INTRODUCTION:

Antenna is a source or radiator of electromagnetic waves or a sensor of electromagnetic

waves. OR
It is an electrical conductor or system of conductors that radiates electromagnetic energy into
free space or collects electromagnetic energy from free space.
OR
Antenna is a device used to feed the maximum power in the required direction or to receive
maximum power from the required direction.
Antenna is required for wireless communication like broadcast system, microwave linking,
satellite linking, cellular phones, mobile communication, GPS system etc. In a radio system
an electromagnetic wave travels from transmitter to the receiver through space. The antennas
are required at both ends as a link between transmitter and space and space and the receiver.
The same antenna can be used for transmission and reception.
Different antennas radiate maximum power in different directions depending upon the shape,
size and orientation of the system. The names of different types of antennas based on shape
and dimensions are Dipole, Monopole, Loop antenna, V antenna, Helical antenna, Parabolic
antenna, Horn antenna etc.
 BASIC TYPES OF ANTENNAS
Antennas may be divided into various types depending upon:−
(i) The physical structure of the antenna.
(ii) The frequency ranges of operation.
(iii) The mode of applications etc.

The following types of antennas are classified based on the physical structure of the antenna.
(i) Wire antennas
(ii) Aperture antennas
(iii) Reflector antennas
(iv) Lens antennas
(v) Micro strip antennas
(vi) Array antennas

Following are the types of antennas according to the frequency of operation.

(i) Very Low Frequency (VLF)
(ii) Low Frequency (LF)
(iii) Medium Frequency (MF)
(iv) High Frequency (HF)
(v) Very High Frequency (VHF)
(vi) Ultra High Frequency (UHF)
(vii) Super High Frequency (SHF)
(viii) Micro wave
(ix) Radio wave

Following are the types of antennas according to the modes of applications −

(i) Point-to-point communications
(ii) Broadcasting applications
(iii) Radar communications
(iv) Satellite communications

A) TRANSMITTING ANTENNA: Transmission antennas produce radiofrequency

radiation that propagates in space. Here the Transmission Line is connected to source or
generator at one end. Along the uniform part of the line energy is guided as Plane TEM wave
with little loss. Spacing between lines is a small fraction of λ. As the line is opened out and
the separation between the two lines becomes comparable to λ, it acts like an antenna and
launches a free space wave since currents on the transmission line flow out on the antenna but
fields associated with them keep on going.

B) RECEIVING ANTENNA: A receiving antenna performs the reverse of the process

performed by the transmission antenna. It receives radiofrequency radiation and converts it
into electric currents in an electric circuit connected to the antenna.
RECIPROCITY: An antenna exhibits identical impedance during Transmission or
Reception, same directional patterns during Transmission or Reception, same effective height
while transmitting or receiving. Transmission and reception antennas can be used
interchangeably. Medium must be linear, passive and isotropic (physical properties are the
same in different directions). Antennas are usually optimized for reception or transmission,
not both.
RADIAN: Radian is plane angle with its vertex at the centre of a circle of radius r and is
subtended by an arc whose length is equal to r. Circumference of the circle is 2πr Therefore
total angle of the circle is 2π radians.
STERADIAN: Steradian is solid angle with its vertex at the centre of a sphere of radius r,
which is subtended by a spherical surface area equal to the area of a square with side length r
Area of the sphere is 4πr2. Therefore the total solid angle of the sphere is 4π steradians.

The infinitesimal area ds on a surface of a sphere of radius r in spherical co-ordinates (with

ϴ as vertical angle and Ф as azimuth angle) is

By definition of solid angle

ISOTROPIC RADIATOR: A hypothetical lossless antenna having equal radiation in all
directions.
OMNIDIRECTIONAL RADIATOR: An antenna having an essentially non directional
pattern in a given plane (e.g., in azimuth) and a directional pattern in any orthogonal
plane.
DIRECTIONAL RADIATOR: An antenna having the property of radiating or receiving
more effectively in some directions than in others. Usually the maximum directivity is
significantly greater than that of a half-wave dipole.
The basic parameters of an antenna system are Radiation pattern, Power density,
Radiation intensity, Directivity, Gain, Directive gain, Radiation resistance, Beam
width, Band width, Input Impedance, Polarization, Radiation efficiency.

POWER DENSITY (P): Power density or Pointing vector P is the power flow through unit
area, the area is being considered in a plane normal to the direction of power flow.
If E and H are the electric and magnetic field components existing in a plane containing the
area, the power density

NOTE: Power density of isotropic antenna is

RADIATION INTENSITY :
Definition: The power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle is called the
Radiation Intensity. “U” Units: Watts/steradians or Watts/ radian2.
Radiation Intensity is obtained by multiplying the power radiated with the square of the radial
distance.
U = r 2Wrad
Where
 U is the radiation intensity
 r is the radial distance
 Wrad is the power radiated.

Directivity (D):
Directivity is a measure of the concentration of radiated power in a particular direction. It is
defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from the antenna to
the radiation intensity averaged over all directions.

OR
The ratio of maximum radiation intensity of the subject antenna to the radiation
intensity of an isotropic or reference antenna, radiating the same total power is called
the directivity.”
Mathematically, the directivity (dimensionless) can be written as

The directivity is a dimensionless quantity. The maximum directivity is always <= 1

NOTE:
1. Directivity indicates how well an antenna radiates in a particular direction in comparison
with an isotropic antenna radiating same amount of power.
2. Smaller the beam area, larger is the directivity.

POWER GAIN (G): Any physical Antenna has losses associated with it. Depending on
structure both ohmic and dielectric losses can be present. Input power Pin is the sum of the
Radiated power Prad and losses Ploss

The Gain (G) of an Antenna is an actual or realized quantity which is less than Directivity
(D) due to ohmic losses in the antenna. Mismatch in feeding the antenna also reduces gain.

In practice, the total input power to an antenna can be obtained easily, but the total radiated
power by an antenna is actually hard to get. The Power Gain is defined as the ratio of the
radiation intensity in a given direction from the antenna to the total input power
accepted by the antenna divided by 4π. Mathematically, the gain (dimensionless) can be
written as

NOTE: Directivity and Gain of an antenna represent the ability to focus its beam in a
particular direction. Directivity is a parameter dependent only on the shape of radiation
pattern while gain takes ohmic and other losses into account.

DIRECTIVE GAIN: Directive gain is defined as a ratio of radiation intensity in required

direction and intensity of isotropic antenna feeding the same power. If Uθ and U𝜙 are the
intensities in the directions θ and 𝜙 respectively, the directive gain in the respective
directions are

Directive gain for an isotropic antenna in any direction is unity. Practically the
directive gain ranges between 0 and 1.

RADIATION PATTERN:

FAR FIELD REGION (Fraunhofer Region): The region next to Fresnel’s Region is
radiating far-field region ( region greater than R2). In this region, field distribution is
independent of the distance from antenna. The effective radiation pattern is observed in this
region.
The energy radiated by an antenna is represented by the Radiation pattern of the antenna.
Radiation Patterns are diagrammatical representations of the distribution of radiated energy
into space, as a function of direction. We understand the function and directivity of an
antenna by having a look at its radiation pattern.
The power when radiated from the antenna has its effect in the near and far field regions.
Graphically, radiation can be plotted as a function of angular position and radial distance
from the antenna. This is a mathematical function of radiation properties of the antenna
represented as a function of spherical co-ordinates, E (θ, Ø) and H (θ, Ø).
The radiation pattern of the dipole antenna has main lobe, side lobes and back lobe.

The major part of the radiated field, which covers a larger area, is the main lobe or major
lobe. This is the portion where maximum radiated energy exists. The direction of this lobe
indicates the directivity of the antenna.
 The other parts of the pattern where the radiation is distributed side wards are
known as side lobes or minor lobes. These are the areas where the power is wasted.

There is other lobe, which is exactly opposite to the direction of main lobe. It is known as
back lobe, which is also a minor lobe. A considerable amount of energy is wasted even here.
 The radiation intensity when measured nearer to the antenna, differs from what is
away from the antenna. Though the area is away from the antenna, it is considered
effective, as the radiation intensity is still high there.
Near Field
 The field, which is nearer to the antenna, is called as near-field. It has an inductive
effect and hence it is also known as inductive field, though it has some radiation
components.

Far field
 The field, which is far from the antenna, is called as far-field. It is also called as
radiation field, as the radiation effect is high in this area. Many of the antenna
parameters along with the antenna directivity and the radiation pattern of the
antenna are considered in this region only.

NOTE: The radiation pattern for a wire radiator in free space depends on its length.
The radiation pattern for different length antenna is given below.
BEAM WIDTH : In the radiation pattern of an antenna, the main lobe is the main beam of
the antenna where maximum and constant energy radiated by the antenna flows.

The aperture angle through which maximum power is radiated or received is called
beam width.
The two main considerations of this beam width are Half Power Beam Width (HPBW) and
First Null Beam Width (FNBW).
Half power beam width: Half power beam width is the angle in which relative power 50%
of the peak power, in the effective radiated field of the antenna.

𝑯𝒂𝒍𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉 =𝟕𝟎𝝀/𝑫 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔

First Null Beam Width: The angular span between the first patterns nulls adjacent to the
main lobe, is called as the First Null Beam Width.

𝑭𝑵𝑩𝑾= 𝟐𝑯𝑷𝑩𝑾 = 𝟐𝒙𝟕𝟎𝝀/𝑫 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔

The radiation pattern can also be plotted in rectangular coordinates as shown in the figure.

NOTE: Narrow beam width antennas are preferred for point to point communication and
wide beam width antennas are preferred for broadcasting.

FRIIS TRANSMISSION EQUATION:

The Friis Transmission Equation is used to calculate the power received from one antenna
(with gain G1), when transmitted from another antenna (with gain G2), separated by a
distance R , and operating at frequency or wavelength λ.
Consider an isotropic antenna used as a transmitter with total radiated power as Wt.
RADIATION RESISTANCE (Rr) : Radiation resistance is defined as the ratio of power
radiated by the antenna to the square of the current at the feed point. It is the part of the input
impedance (resistance) of the antenna which has two components- radiation resistance due to
the power converted into electromagnetic wave and the resistance due to actual loss in the
antenna.
The radiation resistance of an antenna is defined as the equivalent resistance that would
dissipate the same amount of power as is radiated by the antenna.
Total power radiated by the antenna is given by

For higher frequency the efficiency will be better.

Antenna efficiency is defined as the ratio of radiation resistance to the total resistance of
the antenna.

RADIATION EFFICIENCY:
The efficiency of the antenna in performing electric signals from the transmitter circuits and
converts them into electromagnetic waves known as antenna radiation efficiency. It is
defined as the ratio of the power dissipated into space to the net power delivered to the
antenna by the transmitter circuits.
BANDWIDTH:
According to the standard definition, “A band of frequencies in a wavelength, specified for
the particular communication, is known as bandwidth.”
Band width is a particular range of frequencies allotted to a particular signal, so that other
signals may not interfere in its transmission.
 Bandwidth is the band of frequencies between the higher and lower frequencies over
which a signal is transmitted.
 The bandwidth once allotted, cannot be used by others.

The whole spectrum is divided into bandwidths to allot to different transmitters

RADAR SYSTEM: (RAdio Detection And Ranging)

Radar is basically a means of gathering information about distant objects or targets by
sending electromagnetic waves at them and analyzing the echoes.

Basic principle:
It consists of a transmitter and a receiver, each connected to a directional antenna. The
transmitter is capable of sending out a large UHF or microwave power through the antenna.
The receiver collects as much energy as possible from the echoes reflected in its direction by
the target and then treats and displays this information in a suitable way. The receiving
antenna is very often the same as the transmitting antenna.
If same antenna is used for both transmitter and receiver then maximum power gain is given
by

The maximum range Rmax will be obtained when the received power is equal to minimum
receivable power of the receiver Pmin.
HERTZIAN DIPOLE: The Hertzian dipole is a theoretical dipole antenna that consists of
infinitesimally small current source acting in free-space. Although a true Hertzian dipole
cannot physically exist, very short dipole antennas can make for a reasonable approximation.
HALF WAVE DIPOLE: The half wave dipole is the most popular version of the dipole
antenna. The length of the total wire, which is being used as a dipole, equals half of the
wavelength (i.e., l = λ/2). This is the shortest resonant length that can be used for a resonant
dipole. The range of frequency in which half-wave dipole operates is around 3KHz to
300GHz. This is the most widely used antenna in radio receivers. It is also known as Hertz
antenna.

CONSTRUCTION & WORKING OF HALF-WAVE DIPOLE:

It is a normal dipole antenna, where the frequency of its operation is half of its wavelength.
Hence, it is called as half-wave dipole antenna.

The edge of the dipole has maximum voltage. This voltage is alternating (AC) in nature. At
the positive peak of the voltage, the electrons tend to move in one direction and at the
negative peak, the electrons move in the other direction. This can be explained by the figures
given below.
The figures given above show the working of a half-wave dipole.

DISADVANTAGES:
 Not much effective due to single element.
 It can work better only with a combination.

APPLICATIONS:
 Used in radio receivers.
 Used in television receivers.
 When employed with others, used for wide variety of applications.

QUARTER WAVE DIPOLE: A quarter-wave antenna is a grounded antenna that is one-

fourth wavelength of the transmitted or received frequency. The quarter-wave antenna
referred to as a “Marconi antenna”. The quarter-wave antenna is also omnidirectional.
If an antenna is grounded the earth acts as a mirror and becomes part of the radiating system.
The bottom of the grounded antenna is joined to the top of the image and the system acts as
an antenna of double size.
The grounded 4/λ antenna commonly called the basic Marconi antenna; it is same as those of
the half wave dipole in space.
The Parasitic element placed in front of driven element is called director whose length is 5%
less than the drive element. The element placed at the back of driven element is called
reflector whose length is 5% more than that of driver element. The space between the element
ranges between 0.1λ to 0.2λ. The directive gain of 7dB for a 3 element and 15dB for 5
element Yagi-Uda antenna can be achieved. System may be constructed with more than one
director. Addition of each director increases the gain by nearly 3 dB. Number of elements in a
Yagi is limited to 11.

For a three element system,

Reflector length =0.525 mts
Driven element (Dipole) length = 0. 5 mts
Director length = 0.475 mts

The above relations are given for elements with length to diameter ratio between 200 to 400
and spacing between 0.1 λ to 0.2 λ. With parasitic elements the impedance reduces less than
73 Ω and may be even less than 25 Ω. A folded λ/2 dipole is used to increase the impedance.

ADVANTAGES:
 Reception of balanced signals.
 Receives a particular signal from a band of frequencies without losing the quality.
 A folded dipole maximizes the signal strength.
DISADVANTAGES:
 Displacement and adjustment of antenna is a hassle.
 Outdoor management can be difficult when antenna size increases.

APPLICATIONS:
 Generally used in radio receivers.
 Most commonly used in TV receiver antennas.

MICRO STRIP ANTENNAS: A metal patch mounted at a ground level with a di-electric
material in-between constitutes a Micro strip or Patch Antenna. These are very low size
antennas having low radiation. The Micro strip antennas are popular for low profile
applications at frequencies above 100MHz.

CONSTRUCTION & WORKING OF MICRO STRIP ANTENNAS:

Micro strip antenna consists of a very thin metallic strip placed on a ground plane with a di-
electric material in-between. The radiating element and feed lines are placed by the process
of photo-etching on the di-electric material. Usually, micro-strip is chosen to be square,
circular or rectangular in shape for the ease of analysis and fabrication. The following image
shows a micro-strip or patch antenna.
The reflected wave forms a collimated wave front, out of the parabolic shape. The ratio of
focal length to aperture size (ie., f/D) known as “f over D ratio” is an important parameter of
parabolic reflector. Its value varies from 0.25 to 0.50.

PROPERTIES OF PARABOLA
 All the waves originating from focus, reflects back to the parabolic axis. Hence, all
the waves reaching the aperture are in phase.
 As the waves are in phase, the beam of radiation along the parabolic axis will be
strong and concentrated.

These points, the parabolic reflectors help in producing high directivity with narrower beam
width.

CONSTRUCTION & WORKING OF A PARABOLIC REFLECTOR:

If a Parabolic Reflector antenna is used for transmitting a signal, the signal from the feed,
comes out of a dipole or a horn antenna, to focus the wave on to the parabola. It means that,
the waves come out of the focal point and strike the Paraboloidal reflector. This wave now
gets reflected as collimated wave front, as discussed previously, to get transmitted.
ADVANTAGES:
 Reduction of minor lobes
 Wastage of power is reduced
 Equivalent focal length is achieved
 Feed can be placed in any location, according to our convenience
 Adjustment of beam (narrowing or widening) is done by adjusting the reflecting
surfaces

DISADVANTAGE:
 Some of the power that gets reflected from the parabolic reflector is obstructed. This
becomes a problem with small dimension paraboloid.

APPLICATIONS:
 The cassegrain feed parabolic reflector is mainly used in satellite communications.
 Also used in wireless telecommunication systems.

NOTE: Along with this technique, we have another type of feed given to the paraboloid
reflector antenna, called as Cassegrain feed.

CASSEGRAIN FEED:

WORKING OF A CASSEGRAIN ANTENNA: When the antenna acts as a transmitting

antenna, the energy from the feed radiates through a horn antenna onto the hyperboloid
concave reflector, which again reflects back on to the parabolic reflector. The signal gets
reflected into the space from there. Hence, wastage of power is controlled and the directivity
gets improved.
When the same antenna is used for reception, the electromagnetic waves strike the reflector,
gets reflected on to the concave hyperboloid and from there, it reaches to the feed. A wave
guide horn antenna presents there to receive this signal and sends to the receiver circuitry for
amplification.
HELICAL ANTENNA: Helical antenna is an example of wire antenna and itself forms the
shape of a helix. The frequency range of operation of helical antenna is around 30MHz to
3GHz. This antenna works in VHF and UHF ranges.
AXIAL MODE OF OPERATION: In axial mode of radiation, the radiation is in the end-
fire direction along the helical axis and the waves are circularly or nearly circularly polarized.
This mode of operation is obtained by raising the circumference to the order of one
wavelength (λ) and spacing of approximately λ/4. The radiation pattern is broad and
directional along the axial beam producing minor lobes at oblique angles.

ADVANTAGES:
 Simple design
 Highest directivity
 Wider bandwidth
 Can achieve circular polarization
 Can be used at HF & VHF bands also

DISADVANTAGES:
 Antenna is larger and requires more space
 Efficiency decreases with number of turns

APPLICATIONS:
 A single helical antenna or its array is used to transmit and receive VHF signals
 Frequently used for satellite and space probe communications
 Used for telemetry links with ballistic missiles and satellites at Earth stations
 Used to establish communications between the moon and the Earth
 Applications in radio astronomy Gregorian Feed

ANTENNA ARRAYS: An antenna, when individually can radiate an amount of energy, in a

particular direction, resulting in better transmission, how it would be if few more elements
are added it, to produce more efficient output. It is exactly this idea, which led to the
invention of Antenna arrays. Basic types of antenna arrays are (i) Collinear array (ii) Broad
side array (iii) End fire array (iv) Parasitic array (v) Yagi-Uda array (vi) Log-periodic array
(vii) Turnstile array (viii) Super-turnstile array
CONSTRUCTION & WORKING OF ANTENNA ARRAYS:

An antenna array is a radiating system, which consists of individual radiators and elements.
Each of this radiator, while functioning has its own induction field. The elements are placed
so closely that each one lies in the neighbouring one’s induction field. Therefore, the
radiation pattern produced by them, would be the vector sum of the individual ones.

The spacing between the elements and the length of the elements according to the wavelength
are also to be kept in mind while designing these antennas. The antennas radiate individually
and while in array, the radiation of all the elements sum up, to form the radiation beam,
which has high gain, high directivity and better performance, with minimum losses.

ADVANTAGES:
 The signal strength increases
 High directivity is obtained
 Minor lobes are reduced much
 High Signal-to-noise ratio is achieved
 High gain is obtained
 Power wastage is reduced
 Better performance is obtained

DISADVANTAGES:
 Resistive losses are increased
 Mounting and maintenance is difficult
 Huge external space is required

APPLICATIONS:
 Used in satellite communications
 Used in wireless communications
 Used in military radar communications
 Used in the astronomical study