

Clay/silt compound slide
Rock irregular slide

Sand/silt liquefaction spread

Spread Rock slope spread
Sensitive clay spread

Sand/silt/debris dry flow

Sand/silt/debris flowslide

Sensitive clay flowslide

Debris flow

Flow Rock/ice avalanche Mud flow

Debris flood

Debris avalanche

Earthflow

Peat flow

Mountain slope deformation Soil slope deformation

Slope deformation Soil creep

Rock slope deformation
Solifluction

Note: the words in italics are placeholders. Use only one.

Under this classification, six types of movement are recognized. Each type can be seen both
in rock and in soil. A fall is a movement of isolated blocks or chunks of soil in free-fall. The
term topple refers to blocks coming away by rotation from a vertical face. A slide is the
movement of a body of material that generally remains intact while moving over one or
several inclined surfaces or thin layers of material (also called shear zones) in which large
deformations are concentrated. Slides are also sub-classified by the form of the surface(s) or
shear zone(s) on which movement happens. The planes may be broadly parallel to the
surface ("planar slides") or spoon-shaped ("rotational slides"). Slides can occur
catastrophically, but movement on the surface can also be gradual and progressive. Spreads
are a form of subsidence, in which a layer of material cracks, opens up, and expands laterally.
Flows are the movement of fluidised material, which can be both dry or rich in water (such as
in mud flows). Flows can move imperceptibly for years, or accelerate rapidly and cause
disasters. Slope deformations are slow, distributed movements that can affect entire
mountain slopes or portions of it. Some landslides are complex in the sense that they feature
different movement types in different portions of the moving body, or they evolve from one
movement type to another over time. For example, a landslide can initiate as a rock fall or
topple and then, as the blocks disintegrate upon the impact, transform into a debris slide or
flow. An avalanching effect can also be present, in which the moving mass entrains additional
material along its path.

Flows
Slope material that becomes saturated with water may produce a debris flow or mud flow.
However, also dry debris can exhibit flow-like movement.[28] Flowing debris or mud may pick
up trees, houses and cars, and block bridges and rivers causing flooding along its path. This
phenomenon is particularly hazardous in alpine areas, where narrow gorges and steep valleys
are conducive of faster flows. Debris and mud flows may initiate on the slopes or result from
the fluidization of landslide material as it gains speed or incorporates further debris and
water along its path. River blockages as the flow reaches a main stream can generate
temporary dams. As the impoundments fail, a domino effect may be created, with a
remarkable growth in the volume of the flowing mass, and in its destructive power.

The Costa della Gaveta earthflow in

Potenza, Italy. Even though it moves
at a rate of just a few millimeters per
year[13] and is hardly visible, this
landslide causes progressive damage
to the national road, the national
highway, a flyover, and several houses
that are built on it.
 A rock slide in Guerrero, Mexico

An earthflow is the downslope movement of mostly fine-grained material. Earthflows can

move at speeds within a very wide range, from as low as 1 mm/yr[13][14] to many km/h.
Though these are a lot like mudflows, overall they are more slow-moving and are covered with
solid material carried along by the flow from within. Clay, fine sand and silt, and fine-grained,
pyroclastic material are all susceptible to earthflows. These flows are usually controlled by
the pore water pressures within the mass, which should be high enough to produce a low
shearing resistance. On the slopes, some earthflow may be recognized by their elongated
shape, with one or more lobes at their toes. As these lobes spread out, drainage of the mass
increases and the margins dry out, lowering the overall velocity of the flow. This process also
causes the flow to thicken. Earthflows occur more often during periods of high precipitation,
which saturates the ground and builds up water pressures. However, earthflows that keep
advancing also during dry seasons are not uncommon. Fissures may develop during the
movement of clayey materials, which facilitate the intrusion of water into the moving mass
and produce faster responses to precipitation.[29]

A rock avalanche, sometimes referred to as sturzstrom, is a large and fast-moving landslide

of the flow type. It is rarer than other types of landslides but it is often very destructive. It
exhibits typically a long runout, flowing very far over a low-angle, flat, or even slightly uphill
terrain. The mechanisms favoring the long runout can be different, but they typically result in
the weakening of the sliding mass as the speed increases.[30][31][32] The causes of this
weakening are not completely understood. Especially for the largest landslides, it may involve
the very quick heating of the shear zone due to friction, which may even cause the water that
is present to vaporize and build up a large pressure, producing a sort of hovercraft effect.[33]
In some cases, the very high temperature may even cause some of the minerals to melt.[34]
During the movement, the rock in the shear zone may also be finely ground, producing a
nanometer-size mineral powder that may act as a lubricant, reducing the resistance to motion
and promoting larger speeds and longer runouts.[35] The weakening mechanisms in large
rock avalanches are similar to those occurring in seismic faults.[32]

Slides
Slides can occur in any rock or soil material and are characterized by the movement of a
mass over a planar or curvilinear surface or shear zone.

A debris slide is a type of slide characterized by the chaotic movement of material mixed with
water and/or ice. It is usually triggered by the saturation of thickly vegetated slopes which
results in an incoherent mixture of broken timber, smaller vegetation and other debris.[29]
Debris flows and avalanches differ from debris slides because their movement is fluid-like
and generally much more rapid. This is usually a result of lower shear resistances and
steeper slopes. Typically, debris slides start with the detachment of large rock fragments high
on the slopes, which break apart as they descend.

Clay and silt slides are usually slow but can experience episodic acceleration in response to
heavy rainfall or rapid snowmelt. They are often seen on gentle slopes and move over planar
surfaces, such as over the underlying bedrock. Failure surfaces can also form within the clay
or silt layer itself, and they usually have concave shapes, resulting in rotational slides
Shallow and deep-seated landslides

Hotel Panorama at Lake Garda. Part

of a hill of Devonian shale was
removed to make the road, forming a
dip-slope. The upper block detached
along a bedding plane and is sliding
down the hill, forming a jumbled pile
of rock at the toe of the slide.

Slope failure mechanisms often contain large uncertainties and could be significantly
affected by heterogeneity of soil properties.[36] A landslide in which the sliding surface is
located within the soil mantle or weathered bedrock (typically to a depth from few decimeters
to some meters) is called a shallow landslide. Debris slides and debris flows are usually
shallow. Shallow landslides can often happen in areas that have slopes with high permeable
soils on top of low permeable soils. The low permeable soil traps the water in the shallower
soil generating high water pressures. As the top soil is filled with water, it can become
unstable and slide downslope.

Deep-seated landslide on a mountain

in Sehara, Kihō, Japan caused by
torrential rain of Tropical Storm Talas
 Landslide of soil and regolith in
Pakistan

Deep-seated landslides are those in which the sliding surface is mostly deeply located, for
instance well below the maximum rooting depth of trees. They usually involve deep regolith,
weathered rock, and/or bedrock and include large slope failures associated with translational,
rotational, or complex movements.[37] They tend to form along a plane of weakness such as a
fault or bedding plane. They can be visually identified by concave scarps at the top and steep
areas at the toe.[38] Deep-seated landslides also shape landscapes over geological
timescales and produce sediment that strongly alters the course of fluvial streams.[39]

Related phenomena

An avalanche, similar in mechanism to

a landslide, involves a large amount of
ice, snow and rock falling quickly down
the side of a mountain.
A pyroclastic flow is caused by a
collapsing cloud of hot ash, gas and
rocks from a volcanic explosion that
 moves rapidly down an erupting
volcano.
Extreme precipitation and flow can
cause gully formation in flatter
environments not susceptible to
landslides.

Resulting tsunamis
Landslides that occur undersea, or have impact into water e.g. significant rockfall or volcanic
collapse into the sea,[40] can generate tsunamis. Massive landslides can also generate
megatsunamis, which are usually hundreds of meters high. In 1958, one such tsunami
occurred in Lituya Bay in Alaska.[41][42]

Landslide prediction
mapping
Landslide hazard analysis and mapping can provide useful information for catastrophic loss
reduction, and assist in the development of guidelines for sustainable land-use planning. The
analysis is used to identify the factors that are related to landslides, estimate the relative
contribution of factors causing slope failures, establish a relation between the factors and
landslides, and to predict the landslide hazard in the future based on such a relationship.[43]
The factors that have been used for landslide hazard analysis can usually be grouped into
geomorphology, geology, land use/land cover, and hydrogeology. Since many factors are
considered for landslide hazard mapping, GIS is an appropriate tool because it has functions
of collection, storage, manipulation, display, and analysis of large amounts of spatially
referenced data which can be handled fast and effectively.[44] Cardenas reported evidence on
the exhaustive use of GIS in conjunction of uncertainty modelling tools for landslide
mapping.[45][46] Remote sensing techniques are also highly employed for landslide hazard
assessment and analysis. Before and after aerial photographs and satellite imagery are used
to gather landslide characteristics, like distribution and classification, and factors like slope,
lithology, and land use/land cover to be used to help predict future events.[47] Before and after
imagery also helps to reveal how the landscape changed after an event, what may have
triggered the landslide, and shows the process of regeneration and recovery.[48]

Using satellite imagery in combination with GIS and on-the-ground studies, it is possible to
generate maps of likely occurrences of future landslides.[49] Such maps should show the
locations of previous events as well as clearly indicate the probable locations of future
events. In general, to predict landslides, one must assume that their occurrence is
determined by certain geologic factors, and that future landslides will occur under the same
conditions as past events.[50] Therefore, it is necessary to establish a relationship between
the geomorphologic conditions in which the past events took place and the expected future
conditions.[51]

Natural disasters are a dramatic example of people living in conflict with the environment.
Early predictions and warnings are essential for the reduction of property damage and loss of
life. Because landslides occur frequently and can represent some of the most destructive
forces on earth, it is imperative to have a good understanding as to what causes them and
how people can either help prevent them from occurring or simply avoid them when they do
occur. Sustainable land management and development is also an essential key to reducing
the negative impacts felt by landslides.
 A Wireline extensometer monitoring
slope displacement and transmitting
data remotely via radio or Wi-Fi. In
situ or strategically deployed
extensometers may be used to
provide early warning of a potential
landslide.[52]

GIS offers a superior method for landslide analysis because it allows one to capture, store,
manipulate, analyze, and display large amounts of data quickly and effectively. Because so
many variables are involved, it is important to be able to overlay the many layers of data to
develop a full and accurate portrayal of what is taking place on the Earth's surface.
Researchers need to know which variables are the most important factors that trigger
landslides in any given location. Using GIS, extremely detailed maps can be generated to
show past events and likely future events which have the potential to save lives, property, and
money.

Since the ‘90s, GIS have been also successfully used in conjunction to decision support
systems, to show on a map real-time risk evaluations based on monitoring data gathered in
the area of the Val Pola disaster (Italy).[53]
 Global landslide risks

Ferguson Slide on California State Route

140 in June 2006
 Trackside rock slide detector on the UPRR
Sierra grade near Colfax, CA

Prehistoric landslides

Rhine cutting through Flims Rockslide

debris, Switzerland

Storegga Slide, some 8,000 years ago

off the western coast of Norway.
Caused massive tsunamis in
Doggerland and other areas connected
to the North Sea. A total volume of
3,500 km3 (840 cu mi) debris was
involved; comparable to a 34 m (112 ft)
thick area the size of Iceland. The
landslide is thought to be among the
largest in history.
Landslide which moved Heart
Mountain to its current location, the
largest continental landslide
discovered so far. In the 48 million
years since the slide occurred, erosion
has removed most of the portion of the
slide.
Flims Rockslide, ca. 12 km3
(2.9 cu mi), Switzerland, some 10,000
years ago in post-glacial
Pleistocene/Holocene, the largest so
far described in the Alps and on dry
land that can be easily identified in a
modestly eroded state.[54]
The landslide around 200 BC which
formed Lake Waikaremoana on the
North Island of New Zealand, where a
large block of the Ngamoko Range slid
and dammed a gorge of
Waikaretaheke River, forming a natural
reservoir up to 256 metres (840 ft)
deep.
Cheekye Fan, British Columbia,
Canada, ca. 25 km2 (9.7 sq mi), Late
Pleistocene in age.
The Manang-Braga rock
avalanche/debris flow may have
formed Marsyangdi Valley in the
Annapurna Region, Nepal, during an
interstadial period belonging to the last
glacial period.[55] Over 15 km3 of
material are estimated to have been
moved in the single event, making it
one of the largest continental
landslides.
Tsergo Ri landslide, a massive slope
failure 60 km north of Kathmandu,
Nepal, involving an estimated 10–
15 km3.[56] Prior to this landslide the
mountain may have been the world's
15th mountain above 8000m.
Historical landslides

The 1806 Goldau landslide on 2

September 1806
The Cap Diamant Québec rockslide on
19 September 1889
Frank Slide, Turtle Mountain, Alberta,
Canada, on 29 April 1903
Khait landslide, Khait, Tajikistan, Soviet
Union, on 10 July 1949
A magnitude 7.5 earthquake in
Yellowstone Park (17 August 1959)
caused a landslide that blocked the
Madison River, and created Quake
Lake.
Monte Toc landslide (260 million cubic
metres; 9.2 billion cubic feet) falling
into the Vajont Dam basin in Italy,
causing a megatsunami and about
2000 deaths, on 9 October 1963
Hope Slide landslide (46 million cubic
metres; 1.6 billion cubic feet) near
Hope, British Columbia on 9 January
1965.[57]
The 1966 Aberfan disaster
Tuve landslide in Gothenburg, Sweden
on 30 November 1977.
The 1979 Abbotsford landslip,
Dunedin, New Zealand on 8 August
1979.
The eruption of Mount St. Helens (18
May 1980) caused an enormous
landslide when the top 1300 feet of the
volcano suddenly gave way.
Val Pola landslide during Valtellina
disaster (1987) Italy
Thredbo landslide, Australia on 30 July
1997, destroyed hostel.
Vargas mudslides, due to heavy rains
in Vargas State, Venezuela, in
December, 1999, causing tens of
thousands of deaths.
2005 La Conchita landslide in Ventura,
California causing 10 deaths.
2006 Southern Leyte mudslide in Saint
Bernard, Southern Leyte, causing 1,126
deaths and buried the village of
Guinsaugon.
2007 Chittagong mudslide, in
Chittagong, Bangladesh, on 11 June
2007.
2008 Cairo landslide on 6 September
2008.
The 2009 Peloritani Mountains
disaster caused 37 deaths, on October
1.[58]
The 2010 Uganda landslide caused
over 100 deaths following heavy rain in
Bududa region.
Zhouqu county mudslide in Gansu,
China on 8 August 2010.[59]
 Devil's Slide, an ongoing landslide in
San Mateo County, California
2011 Rio de Janeiro landslide in Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil on 11 January 2011,
causing 610 deaths.[60]
2014 Pune landslide, in Pune, India.
2014 Oso mudslide, in Oso,
Washington
2017 Mocoa landslide, in Mocoa,
Colombia
2022 Ischia landslide

Extraterrestrial landslides
Evidence of past landslides has been detected on many bodies in the solar system, but since
most observations are made by probes that only observe for a limited time and most bodies
in the solar system appear to be geologically inactive not many landslides are known to have
happened in recent times. Both Venus and Mars have been subject to long-term mapping by
orbiting satellites, and examples of landslides have been observed on both planets.
Before and after radar images of a landslide
on Venus. In the center of the image on the
right, the new landslide, a bright, flow-like
area, can be seen extending to the left of a
bright fracture. 1990 image.

Landslide in progress on Mars, 2008-02-19

Landslide mitigation
Landslide mitigation refers to several human-made activities on slopes with the goal of
lessening the effect of landslides. Landslides can be triggered by many, sometimes
concomitant causes. In addition to shallow erosion or reduction of shear strength caused by
seasonal rainfall, landslides may be triggered by anthropic activities, such as adding
excessive weight above the slope, digging at mid-slope or at the foot of the slope. Often,
individual phenomena join to generate instability over time, which often does not allow a
reconstruction of the evolution of a particular landslide. Therefore, landslide hazard
mitigation measures are not generally classified according to the phenomenon that might
cause a landslide.[61] Instead, they are classified by the sort of slope stabilization method
used:

Geometric methods, in which the

geometry of the hillside is changed (in
general the slope);
Hydrogeological methods, in which an
attempt is made to lower the
groundwater level or to reduce the
water content of the material
Chemical and mechanical methods, in
which attempts are made to increase
 the shear strength of the unstable
mass or to introduce active external
forces (e.g. anchors, rock or ground
nailing) or passive (e.g. structural
wells, piles or reinforced ground) to
counteract the destabilizing forces.
Each of these methods varies somewhat
with the type of material that makes up
the slope.

Climate-change impact on
landslides
Climate-change impact on temperature, both average rainfall and rainfall extremes, and
evapotranspiration may affect landslide distribution, frequency and intensity (62). However,
this impact shows strong variability in different areas (63). Therefore, the effects of climate
change on landslides need to be studied on a regional scale. Climate change can have both
positive and negative impacts on landslides Temperature rise may increase
evapotranspiration, leading to a reduction in soil moisture and stimulate vegetation growth,
also due to a CO2 increase in the atmosphere. Both effects may reduce landslides in some
conditions. On the other side, temperature rise causes an increase of landslides due to
 the acceleration of snowmelt and an
increase of rain on snow during spring,
leading to strong infiltration events
(64).
Permafrost degradation that reduces
the cohesion of soils and rock masses
due to the loss of interstitial ice (65).
This mainly occurs at high elevation.
Glacier retreat that has the dual effect
of relieving mountain slopes and
increasing their steepness.
Since the average precipitation is expected to decrease or increase regionally (63), rainfall
induced landslides may change accordingly, due to changes in infiltration, groundwater levels
and river bank erosion. Weather extremes are expected to increase due to climate change
including heavy precipitation (63). This yields negative effects on landslides due to focused
infiltration in soil and rock (66) and an increase of runoff events, which may trigger debris
flows.

See also

Avalanche
 Avalanche
California landslides
Deformation monitoring
Earthquake engineering
Geotechnical engineering
Huayco
Landslide dam
Natural disaster
Railway slide fence
Rockslide
Slump (geology)
Urban search and rescue
Washaway

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External links

Wikimedia Commons has media

related to Landslides.
United States Geological Survey site (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20020325
150633/http://landslides.usgs.gov/)
(archived 25 March 2002)
British Geological Survey landslides
site (http://www.bgs.ac.uk/landslide
s/)
British Geological Survey National
Landslide Database (http://www.bgs.a
c.uk/landslides/NLD.html)
International Consortium on
Landslides (http://icl.iplhq.org/)
1. 62.Gariano, S.L.; Guzzetti F. (2016).
Landslides in a Changing
Climate.doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2
016.08.011 Earth-Science Reviews,
162, 227-252. DOI:
10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.08.011.

2. 63.Assessment Report of the

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New
 York, NY, USA, pp. 1767–1926.
DOIi:10.1017/9781009157896.014.

3. 64.Cardinali, M., Ardizzone, F., Galli,

M., Guzzetti, F., & Reichenbach, P.
(2000, January). Landslides triggered
by rapid snow melting: the December
1996–January 1997 event in Central
Italy. In Proceedings 1st Plinius
Conference on Mediterranean
Storms (pp. 439-448).

4. 65.Krautblatter, M., Funk, D., &

Günzel, F. K. (2013). Why permafrost
rocks become unstable: a rock–ice‐
mechanical model in time and space.
Earth Surface Processes and
 Landforms, 38(8), 876-887.
https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3374

5. 66.Ciabatta, L., Camici, S., Brocca, L.,

Ponziani, F., Stelluti, M., Berni, N., &
Moramarco, T. J. J. O. H. (2016).
Assessing the impact of climate-
change scenarios on landslide
occurrence in Umbria Region, Italy.
Journal of Hydrology, 541, 285-295.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.201
6.02.007

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