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PHY.NOTES-1 (1) (1)
PHY.NOTES-1 (1) (1)
PHY.NOTES-1 (1) (1)
1.1 INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS
can be defineds a
the study of the physical properties
f matter
o and the concepts
energy
of
MATTERrefers to any material that can occupy some space
can be
and
measured, weighed or
mined
exa by
experimental testing
.
1.2 MEASUREMENT
1.2.1 Physical quantities
Any measurable physical feature roperty
or p of an object is called
PHYSICAL
its QUANTITY
, e.g.temperature
of a body, an
areaof a field,speedof a car, etc.
In Physics
length, massandtimeare known as
Basic or Fundamental
physical quantitie
s.
Many other ysical
ph quantities (e.g
. force, speed, velocity, voltage, etc) are related to these fundamental physical
quantities, therefore they are known
DERIVED
as PHYSICAL QUANTITIES . (Even their units
can be deriv
ed
from those of fundamental quantities
and hence are called derived) e.g
units
.
SI unit of speed
Then SI unit of speed
SI =unit of distance/SI unit of time
= m/s (read as metre per second)
1.2.2 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SystśPH,QWHUQDWLRQDOG·8QLW
śs- SI UNITS)
This is an international
ly agreed system of units used
measure
to physical quantities.
riginally
(O known
as MKS
system;M- metre,K- kilogram andS- second)
. Each quantity has its SI
ownunit.
FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND THEIR SI UNITS
Physical quantity symbol SI unit Symbol
length L, l metre m
mass m kilogram kg
time t second s
Page 1
1.2.3 Submultiples and multiples of a base unit
These are bigger
or smaller units obtained by putting certain prefixes (with scientific meanings) in front of a bas
unit.
Examples
SUBMULTIPLES
Centimetre (cm),
decisecond (ds),
microYROW ȝ9 HWF
MULTIPLES
kilometre (km),
gigawatt (GW),
megahertz (MHz), etc.
PREFEXES US
ED IN SUBMULTIPLES AND MULTIPLES
Prefix symbol meaning value Conversion factor
nano- n One thousand millionth 0.000 000 001 10-9
micro- ȝ One millionth 0.000 001 10-6
milli- m One thousandth 0.001 10-3
centi- c One hundredth 0.01 10-2
deci- d One tenth 0.1 10-1
1.2.5 LENGTH
Definition: is the distance between two points
SI unit:metre (m)
Other units:centimetre (cm); 1 m = 100 cm
millimetre (mm); 1 m = 1000 mm
PLFURPHWUH 6 ȝPȝP P
nanometre (nm); 1 m10=nm
9
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
x Ruler
x Measuring tape
x Vernier calliper
x Micrometre screwgauge
x Mileometer
Page 2
1) RULER metre
( rule)
Many length measurements areusing made rulers. Owing to the thickness of the, it ruler
is essential that
the
UHDGHU¶VH\HPXVWDOZD\
s be right above the mark
to be read i.e. line of sight should make an angle of 90° with
the ruler, in order to avoid parallax error.
2) VERNIER CALLIPER
Page 3
-First read the main scale
x Read themain scale mark on the immediate ft oflethe zero mark of the vernier scale and record it as
main scale reading (M.S).
-Then read the vernier scale
x Look along the vernier scale until you find a mark exactly in line with (or closest to) one of the marks
the main scale. Multiply the number
of this mark by 0.01forcmcm scale(or 0.1 mm for mm scale).
Record the product as vernier scale reading (V.S).
-)LQDOO\WRREWDLQWKHDFWXDOOHQJWKRIWKHREMH
main scale reading
i.e.
Final reading = M.S + V.S
EXAMPLE
M.S = 5.3cm
V. S = 8 x 0.01 cm
= 0.08
Final reading = 5.3
+ 0.08
= 5.38 cm
3) MICROMETER SCREWGAUGE
This instrument measures very small lengths such as the diameter of a wire, thickness of a coin, thickness o
sheet of paper.
HOW TO TAKE A READING FROM A MICROMETER
x Put the object between the spindle and anvil. Turnlethe
until
thimb
the object is gripped very gently.
Fine adjustment can be obtained by turning the ratchet until a click sound is heard.
Page 4
x To read the micrometer, first read the main thescale
sleeve.
on Sleeve reading (S) is given by the value
of thelastvisiblemark on sleeve before the edge of the thimble.
Note that sleeve marks above the
central horizontal line on the sleeve are full millimetre marks but those-millimetre
below aremarks.
half
x Then read the thimble scale. Thimble reading (T) is equal
the numb
to er of the thimble division level
with the sleeve scale central line multiplied by 0.01 mm.
x Final reading = sleeve reading + thimble reading
EXAMPLE
S = 18.00 mm
T = 42 x 0.01 mm
= 0.42 mm
POSSIBLE SOURCESERRORS
OF IN LENGTH MEASUREMENTS
1.2.6 TIME
Time can be definedsas
thei interval between two events.
SI unit:second (s)
Other units:PLFURVHFRQG ȝV PLOOLVHFRQG
(min), hour (h), day, PV
year, etc.
GHFLVHF
Page 5
time name symbol
24 hours (86
400s) day d
60 minutes (3600 s) hour h
60 seconds minute min
10-3 seconds millisecond ms
Time can bemeasured with stopwatches or clocks. The electronic stopwatch can measure time precisely up to
1/100 of a second (0.01 s)
A pendulum is a piece of a thread which is fixed at one end and tied to a metal
bob)ball
on (called
the other
a
end.
The bob of a pendulum is free to swing from one side to another.
Theamplitude (a)
of a pendulum is the angle between
the rest position and position
of maximum displacement.
The length (l)
of pendulum is measured from the fixed position to the centre of the bob.
Theperiod (T)of the pendulum is the time taken by the
o complete
bob t one swing or oscillation, i.e. the time
taken byhe
t bob to move from point Aandto Cback to A in the diagram below. Period is measured in seconds
(s)
Period = total time taken/number complete swings(oscillations)
Frequency (f)
is the number of completed oscillations generated in 1 second. The SI unit is hertz (Hz)
frequency = number of swings/total time taken
Therefore;
f = 1/T or T = 1/f
Page 6
then1 Hz= 1/s
EXPERIMENT:
- To determine the period (T) of a simple pendulum
Procedure
x Set up a pendulum as shown in the diagram
abovewith l= 10 cm.
x Pull the bob slightly to one and then release it and then let the pendulum few oscillations
make until they
are periodic and start the stopwatch.
x Using the stopwatch, find the1time
for 20t oscillations. Find time
2 for another
t 20 oscillations.
x Find the average time
<t> for 20 oscillations
using the equation <t> (t1 += t2)/2.
x Calculate the period of the pendulum using the formula T = <t>/20.
x Repeat the experiment for different values of l; l = 20 cm, l = 30 cm, l = 40 cm, l = 50 and l = 60 cm.
x Record the observations appropriately in a table
x Plot a graph of2 against
T l
Table of Re
sults
Length l/cm Time for 20 Average time <t>/s Period T/s T2/s2
oscillations t
t1/s t2/s
70.0 32.28 32.06 32.17 1.61 2.6
60.0 29.37 29.69 29.53 1.48 2.2
50.0 26.78 26.82 26.80 1.34 1.8
40.0 24.93 23.29 24.11 1.21 1.5
30.0 24.12 22.15 23.14 1.16 1.3
T2/s2
L/cm
SOURCES OF ERR
ORIN TIME MEASUREMENT
Page 7
x Human reaction time- a time lag between seeing an event and starting the watch. For people the lag is
normally 0.2 s.
x The watch/clock may move faster or slower that the normal
/rate. This
time
introducessystematic
a
errorin every reading taken using that watch.
x Instrumental error /zero error
±failure to -set
re the watch to zero before starting to
hetime
event.
t
1.2.7 ACCURA
CY OF A MEASURING INSTRUMENT
A more accurate instrument measures any quantity with least approximation. The accuracy of any given
instrument is represented numerically by the value of smallest unit an instrument can t measure withou
approximation. This is usually given by the value of the smallest division in any scale.
Examples
The accuracy of- a:
x metre rule is 0.1 cm (0.01 mm)
x vernier calliper is 0.01 cm (0.1 mm)
x micrometer is 0.01 mm (0.001 cm)
x stopwatch is 0.01 s
x clock is 1 s
x lab thermometer is 1° C.
Accurancy =- 0/10
1 =0.1 A
1.3 QUESTIONS
Page 8
3. What are the readings shown by the micrometers
low? be
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Page 9
The bob of the pendulum was
ulledpto position
A and then was released. The period of the pendulum was
found to be 0.64 s.
(b) A student performs an experiment to determine the period of a simple pendulum. She uses a stopwatc
record the time taken toduce
pro 20 oscillations. The diagram below shows the face of the stopwatch
used.
6. A pi
ece of metal pipe is 3 m long,
and its internal and external diameters are 20.0 mm and 24.0 mm
respectively. Describe how you would obtain experimentally accurate values of these
and(i)(ii)
the internal
external diameter
s of the pipe.
7. Fig. 7.1 shows the face of an ammeter. The ammeter reads 0.2 A with no current passing through.
Fig. 7.1
(a) What is the value of the accuracy of the ammeter?
(b) What error does the ammeter show?
Page 10
c. Fig. 7.1 shows the same ammeter with current passing through.
Fig. 7.2
2.0 MOTION
*Scalar quantity
:- quantity with magnitude only, e.g. mass, distance, temperature, speed, etc.
*Vector quantity
:- quantity with both magnitude and direction,
.g. velocity,
e acceleration, force,
displacement,etc.
Page 11
a) total distance travelled ABC = 2 km +42km
km =
b) total displacement S;2 =ACAB2 + BC2
= 32 + 42
AC =5 km, 54 ° east of north
c) The boy continues with the journey and walks back to point A. Calculate the total distance travelled and
displacement
for the whole journey.
FL WRWDOGLVWDQFHWUDYHOOHG$&$¶
km + 5 km 12
= km NP
LL WRWDOGLVSODFHPHQW$$¶
0 km
a). SPEED
-is the distance travelled per unit time. Speed tells us how fast or slow an object is moving. Its SI unit is metr
second (m/s) or (m -1). s
Other units:
cm/s, km/h, m/min, etc.
Conversions between m/s and km/h
3600/1000
--------------------------------
>
m/s km/h
<---------------------------------
1000/3600
Mathematically speed is:
Speed = distance/time
b). VELOCITY
Page 12
-is the distance travelled in atime
unit
in a stated direction, e.g. 60 km/h due north. Velocity
, the
is, spee
in fact
d
in a specified direction. It tells us how fast or slow an object is moving and in what direction.
Velocity = displaceme
nt/time
And
Average velocity = total displacement/total time taken
*NB:- Velocity and speed not
are the same. Speed is a scalar whereas velocity is vector.
2.1.3 ACCELERATION
It is the rate of change of velocity with time. Acceleration
a vector
is also
quantity. Its SIisunit
metre per second
squared (m/s 2) or (m s).
-2
The body covers 5 m every second, this represents a constant speed of 5 m/s.
2.2.2 NON-UNIFORM SPEED
Distance travelled per unit time varies.
i) non-uniform increasing speed
time/s 0 1 2 3 4
distance/m 0 5 10 30 50
The body moveslittle
a further
than the previous second
everysecond
.
*Acceleration is zero for body travelling with steady speed in the same direction (uniform velocity).However,
acceleration is non
-zero if the body travels with constant speed in a circular path.
-Even though the speed is constant (e.g. 5 m/s), the direction changes now and then. Therefore the velocity
non-uniform and hence the acceleration is not zero.
a) increasing acceleration
time/s 0 1 2 3 4
Page 14
velocity(m/s)0 10 30 60 100
b) decreasing acceleration
time/s 0 1 2 3 4
velocity (m/s) 0 20 30 35 37
2.3 QUESTIONS
1 Explain the difference between:
a) distance tra
velled and displacement
b) speed and velocity
2 Use the words in the list below
to complete the paragraphs that follow. Each word may be used once, more
than once or not at all.
acceleration average displacement distance instantaneous scalar speed
vector velocity
Quantities which have magnitude but no direction are called ................................ quantities. Speed is a
........................... quantity. Velocity is a ............................ quantity.
If an object mo
ves in unspecified direction, it has moved through a certain ............................
................. If
the direction is specified, it has undergone a ....................................................
The rate of change of...................
...... of an object is called its acceleration. Acceleration is a ......................
quantity. The formula: (final speed
±initial speed) / time gives the ..................................... of an object.
3 a) A millipedeves
mo a distance of 3.0 m in 1.5 s. What is its average speed?
b) A car travels 600 m in 30 s. What is its average speed?
4 A car has a steady speed of 8m/s.
a) How far
does the car travel in the 8 s?
b) How long does the car take
travel
to 160 m?
5 a) A cyclist, rides 2 km east then 2 km north. The trip takes two hours in all.
Find : i) the average speed and ii) the average velocity.
6 Express a) speed of 130 km/h and b) speed of sound in air (which is about 330 m/s) in km/h.
7 What is meant by:
a) a speed of 100 km/h
b) an acceleration of +102 m/s
c) an acceleration-5ofm/s2
Page 15
8 A car takes 8 s to increase its velocity from 10 m/s to 30 m/s. What is its acceleration?
9 A motor cycle, travelling at 20 m/s, takes 5 s to stop. What is its average retardation?
10 An aircraft on its -off
takerun has a steady acceleration of
2. 3 m/s
A distance
-time graph shows how the distance travelled varies with time. The gradient of the graph represents
the speed of the body
a) Uniform speed
The distance
-time graph above is a straight
ne showing
li that the body is travelling
withuniform speed.
*UDG ¨V¨W
2 ±y1 / x2 ±x1 \
=60- 20/ 6- 2
= 10
Then speed10
= m/s
Page 16
In graph above the body is travelling with non uniform increasing speed since the graph is not a straight line b
instead is a curve. The gradient of the graph varies. The speed at any particular time is found by calculating
gradient of the tangent tocurve
the at that time
Page 17
In the speed
- time graph
abovethe body is moving with a uniform acceleration graph
since is
thea straight line.
acceleration
= gradient 0
=
time/s
Page 18
e). Non- uniform deceleration
Page 19
The equations
usedto solve problems
on motion
when the
accelerationof the body
is uniform.
2.6 QUESTIONS
(For the questions below, assume that the motion is in a straight line and that the acceleration
) is uniform
1 A motor cycle travelling at 10 m/s accelerates
2 for
at 84 s.
m/s
a) What is its final velocity?
b) How far does it travel during the 8 s?
2 A car accelerates from 8 m/s to 20 m/s in 10 s.
a) What is its acceleration?
b) How far does it travel during the 10 s?
3 A train is travelling at 40 m/s when its brakes are applied. This produces a deceleration
2. of 2 m/s
a) How long does the train take to come to rest?
b) How far does the train travel before ?stopping
4 An aircraft accelerates
at 25 m/s
2. Its take
-off speed is 60 m/s.
a) What length of runway does ittoneed
take off?
b) How long does it take to reach -off
its take
speed?
5 a) Use the values in the table to plot a-time
distance
gra
ph for a car over a 10 s period
time/s 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Page 20
a) State in which of the regions OA, AB, BC, CD, DEi)the
accelerating
car is ii) decelerating
iii) travelling with uniform velocity.
b) Calculate the value of the acceleration, deceleration or constant velocity in each region.
c) What is the distance travelledeach
overregion?
d) What is the total distance travelled?
e) Calculate the average velocity for the whole journey.
7 The distance
-time graph for a motor cyclist riding off from
follows.
rest
a) Describe theotion.
m
b) Howfar does the motorbike move in 30 seconds?
c) Calculate the speed.
8 A car runs at a constant speed of 15 m/s for 300 s and then accelerates uniformly to a speed of 25 m/s o
period of 20 s. This speed is maintaine
d for 300 s before the car is brought to rest with uniform deceleration in
30 s.
a) Draw a speed
-time graph to represent the journey described above.
b) From the graph find:
i) the acceleration while the speed changes15 m/s
fromto 25 m/s.
ii) the total distance travelled in time described,
iii) the average speed over the time described
Page 21
2.7 FREE
FALLING OBJECTS
2.7.1 ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY (ACCELERATION OF A FREE FALL)
An object falling freely in vacuum under gravitational force ofonly
themo
earth
ves with uniform acceleration
knownas acceleration due to gravity
or acceleration
( of free fall). The acceleration due to gravity is denoted by
letter g.
The value of-g:
x is the sameorf all bodies irrespective of their masses. For this reason, a small body and a large one
both dropped from the same height would move at the same speed and reach the ground at the sam
time moving at the same speed if there are no forces opposingtions.their mo
x varies over the surfaces of the earth, the maximum being at the poles and the minimum at the centre
However the value of g is taken10to m/s
be2 on Earth.
x is considered to be constant for a body near the surface of the Earth, however,
s withit decrease
increase in the altitude.
Equations of motion for free falls
For vertical motion
a is replaced with
g in the equations of motion studied previously.
i) for a dropping object
g =+10 m/s
2
v = u + at becomes
v = u +gt if the body drops from rest
. ui.e
=o, v =gt --------------
> (1)
s = ut + ½ 2atbecomess = ut + ½gt2 if u = 0, s = ½gt2 (note s =eight
h ) ------>(2)
v2 = u2 + 2as becomes
v2 = u2 + 2gs if u = 0, v2 = 2gs ---------------------
> (3)
* Same equations can be used for
esbodi
thrown/moving vertically upwards but
g aswith
-10 m/s2
NB:- i) velocity at the highest point is zero for any object.
ii) time for upward journey = time for downward journey to the same level
iii) a falling body would pass every
point at same speedit did on its way up.
Same as that one for an object falling in air except that the resistive force heret is called upthrus
Page 23
3.2 INERTIA
-is the tendency of a body to resist any change
its stateinof motion i.e. to remain at rest if it is at rest or to
continue moving (with uniform velocity in a straight line) y inifmotion.
alread The larger the mass of a body the
larger its inertia and the more difficult to change its state of rest or uniform
or change
motion
the direction of its
travel0DVVLVWKHUHIRUHGHILQHGDVWKHPHDVXUHRI
Examples of som
e effects of inertia in everyday life
a. If a car stops suddenly the occupants are thrown forward they
because
tend to want to continue moving due
to inertia or if the
carstarts abruptly the upper part of the occupant is moved back because
ms towant
it see
to remain at rest because of inertia.
b. It is more difficult to move a bigger stone as compared to a small one because of inertia
c.
3.4 QUESTIONS
Page 24
1) Calculate the weight of a body of mass:
i) 2 kg ii) 700 g
Takeg to be 10 N/kg.
2) A bag of coal has a mass of 10 kg on Earth. The acceleration due to gravity
2 on Earth
is 10and
m/son
the moon is 1.6 m/s
2.
*For some objects, (e.g. a ring, retort stand, etc), the C.M lies outside the body of the object, instead it lies in
air around the object.
Page 25
3.5.3 C.M of irregular shaped object
Experiment:to determine the C.M of a irregular shaped lamina (a thin sheet of cardboard)
Procedure
x Makethree holes A, C and onEthe cardboard.
x Suspend the cardboard through hole A from a nail clamped on a standngs suchfreely.
that itWhen
swi
it comes to rest, its centre of mass will be exactly below point A.
x To identify the point, hang the plumbline from the same nail very close to the cardboard.
x Draw a line AB along the plumbline
x Hang the cardboard from another hole Ceat andthe
rep
experiment and draw the line CD.
x The C.M lies at the intersection of the two lines.
x To check if the position of C.M is correct, one can hang the cardboard from the third hole E and then
draw line EF, it must also pass through that point.
3.5.4 STABILITY
This defineshether
w the object falls over easily or not. When the object is slightly displaced and released, it wi
always return to its origin
andnot
( topples over) if the vertical line passing through
the C.M.is still kept within the
baseof the object or the area enclosed by the base of the object (i.e. it has not gone of beyond
contactthe point
between the object and the surface ing it ison)
rest
When an object is balanced or stable in its position, it is said to be in equilibrium. Its degree of stability is
determined by its position which can ed
be as
defin
its state of equilibrium.
1) Stable equilibrium
2) Unstable equilibrium
3) Neutral equilibrium
1) Stable Equilibrium
When an object in stable equilibrium is slightly tilted, its C.M rises and gain some P.E. When released that e
P.e will be used to produce an anticlockwise moment about the point hat of
willcontact
roll thet object back to its
original position.
2) Unstable Equilibrium
A body is in unstable equilibrium if it is positioned such that when it is slightly displaced and released it will m
further away its original position ( topples over).
Page 27
3) Neutral Equilibrium
A state in which a body is positioned such that when it is slightly displaced and released it remains at its new
position.
4.0 DENSITY
Page 28
B) Displacement can method
4.4.1 Experiment #3
: measuring density of a liquid
The relative density of a substance is the ratio of the mass of any volume of the substance to the mass o
equal volume of water.
Therefore the density of a liquid can be accurately measured using a density bottle.
Page 29
4.5 Experiment #4:Measuring the density of a liquid using a density bottle.
Both the liquid and water have the same volume V since
me bottle
the sa
was used for the whole experiment.
= m3 ±m1/m2 ±m1
5HODWLYHGHQVLW\LVDUDWLRVRLW¶VDQXPEHUZLW
substance in g/cm
3
- Remove air from the flask using a vacuum pipe and then determine 2 ofthe
an mass
emptymflask.
- Fill the flask with water
- Transfer water to a measuring cylinder to find the capacity of the flask which the volume V of air.
- Find the mass m of the air using the equation2± m
m1 = m
- &DOFXODWHWKHGHQVLW\RIDLUXVLQJWKHHTXDWL
Page 30
4.7 DENSITY OF A MIXTURE
If A is a substance of mass
A and
m volume ofA and
V B is a substance of mass
B and
ma volumeB,Vthe
GHQVLW\RIWKHPL[WXUHȡ
m is given by-:
ȇm = mA ±mB/ VA ±VB
An object:
-
4.9 A HYDROMETER
It is used to measure the density of the liquids directly. It consists of a thin hollow tube which is weighed at th
bottom with mercury or lead so that it can float upright.
tube has
Thea scale marked on it
The hydrometer floats at different levels/depths in different liquids, depending on their densities. It sinks less
dense liquid and sinks more in less dense liquid.
Page 31
4.10 QUESTIONS
1 Copy and complete the table shown
. below
Length Width Height Volume of rectangular block
2 cm 3 cm 4 cm ...........
5 cm 5 cm ........... 100 cm
3
6 cm ............. 5 cm 300 cm
3
........... 10 cm 10 cm 500 cm
3
a) What is
the mass of the air in the room?
b) Another room has only 60 kg of air in it. What is the volume of this second room?
3 A jeweller has a crown which he thinks is made of pure gold. He finds that it has a3volume
and hasof 100 cm
a mass of
1.8 kg.
a) Using these two values, what is the density of the crown?
b) The density of gold is 19.33. g/cm
How can the difference be explained?
Page 32
5.0 FORCE
5.1 A force is push
a or pull exerted by one object on another.
Force is avector; it has both magnitude and direction in which it acts.
SI unit: newton (N)
*One newton is a force which gives an acceleration
1 m/s2 toofmass of
1 kg.
Examples of forces
1. Gravitational force±an attractive force which
y two
an masses pull one another with.
2. Weight±pulls object towards the centre of the Earth.
3. Friction±tends to stop movement of objects
4. Thrust of a (jet) engine
±is a push or pull due to the jet engine
5. Centripetal force±acts on object moving in a circle
6. Tension±produced on a stretched material
7. Magnetic force ±acts between magnets or between a magnet and magnetic material
8. Electric force±acts between charges
9. Air resistance/fluid friction/drag
±slows down a body travelling through air
10. Upthrust±opposes movement of an object moving in a liquid
11. Force due to expansion/contraction
12. Reaction/normal force±acts on an object on any given surface. The force is normally perpendicular to
the surface and equal and opposite to the weight of the object.
rted by
It isthe
exe
surface on the object.
5.2 EFFECTS OF FORCE
5.2.1 Effects of a force on the shape and size of an object
A force can or tends to change the shape and size of objects, e.g. i) lump of bostik would change shape whe
pressed, ii) aflated
in balloon changes size when more air is blown into it.
Some of the objects return to their original shapes and sizes when the external force which was previously
applied on them is removed. These objects are called elastic materials, e.g.
steel
rubber
spring,
band,
etc.
Other objects do not return to their original or sizes even when the force is removed. They will remain
permanently deformed. These are called plastic materials, e.g. plasticine, bostik, clay, etc.
Stretching a spring
LO
L
Page 33
e =L ²Lo wheree = extension of the spring
L = newlength of stretched spring
L0 = original/normal length of the spring
When the load (weight) which was applied to the spring is removed, the spring returns
l length.
to its
The norma
spring is elastic but only to a certain limit.
Experiment: To investigate the relationship between the extension of a spring and load (stretching force)
Procedure
x Suspend a steel spring from a retort stand
shown asabove
x Attach a pointer in a horizontal position to the end of the spring with some bostik.
x Place a metre rule vertically near the spring
x Suspend the mass hanger on the spring as shown above
x Adjust the height of the ruler such that the pointer
a convenient
is at reading, say around 30 cm, record
this as initial scale reading.
x Add 100 g (1.0 N) loads one at a time and note and record the new scale reading after each load.
x Record the observations in a table up to 500 g (5.0 N) and calculate n for
theeach
extensio
load.
TABLE OF RESULTS
e = New reading ²
LInitial scale readingOL
Mass/kg Load F/N Scale reading/cm Extension e/cm F/e (N/cm)
0.0 0 54.0 - -
0.1 1 57.8 3.8 0.3
0.2 2 63.5 9.5 0.2
0.3 3 69.0 15.0 0.2
0.4 4 72.4 18.4 0.2
0.5 5 76.6 22.5 0.2
Page 34
The graph above is a straight line showing that the extension of the spring is directly proportional to the load
whenthe load is doubled the also doubles.
LH)ĮH
then F = ke
-------------
!+RRNH¶V
law
7KHVSULQJEHKDYHVHODVWLFDOO\RQO\WRSRLQW(
7KHUHIRUH+RRNH¶VODZVWDWHV
³WKHH[WHQVLRQRIDVSUL
ng is directly proportional to the load/force applied provided the elastic limit of
VSULQJLVQRWH[FHHGHG´
Point E is known as elastic limit or limit of proportionality of the spring. This is point beyond which the spring
loses its elasticity,
would
it fail to return to its original length even when the load is removed from it. Instead a
permanent extension (deformation) OS will remain on the spring.
Page 35
IDENTICAL SPRINGS COMBINED IN:
a) SERIES
b) PARALLEL
For 1 spring e = x
2 springse = x/2
3 springs e = x/3
4 sprin
gs e = x/4
N springs e = x/N
Page 36
)URP+RRNH¶VODZ
For N springs in parallel
e = x/N
e = (F/k)/N
e = F/k X 1/N
e = F/Nk---------------------------
> total extension for springs in parallel.
QUESTIO
NS
1. What is the force constant of a spring which is stretched
a) 2 mm by a force of 4 N b) 4 cm by a mass of 200 g.
2. The springs below are identical. If the extension produced in A is 4 cm, what are the extensions in B
and C?
3. Tom performed an experiment stretching a spring. She loaded masses on the spring and measured t
extension
Table of results
Extension/cm 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Load/N 0 2 4 6 7.5 8.3 8.6
Page 37
a) Describe what would happen to the spring if forcesedwere
to it appli
until it reached point A on the
graph and then the forces are removed
.
b) Describe what would happen if the spring was stretched to point B on the graph and then the forces
removed.
c) If a force
of 10 N caused the spring to stretch by 5 cm what would be the extension of the spring if 20 N
was applied to it?
A force can
changethe state of motion of an object by causing:
(i) its speedto increase or decrease
(ii) its acceleration
to increase or decrease
(iii) a change in its direction of travel
(iv) a stationary object start to move or an object in motion stop moving.
All the above can be summed up DLQHGE\1HZWRQ¶VODZVRIPRWLRQ
or expl
1(:721·6/$:2)027,21
A) First law
It states that
³$ERG\DWUHVWZLOOUHPDLQUHVWRULILWLVPRY
a straight line) unless an external force
NHVLWWREHKDYHGLIIHUHQWO\,W
ma
B) Second law
It states that
- :
³7KHDFFHOHUDWLRQDRIDERG\LV
x directly proportional to the force applied F for a fixed mass m
x inversely proportional to the mass m for a fixed LHG)´
force appl
0DWKHPDWLFDOO\QHZWRQ¶VVHFRQGODZRIPRWLRQLV
-
F = ma
Page 38
whereF = resultant/unbalanced/net force (N)
m = mass foan object (kg)
a = acceleration of the object2)(m/s
C) Third law
It states that:
³LIERG\$H[HUWVDIRUFHRQERG\%ERG\%ZLOO
foUFH´
5.3 FRICTIONAL FORCE
5.3.1 Effects of friction on motion of a body
Friction±always acts in opposite to the direction of motion of a body and reduces the acceleration or speed o
the body.
Friction acts between solid surfaces as they
ver
move
eachoother and when objects move through gases or
liquids.
5.3.2 WHAT CAUSES FORCE FRICTION
It is caused by roughness of the two surfaces in contact, even surfaces which look or feel smooth are rough
when seen under a microscope. As a blockslidesof wood
over the table the humps and hollows on one surface
tend to grip those on the other surface, this causes the frictional force
It is also caused by adhesion between the molecules on the surfaces in contact due to intermolecular forces
The frictio
n which exists between the two objects when there is no movement is called static friction. The obje
will start to move if the pulling/pushing force is increased beyond the value of the static friction. Then the fric
force between the two surfaces
when the object is moving is called sliding/dynamic friction. Usually its value is
less than the maximum value of the static friction.
Calculations involving frictional force
Page 39
Examples
1. A car is acted upo n by a forward driving force of 700 N which causes an acceleration. The force of
friction between the road and the tyres is 500 N. Calculate the resultant force on the car.
F = FF - FR
= 700 N±500 N
= 200 N
2. A carof mass 3 000 kg (including the driver) is travelling at a constant acceleration
2. Theof
force
2 m/s
of friction between the tyres and the road is 500 N. Calculate the a) resultant force acting on the ca
b) forward driving force
Solutions
a) Data
m = 3000 kg, a = 22m/s
F = ma
= 3000 kg X 2 m/s
2
= 6000 kg m/s
-2
= 6000 N
b) Data
F = 6000 N, R =F 500 N
F = FF - FR
FF = F + FR
= 6000 N + 500 N
= 6500 N
M = Fx D M=Fxd
Page 40
Moment of a force isvector
a quantity,i.e. it has magnitude as well as direction. The direction is either
clockwiseor anticlockwise, depending in which the force turns the object.
e.g
What do you notice about clockwise and anticlockwise moments when the ruler is balanced?
Answ:the clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment
This observation proves the principle of moments.
Theprinciple of momentsstates that:
³when the body is in equilibrium the sum of the clockwise moments about any point is equal to the sum of
DQWLFORFNZLVHPRPHQWVDERXWWKHVDPHSRLQW´
Page 41
5.4.3 CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM
1) the sum of forces in onection
dire must equal the sum of the forces in the opposite direction i.e the net force
is equal to zero
2) the principle of moments should be obeyed, i.e. the resultant turning effect is equal to zero.
Therefore:
i) ForceA + ForceB + ForceC + ForceD = Force C
ThenA + B + C + D ±C = 0
ii) Ax + By = Dz
total anticlockwise moments = total clockwise moment
5.4.4 COUPLE
If two equal forces actopposite
on direction they form a couple. A couple cause rotation, e.g turning bicycle
handlebars and steering wheel
To find the moment of a couple, you multiply the value of any of the two forces by een
the distance
them betw
M = Fx + Fy
= F(x + y)
= Fd
Page 42
5.5 CENTRIPETAL FORCE
This is a type of force that acts on a body moving in a circle/curve and keepsurved
the body
pathinoritsorbit.
c
The centripetal force always points towards the centre of the circular path and that means even the accelera
of the body (centri
petal acceleration) is towards
the centre of the curve. The force is provided by the sideways
frictionbetween the tyres and the road surface.
5.6 QUESTIONS
Question 1
A student measures the acceleration of a trolley. The light sensors are connected to a computer
which is programmed to calculate the acceleration. The
esults
r obtained are recorded in a table as
follows.
Force(N) 0 1 2 3 4 5
2
i) Plot a graph of acceleration(m/s
) against force(N)
ii) Describe how changing the force affects the acceleration.
iii) Write down, in words, the equation connectingrce,
fo mass and acceleration.
iv) Use the data from the graph to calcul
ate the mass of the trolley.
v) On graph, sketch the graph line that would be obtainedafortrolley of larger
mass.
Question 2
2
A car has a mass of 900 kg. It accelerates from rest at a rate of 1.2
. m/s
a) Calculate the time taken to
reach a velocity of 30 m/s.
b) Calculate the force required to accelerate the car at a rate of 1.22. m/s
c) Even with the engine working at full power, the car’s accelerati
the car goes faster.Why is this?
Page 43
Question 3
The diagram below shows some of the forces acting on a car of mass 500 kg.
Question 6
Page 44
Question 7
Fig. 6.1 shows a car of mass 500 kg moving from rest with constant acceleration of2.10
Two
m/s
forces act on it, a forward force and a friction force.
Fig. 6.1
a). (i) Calculate the resultant force acting on th
e car. Show your working.
(ii) If the friction force is 2000 N, calculate the forward force acting on the car.
Show yourworking.
(iii) After some time, the car reaches a velocity of 20 m/s.How long did it take for
the car to reachthis velocity?
Question 8
Fig. 7.1 shows a metal ball being dropped from the surface of oil in a tube of length 2 m. the ball has
a mass of 1 kg and it moves with constant acceleration of 52. m/s
Fig. 7.1
Page 45
Question 8
Fig. 8.1 shows a model crane. The crane has a movable counterbalance.
Page 46
10. The diagrams show forces acting on various beams. For each beam, the fulcrum
is at its midpoint. Which of the beams are in equilibrium
? What happens in the
other cases? What is the upward force of the fulcrum on the beam in each
case?
11. A 1 N weight is hung from the 5 cm mark of a metre rule. The rule balances on a
knife edge at the 30 cm mark. What is the weight of the rule?
12 The diagram shows a beam balanced with the fulcrum at the midpoint. How big
is the force X?
13. The diagram shows two beams balanced with the fulcrum at the midpoint. In
each case, what is the distance x?
Page 47
5.7.1 DEFINITIONS
SCALAR QUANTITY:
expressed in terms of magnitude/size only, e.g. distance, temperature, time, etc.
VECTOR QUANTITY:
expressed inrms
te of magnitude and direction, e.g. force, acceleration, moment, velocity,
etc.
5.7.2 Addition of vectors
1. Resultant of 3 N and 7 N forces at a right angle to one .another
i) GRAPHICAL METHOD
After drawing the vector diagram to scale, you measure the length of line that represents the resultant and th
use the chosen scale to find the resultant..
Length = 7.6 cm, therefore resultant = 7.6 N
Direction is obtained by measuring theetween
angle bthe resultanteforc
and one of the forces, e.g. 23° to the
7N
R = 7.6N, 23° to the N
7
ii) Algebraically
For right
-angled triangle
±use Pythagoras theorem
c2 = a2 + b2
OR2 = OP2 + PR2
= (7 N)2 + (3 N)
2
= 58 N 2
25 ¥1 2
Resultant R = 7.6 N
for direction trignometrical functions
VLQș
= OP3+<3F
= OPP/ADJ
HJVLQș , 2325
FRVș 3525
VLQș
ș -1(0.3974)
VLQ ș -1FRV
-1(0.4286)
Page 48
PARALLELOGRAM RULE
If two forces acting at appoint are represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a parallelogram
the resultant is represented in size and direction by the diagonal of the
m. parallelogra
E.g. Find the resultant of forces of 3500 N and 2500 N acting at an angle of 60° to each other
Using parallelogram rule (graphical method)
Scale 1 cm : 500
N
O
B
Page 49
Using trigonometry
Fy = F sin Fx = Fcos30°
= 200sin30° x = 200cos30°
F
= 100 N = 173 N
5.7.4 QUESTIONS
1. How is a scalarferent
dif from a vector? Give an example of each.
2. Forces of 12 N and 5 N both act at the same point, but their directions can be varied.
a) What is their greatest possible resultant?
b) What is their least possible resultant?
c) If the two forces
are at right angles, find by scale drawing or otherwise the size and direction of their
resultant.
3. Find the resultant of a displacement of 5-east
m north
and one of 3.5 m due east.. (State the size of the
displacement as well as itstion).
direcWhat would your answer have been if the second displacement had
been due south instead of due east.
4. Which of the following quantities are scalar quantities; temperature, potential energy, density, weight
5. Fig. 5.1 shows a heavy blocking
hang
from two ropes so that it does not move. The forces and the angles are
shown. Draw a vector diagram to find the resultant force exerted by the ropes on the block. Say what scale
you have used.
Fig. 5.2
Page 50
6.1 WORK
Work is done when a force moves an object in its direction.
It is given by the product of force and the distance
in the
moved
direction of the force
The SI unit of work is a joule (J).
W = Fs
whereW = work done in joules (J)
F = force in newtons (N)
s = distance mov
ed in metres (m)
1J=1NX1m
= 1 Nm
Other units (larger): kilojoule (KJ) ; 1 KJ = 1000 J
Megajoule (MJ); 1 MJ 6=J10
*Note: No work is done-if :
i) the force applied on the object
does not move the object
ii) the direction of motion is perpendicular to the direction of force.
6.2 ENERGY
Page 51
(1) Potential energy
Is the energy possessed by a body due to its position or condition. There- i)are
gravitational
two kinds:
potential energy ii) elastic potential energy
A stretched elastic rubber band
elas
has
tic potential energy
An object suspended above the ground
gravitational
has potential energy
The work done in liftin
g up a body is converted into gravitational potential
of the
energy
body
Gravitational potential energy
= weight X height
Pe = mgh
wherem = masskg)(
v = velocity
(m/s)
6.2.4 PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
It states that:
-
´Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but it can onlyverted
be confrom one form to
another and the total amount remains constant
µ.
Examples
#1. In the case ofethball falling vertically downwards from height h
Generator KE-----------------
ĺHOHFWULFDO
Microphone Sound-------------
ĺHOHFWULFDO
Page 53
Loudspeaker Electrical------------
ĺVRXQG
ADVANTAGES
x Is a renewable source of energy
x Causes no pollution
DISADVANTAGES
x Depends on rainfall
x Large areas of countryside must be covered with
isplacing
water, dpeople from their homes and animals
from their natural habitants.
3. WIND ENERGY
Page 54
Wind is used to turn turbines / blades attached to magnets in generators called AEROMAGNETS. .
KE(wind)
------ĺ.( WXUELQHV
-----ĺ.( JHQHUDWRU
--------
ĺHOHFWULFDOH
nergy
ADVANTAGES
x Wind is free
x Give high power output
x Renewable
x Clean
DISADVANTAGES
x Unpredictable
±wind may not be sufficient enough to turn the generator when electricity is needed.
x High cost involved in implementing and maintaining.
x Power output is fairl
y low.
4. SOLAR ENERGY
We receive energy from the sun as radiant energy in form of electromagnetic waves. The source of solar en
is the nuclear energy released through nuclear fission of the nuclei of hydrogen atoms.
Solar energy can be captured in lsevera
ways:
-
x Photovoltaic cells convert light energy into electricity
x Solar panels absorb heat from the sun. The energy is usually used to heat water.
x Solar furnances: an array of concave mirrors which concentrate the sun rays producing very
high temperatures
of more than 3000 °C.
x Power generation reflectors are used to focus heat from the sun on tubes filled with oil. The o
boils water and the steam is sent to the turbines which turns the generators to produce
electricity.
Heat (infrared from the sun
ĺLQWHUQDOHQHUJ\ VWHDP ĺNLQHWLF
ADVANTAGES
x Clean
x Relatively cheap
x Renewable
DISADVANTAGES
x Useful only in places where the sun shines continuously for long period; sometimes the su
does not shine or not strong
enough in some parts of the country.
5. WAVE ENERGY
The rocking motion of the waves generate energy
ADVANTAGES
x Renewable source of energy
DISADVANTAGES
x Very inefficient way to capture energy
Page 55
6. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
It is heat energy stored inside the rocksound.
undergr
The rocks are heated by some radioactive elements as
they are heated by the sun.
The water is pumped down a borehole to hot rocks underground where it is heated. Steam under high press
comes through the other hole, it is used to turn thehich
turbine
in turn
w drives the generator.
*HRWKHUPDO URFNV ĺLQWHUQDOHQHUJ\ VWHDP ĺNLQHWL
7. TIDAL ENERGY
Sea water is trapped at high tides behind the dams and released at low tides.2OThe
is used
released
to turn
H
turbine
s
ADVANTAGES
x Renewable
DISADVANTAGES
x High initial cost
8. NUCLEAR ENERGY
Page 56
3. Morupule Power Station:- coal is mined at Morupule and is burned in power station. The heat is used
to boil water and produce steam. The steam goes through the turbine and makes it rotate. The turbin
makes the generator rotate and produce city.
electri
4. Wind power
5. Solar power
6. Others are
: candles, wood, bottle gas
6.3 POWER
Powersi the rate of doing work or transferring energy to other form/s.
Power = work done/time taken
P = w/t
OR
P = E/t
SI unit:
- watt (W)
1 W = 1 J/s
Other units:
1 kilowatt (kW) =3 10
W
1 megawatt (MW) =6 W 10
MEASURING HUMAN POWER
$SHUVRQ¶VSRZHUFDQEHFDOFXODWHGE\WLPLQJWKH
Suppose a girl weighing 500 N climbs
irs 6each
sta 25 cm high in 5 seconds
W = weight X height
= 500 N X (6 X 0.25 m)
= 750 J
Calculate the average power
P = w/t
= 750 J/5 s
= 150 W
6.4 EFFICIENCY
-is the ratio of useful work done by a machine to the energywritten
input, often
as a percentage
Efficiency = (useful work done/total energy input) x 100 %
OR
Efficiency = (power output/power input) x 100 %
NB:- in real life, there is no machine that is 100 % efficient because there is always
lostsome
as heat
energy
as
result of work done against friction between the moving parts of the machine.
Page 57
6.5 QUESTIONS
1. A horizontal force of 50 N is applied onto a box which then moves a distance of 2 m. How much work is d
on the box?
2. A can of500 g is lifted onto a shelf through a vertical height of 1.5 m. How much work is done?
3. A man pushes a box across the floor by applying a horizontal force of 100 N. The box travels with a cons
speed of 0.5 m/s.
a) What is the distance moved
by the box in 10 s?
b) Calculate the work done on the box in 10 s.
4. A builder lifts 10 bricks to the top of a building through a vertical distance of 5 m. Each brick has a mass o
500 g.
a) Calculate the work done by the builder.
b) If it takes 20 os lift
t the bricks at what rate is the builder working?
c) State form of energy gained by the bricks.
5. A body of mass 5 kg falls from rest and has k.e of 1000 J just before it touches the ground. Assuming the
no friction and using the value
m/s10
2 for the acceleration due to
vity.
graCalculate the loss of potential
energy during the
fall.
6. A 100 g steel ball falls from a height of 1.8 m onto a plate. Calculate
a) the G.P.E of the ball before the fall.
b) its k.e as it hits the plate.
c) Its velocity as it hits the plate.
7. The diagram below shows a model power -station. A small steam engine drives a generator which
lights a bulb. Decide where each of the following energy changes is taking place. (You can answer
by writing one of the letters A–D in each case.)
8. Some workers on a building site have set up an electric winch in order to lift a
bucket with tiles up to the roof.The bucket and tiles weigh 500 N.
a) What is the minimum force that must be applied in order to lift the bucket of
tiles off the ground?
Page 58
b) How much energy is spent in lifting the tiles 20 m from the ground to the
roof?
c) What energy transformations are taking place as the tiles are raised?
d) If the tiles are lifted 20 m in 10 s, what is the powe
r of the winch?
e) If the winch is only 50 % efficient, how much energy must be fed into the
electrical motor to lift the tiles through the 20 m?
f) Suggest one or two reason why the system might be less than 100 % ent.
effici
g) How can the efficiency of the system be improved?
9. In a certain ward in Serowe people use solar panels and windmills as energy
sources.
a) What type ofenergy does the water have when it reaches the power
-
station?
b) Some of the water’s energy is wasted.
(i) Why is energy wasted?
(ii) What happens to the wasted energy?
c) The hydroelec
tric scheme is a renewable energy source. What is meant by
a renewable energy resource?
Page 59
d) When water flows from the lake, potential energy is lost. How is this energy
replaced?
e) What advantages does a hydroelectric scheme have over a-burning
fuel
power-station?
f) What environmental damage does a hydroelectric scheme cause?
11. At night time when most of us are asleep the demand for electricity is quite
small. The generators at the power stations, however, are still working as it is very
wasteful and inefficient to turn them off. In some power stations the excess
electrical energy they are manufacturing is used to pump water intoams.
d
Then during the day the water is released and used to drive
generators when demand is high.
a) What weight of water can be pumped 50 m uphill if the surplus energy from
a generator is 2 MJ?
b) When released, how much kinetic energy will this have after it has fallen
(i) 25 m (ii) 50 m?
c) What assumptions have you made in order to answer (b) above?
d) Suggestwhy off-peak night-time electricity is cheaper than daytime
electricity.
13. To be a good pole vaulter it is essential not only to be strong and agile but also
to have good sprinting speed.
a) What kind of energydoes a vaulter possess;
(i) before starting his run?
(ii) as he sprints down the runway?
(iii) as he clears the bar?
b) When a competitor has completed his vault where has all the energy
gone?
7.0 PRESSURE
7.1 Pressure is force per unit area
Pressure = force/area
P = F/A
Page 60
SI unit-:pascal (Pa)
1 Pa = 1 N/m
2
P = F/A
= 26000 N/0.52 m
= 52000 N/m
2
= 52000 Pa = 52 kPa
#2. What force is produced if a force of 1000 Pa acts on an area
2. of 0.2 m
Data
F = 1000 N, A = 0.2
2 m
P = F/A
F = P(A)
=1000 N/m
2 x 0.2 m
2
= 200 N
([SODLQZK\DWUDFWRU¶VE
ig tyres stop sinking to far into the soft soil
Answ: Exert less pressure on the soil because of small area contact between the tyres and the
soil/ground
Page 61
Water spurts out fastest and furthest from the lowest from the lowest hole.
2. Pressure at one depth acts equally in all directions
The can of water has similar holes all round it at the same level. Water comes out as fast as far from each ho
Hence the pressure exerted by the water at this depth is the same in all directions.
In the U
-tube the liquid pressure at the foot of P is greater than at the foot of Q because the left hand
column is higher than the right one. When the clip is opened the liquid moves from P to Q until the
pressure in both is the same and the s oflevel
liquid in both column are equal.
b.
Page 62
The liquid is at the same level. This confirms that pressure at the foot of a liquid column depends onl
on the vertical depth of the liquid and not the width or shape of the tube.
Pressure, piston A
PA = FA/AA
= 1.0 N/0.012m
= 100 Pa
= 50 N
A force of 1.0 N is therefore magnified 50 times.
Note:
PA = PB
FA/AA = FB/AB
FA = (AA/AB)FB; AA/AB = force multiplying factor
Page 63
Owing to its weight, air exerts pressure at the surface of the earth and objects on
thethe
Earth.
surface
The of
air pressure at the sea level (known as the standard atmospheric O) is
pressure,
10Pa (100
5 P kPa)
7.5.2 EFFECTS OF AIR PRESSURE
Collapsing/crushing a can
After removing (pumping out the air) it becomes very difficult to separate the spheres because air pressure i
is less than outside.
In diagram (a) atmospheric pressure acts equally on both arms of the tube. The levels of the water (liquid) in
therefore are the same.In diagram (b) arm one arm is connected to a er
gaswhich
cylindexerts pressure to the
liquid and it rises to the height h in the other arm.
Pressure of the gas = Atmospheric pressure + Pressure due to the liquid column h
P = PO KȡJ
Pressure of the liquid column h is therefore
al to equ
the amount by which the gas supply exceeds atmospheric
pressure.
b) Mercury Barometer
A mercury barometer is a manometer which is used to measure atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressur
acts on the surface of the mercury in the bowl and he
maintains
height oft the liquid column h. This height is 760
mm at sea level. When the pressure acting on the surface of the mercury in the bowl is reduced, the height h
decreases. When the barometer is slightly tilted the height h is not affected because
ric pressure
atmosphe
acts
equally in all directions.
Page 65
Pressure at x due to the liquid column h equals the atmospheric pressure on the surface of mercury in the bo
This pressure is stated in terms of height of the mercury column e.g. 760 mmHg (at
mHg,
sea etc.
level), 74 m
,QFUHDVLQJWKHGLDPHWHURIWKHWXEHGRHVQ¶WFKDQ
(force) will now be acting on a large surface area.
7.6 Weather maps
Weather maps are constructed by plotting of pressure m
readings
different
froweather stations in a region. When
this has been done, lines known as isobars are drawn.
Isobars are lines drawn on the map weather to join places of equal atmospheric pressure. Closely spaced
isobars indicate a big pressure differencehort
overdistance
as and suggest that strong winds are likely to occur.
Widely spaced isobars indicate a small pressure difference over a large area and suggest light winds,
Winds blow from places of high atmospheric pressure to places of low atmospheric
. Because
pressure
of the
rotation of the Earth, winds blow more or less along the isobars. Winds blow in a clockwise direction in the
northern hemisphere and in an anticlockwise direction in the southern hemisphere for an anticyclone. For a
cyclone they blow ockwise
in cl direction in the southern hemisphere and in the anticlockwise in the northern
hemisphere.
In weather a region of high atmospheric region surrounded by places of low pressure
HIGHOR is AN
called a
ANTICYCLONE and region of low atmospheric pressure
in the middle of high pressures is called
LOWOR a
CYCLONE OR DEPRESSION
CYCLONE ANTICYCLONE
7.7 QUESTIONS
1. a) A thumb ck
ta is squeezed between finger and thumb as shown in Fig. 1.1. Which experiences the
greaterpressure, thumb or the finger? Explain your answer.
Fig. 1.1
Page 66
b) A hippopotamus has very large feet. How do the large feet help the hippo to walk on soft mud?
c) Why is a dam built thicker at the bottom than at the top?
2. Explain why air pressure decreases as height above the ses.
Earth increa
3. Explain, in terms of pressure, how you are able to drink liquid by using a straw.
4. Fig. 4.1 shows a simple mercury barometer.
Page 67
8.0 THERMAL PHYSICS
8.1 MATTER
Mattersi defined as
anything that occupies space and has mass.
8.1.1 Kinetic molecular model of matter
The kinetic theory of matter states that
x All matter is made up of very tiny particles (molecules).
x The particles of matter are in constant, random motion.
x There are forces of attraction between the particles (the force is called a bond). It holds particles
together in solid and liquid. But it is almost negligible in gases.
x There spaces between the molecules.
8.1.2 Intermolecular forces
- Are electromagnetic in nature due to electric and magnetic forces between particles.
- Can either be attractive or repulsive depending on the distance between the particles. If the particles
come closer together than their normaling,spac
the force is repulsive and is relatively large to push
them apart. If the separation of the particles is slightly more than their normal spacing, the force is
attractive and relatively large to push them back.
8.1.3 SOLIDS
x Particles are close toget
her and arranged in regular form lattice.
x Most of true solids exist as a regular three dimensional structures called crystals.
x Have definite shapes and volumes
x Each particle has a fixed position in the crystal lattice.
x Particles vibrate slightly fromfixed
theirpositions but the intermolecular forces are strong enough to
prevent the molecules from moving out of their positions to other positions.
8.1.4 LIQUIDS
x Particles are little further apart than those in solids
x Particles have no fixed positions.
x Have definite volumes but no definite shapes.
x Have slightly weaker intermolecular forces
x Particles are free to slide over each other in a random motion.
8.1.5 GASES
x Particles are much further apart (so gases are less dense and can easily be compressed)
x Particles are in continuous motion with high speed in all directions (random motion), completely
independent of one another.
x Intermolecular forces are negligible (almost
-existent)
non except during collisions.
x Have neither fixed volumes nor fixed shapes
ays expand
(alw to fill the whole container).
Page 68
A diagram to illustrate a typical motion of a gas particle
*NB:- At any instant, different particles have different amount of kinetic energy. On heating, the kinetic energy
the particles (also their average kinetic energy) increases.
The temperature of a substance is theremeasu
oftheaverage kinetic energy of its particles.
At any given temperature, particles of any two gases have the same kinetic energy but their average speed
not the same.
8.2.2 Pressure of a gas in terms of molecular forces
Gases consist of large
f particles
o in constant random motion. Gas pressure is a result of force exerted on the
surface of the container walls by the gas particles when they strike walls and rebound.
8.3 GAS LAWS
8.3.1 PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE
The pressure of a gas ase
increwith in temperature because the particles collide with the container
- i) more walls:
frequently each second and ii) with greater force as the increase in temperature increase their kinetic energy
3Į7ZKHQYROXPHLVFRQVWDQW
----------
----> Pressure law
P/T = a constant
Pressure law states -that:
³7
KHSUHVVXUHRIDIL[HGPDVVRIJDVDWFRQVWDQW
8.3.2 PRESSURE AND VOLUME
When the volume of a given mass of a gas is decreased;
a). theparticles have less space to move in,
b). so particles collide more frequently each second with the walls,
c). as a result the force and pressure increase.
3Į9ZKHQWHPSHUDWXUHLVFRQVWD
--------------------------
!%R\OH¶VODZ
Page 69
%R\OH¶VODZVWDWHVWKDW
-
³7KHYROXPHRIDIL[HGPDVVRIJDVLVLQYHUVHO\
UHPDLQVFRQVWDQW´
8.3.3 VOLUME AND TEMPERATURE
When a gas is heated, its temperature rises as its particles move faster. If pressure of the gas is to remain
constant, the volume must increase so that the number of collisions of the particles with walls does not more
frequen
t and violent and hence increase the pressure.
9Į7ZKHQSUHVVXU
---------------------------------
!&KDUOHV¶ODZ
Page 70
Explanation of Brownian motion using the kinetic theory
Brownian motion is due to the continuous bombardment of articles
tiny smoke
by numerous
p air molecules which
are too small to be seen.
The air molecules move with different velocities in different directions. The resultant force on the smoke part
is therefore unbalanced and irregular in magnitude and directions.
causes the
Thissmoke particles to move to a
new position now and then when another unbalanced force acts on it. All these result into the random motion
the particles.
8.5 QUESTIONS
1 Describe the spacing of molecules and their movement in
dssolids,
and gases.
liqui
2 What do each of the following statements tell you about the forces between atoms?
a) It is not easy to stretch or compress a metal.
b) If the extension is not too big, a stretched copper wire regains its original
the length
stretching
whenforce
is removed?
3 A gas is heated in a closed container. What happens to the temperature and to the pressure of the gas?
Explain your answer in terms of molecules.
4 A gas in a closed container is compressedits to
volume.
half Explain, in terms of molecules, why the pressure
doubles if the temperature is not allowed to change.
$EXEEOHRIDLUUHOHDVHGIURPDGLYHU¶VKHOP
increases. Explai
n why.
6 Explain the following results.
a) A gas inside a container exerts a pressure on the walls of the container.
b) The pressure increases when the mass of the gas in the container is increased.
7 Some smoked
-filled air is put into ear
a clplastic box and viewed through a microscope.
a) Describe carefully what is seen through the microscope.
b) Use the molecular model of gases to explain what is seen.
8 The diagram shows the main parts of a bicycle pump with ocked
the end
up. When
bl a bicycle tyre is pumped
up, the volume of the air trapped in the
is pump
reduced and its pressure is increased.
a) Explain, in terms of the motion of molecules, why the pressure increases.
b) The volume of air in the
mppu
at start of the stroke is 20
3, and
cm the pressure of the air is 1.00
5 Pa.
x 10
Calculate the pressure when the volume has been reduced 3 assuming
to 8.0 cmthat no air has escaped
from the pump and the temperature of the constant.
air is
c) In practice, the temperature of the air increases as it is compressed. Explain why this is so.
Page 71
8.6 THERMAL EXPANSION
8.6.1 IN SOLIDS
Most solids expand when heated and contract on cooling. When a solid isticles heated,
vibrate
its par
more
vigorously and faster. As the vibrations become larger the particles will need more space for movement, so
particles are pushed further apart and the solid expands slightly in all directions.
When it is cooled, the vibrations become
ller then
sma the particles are pulled closer together by force of
attraction between and hence the solid contracts.
Demonstration of expansion of solids
1). Ball and ring experiment
The gauge consists of a slot that fits in the length of the bar and a circular hole that fits in the diameter of the
when both the
gauge and bar are at the same temperature.
Page 72
Procedure
:
- Fit the bar into the slot and the hole on the gauge when both the gauge and bar are at room temperature to
check if the bar fits in.
-Heat the bar strongly over the Bunsen burner for aminutes.
couple ofTry to fit it into the slot and hole on the
gauge after being heated.
Observation:the bar does not fit into the slot as well as the hole.
Observation
: The baronce again fits into the gauge (through the slot and the hole)
8.6.2 IN LIQUIDS
Liquids expand when heated. They expand more than solids because the molecules are not tightly bound
together as thosesolids.
in
8.6.
8.6.4 IN GASES
GASES also expand when heated. They expand much more than solids and liquids. This is because gas
molecules have negligible attractive forces between them since they are far apart.
Two identical flasks A and B are filled with water and air. Flasks A and B are at the same time placed into wa
water in a small bowl C.
The water level in flask A is seen to rise very slowly but the et
coloured
in flaskpell
B rises up the capillary tube
rapidly. This shows that air expands more faster than water.
Roughly the relative order of magnitude of expansion of solids, liquids and gases is 1 : 10 : 100
respectively
Most expansion
---------------------------
----------------------------------------------
> least expansion
Page 73
Gases liquids solids
A). Bimetallic strip±it is a device based on the different expansion of solids. It consists of two metal strips of
equal size but different rates (amount) of expansion, e.g. iron and brass. The strips are riveted or welded
together. On ating,
he the bimetallic strip bends with brass on the outside of the curve and iron inside. This
because the brass expands more than iron for the same temperature rise.
C). Shrink fitting±This is method to fit axles in gear wheel. An axle which is slightly too large to fit into the gea
wheel is cooled in liquid
trogen.
ni The axle contracts until it can easily fit into the gear wheel. Then when the
axle warms up later, it expands and this produces a very tight fit between the wheel and the axle.
D). Liquid-in-glass thermometer
:- mercury or alcohol expand
when heated (or contract when cooled). This
fact is used to measure temperature.
E). Hot air balloon
:- propane gas expands and becomes lighter when heated. It fills up a balloon which will
then because of the density differencenbetwee
the propane inside and air outside will rise upwards and fly
around.
1). When railway tracks were laid with the ends of individual rails closely and firmly fixed together with no ga
between, expansion made the tracks buckle.
Page 74
To allow for expansion and avoid destruction, gaps are left between the end of one rail and the next.
The rails are tapered at each end, then each end overlaps with thextend
rail.ofAsthe
thenerails expand or
contract their ends slide over one another.
One end of the bridge is supported on the rollers and the other end is fixed. As the bridge expands the end o
the rollers
can move slightly, enough to avoid any damage to the bridge.
3). Telephone and power -lines:- are hung slightly slack ( too loose) if they are put up in summer to allow for
safe contraction in winter or at night without pulling the poles
the wire
downsnapping
or (breaking). If they
are put up in winter, they are tightened up a bit so that they do not become loose (slack) when they expa
in summer or during the day.
4). Tyre bursting:- more common during very hot days. Ited
is by
caus
the expansion excessive expansion of
air inside the tyre.
Page 75
Unusual expansion of water
If we start with water that is warmer than 4 °C, as the water cooled to 4 °C it contracts
wouldasdo.
any liquid
But surprisingly as it is cooled from 4 °C to 0 °C it expands. Water therefore has a minimum volume (and
maximum density) at 4The °C. expansion of water between 4°C and 0°C is due to the rearrangement of the
molecules that make up the water, nce he
takes up more volume therefore cancels out any contraction due to a
decrease in temperature.
The water at the top cools first, contracts and becomes denser and sinks to the bottom. The less dense wate
rises to the surface to be cooled, become denser and then sinks as well. When all the e water is 4 °C, th
circulation ceases. If the temperature of the surface water falls below 4 °C the water becomes less dense an
remains at the top and eventually forming a layer of,ice
which
of 0insulate
°C the remaining water, which is
protected from freezing
. The temperatures in the pond are then as shown above.
*NB:- When water is heated from 0 °C to 4 °C instead of expanding it contracts and also reaches its minimum
volume at 4 °C. From 4 °C upwards it expands as we would expected.
Page 76
freezing point of er.
wat
KELVIN TEMPERATURE
Various types of thermometers give different readings when used to measure the same temperature
scale, even though they may be marked in the same temperature scale and this is because the value
obtained depends on the properties
the
ofsubstance used in the thermometer.
8.6.8 QUESTIONS
1. A student sets up the apparatus as shown below. When the student holds his hands on the flask, air bub
flow out from the tom
bot of the tube
. Explain this, mentioning in your answer the behaviour of the air
molecules. When the student removes his hands from the flask, water goes up the tube to a point than it
before. Explain why this happens.
2. The diagram shows electricity cables that have been put up between their poles on a day when the weat
was quite warm
Page 77
Why do you think the cables have been left slack?
3. Explain why
(a) thi
ck glass vessels often crack if placed in very hot water.
(b) a stubborn screw lid on a jar can often be unscrewed after being warmed in hot water.
(c) a bimetallic strip bends when heated
(d) water pipes likelyurst
to bduring very
a cold weather
4. The diagram shows a bimetallic strip. Given that brass expands more than iron, draw diagrams to show
the strip will appear
:
(i) When the bimetallic strip is heated the heater is switched off. Explain why.
(ii) How would you use the control knob to make the heater switch
higheroff
temperature?
at a
6. The diagram shows a warning system containing a bimetallic strip. The bimetallic strip
X and
has two metals
Y firmly joined together.
Page 78
(a) Explain how and why
7. A glass bottle was heated. State whether the following properties were unchanged, decreased or increas
(a) mass of the bottle
(b) density of the bottle
(c) external diameter of the bottle
(d) volume insid
e the bottle.
Page 79
Examples:
TYPE OF THERMOMETE
R THERMOMETRIC PROPERTY
Main features:-
Heat is transferred to the liquid inside bulb by conduction and radiation through the glass wall. After
some time the heat will reach the liquid. The heat is transferred through the liquid by convection.
The glass and theliquid will begin to expand. The liquid rises up the column of the capillary bore
because it expands faster than the glass.
Thermometric liquid
Page 80
NB: Alcohol should be coloured to make it visible through glass.
1) Alcohol
¾ Its expansion is about six times that of mercury
¾ Has lower freezing point (about-122 °C) so can be used in very cold temperature
region.
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
(a) First, the lower and upper fixed points must be marked on the scale. Fixed points are
standard temperatures which their values are known and fixed.Lower fixed point (or ice
point) is defined as the temperature at which pure ice melts at sea level and its value is
taken to be0 °C. Theupper fixed point (steam point)is the temperature of steam above
boiling water at standard atmospheric pressure of 760 mmHg and is taken100 to be°C.
(b) Determining the fixed points experimentally
(i) LOWER FIXED POINT (L.F.P)
Page 81
- Place the thermometer in crushed pure melting ice placed in a funnel above a beaker.
- The mercury thread falls and eventually stabilises at one point. That
nt represents
poi the
L.F.P.
- Mark on the stem against the level of the mercury thread and label it 0 °C.
- Next, place the thermometer in the steam above boiling water in a flask.
- Allow the mercury threadto rise until it stabilises at a particular point. That point
represents U.F.P.
- Mark against the level of mercury thread on the stem and label it 100 °C.
(c) Measure the distance between L.F.P and U.F.P and divide the space into 100 equal divisions.
Each division is equal to 1 °C.
NOTE: When using a thermometer without scale marks but only with lower fixed point and
upper fixed point marked, one may use the following equation to find the value of
temperature for any given length of the column.
Page 82
ɽсy
ɽʹX0 / (X100 ʹX0Ϳdžѐd
where ɽ
–unknown temperature
X0 –length of mercury thread at 0 °C (L.F.P)
X100 –length of mercury thread at 100 °C (U.F.P)
Xɽ–length of the mercury thread at temper
temp).
ѐT = difference between known temperatures (= 100 °C in the
diagram above)
Examples #1.
A student puts the bulb of an unmarked liquid
-in-glass thermometer into melting ice, then into
steam above boiling water and finally into sea
-water. Each time she waits until the liquid level is
steady and then marks the level. The diagram showsiquidthe l levels measured from the bulb. What
is the temperature of the sea
-water?
Data: X
0 = 2 cm, X=
ɽ 4 cm, X сϭϮĐŵ͕ɽсƚĞŵƉ͘ŽĨƐĞĂ
100 -ǁĂƚĞƌ͕ѐdсϭϬϬΣ
Ⱥсy
ɽʹX0 / (X100 ʹX0Ϳdžѐd
Example#2.
Page 83
Find temperature X
Data: X0 = 2 cm, X
ɽ= 5 cm, X сϳĐŵ͕ѐdсϭϬϬΣ͕ɽсy
100
Ⱥсy
ɽʹX0/(X 100 ʹX0) x 100 °C
X = 5ʹ2/(7 ʹ2) x 100
= 3/5 x 100
= 60 °C
Example#3
Find temperature X
Page 84
EXPLANATION OF PURPOSE OF DIFFERENT FEATURES
¾ A vacuum–allow free movement of the mercury inside the capillary bore.
¾ Glass bulb with thin wall allows heat to pass quickly into the mercury. Even though the glass bulb of a
clinical thermometer is smaller than that of a laboratory thermometer,t in
burelation to its bore, it is
large and this improves its sensitivity.
¾ Narrow capillary makes the thermometer sensitive to small changes in temperature.
¾ Constriction prevents mercury from falling back into the bulb when removing the thermometer from
the body, before a reading is taken. The mercury above will be trapped and this allows the nurse to
take accurate reading from the thermometer. When the reading is taken the thermometer is
shaken/flicked carefully so that mercury moves back into the bulb.
¾ Short temperature range- this is so because the normal body temperature is 37 °C and does not vary
much from this value. With a few degrees marked on the scale, the distance between unit degrees is
greater and this makes the thermometer very sensitive andy eas to read accurately.
¾ Lastly the stem of the clinical thermometer is specially shaped, it has a triangular -section.
cross This
shape produces a lens effect which would magnifies the bore and make it more visible for easy
reading.
¾ Uses only mercury because it is quick responding since it has a low specific heat capacity and great
conductivity.
Question:- Why should we not put a clinical thermometer inside boiling water?
Answer :- Temperature of boiling water is 100 °C but the maximum temperature that canread be by a
clinical thermometer is only 42 °C. So if sterilized in boiling water, the large expansion of mercury will cause
the thermometer to break.
Thermometer A with a large bulb and a narrow bore is more sensitive than thermometer B with a
small bulb but wide bore.
¾ Thickness of the glass wall
:- bulb should be made of thin walled glass for heat to easily reach the
liquid in the bulb
C D
Page 85
Thermometer C with a thin glass wall responds quickly because heat passes quickly through the thin
glass to the liquid inside. Thermom
eter D with a thick glass wall responds slowly because heat passes
slowly through the thick glass to the liquid.
¾ Width of the bore:- for higher sensitivity the bore of the thermometer should be very thin (narrow) so
that a small expansion of the liquid canresult in a larger change in the position of the level of the
mercury (length of mercury thread) inside the thermometer.
Note: Mathematically, sensitivity can be expressed as change in the length of the mercury column per
unit temperature increase.
e.g. If a column of a thermometer increases by 10 mm for every 2 °C increase in temperature, what is
the sensitivity of the thermometer?
Sensitivity = 10 mm/2 °C = 5 mm/°C
RANGE OF A THERMOMETER
:- is the temperature interval (value of the lowest temperaturedan
highest
temperature) that can be measured by a thermometer.
e.g. A clinical thermometer; range = 35 °C
ʹ42 °C
A laboratory thermometer; range =-10 °Cʹ110 °C
The range of the thermometer also depends on size the of the bulband thewidth of the bore:- If the bore is
small relative to the size of the bore, the thermometer will be able to measure a wide range of temperature.
The range of a thermometer is also affected by length
the of the stem. Thermometers with long stem have
large ranges whilstthose with shorter stems have smaller ranges.
Summary of the effects of bulb size and bore width on range and sensitivity
Range Sensitivity
LINEARITY OFMPERATURE
TE SCALE
It refers to whether the temperature degree marks are uniformly/equally spaced on the scale.
Linear scale : temperature scale on the thermometer should have equal temperature divisions of equal
size/length/spacing (equal temperature differences equally spaced). This is so because change in temperature
is proportional to change in the length of the liquid column (or any thermometric property).
But for the temperature scale to be linear, the tube must have a uniform diameter.
Page 86
To use the thermometer, one junction X (cold junction) must be put into melting ice. The other junction Y (hot
junction) is placednto
i the body of substance of which its temperature is to be measured, e.g. warm water.
Difference in temperatures at the two junctions induces an e.m.f (voltage) across the junctions which causes
the current to flow through the circuit. This will resultth
wia deflection on the sensitive galvanometer.
Note:
x The deflection is greater when the temperature difference is greater.
x If the temperature of both junctions is the same then no voltage is produced.
Advantages of a thermocouple
i) A thermocouple responds quickly to temperature changes, because metal wires are good conductor
of heat and also only a small part can be put into a substance, it can quickly attain the temperature of
of the substance.
ii) A thermocouple can be used to measureryve high and very low temperatures-200 ( °C–1500 °C),
e.g. used to measure high temperature inside blast furnaces and car engines.
dсɽнϮϳϯ
E.G.
Absolute zero Melting point Boiling water
Page 87
#2 Convert a) 50 °C to K
b) 100 K to °C
E^t͗ĂͿĂƚĂ͗ɽсϱϬΣ͕dс͍
dсɽнϮϳϯ
= 50 + 273
= 323 K
ďͿĂƚĂ͗dсϭϬϬ<͕ɽс͍
dсɽнϮϳϯ
d,Eɽсd
-273
= 100 Kʹ273
= 173 °C
8.7.6 QUESTIONS
1. The scale on a thermometer used for measuring the temperature
includes two fixed points. What are the
values of these?
Explain why the length of the mercury thread changes whentemperature
the rises?
2. (a) A clinical thermometer, used to measure human body temperature has a constriction just above the
bulb, why is the constriction necessary?
(b) The thermometer temperature is 35 °C –42 °C, why is the nge
ra made to be so small?
(c) How is the thermometer made very sensitive?
(a) What is meant meant by the statement that the scale is linear?
(b) Calculate the distanceoved
m by the end of the mercury thread when the temperature of the
thermometer rises
(i) from 0.0 °C to 1.0 °C
Page 88
(ii) from 1.0 °C to 100 °C.
6. A mercury thermometer is calibrated by immersing it in turn
in melting ice and then boiling water. The
column of the mercury is respectively 2.0 cm and 22.0 cm long. What would be temperature reading when
the column is 7.0 cm long?
8.8 MELTIN
G ANDBOILING
8.8.1 Whenever a substance undergoe
s a phase change (boils, melts or condenses, etc) energy is taken away
or added to the substance. But surprisingly there is no temperature change during a phase change.
8.8.2 Melting
Melting is a process in which a substance changes its state from solid to liquid and the reverse process (liqu
solid) is called freezing or solidification.
8.8.2 Boiling
If the energy is supplied to a liquid, e.g. water, its temperature rises until it boils. During boiling the temperatu
of water remains constant. The temperature at which a liquid o a gas
turns
byint
boiling is called its boiling point.
As water turns into steam, the energy supplied does not cause a rise in temperature instead is used to enab
molecules to break the attractive forces holding the particles together. The energy sed
absorbed
to changeand u
a liquid to a gas without changing the temperature of the substance is called latent heat of vaporisation. The
latent heat of vaporization is given out during condensation to change a gas to a liquid.
1) BOILING CURVE
Page 89
BOILING
MELTING
2 COOLING CURVE
We can also plot a graph of temperature against time (boiling curve) when the steam
e above
of temperatur
100°C.
condensation
steam
Water + steam
water Freezing/solidification
8.9 Evaporation
8.9.1 It is the process in which a liquid changes into a gas at a temperature below its boiling point. All molecu
do not have the same energy. During evaporation, molecules with greater energy than others and are
nearer to the surface escape into the space above the liquid
Page 90
*Liquids which evaporate and boil at low temperatures are called volatile liquids.
At higher temperature, molecules gain more energy and move faster and time for them to reach the surface
decrease. Therefore a larger number of molecules can escape from the surface.
c). Humidity
When the humidity is high (i.e. water vapour is present in air in greater proportion) the molecules which esca
from the liquid collide with ater
the wmolecules in the atmosphere, so some of the escaped liquid molecules will
return into the liquid.
If wind blows over the surface of the liquid, the escaped molecules from the surface of the liquid will be rapid
carried away by the draught and thus reducing the possibility of their return into the liquid.
During evaporation, the high energy molecules escape from the liquid leaving the low behind.
energy molecules
Therefore the avera
ge kinetic
energyof the remaining molecules decreases. This lowers the temperature of the
liquid because the temperature of a substance is proportional to inetic
the average
energyofkits molecules.
i). Coolingour bodies- your body sweats in hot weather, as the sweat evaporates it takes in latent heat from
your body and cools it, this helps get rid of excessive internal energy.
Page 91
Refrigerator has sealed system of thin pipes with compressor, a condenser and an evaporator. A volatile liqui
(such as Freon or ammonia) known as refrigerant is pumped through the coiled pipes around the freezer
compartment in the top of the refrigerator.frigerant
The re evaporates and takes latent heat from its surroundings,
producing cooling inside the refrigerator. A pump is used to draw the vapour (so reducing its pressure, lowei
boiling point and encouraging further evaporation and removing hemore
refrigerator)
from t and then forces it into
the heater exchanger at the rear of the refrigerator. Here the vapour is compressed. It liquefies, giving out la
heat of vapourisation into the surrounding air. The liquid, now at room temperature,
e coils,
returns
returns
to to
th
the coils in the freezer and the cycle is repeated.
It works in the same way, but on a larger. The refrigerant liquid evaporates in the coil inside the building and
extracts latent heat from the airroom,
in the cooling it down. The resulting vapour then condenses under
pressure in the coil outside the house releasing the latent heat to the outside air.
Both processes involve a change in state from liquid to gas, but evaporation
same is
asnot
boiling.
the
Page 92
A). Differences
Boiling Evaporation
4). Bubbles
seen 4). Nothing visible happens (no bubbles)
B). Similarities
8.10 QUESTIONS
1. A boy has been swimming in a pool. He comes out of the water onto hot sunshine but he feels cold until
has dried himself. Why did he feels cold when he was still wet?
A -73 -10
B -39 357
C 17 118
D 29 669
3. Aarge
l piece of ice is taken from a refrigerator has a temperature
-2 °C. Its temperature
of is measured as it
is warmed. Sketch a graph to show how its temperature changes with time until the water is boiling.
Page 93
circulated round a loop of pipes. In one part of the loop (the compressor) the vapour condenses into liqui
another part (the expansion valve) the liquid evaporates.
Explain what transfer of thermal energy (heat)
occurs (i) when a liquid evaporates and (ii) when a liquid condenses.
5. The graph shows how the temperature of a pure substance changes as it is heated.
Page 94
(a) What was the boiling point of the liquid?
ѐdɲϭͬŵ
ii. The temperature change differs from material to material. For one
any material (e.g. water, iron,
mercury, copper, etc.)
exists a constant, C. For objects of the same mass;
∆T α 1/C
The constant C isalled
c heat capacityof an object.Heat capacity, C, is the quantity of heat which is required
to raise the temperature of an object by 1 °C or 1 K.
SI Unitis joule per celsius (J/°C or J-1)°COR joule per kelvin (J/K or-1J). K
From the definition,mathematically heat capacity can be expressed- as:
C = Q/∆T
Page 95
Specific heat capacity, c, of a material is the quantity of heat which must be supplied to a mass of 1 kg of that
material to raise its temperature by 1 °C or 1 K.SIItsunit is joule per kilogram per degree
celsius ( J/kg/°C or J
-1 -1 -1 -1
kg °C or J/(kg °C)) OR joule per kilogram per kelvin (JKkg )
Specific heat capacity is in fact heat capacity per unit mass, which means that
c = C/m----------------------------------------
> (2)
c= (Q/∆T)/m
Problems
#1Find the specificeat
h capacity of the liquid given that:
i. energy transferred = 12 209 J
ii. mass of liquid = 0.8 kg
iii. original temperature = 26.8 °C
iv. final temperature = 33.0 °C
YсŵĐѐd
ĐсYͬŵѐd
= 12209/(0.8(33.0ʹ26.8))
= 301 600 J
#2. Calculate the heat required to raise the temperature of 10 kg of brass from 10 °C to 90 °C. Specific heat
capacity of brass = 377 J -1kg°C-1.
Answ:
Data:- m = 10 kg, i=
T 10 °C, f =T 90 °C, c = 377 J-1 kg
°C-1, Q=?
YсŵĐѐd
= 10 x 377 x (90
ʹ10)
= 301 600 J
Page 96
Answ:
a) Data:- P = 1000 W, t = 5 min = 300 s, Q=?
Q = E = Pt
= 1000 x 300
= 300 000 J
b) Data:- m = 1 kg, c = 4200 J-1 kg
°C-1, Q = ?
YсŵĐѐd
= 1 x 4200 x (90
ʹ20)
= 294 000 J
6000 J of energy are lost to the surroundings and cointainer by conduction, convection and
radiation.
#4 If 2 kg of water cools from 70 °C to 20 °C, how much thermal energy does it lose?
Answ:
DATA:- m = 2 kg, iT= 70 °C, f=
T 20 °C, c = 4200 J-1 kg
°C-1, Q =?
YсŵĐѐd
= 2 x 4200 x (70
ʹ20)
= 420 000 J.
-1
#5 In an experiment, 920000 J of energy is transferred to 2 kg
f iron
o (c = 460 J kg °C-1). The initial
temperature of iron is 25 °C. What is the final temperature of the iron?
Answ:
Data:- Q = 920000 J, m = 2 kg, i = 25
T °C, c = 460 J-1 kg
°C-1
Q = mc(T f ʹTi)
Tf = (Q/mc) + T i
= 920000/(2 x 460) + 25
= 1000 + 25
= 1 025 °C
Page 97
m = mass of the solid (kg)
Lf = sp. Lat. Heat of fusion (J/kg)
8.12 QUESTIONS
1. A heatersupplies 42 J of energy every second (its power is then 42 W). It is used to heat some water. The
temperature rises by5 °C in 100 seconds. What is the heat capacity of the water? A boy says it would take
times as long to raise the temperature to 50 °C. Is he right? Explain ypur answer.
2. A beaker of oil and a beaker of water are heated on the same electric
t plate.
ho The beaker of oil has a
lower thermal capacity than the beaker of water. What can you say about how the temperatures change?
3. The heat capacity of a thermocouple is mall. Give two advantages which result from this.
5. Calculate the energy lost by 2.5 kg of steam at 100 °C when it condenses, cools down to 0 °C and solidifies
at that temperature.
Specific latent heat of steam =260
2 000 J/kg
Specific latent capacity of water = 4200 J/(kg
C) °
Specific latent heat of water = 336
000 J/kg
6. A heater raises the temperature of 1.25 kg of water by 20 °C in 30 seconds. The specific heat capacity
f o
water is 4200 J/(kg °C). Calculate an approximate value for the power of the heater. Use this value for the
power to calculate M, the mass of water boiled away each second when the temperature reaches 100 °c.
Assume that the specificlatent heat of vapourisation of water is 2.26 x610
J/kg. Explain whether the actual
rate at which water is boiled away is greater than or less than M
°
7. Explain why a drink is cooled more by ice than by the same mass of water
C. at 0
8. It takes 80000 J of heat to raise the temperature of 500 g of porridge from 20 °C to 50 °C. Calculate the
specific heat capacity of porridge.
9. An experiment was conducted to measure the specific latent of fusion. Ice was placed in a funnel and
heated for a fixed time. The water from the melted ice was collected in a beaker as shown in the diagram.
The mass of the empty beaker was 50 g.
A 100 W heater was used to heat the ice for 2 min. After the jeater was switched offass the of
m the
beaker and the melted ice was 83 g. Use the results to calculate a value
f, the
for specific
L latent heatof
-1
fusion of ice. Explain why your answer is different from the accepted value of 340 . Jg
Page 98
8.13 HEAT TRANSFER/ TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY
8.13.1 Heat/thermal energy is always transferred from place at a high temperature to place at a lower
temperature.
8.13.2 Conduction
This is flow of heat through a substance from places of higher temperature toe thos
of lower temperature
without any movement/flow of the substance (matter) as a whole. It is a main method of heat transfer in
solids and heat can be conducted in all directions.
NB: Conduction can take place in all the three states of matter but at ent
differ
rates.
When one end of a metal rod is heated, the particles (atoms/molecules) in portion nearest to the source of
heat, gain more kinetic energy and start to vibrate faster and more vigorously.
heseTatoms collide with the
neighbours and pass on some of their energy during those collisions. The neighbours will also begin to vibrate
faster and will in turn transmit the energy to the surrounding atoms. The chain process continues until all the
particles are affected and the whole substance is heated even the farthest parts.
Experiment #1: To demonstrate that different metals conduct heat at different rates
Procedure:
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i) Stick a pin to each piece of metal with candle wax
ii) Pour boiling water into the pan.
Note: In the experiment the following should be do ne
i) Length of all the metal rods should be the same
ii) All the metal rods have the same thickness (cross-sectional area)
iii) Pins attached at the ends of the metal rods should be identical and have equal weights
iv) Metals should be placed into the hot water to same ength
l to ensure equal distribution of heat to all
the metals.
Observation:
The pin attached to the copper falls off first followed by that attached to the aluminium, then zinc and lastly
iron.
Experiment #2: o
T show that wood is a poor conductor of heat.
Apparatus are arranged as follows
Observation
When the rod is passed through the flame several times, paper over the wood scorches (burns) but not that
over brass.
Explanation: The brass conducts heat away from the paper very quickly, and prevents it from reaching the
temperature at whichti can burn. But the wood conducts heat away slowly and hence more heat builds on the
paper, enough to make it burn.
Note: Metal objects below body temperature feel colder to touch than those made of-metals
non because
metals conduct heat away from the han
d faster.
Experiment #3: o
T show that liquids are poor conductors of heat.
Procedure:
i) Wrap an ice cube in a metal gauge and place it at the bottom of a boiling tube filled with. water
ii) Heat the water at the top using a low Bunsen flame.
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Observation: The water starts to boil at the top before all the ice at the bottom has liquefied (melted).
Reason:Heat is slowly conducted from the top of the boiling tube to the bottom of the tube. erefore
Th the ice
melts very slowly. This shows that water is a poor conductor of heat.
Note:
i) Metals are good conductors of heat because they have a large number of free moving electrons.
As the electrons travel over the piece of metal, they take
some heat with them. So in metals heat is
transferred by electrons and also by the vibrations of the atoms.
ii) On the other hand insulators conduct heat slowly because they have very few free moving electrons
and also their particles are less
closely packed together and so they collide less frequently.
iii) Conduction of heat requires a medium and hence it cannot take place in a vacuum (therefore this
means a vacuum is the best insulator/worst thermal conductor)
Poor conductorsof heat are mostly non -metals (e.g. air, wood, glass, water, etc). They are used where heat is
to be insulated. Poor conductors are used to make: -
i) The handles of cooking utensils, soldering, soldering iron, laundry iron and many other heating
appliances
ii) Clothes–cloth is made up of fibres. The fibres trap small pockets of air. The trapped air helps to
reduce heat loss by conduction.
b). Other materials which trap air like fur, polystyrene, fibre glass, foam/sponge are used for lagging to insulate
water pipes, hot water cylinders, oven, refrigerators and also used in house roof insulation and cavity wall
insulation to prevent orreduce the rate of heat flow in our house. And air trapped between two window
panes is used in double glazing insulation method in our homes.
8.13.3 Convection
It is the transfer of heat through fluids (liquids and gases) by the upward moveme
nt of warmer, less dense
parts of fluid. This movement is actually caused by the difference in densities in different parts of the fluid.
When a fluid, (e.g. water or air) is heated, it expands and becomes less dense than the colder surrounding
fluid. Therefore it floats or rises upwards and is replaced by colder dense fluid which sinks down to take its
place. That fluid will be heated too and in turn rises upwards. At the top, the warm fluid cools, becomes denser
and begins to sink down where it will be-heated
re and rises again. Thus, a circulating movement sets up in the
liquid until the whole fluid is at the same temperature. These circulating parts of the fluid are called convection
currents.
*Convection can also be used to cool a substance. When fluid is cooled, molecules contracts and becomes
denser. The cool, dense fluid sinks and is replaced by warmer fluid which will be cooled and sinks as well.
And this produces convection currents which cool the liquid.
Experiment #1: o
T demonstrate convection inliquids.
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The two sets of apparatus can be used
Observation
Purplish stream of water is seen rising upwards to the top. At the top the stream changes its direction of
motion and now sinks to the bottom.
*This movement is represented by the arrows drawn on the diagrams above. The arrows also show the
direction of the convection current.
Discussion
The liquid nearest to the heat source expands. This lessens its density. The less dense liquid floats and rises up.
More dense, cold liquid moves in to takes place.
it
Experiment #2: o
T show convection in air
The arrows on the diagram show the direction followed by the smoke.
Explanation:
The air around the candle flame becomes hot and expands. It becomes less dense s. and
Cool,
risedenser air
moves over to the candle to take the place of the air that has risen up. This causes cool air from outside to
enter the box carrying the smoke with it.
Application of convection
- The cold water comes into the system at the bottom and is heated by the heat element
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- Water expands, becomes less dense and rises up
- It is replaced by more cold water to heated and the convection current is set to heat all the water
in the tank.
- The hot water pipe is near the top because hot water would always be at the top.
- If the water cools whilst at the top, it sinks to the bottom to be heated again.
- Overflow pipe is included to prevent build up of vapour which will increase pressure inside the
tank and cause some explosions or cause some airlocks inside the water pipes.
8.13.4 Radiation
This is a way of transferring heat in form of invisible heat waves. This is how heat travels from
sun the
to the Earth. The heat waves (radiant heat) are called infrared radiation (E.M WAVES)
Note:
x Heat can be transferred by radiation through a vacuum or a transparent medium
x All objects give out some infrared radiation and the hot objects give out morediation
ra
compare to cool ones.
x Warm or hot objects (at higher temperature than the surrounding) will emit the radiation
whereas cool objects (at lower temperature) will usually absorb the radiation from the
surrounding.
Experiment #1:nvestigating
I good andbad absorbers of radiant energy (infrared)
Page 103
- The apparatus are set up as shown above with a pin attached to back each of the above two
objects (one with dark/black surface and the other with bright/shiny/silver surface)
. The
candle should be equidistant from both objects for equal radiation to either object.
Observation:
The pin attached to the dark surface fall off first showing that the dark or black surface absorbs
radiant heat from the candle more quickly than theight br surface.
Conclusion: Dark surfaces are good absorbers of radiation whilst bright (shiny, white or silvery)
surfaces are bad absorbers.
In fact the dull black surface is the best absorber while a white or silvery polished surface is the
worst absorberbecause it is a good reflector of radiation.
Experiment #2:nvestigating
I good and bad emitters of radiant heat.
- The two flasks in the diagram above with boiling water are allowed to cool.
- It is observedthat temperature falls more rapidly for the thermometer in the flask with a
dark (black) surface and slower for the thermometer in a flask with a bright/shiny surface.
- This shows that blackened surface loses heat more quickly than the silvered or shiny e. on
Conclusion: dark colours emit radiant heat more quickly than bright colours, i.e. dark surfaces are
good emitters of radiant heat whereas bright surface a bad emitters. The best emitter is a dull black
surface while a silvery polished surface is the st.
worHowever, all surfaces emit more radiation as they
get hotter.
*NB: Dark surfaces are both good absorbers and bad emitters of radiation. Generally good absorbers
are also good emitters whereas bad absorbers are bad emitters as well.
Page 104
wear in summer because they reflect much of the heat and dark coloured or black clothes
are ideal for cold weather to keep you warm.
- Curved surfaces on electric are made of shiny metal flect
to re heat
- The cooling fins on the back of a refrigerator are black so that they lose heat more readily
- Marathon runners, at the end of a race, wrap themselves in shiny blankets to prevent them
from cooling down too quickly.
- The surface of a black bitume
n road gets far hotter on a sunny day than the surface of a
white concrete one.
Diagram 1 Diagram 2
During a daytime the land gets hotter than the sea. The warm air rises upwards and is replaced
by cool air that blows from the sea towards the land. This sets up some convection currents
known asSea Breezes (diagram 1).
But, at night the lan
d loses heat faster than sea. Now the warmer air over the sea rises and then
is replaced by cool air that blows from the land to the sea and sets up convection currents that
will be calledLand Breezes(diagram 2).
2. Cyclones
- Usually air above warm parts sea of will be warmed as well.
- The warm air rises up carrying moisture high into the atmosphere.
- The rotation of Earth causes the airflow to spin.
- This huge spinning mass of moist air is called a cyclone.
- The cyclone causes wet cloudy weather with strong wind s.
- If the winds become very strong (120 –130 km/h) the storm is called a hurricane or a
typhoon.
3. Greenhouse Effects
The Earth’s atmosphere contains a small amount of
glass in a greenhouse (read more this),
on it allows short wavelength infrared from the Sun to pass
through and get absorbed by the Earth. The Earth becomes warm and now radiates long wavelength
infrared radiation. This radiation is absorbed by carbon dioxide and water vapour in the atmosphe
re
and causes the atmosphere to become warmer. The atmosphere reflects some of the energy back to
the Earth. This process is called greenhouse effect and it helps to keep the Earth warmer.
But extra carbon dioxide in the atmosphere as a result of burningf fossil
o fuels may add to this effect
and lead to global warming.
4. Global warming
It results in the temperature of the atmosphere and sea (Earth). That increased temperature causes
melting of the polar ice
-caps. This melting results in the rise of the seal
level leading to flooding of
Page 105
coastal areas. Global warming can also lead to some changes in the Earth climate which will cause the
disappearance of some species of plants and animals.
It is designed to keep liquids hot or cold by reducing heat transfer to or from the liquid by the aid of the
following features:
Feature of flask Reduces transfer of heat by ...........Explanation
Vacuum between walls Conduction and convection Conduction and convection cannot
occur through a vacuum
Stopper or lid Convection and evaporation The stopper traps a layer of air
above the liquid, pre
venting
convection and evaporation
Page 106
It has the following features:
(i) a solar panel containingcoiled
a copper tube/pipe and blackened layer on the background. Copper is used
because is a good conductor of heat and also it does not corrode. The tube is coiled to increase the surface
area to increase amount heat absorption. The black surface increase
s amount of radiation energy
absorbed from the sun as a black colour good
is a absorber.
(ii) a glass cover–to trap the radiation energy within the panel.
(iii) the pipe carrying heated water from the panel enters at the top of the storage
nk. This
ta allows
the heated water to circulate in the tank by convection.
8.13.8 QUESTIONS
1. The metal rod has one end placed in a fire. Explain how heat gradually travels along the rod to a
person’s hand at her the end. other hand at the ot
2. Why does the door handle feel colder than the wooden door in a cold weather?
3. The rods A and B are the same thickness but made of different metals. They are coated with wax
and fixed with their ends through the wall of a can. Hot water
poured
is into the can, and after a
short time it is found that the wax has melted as far as Y on rod B but only as far as X on rod A.
Explain why the wax melts further along B than along A.
(a). Which one of these processes is used to transfer energy by means of the
-redinfra
part of the
electromagnetic spectrum?
Page 107
(b). Which two processes cannot occur in
vacuum?
a
5. In a double-glazed window, two panes of glass are separated by a few centimetres . Why does
this reduce the heat loss through the win
dow?
6. Why are loosely knitted clothes likely to keep a person warmer during themonths?
cold
7. Explain how heat energy is transferred through a container of soup cooking on an electric stove.
When the soup has heated sufficiently, the stove is switche
d off and the soup cools. Explain how the
soup loses heat.
Page 108
WAVE MOTION
General wave properties
x A wave can also be created along a slinky spring by fixing one end and moving the other back and
forth. The compressions (regions where the coils are close together) and rarefactions (where the coils
are further apart) whichravel
t along the spring form waves.
TYPES OF WAVES
x transverse wave
x longitudinal wave
Page 109
Transverse wave:a wave in which the displacement or vibrations of the particles are perpendicular to the
direction of the wave travel.
Examples of transverse
Longitudinal wave:a wave in which the displacement particles is parallel to the direction of the wave travel (in
the same direction as the direction of the wave travel).
Page 110
Amplitude (a):height of the crest or the depth of the
trough from the undisturbed position of the medium. SI
unit is a metre (m).
Period (T):time taken to produce one complete wave or cycle. SI unit: second (s).
Frequency (f):number of complete waves generated in one second. Its SI unit is hertz (Hz). If a source vibrates
such that it produces 2 waves in one second, we say that its frequency is 2 waves per second which is 2 Hz. The
frequency of wave is the same as that of the sour
ce.
F= frequency T = period
tĂǀĞůĞŶŐƚŚ;ʄͿ͗
the distance between any
two points on a wave that are moving-phase
in . SI unit is a metre
(m).
Wave speed/velocity (v):distance travelled by the crest or any point on the wave in
e on
second.
x Straight wavefrontsare used for straight water waves and are parallel. Straight waves
can be
produced using a vibrating bar or a ruler.
Page 111
* wavefronts are always perpendicular to the direction of the wave travel.
WAVE EQUATION
ǀсĨʄ
where v = wave speed in m/s
f = frequency in Hz
ʄ= wavelength in metres
PROBLEMS
#1 The speedof sound wave in air is 330 m/s. What is wavelength of a sound wave of frequency 170 Hz?
ĂƚĂ͗ǀсϯϯϬŵͬƐ͕ĨсϭϳϬ,nj͕ʄс͍
v = fλ
λ = v/f
= 330 m -1
s/170 Hz =1.94 m
#2 Determine the speed of a wave with a frequency of 1.0 kHz and wavelength of 0.2 m?
ĂƚĂ͗Ĩсϭ͘ϬŬ,njсϭϬϬϬ,nj͕ʄсϬ͘Ϯŵ͕ǀс͍
v = fλ
= 1000 Hz x 0.2 m
= 200 m/s
Page 112
wavelength = 2.0cm
amplitude = 5.0cm
In a displacement–distance graph,one complete cyclerepresentone wavelength.
Displacementʹtime graph
PeriodT = 2.0s
Frequencyf = 1/2.0 s =0.5Hz
Amplitudea = 3.0 cm.
- A flat/plane surface is placed a short distance from a vibrator. Waves are then produced. The straight
wavefronts are reflected from the boundary as shown below
Circular wavefronts are reflected as shown below. Notice that the reflected waves seem to be coming from an
imaginary source behin
d the boundary and the reflected waves are the mirror image of the incident waves.
Page 113
The distance from the real source to the barrier is the same as from the imaginary source to the barrier.
9.5 DIFFRACTION
Page 114
When waves enter/pass through an ope ning (gap), theyoften spread out even to regions
that are not directly
in front of the entrance. When the waves spread through a gap or around an obstacle, this effect is called
diffraction.
When a wave is diffracted, its wavelength does notnge. cha However, the size of its wavelength affects how
much it is diffracted.
Note: a) if wavelength is similar to the size of the gap, the waves are strongly diffracted.
b) If the wavelength is much smaller than the size of the gap, the waves are weakly
diffracted.
c) If the gap is much wider, diffraction is also weaker
(see diagram (a) above)
.
9.6 QUESTIONS
1. How is a wave produced? Give two examples of different ways of producing waves.
Fig. 7.0
On the diagram use arrows to show:
Page 115
a) The direction of energy flow
b) wavelength
c) Amplitude
8. In the diagram on the below, waves are moving towards a harbour wall
10. The diagram below shows waves being produced in a ripple tank
a wave
by machine.
Page 116
b) If the above waves were produced in 2.5 s what is their frequency?
Light travels in a straight line but when it encounters a medium (obstacle) it can be reflected, refracted or
absorbed.
Page 117
#1) Ray method:light ray is sent towards a plane mirror from a ray box. Mark the incident ray and the
position of the mirror. Trace the reflected ray. A normal is drawn and the angle of incident
i and the angle
of reflection r are measured.
- Look through the mirror and place two other pins 3 and
P P4 such thatthey are in line with the images
of P1 and P2.
- Remove the mirror and pins
- Join pin holes of 1Pand P2 to produce an incident ray and those of3 and
P P4 to trace a reflected ray.
Draw the normal and measure the angle of incidence and angle of reflection.
Laws of reflection
1. The incident ray, normal and reflected ray all lie on the same plane (so they can
shown
be on the
same flat sheet of paper)
2. The angle of incidence i is equal to the angle of reflection r (i = r)
3. A ray along the normal (where i = 0) will be reflected along its own path, i.e. back along the normal.
Page 118
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE IMAGE
The image fo
rmed is:
Two types:
- Concave mirror
- Convex mirror
i) CONCAVE MIRROR
When parallel rays (beam) of light strike a concave mirror, the rays are reflected (with i = r) such that they
converge to cross at the point calledfocus.
a If the point is on the principal axis is called the principal focus (F).
It curves outwards
Page 119
When parallel rays strike a convex mirror, the rays are reflected such that they diverge/spread out. If the
reflected raysare extended backwards, they cross at focus behind the mirror. Thisipalprinc
focus behind the
mirror is said to be virtual becauseey
th rays do not actually originate
from or pass through the point, they only
appear to diverge from or pass through the point. (But for the concave mirror the principal focus is said to be
real because the rays actually pass through the point).
Definition of terms
Centre of curvature :Cis the centre of the sphere of which the mirror appears to be part of. It is in front of a
concave mirror and behind for a convex mirror.
Radius of curvature:rthe distance from the centre of curvature to the pole P (centre of the mirror)
Principal axis: is the line joining the pole P to the centre of curvature C
Focal length :f is the distance from the principal focus to the centre of the mirror P (distance the
FP diagram
in
above).
Following rays are needed to locate the images formed by curved mirrors
ii). A ray through the centre of curvature strikes the mirror normally and is reflected back along its own path
(NB: radius of curvature is perpendicular to the surface where it meets the mirror).
iii). A ray through the principal focus is reflected parallel to the principal axis.
a) Plane mirrors
Besides everyday use in our homes to look at oneself when dressing, doing
-ups
make
or seeing through
awkward angles, plane mirror have oth
er uses ina laboratory, e.g.
A SIMPLE PERISCOPE
Page 120
Periscope can be used to see over the top of an obstacle which otherwise blocks the direct view.
b) Curved mirrors
- concave mirrors are used as reflectors in headlamps of vehicles, hand torches, searchlights, etc.
Reflected rays from these parabolic (curved
) surfaces can travel long distances without becoming
weak. But the bulb should be at the principal focus F of the mirror.
- Concave mirror can be used by a dentist to see teeth inside the mouth and can also be used
when shaving and doing make -ups.
- Convex m irrors can be used as security mirrors in shops
- Convex mirror also used as rear view mirror in vehicles because they give wide field of view.
10.5 QUESTIONS
1. For each of the following cases find the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection
2. A ray of light strikes a mirror surface with angle of incidence of 60°. Draw a diagram to show the
reflected ray plus the normal to the surface. If the angle of incidence was 0°, what would the angle of
reflection be?
3. On the diagrambelow, draw two rays to locate the image of the object seen by the observer.
Page 121
4. A girl holding a ball of diameter 30 cm stands 1 m in front of a large flat mirror. Where and how large
is the image of the ball?
5. A boy walks towards a plane mirror with a speed of
towards or away from him? At what speed does the image move?
6. Is the image formed by a periscope upright or inverted?
Page 122
11.0 REFRACTION OF LIGHT
11.1 DEFINITION
The bending of light as it passes from one transparent medium to another (of different optical density). When
a light ray moves from one medium/material to the other, its speed changes (as well as the wavelength) and
this cause a change in its direction
f travel.
o
O –point of incidence
NN’ –normal (line)
AO–incident ray
OB–refracted ray
i –angle of incidence
r –angleof refraction
1) A stick appears bent or broken at the interface when partly immersed in water.
Page 123
2) A ray moving from a moreense
d medium to a less dense medium will bend away from the normal.
x Place a glass block above a plain sheet of paper and trace its outline.
x Direct a thin ray of light from the ray box towards the glass block.
x Trace the incident and emergent rays onto the plain paper.
x Remove the glass block and trace the refractedby rayjoining the incident ray to the emergent ray
where they enter and leave the glass block.
Page 124
Light refraction through:
c) glass prism
Apparatus:glass block, four optical pins, soft board, protractor, few sheets of A4 plain paper
Page 125
PROCEDURE:
x Place the gl
ass block on the sheet of plain paper and draw its outline. Remove the glass block.
x Draw a normal at point O.
x Using a protractor draw a line AO such that the angle AON (i = angle of incidence) = 30°
x Place two pins P1 and P2 on the line AO.
x Replace the glass block onto the outline and view images of the pins P1 and P2 from the side BC. Then
place two others pins P3 and P4 such that they are in line with images of P1 and P2.
x Remove the glass block and join the pins P3 and P4 to meet the line BC at point D.
x Join O and D to make line OD and measure the angle MOD (r = angle of refraction).
x Calculate sin
i and sinr.
x Repeat the experiment for values of i = 40°, 50°, 60° and 70°.
x Plot a graph of sin
i against sinr and determine the refractive index of the glass byding
fin the gradient
of the graph line.
11.2 Z&Zd/s/Ey;ŶͿE^E>>͛^>t
- the graph ofsini against sinr is a straight line passing through the origin indicating that for any light ray
passing from one medium to another, the sine of angle of incidence is proportional to sine of angle of
refraction.
i.e. ƐŝŶŝɲƐŝŶƌ
sini/sinr = a constant
sini/sinr = n
-----------------------------
> Snell’s Law
^ŶĞůů͛ƐůĂǁ
states that:
͞dŚĞƌĂƚŝŽŽĨƚŚĞƐŝŶĞŽĨĂŶŐůĞŽĨŝŶĐŝĚĞŶĐĞƚŽƚŚĞ
ŵĞĚŝĂŝƐĂĐŽŶƐƚĂŶƚ͟
*NB: Refractive index can also de defined as the ratio of the speed of light inuum
a vac
to the speed of light in
a medium.
1. The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal all lie in the same plane
2. Snell’s law: the ratio of sine of angle of incide
media is a constant.
Page 126
11.4 APPARENT AND REAL DEPTH
When light moves from water to air, it will bend away from the normal. Due to the refraction of light, an
object at the bottom of the pool will appear closer to the surface, i.e. the light rays from the object will appear
to be coming from a point much closer to the surface. The depth which the object appears to be is called the
APPARENT DEPTH while the actual depth of the pool is called the
REAL DEPTH .
The ratio of the real depth to the apparent depth is equal to the refractive index
f water
no
When light strikes a transparent material, both reflection and refraction take place. When light ray moves from
a more dense medi um like glass to a less dense medium like air, it will bend away from the normal. This makes
the angle of refractionr greater than angle of incidencei. Wheni increases so doesr. r will eventually be equal
to 90°. The angle of incidence for which angle
of refraction is 90° is known as the
critical angle(C)
Sin C = 1/n
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TOTALINTERNAL
REFLECTION
IN PRISMS
Total internal reflection will occur in glass prism if the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle of
glass which is about 42°
Two right angled prisms can be used to turn light through 90° in a periscope.
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OPTIC AL FIBRES
These are thin, flexible rods of glass (or transparent plastic). When light ray is shone into the fibre it bounces
from one edge (side) of the optical fibre to the other by total internal reflection. Light can be transported over
large distance w
ith very little loss of light intensity.
a) Telecommunications:
Nowadays, telephone signals (messages) can be transmitted from one telephone to another by sending light
signals through optical fibres instead of using electricity ed
carri
through copper cables. Telephone systems
that use optical fibres instead cables are more efficient and much faster.
b) Endoscope
Doctors can see inside patients’ in an instrument called
bodies
an endoscope
. Ausing
very small optical
camera is attac
hed to one end of an optical fibre. This end is pushed down the throat and into the stomach.
The other end is attached to a television near to the patient. The doctor can see pictures of the inside of the
stomach on the television screen.
MIRAGE
It is an optical illusion which results when air near ground or road surface is much warmer than the one high
up. It is caused by the progressive refraction of the ht lig
ray from skyas it passes through different layers of
air. Near the road surf ace, the light ray will meet the warmer air at an angle greater than the critical angle and
suffers total internal reflection. The reflection of light produces an image of the sky which will appear as pool
of water on the road to an observer driving along the road.
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11.6 QUESTIONS
1) A ray of light travels from air into water at an angle of incidence of 60°. Calculate the angle of
refraction, given that the refractive index of water is 1.33.
2) Use a diagram to explain why a drinking straw appears bent when rtially
pa immersed in a glass of
water.
3) A pond of water(n = 1.33) is 2 m deep. What is the apparent depth of the pond when a person looks
vertically downwards from above?
4) State two necessary conditions for light to be totally internally reflected.
5) If the refractive index of water is 1.33, how deep will a pond really be if it appears to be 6 m when
looking vertically downwards?
6) What advantages do optical fibre cables have over copper cables in communication systems?
7) The diagram shows rays of light in semi -circular glass block.
a) Explain why the ray entering the glass at A is not bent
b) Explain why the ray AB is reflected at B and not refracted.
c) Ray CB does not stop at B. Copy the diagram and draw its approximate path after it leaves B.
8) Copy the diagrams below and complete the paths of the rays.
9). A ray of light is directed at a rectangular glass block (see Fig. 13.0 below). Copy the diagram and complete it
by drawing the ray which emerges at C. Name what is happening at A and at B.
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10 The diagram shows a long block of glass over an object O. Light from O reaches the top surface of the glass
at X, Y andZ.
12.0 LENSES
12.1 Introduction
Lenses rae usually used in various optical instruments to produce images. A lens would bend
r refract
o a light
ray to produce an image. They often have spherical surfaces. There are two types of lenses, namely
i) Convex/converging lens
ii) Concave/diverging lens
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A converging lens is thicker at the middle and thinner atedges
the and it bends light inwards.
On the other hand a concave is thinner at the middle and thicker at the edges and it spread out light.
When a parallel beam of light passes through a convex lens the rays bend inwards and converge or meet at a
point knownas aFOCUS . When the rays pass through a concave lens and e parallel
ar to its axis, they
bend
outwards (spread out or diverge). The point from ch
whithe rays appear to diverge is the principal focusof the
lens.
*NB:- for a convex lens the rays actually
onverge
c at the principal focus so it is said toreal.
be
DEFINING TERMS
A simple method of determining the focal length of a convex length is by focusing the image of an object which
is far away rom
f the lens on a wall/screen. The distance from the lens to the screen on which the image is
formed is approximately the focal length of the lens.
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ii) Ray II:A ray through a principal focus F, when it leaves the lens , it is refracted parallel to the
principal axis.
iii) Ray III:A ray through the optical centre passes strai
ght through the lens undeviated (not
refracted).
EXAMPLES
ĂƐĞ/͗KďũĞĐƚďĞLJŽŶĚϮ&͛
ĂƐĞ//͗KďũĞĐƚĂƚϮ&͛
ĂƐĞ///͗KďũĞĐƚďĞƚǁĞĞŶϮ&͛ĂŶĚ&͛
Image is atinfinity.
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Case V: Object between F and the lens
Image is:- virtual, enlarged, erect (upright) and behind the object
1) MAGNIFYING GLASS
A convex lens can be used as a magnifying glass if the object is placed between the lens and the principal
focus. The images will be
enlarged, virtual, erect and on the same side of the lens as the object.case
(SeeV
above)
2) CAMERA
A convex lens used in a camera to form a small
, inverted, real image on a piece of film.
¾ The Lens: - focuses the image of the object on a light sensitive photographic film placed at the back of
the camera. The lens is moved in or out to make focusing adjustment.
¾ The Shutter:- opens and shuts quickly to let a small amount of light into the camera.
¾ The film: is kept in darkness until the shutter opens. It is coated with light sensitive chemicals which
are changed by different shades and colours in the image. When the film is processed, the changes
are fixed and a negative is developed. The negative is later d to
use
print the photographs.
¾ The diaphragm:- is a set of sliding plates between the lens and the film. It controls the aperture
(diameter) of the hole through which light passes. In bright scenes, a narrow aperture is used but in
dark a wider aperture is necessary.
*NB: i) For closer object, the lens must be moved further away from the film.
ii) For very distant object, the film needs to be at F.
3) SLIDE PROJECTOR
A slide projector uses a convex lens to form a large,nverted,
i real image on thescreen. The object is a brightly
lit piece of transparency (slide) with a picture/information on it.
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¾ The projection lens:forms the image on the screen. To get a large image the lens has to be a long way
from the screen. The focusing adj ustments are m ade by moving the lens backward and forward in its
holder.
¾ The transparency or slide: must be upside down to get an upright picture (image) on the screen. The
slide must be positioned just outside the principal focus F of the lens in order obtain
to an enlarged
image on the screen.
¾ The condenser lens system: a special convex lenses arrangement which helpsconcentrates
to the
light on the slide so th
at it is very bright and evenly lit.
¾ The lamp:produces light that illuminates the object (slide ) in orderto produce a bright/sharpimage
on the screen.
¾ Concave mirror:reflects light to the condenser lens system.
4) PHOTOGRAPHIC ENLARGER
-Uses the same principles as the slide projector. The only difference is that with the photographic enlarge
r the
screen is a film which is coated with light sensitive chemicals e.g. silver salts.
12.6 QUESTIONS
1. Fig. 1.0 shows three parallel rays of light reaching the front surface of a converging lens. Copy the diagram
and continue the rays to
show what happens to them as they pass through the lens and into the air on the
other side.
2. Where must the object be placed for the image formed by a convex lens to be
3. A lens has a focal length of 4 cm. An object 2 cm high is placed 8 cm from the centre of the lens. Where is
the image formed? Describe the image: is it real or virtual, upside
-down or upright, enlarged, same size or
smaller? What happens to the size and position of the image if the object is moved further away from the
lens?
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4. The diagramshows an object O in front of a converging lens. The points marked F are focal
points of the lens.
a) Draw two rays from the top of the object in order to locate the position of the image.
b) The image is upright
. State twoother characteristics of the image.
5. Lenses are used in many optical devices. Copy and complete the table below about the images
formed by some optical devices.
6. An object is placed closer to a converging lens than its principal focus. The figure shows an
incomplete ray diagram for the formation of the image.
Copy and complete the ray diagram and draw the image formed.
7. The diagram shows a converging lens forming a real image of an illuminated object. State two
things that happen to the image when the object is moved towards F.
8. a) An object 1 cm high is placed 3 cm from a thin converging lens with a focal length of 5 cm.
Draw a ray diagram to find the position of the image.
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13.0 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Electromagnetic waveshave some similar characteristics but have different wavelengths and frequencies.
They are produced by the movement of electrons in the materials. An E.M wave wave
is aconsistsof electric
and magnetic field(force) vibrations/oscillationswhich travel perpendicular to each other as well as the
direction of the wave travel.
¾ All E.M waves do not need medium to travel through. They can all travel through a vacuum.
¾ They all travel at the same speed in space which is the speed of light in a vacuum (c8=m/s)
3 x 10
¾ They are all progressive transverse waves. Therefore they exhibit interference, diffraction,
flection
re
and polarization.
¾ They obey the wave equation
C= fλ C = speed of light f = frequency λ= wavelength
¾ They can carry energy from one place to another and can be absorbed by matter and cause heating
and other effects.
*NB: The space occupied by each type of wave in the E.M spectrum isacalled
BAND.
a) GAMMA RAYS
Source:nuclei of radioactive elements (e.g. cobalt
-60) and cosmic rays
Wavelength:10-12 m
Detectors:photographic film, cloud chamber, Geiger Muller tube
Properties: - very penetrating
-transmit more energy than-rays
x
- ionize gases
Uses:-used in radiotherapyto treat cancer cells and destroy
tumours inside the body
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-used to find flaws in metals
-used to sterilize medical equi
pment & dressings
- used to irradiate food to kill germs in them
- used to take -xray type pictures
Sideeffects:- harmful to humans; damage body cells (cause mutation and cancer)
and can cause
sterility.
b) X-RAYS
Source: produced when high energy electrons are fired at a metal-ray
in xtube.
Wavelength: 10-10 m
- ionize gases
c) ULTRAVIOLET RAYS
Sources:- sun (U.Vis the sun rays that gives suntan
)
-Mercury vapour lamps–createdby passingthe current through mercury vapour in fluoresc
ent
tubes
Wavelength: 10-8 m
-causes suntan
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Used for photography
Useful in some chemical reactions, e.g. photosynthesis.
e) INFRARED
Sources:sun, warm and hot objects (e.g. aters,
he grills, etc.), remote controllers
Wavelength:10-4 m
Detectors:skin,special photographic film, phototransistor, sensitive thermometer, thermopile
Properties:All objects give out infrared radiation; the hotter the object is the more radiation it gives out.
-causes heating when absorbed by matter
Uses:- used for heating and cooking
- used for photography through haze and fog and in dark
- used in remote controls
- night vision
- detecting warm and cool skin and tracing infection.
f) RADIO WAVES
Sources: microwave oven(microwaves)
-Tv and radio transmitters using electronic circuits and aerials
Wavelength: 1 cm–1 km
Detectors: aerials connected to radio and tvts,semobile (cellular) phones, satellite dishes, radar
Properties: -They have the longest wavelengths and lowest frequencies.
Uses:
x Microwaves:are high frequency radio waves (but have shortest wavelength amongst radio waves).
They are usedin RADARRadio( Detecting And Ranging) to find the position of aeroplanes.
Microwaves are also used for cooking - water particles in food absorb the energy carried by
microwaves.
x UHF (Ultra High Frequency) and VHF (Very High Frequency) waves
UHF- used in tv transmissions
VHF- used in local radio transmissions
x Short, Medium and long radio waves:
Medium and long waves are used to transmit over long distances because their wavelengths allow
them to diffract around obstacles such as buildings, ills,hetc.
Communication satellites above Earth receive signals carried by high frequency short waves.
These signals are amplified and-transmitted
re to other parts of the world.
13.4 QUESTIONS
choose from the list the type of wave that best fits each of these descriptions.
Page 139
2) Gamma rays are part of electromagnetic spectrum. Gamma rays are useful to us but can also be very
dangerous.
a) Explain how the properties of gamma rays make them useful to us.
b) Explain why gamma rays can cause damage to people.
c) Give one difference between microwaves and gamma rays.
d) Microwaves travel at 300
000 000 m/s. what speed do
gamma rays travel at?
3) Write down the parts of the electromagnetic spectrum in order of increasing wavelength.
4) The spectrum of electromagnetic waves can be divided into several regions, in order of increasing
frequency, the diagram below sho
ws this. Name the regions represented by the letters A and B. What
common properties are shared by the waves from each region?
Page 140
14.0 SOUND
14.1 INTRODUCTION
*A sound wave can also be defined as a form of radiation consists of series of pressure variations
propagating through a medium
Definition;
ĂͿtĂǀĞůĞŶŐƚŚ;ʄͿ
of a sound wave:
- the distance between two successive compressions or rarefactions.
b) Speed (v)of a sound wave is the distance travelled by the wave in one second.
c) Frequency )(fof a sound wave:- number of complete waves produced in a second or number of complete
oscillations (vibrations) made by the source in one second.
* dŚĞƐŽƵŶĚǁĂǀĞƐŽďĞLJƚŚĞǁĂǀĞĞƋƵĂƚŝŽŶ͖ǀсĨʄ
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14.2 SPEED OF SOUND
............................... s .........................................
Two people stand a distances from a large hard wall/cliff. One produces sound by banging two pieces of
metals together and the other holds a stopwatch and records the time taken for the sound to go to the hard
wall and back
To find the speed of the sound, divide the total distance travelled by the time taken recorded by the stopwatch
v = 2s/t
A<-------------------100 m---------------------
---->B
Two students stand distances (let says = 100m) apart. StudentA has a gun and student
B has a stopwatch.
StudentA fires the gun. StudentB starts the watch when he sees the smoke from the gun and stops the watch
when she hears the bang. The speed of sound is calculated by dividing the distance
elledtrav
(100 m) by the
time taken, recorded by the stopwatch.
i.e. v = s/t
NB: i) The observer will always see the action (smoke) before hearing the sound (or during a storm, the
lightning flash is seen before the
thunder is heard). All these show that the speed of sound is much slower than
the speed of light.
ii) Speed of sound in solids, liquids and gases: Sound travels at different speeds in different materials. It travels
fastest in solids, then liquids and slow
est in gases.
Fastest --------------------------------------------------------
> slowest
Solids liquids gases
(6000 m/s in steel
) 1500
( m/s in water) 330
( m/s in air andthis is far lessthan speed of light)
Page 142
Sound waves need s media for transmission
. Therefore if there are no par
ticles, sound waves cannot be
transmitted. This means that it is
impossiblefor sound totravel through avacuum. This is usually
demonstrated using a bell jar, a bell and a vacuum pump.
The sound of the bell fades when the air is removed from the jar. If the jar is completely evacuated, no sound
is heard even when the hammer continues to hite th
gong. The sound returns when air is let back into the jar.
ii) Audible sound(waves) –sound that can be detected by human ears. Their frequency ranges20 from
Hz to
20 kHz.
iii) Ultrasonic waves (ultrasounds)
- have frequencies higher than
20 000 Hz(20 kHz). They can be detected by
bats. A bat emits and receives ultrasonic waves and this helps them to navigate at night and judge the distance
of obstacles ahe ad.
Uses of Ultrasound
b) Used inecho soundingor sonar (sound navigation and ranging) in ships to determine the depth of the sea.
c) Used in ultrasound scanningin hospitals. Ultrasound waves are reflected from differ
ent layers of tissues in
the body and so can produce quite clear images. They also have lower energy-rays thanandX so are less
hazardous to human cells.
Ultrasound scans are especially useful for obtaining pictures
unborn
of babiesin the womb. Very high
Frequency sound waves are transmitted into the womb of a pregnant mother. The sound is reflected thefrom
embryo and the information is used to produce an image of the baby.
d) Used to clean delicate machinery or street light covers
–machinery is put ina tank of liquid which has an
ultrasonic vibrator in the base.
e) In hospitals, aconcentrated beamof ultrasound is used tobreak up kidney stonesand gall stoneswithout
patients needing surgery.
d) Used to detectflaws in metals using thedea i of echo-sounding. A pulse of ultrasound is sent through the
metal. If there is a flaw (tiny gap) in the metal,
two pulsesare reflected back to the detector; one from the
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flaw and the other from the far end of the metal.
14.4 MUSICALNOTES
a) pitch
b) loudness
c) timber
a) Pitch
Pitch of a musical note depends on thefrequencyof the sound wave. Sound with
high frequencyis heard as
high note and issaid to behigh-pitched. Low noteshavelow frequenciesand said to below-pitched.
SoundA has ahigher pitch than soundB because hashigher frequency. With ahigher frequencymore waves
are produced and thewavesare closer together.
NOTE: i) A
high-pitched sound also has short
a wavelengthwhile alow-pitched sound has a longer
wavelength.
b) Loudness
Theloudnessof sound depends on the amplitude of the sound wave.Quiet sounds(notes) havesmall
amplitude, loud sounds havelarger amplitude. The loudness of sound is measured in decibels (dB).
c) Timbre
Thetimbre of a sound descr
ibes thepurity or quality of sound.Pure note(e.g. one emitted by a turning fork)
has onlyone frequencybut other notes consist of amain or fundamental frequencywith others, called
overtones (which are usuallyweaker and with frequencieswhich areexact multiples of the fundamental
frequency). Thenumber and strength of the overtones decides thequality of a note.
Page 144
SoundB is apure note from a turning fork. Sound A is produced from apiano. The two sounds have almost
the same pitch(main frequency) nad loudnessbut differ in quality because soundA is actually acombination
of several different soundswith slightlydifferent frequencies.
Note:
Thefrequency(pitch) of a note produced by a vibrating material (e.g. string) depends
: on
i) length of the material; short stringsproducehigh notesand thereforehalving the length doublesthe
frequency
ii) tension in material:tight wires producehigh notes
iii) mass per unit length; thin strings give high notes.
14.5.1 ECHO
Sound is reflected when it meets some kind of obstruction such as a wall, high cliff or the bottom of an ocean.
Thereflected sound(wave) is called an
echo. In ships, echo can be used to find how deep the ocean is or to
detect the shoals of fish.
A pulse of sound is transmitted to the sea bed and is reflected back to the boat. The time interval between
transmitting and receiving the pulse is measured. Then the depth of the sea is calculated using the total
distance travelled by the pulse which is twice distance to the obstruction.
Example:
A sound pulse is transmitted from the boat, and 10 s later an echo is received. How deep is the ocean? (The
speed of sound in water is 1500 m/s).
v = 2d/t
d = (v x t)/2
= (1500 x 10)/2
= 7500 m
14.5.2 Reverberations
When playing a musical instrument, e.g. piano, in an enclosed area (e.g. inside a hall), some of the sound of
the piano will be reflected off the walls of the hall. You will hear the direct sound first, then early reflections
and then multiple reflections all in a very short time
and this will cause the sound to die off gradually over
some time. This effect is called reverberation.A reverberation can also be obtained when a sound is reflected
Page 145
from a surface which is nearer than
15 m, herethe echo joinsthe original soundand thenthe soundseems to
be elongatedor prolonged.
Theshapeand sizeof the hall will affect theamount of reverberationsreaching the listener. These
factors are
called theacousticsof the hall. Rooms withgood acousticsare very important whenrecording musicor when
designingconference centres . Optimum reverberationsare desirablebut too much causesconfusion.
14.7 PROBLEMS
Q1. A ship searching for fish emits sound waves which are reflected from the sea bed. If the
d ofspee
sound in
is known and the time that elapses before the echo is heard is measured, it is possible to calculate how
deep the water is at that point.
a) What will the operator hear if a shoal of fish swims under the ship? How could the
rator
opevery roughly
assess how deep the shoal is?
Page 146
b) Suggest one way in which the detector might be receiving a false signal (i.e. there are no fish below).
Q2. A microphone is connected to an oscilloscope (CRO). When three different sounds A, B and C are made in
front of the microphone, these are the waveforms seen on the screen.
Q3. The diagram below shows the oscilloscope traces of two different sounds A and B. lloscope
The osci setting
is the same in both cases.
a) What is an echo?
b) Explain how echoes can be used to discover the depth of water under boat.
c) Using the information above calculate the speed of sound in air
Page 147
d) What are ultrasonic waves?
e) Give at le
ast two uses of ultrasonic waves.
b) Ultrasound can travel through some human tissues and can be reflected by different layers in the body.
(i). Stateone example of how ultrasound is used in hospitals.
(ii). For producing medical images, why does doctors efer
prto use ultrasound if they can, rather than
- X
rays?
(iii). Stateone example of the industrial use of ultrasound.
c) The sound wave in the above diagram was created in 1/10 s. What is the frequency of this sound?
Page 148
15.0 MAGNETISM
Magnet is an object that attracts certain objects which are made from magnetic materials.
Non-magnetic materials: substances that cannot be attracted by a magnet. These include copper, brass, zinc,
tin and non metals (e.g wood, glass, etc)
b) Magnets have magnetic poles . These are areas in a magnet where magnetism (magnetic force) seems to be
concentrated and stronger. To determine the magnetic poles dip a magnet into iron filings. Most of the
filings stick in clumps around the ends of the magnet with few if any in the middle.
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15.3 METHODS OF MAGNETISATION
- MAKING A MAGNET
1) Stroking
a) single stroking/touch
- stroke the magnetic material (steel rod) from end to end with the
same pole of a magnet.
- lift the magnet high above the rod and repeat the stroke several times (always in
one direction).
- the end where stroking ends will have an opposite polarity to the stroking pole ( and
the end where stroking started will have the same polarity as the stroking pole).
Page 150
2) Electrical method: The industrial way of making magnets is by making use of the magnetic field created
when current flows hrough
t a conductor. The magnetic material is placed inside a solenoid (a long coil of
insulated copper wire) through which D.C (direct current) is passed. The current ised
switch
on and off,
when the material is removed it would be found to be magnetized.The
( coil should be placed in the-SN
direction).
To determine the polarity, the right hand grip rule is used. The fingers are placed such that they follow the
direction of current around th
e coil and thumb will point to the North
pole.
i) Electrical Method:- a bar magnet is placed inside a solenoid through which A.C (alternating current) is
passed. The bar slowly
is withdrawn from the solenoid whilst the current is still on. The solenoid should be
placed in the E
-W direction.
Magnetic materials such as iron and steel have individual atoms which act atomic
like magnetsor magnetic
dipoles. The neighbouring atoms set themselves with their magnetic axis parallel. The grouping of atomic
magnets or atomicdipoles with parallel axe
s is calledmagnetic domain.
In an unmagnetised material, the magnetic domains will point in different directions and hence the material as
a whole will show nopolarity. When a magnetic material is magnetized, the domains are -aligned
re such that
most of them have their axes pointing in the same direction. There is a maximum level of the magnetization
which is called magnetic saturation. This happens when the omic
at dipoles in all magnetic domains have been
re-aligned and their magnetic axes are parallel and pointing in the same direction.
Page 151
15.6 MAGNETIC FIELD
The magnetic force of a magnetic field is along curved path known as a field line. It is usually directed from
North to South pole.
The magnetic field around a magnet can be detected by using iron filings or a plotting compass.
i) iron filings:- place a sheet of paper over the magnet. Sprinkle iron filings onto the paper and tap the paper a
bit. The iron fillings tur
ns around in the direction of the magnetic lines of force. They form a pattern showing
magnetic field lines around the magnet.
ii) plotting compass: the bar magnet is placed on top of a sheet of paper. Place the plotting compass at the
end of the bar magnet. When the compass has settled mark on the paper the ends of the needles of the
compass. Move the compass to a new position so that its other end is over the last mark previously made.
Mark another dot where the needle is pointin
g. Repeat the procedure until the compass reaches the other
end of the magnet (expt. Pg 223 GCSE). Join the dots to form a single line from one end of the magnet to
the other.
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Field lines always move from north to south. They never cross each other. And where the lines are closer
together shows areas with stronger magnetism (magnetic force
).
15.7 MAGNETIC
PROPERTIES OF STEEL AND IRON
EXPERIMENT 1
Page 153
Each pin or clip magnetises the one below it by induction and unlike poles so formed will attract. When the
chain of iron nails is removed from the magnet,
it will collapse. When the chain of the steel paper clips is
removed from the magnet, the clips will remain attached to each other. These indicat
e that magnetism
induced in ironis temporary while magnetism induced in steel is permanent
Conclusion: steel is a hard magnetic materiali.e. it is very hard to magnetize steel butce
onmagnetized steel
will not lose its magnetism easily.
EXPERIMENT 2
Attach a strip of soft iron and a strip of steel to the N pole of a magnet.
Dip the free ends of the strips in iron filings
More filings stick to the soft iron. So the induced magnetism in the iron is slightlyter.
grea
Whenthe strips are
detachedfrom the magnet, most of the filings fall from the soft iron but few fall from the steel. This shows
that the induced magnetism in soft iron is temporary but magnetism induced in steel is permanent.
They are used in constructionof electric motors, bicycle dynamos, generators, loudspeakers, electr
icity
meters, microphonesand can also be used door
as catches.
2). ELECTROMAGNET
This is a temporary magnet made by winding a of
coil
wire around a soft iron.
The soft iron will only be magnetized when current flows through the coil. When there is no current flowing,
the soft iron will lose its magnetism.
Steel is not suitable to be use
d as a core since it is a hard magnetic
material. With steel the electromagnet will keep its magnetism even when the current is switched off.
*NOTE:
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1. Without the iron core, an electromagnet would be much weaker. The core concentrates the magnetic
field into a small volume of space and hence producing a stronger electromagnet.
2. The strength of the electromagnet can be increased by:
x Increasing the current
x Increasing the turns in the coil
x Using an U -shaped core so that the poles of the electromagnet would be close
o each
t other.
Uses of Electromagnet
1. Large electromagnets are used for lifting heavy magnetic materials in-yards.
scrap A crane moves the
material to its new place and when the current is turned off, the material is released from the
electromagnet.
2. Electric bell
It consists of an electromagnet that repeatedly switches itself on and off very quickly.
When the press -button switch is pressed, the current flows through the electromagnet, which pulls the
springy metal together with the hammer so that it hits the gong and the sound is made. This movement
, at the
same time,separates the contacts an d switches off the circuit
. The hammer goes back, the contacts close
again, the current flows once more andthe electromagnet pulls the hammer across again, this goes on and
produces continuous sound until the circuit is switched off.
When the switch S in the input circuit is closed, the current flows through
he electromagnet.
t This pulls one
end of theiron armature towards electromagnet and cause the other end to push and closethe contacts at C
and completing the output circuit
. As a result, a current flows through the motor.
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When the current moves through the coil, the magnetic field created ld wou
magnetize the reeds(thin
strips inside the glass tube). The current flows such that the ends of the two reeds develop opposite poles
and then the reeds will attract each other thereby completing the circuit connected to their other ends
(AB). The reeds separate once they the current in the coil is turned off.
When someone speaks into the microphone (mouthpiece) on the other end of the line a varying
electric current is set up having the same frequency as the sound waves. Similar current will be fed to
the earpiece on the other end, when this varying current passes through the coil in the earpiece,
he t
magnetic force on the diaphragm also varies. Therefore the diaphragm
(made of magnetic substance)
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moves to and fro in step with the current. This sets the air nearby into vibration and sound waves are
set up.
Besides being used as core for electromagnets or making permanents magnet, magnetic materials can be used
for magnetic screening where an iron ring will act as a magnetic shield for anything inside it.
Iron is saidto be more permeable to magnetic field than air is. Therefore magnetic field lines appear to be
drawn into the iron and concentrated through it and none through the air inside the iron. Then anything inside
the iron ring would be shielded or screened from
magnetic field. This effect is known as magnetic screening or
shielding.
Magnetic shielding is put to practical use when used to protect delicate measuring instruments which could be
affected by magnetic fields by enclosing them in thick
-walled soft-iron boxes.
15.10 QUESTIONS
1. A student has a piece of metal that he thinks is a magnet. He holds it near another magnet and it is
attracted. The student says this proves that his metal is a magnet. Explain why the student is wrong.
2. A, B, C and D are small ocks
bl of different materials. The table below shows what happens when
two of the blocks are placed near one another.
Use one of the phrases below to complete the sentences that follow. Each word may be used once,
more than onceor not at all.
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a) Block A is ......................
b) Block B is .......................
c) Block C is ......................
d) Block D is ......................
3. What is the diference between magnetically
a hard material and a magnetically soft material? Give an
example of each.
4. a) What is a magnetic material? Give three examples of magnetic materials.
b) Name three non -magnetic metals.
c). Two magnets, like the magnet shown above, were used to get the pattern of the lines
shown below.
Describewhat you would do with the two magnets so that you got this pattern.
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9. An electromagnet is made by winding wire around an iron core.
10. a) Given a bar magnet, how would you find out which pole of the magnet is its north
pole
b). How would you magnetized a steel needle and how would you tell that it is magnetized?
c) How can this magnetized needle be effectively demagnetized?
a) The solenoid in the diagram above behaves like bar magnet. Mark its polarity.
b) An iron rod is placed in the solenoid. What happens to it when the current is
i) Switched on
ii) Switched off
c) How would your answers in (i) and (ii) above change if the rod were made of steel?
d) What is purpose of the core in the electromagnet?
e) Give one use of an electromagnet.
12. The figure below shows a circuit that includes an electrical relay, used to switch on ra moto
M.
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Explain in details, how closing switch S causes the motor M to start.
ELECTRICITY
* Static electricity/electrostatics–charges at rest/ not moving.
Electrostatic chargescan be induced and easily detected insulators
in (non-metals) because these kinds of
materials do not allow charges to flow through them. Metals are generally good conductors so it is difficult to
induce electrostatic charges in them.
STATIC ELECTRICITY
A B
B. cellolose acetate stripwill be positively charged and the cloth will be negatively charged.
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Explanation:when polythene is rubbed, electrons from the cloth are transferred to the polythene making the
polythene negatively charged and the cloth will be positive because there will be a deficit of electrons.
On the other hand when perspex (cellulose acetate) is rubbed with the cloth it loses some electrons to the
cloth and remains short of electrons and with more unba
lanced protons and as a result the Perspex rod
becomes positively charged and the cloth negatively charged because it would have some extra electrons
(negative charges).
Observation:repulsion occurs
Now bring a piece of rubbed polythene close to the hanging cellulose acetate strip.
Observation:attraction occurs
This shows that the two strips became charged in different ways. The charge on the cellulose acetate is
taken to be positive and the charge on the polythene is negative.
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Conclusion:“
like charges repel and unlike charges attract
”
INDUCED CHARGES
A metal sphere isbeing charged by induction and ends up with an opposite charge to that on the rod.
Note the two never actually touched.
GOLD-LEAF ELECTROSCOPE
An instrument used for detecting the presence of an electric charge. It consists of a metal rod on top of
which there is a metal cap (plate). The rod is insulated from the case. A thin gold leaf is attached to the
bottom of the rod.
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When a positively charged rod is brought near the top plate, the leaf rises. This so because the positively
charged rod attracts free electronsin the brass rod (stem) upwards so that the plate has an excess of negative
charges. The lower rod and the flea are left with an excess of positive charges. The leaf diverges from the stem
because they are both positively charged. On removal of the charged rod, the leaf falls as the extra electrons in
the top plate move back down the stem.
The leaf also rises ifnegatively
a charged rod is brought near the top plate. This time, the rise of the leaf occurs
because free electrons in the top plate are pushed downwards (repelled) by the negatively charged rod.
2. Charging an electroscope
a. Charging by contact
An electroscope can be charged by rubbing (pressing) a charged insulator firmly across the edge of
the top plate. The charge on the rod is shared with the electroscope.
NB
When using a negatively charged insulator (polythene) electrons will be deposited from insulator
to
the electroscope.The electroscope will be left negatively charged.
When using a positively charged insulator (Perspex) electrons will move from electroscope to the
Perspex. The electroscope will left
be positively charged.
b. Charging by induction
(b) When the top plate is touched with a finger, the electrons on the plate remain
because they are
held there by the attraction of the positively rod. The electrons flow in from Earth to replace the
missing electrons on the leaf
and the stem. The charge on the leafand stemis neutralised. The leaf
collapses.
(c) and (d)The finger isremoved, followed by the rod. This leaves a net negative. The
f rises
lea to
show repulsion.
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Charging metal spheres by induction
A
Page 164
While the rod is still kept at its position, the sphere is earthed by touching with -hand
electrons flow out to earth.
DISCHARGING
A charge can be builtup on an object through friction. The charge can be discharged to the Earth by contact
with a conductor. The charge stored can also be releasedhetonearest
t object with a neutral charge or by
bringing discharging object with opposite charge.
e.g. when sliding out of a car, friction between the seat and clothes causes a charge on the person. When the
person touches the car body the charge passes from his body to the car, giving a slight shock.
The Van de Graaff generator produces a large and continuous supply of electric charge. In this machine a
rubber belt rubs against a plastic roller and becomes charged. The charge is carried on the moving belt up to
the metal dome,where it is collected. A large quantity of charge therefore builds up on the dome.
*woollen threads attached to the dome will repel each other strongly after the generator een
has running
b for
a while.
*when a metal sphere, connected to Earth with lead, is brought near the metal dome, electric sparks are
produced. This occurs as charges from the dome pass through the air to sphere and then to the earth. This
discharges the dome.
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LIGHTNING
Lightning conductors
A lightning conductor is a thick copper strip fixed to the outer wall of a building or a tall pole near the building.
The top of the rod ends are sharp spikes. At the bottom of thep stri there is a copper plate buried in the
ground.Its purpose is to stop or reduce strength of lightning.
Thunderclouds contain a lar ge quantity of negative charge. When passing over a building it induces a build
-up
of opposite charge (positive charge) on the roof. If the electric field
(voltage)between the opposite charges is
strong enough, there may be a spark of lightning as the charges flow through the air towards each her. ot
With a lightning conductor, the sharp spikes at the top reduce the chance of a lightning strike. By effect of
action at points( charge concentrate at the sharp points), the conductor let charge
s on the building leak away
before a spark can occur and some of the charges flow even up to the clouds and cancel out some of the
negative charge on the clouds, making it less likely that the lightning will strike. However,
if a flash does occur
it is less violent and the conductor gives it (negative charge)
n easy
a path to the ground.
ELECTRIC FIELD
PATTER
NS OF FIELD LINES
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c) Around like charges
INSULATOR
S AND CONDUCTORS
Insulators or bad conductors
- they can hold charge on the
ir surfaces. The charge does not move through
insulators.
Examples:- plastics (e.g. PVC, polythene, Perspex,
etc.), glass, rubber, dry air, sulphur and
oil.
Conductors–metals are good conductors of electricity since they have free electrons in their outermost shells.
A conductor cannot be charged as the charge will flow easily through it.
Examples:- most metals (e.g. silver, copper, aluminium), carbon, graphite, acid solutions,
t solutions
sal
Semi-conductors:- are in-between materials. They are poor conductors when cold but much better conductors
when warm, e.g. silicon, germanium
NB
Water, human body, earth and air are called poor conductors
ʹthey conduct very slowly
.
DANGERS OF
ELECTROSTATICS
1. Usually electric charges build up on the surface of the car as it moves through air along the road that
is why a passenger may get an electric shock when getting into or out of the car. Therefore if charges
are allowed to build up on truckscarrying flammable goods (e.g. petrol) a very small spark can cause a
fire or explosion. It is then important that such trucks are earthed by attaching a conducting strip that
will be dragged behind the truck or run on conductive rubber tyres.
2. Occurrenceof lightning
APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROSTATICS
1.Paint spraying–the paint becomes charged due to friction asisitforced out of the nozzle of the spray
gun. If the object to be painted is given the opposite charge the paint will ick st
to it very well.This
technique is used by farmers when crop spraying also
and used to coat cars with paint.
Page 167
2.Dust and ash precipitator
- ash in factory chimneys and power stations can be removed by electrostatic
precipitation. Wires inside the chimneys are negativelyarged
ch and give a similar charge to the ash
particles. The negatively charged ash particles are attracted to positively charged metal plates inside the
chimney walls. The ash particles are then removed by washing
3.In electrostatic photocopying machines–inside the photocopier, there is a light
-sensitive plate that
would be given a negative charge. The image of the document to be copied is projected onto the drum.
The bright areas on the drum lose theirchargebecause of reflected light from the correspondi
ng white
parts on the document paper but the dark areas on the plate keep their charge. The powdered ink (toner)
is attracted to the charged (dark) areas. A blank sheet of paper is pressed against the plate and picks up
the toner. The paper is heated soatththe powered ink melts and sticks to it. The result is a copy of the
original document.
QUESTIONS
Q2. When a balloon is rubbed in your hair, the balloon becomes negatively charged.
a) the negatively charged balloon is brought up to the surface of a ceiling. The balloon sticks to the
ceiling. Explain how and why this happens.
Q4. In an atom, what kind of charge is carried by i) protons ii) electrons c) neutrons
Q6. When one pulls a plastic comb through their hair, the comb becomes negatively charged.
a) Which ends up with more electrons than normal, the comb or the hair?
b) Why does the hair become
positively charged?
Q8. In the diagram below, a charged rod is held close to a metal can. The can is on an insulated stand.
Page 168
a) Draw in any induced charges on the can.
b) Why is the can attracted to the rod even though the net charge on the can is zero?
c) If you touch the can with your finger, electrons flow through it. In which direction is the
w?flo
d) What type of charge is left on the can after it has been touched?
Q9. Two charged balls are hung side by side. They settle as shown. What can you say about the charges on the
balls?
b). What difference would it make if the ruler were made of polythene?
Q11. Use words from the list below to complete the followin
g sentences. You can use them re
mothan once.
A positively charged object attracts ytinpieces of paper to it. It __________ electrons in the paper. This leaves
the surface of the paper _____________ charged. They stick together because ________ charges
___________.
Q12. Fig. 12.1 shows two positively charged conducting spheres mounted
odsonmade
r of a good electrical
insulator.
Page 169
a) Draw the electric field pattern on each diagram.
Fig. 13.1
The two small sph
eres are pulled apart, using their insulated handles, and then taken well away from the large
sphere, as shown in Fig. 13.2.
Fig. 13.2
Page 170
16.2.0 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Q = It
-------------------------
>Coulomb’s law
Page 171
The SI unit of e.m.f is volt
a (V). A battery with an e.m.f fo1 volt (1 V) gives 1 J of energy to a coulomb of
charge which it drives around a circuit.
1 V = joule/coulomb
1 V = J/C
USING A VOLTMETER TO MEASURE E.M.F
To measure the e.m.f of a cell or a battery of cells, connect a voltmeter in parallel with the
s without
cell any
other components in the circuit. This kind of connection is known as open circuit. The red (+) terminal of the
voltmeter is connected to the +ve of the battery and the black
-) terminal
( of the voltmeter to the–
ve terminal
of the battery.
V = W/Q or V = E/Q
In an electric circuit, chemical energy in the battery is converted into electrical energy in the
ctrons.
ele Some
of this energy is used up in passing through the lamp. Therefore there is p.d across the lamp.
The p.d is measured with a voltmeter. The voltmeter is connected in parallel across the components of the
circuit where we want to measure the poten
tial difference.
Page 172
Voltmeters must not be connected in series with other components in a circuit or else it will change the
current through the circuit because they have very high resistance. On the other the
hand
ammeters, which
are connected within the circuit, must have very low resistance
16.2.4 RESISTANCE
- Is the measure of the ability of a conductor to oppose the flow of current/ electrons.
- Current can pass easily through components with a lowistance
res but it cannot flow easily through
components with a high resistance (very good conductors have almost no resistance and insulators
have extremely high resistance)
- All electrical components have a certain amount of resistance.
- Resistance (R) is meas
ured in ohms (Ω), kilohms
) (kΩ), megaohms
FIXED RESISTORS
Resistors are colour coded to show their resistance. This consists of three or four coloured bands around the
resistor. The first three bands indicate the value of the resistance in ohms. Bands 1 and 2 are the digits of the
value, and band 3 represents the number of zeroes following the rst two
fi digits. The fourth band on the
resistor shows the tolerance of the stated value.
Page 173
*NOTE:
x To decide which is the first, remember that the fourth band, if present, will either be gold or silver (or
on rare occasions pink)
x The following may help you to recall the colour codes and their values;
(Bad Boys Rape Our Young Girls But Violet Gives Willingly) OR
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(Black Birds RoamingOn Your Garden Bring Very Great Woes)
VARIABLE RESISTORS
The resistance of a variable resistor is not fixed. It can be changed or set to different values. They are used in
circuits when the current through the circuiteeds
n to be varied.
A rheostat is a variable resistor consists of a coiled length of resistance wire with either end attached to a
terminal. A third terminal is attached to a sliding contact which can be moved along the length of the coil. By
moving the sliding contact along the coil, the amount of wire through which the current passes can be changed
and hence the resistance changes.
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE
Page 174
VOLTMETER READING V(V)AMMETER READING I (A) V/I (V/A)
The graphis straight line passing through the origin (0,0). This indicates that the voltage and current are
directly proportional to each other.The gradient of graph is constant and it represent the resistance of the
conductor.
The ratio V/I = a constant. The ue
valof the constant is equal to the resistance of the conductor.
Gradient = R = ѐsͬѐ/
R = V2 ʹV1/ I 2 ʹI1
R = V/I ---------------------
хK,D͛^>t
K,D͛^>t
Ohm’s law defines the relationship between the voltag
component and the resistance of the component.
The ohm’s law states that;
͞ƚŚĞĂŵŽƵŶƚŽĨĞůĞĐƚƌŝĐĐƵƌƌĞŶƚƉĂƐƐŝŶŐƚŚƌŽƵŐŚĂĐŽ
ƉƌŽǀŝĚĞĚƚŚĞƚĞŵƉĞƌĂƚƵƌĞĂŶĚŽƚŚĞƌƉŚLJƐŝĐĂůƋƵĂŶƚŝƚŝĞ
sɲ/͖ZсĂĐŽŶƐƚĂŶƚ
V = IR-------------------------------------------
> ohm’s law
It can also be expressed as:
I = V/R OR R = V/I
RESISTANCE, LENGTH CROSS AND -SECTIONAL AREA
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its- cross
sectional area. This means when the length is doubled , the conductorwill double its resistance but when its
cross-section isdoubled its resistance will be halved.
Therefore;
x Short and thick conductors have low resistance
Page 175
x Long and thin conductors have high resistance
Mathematically;
ZɲůĂŶĚZɲϭͬ
їZɲůͬ
їZсʌůͬ
where R = resistance in Ω
ʌ= resistivity in Ωm
l = length in metres (m)
2
A = cross-section area in m
Examples
2
#1. Find the resistance of an aluminium conductor 200 m long with a-section
cross area of 4 mm (ρ for Al is
-8
2.83 x 10 Ωm)
Answ;
Data
2
l = 200 m A = 4 mm = 4 x 10-6 m2 -8
ʌсϮ͘ϴϯdžϭϬ
ёŵZс͍
R = ρl/A
-8 -6
= (2.83 x 10 X 200 m)/4 x 10
= ϭ͘ϰϮё
DATA
ůсϬ͘ϰϬŵĚсϬ͘ϲϬŵŵсϬ͘ϬϬϬ
R = pl/A
2 2 2 -7
ρ = RA/l = π(d
/4) = π(0.0006
/4 = 2.8 x 10 m2 m)
-7
= 1.5(2.8 x 10 )/0.40
-6
= 1.06 x 10 ёŵ
INTERNAL RESISTANCE
The energy supplied per unit charge is not all used in the external circuit. There is some energy which is
needed toovercome the internalresistance anddrive the charge across the battery or cell.
In above diagram, the voltage drop across the resistor will be less than the e.m.f. This is
sebecau
some energy
has been used to
drive the charge through /across the cell.
r = (EʹV)/I
Where E= e.m.f
Page 176
r = internal resistance
of the cell
I = current
→ –
EV = Ir
E –IR = Ir
E = IR + Ir
PROBLEMS
Data
ZсϱёƌсϮёsсϭ͘Ϭs/с͍
I = V/R
= 1.0 V/5 Ω
= 0.2 A
THEN E = I(R + r)
= 0.2 A(5 Ω + 2 Ω)
= ϭ͘ϰё
V = E–Ir
= 4.0–0.6(5)
= 1.0
Page 177
The inverse of the graph here is equal to the resistance
of the conductor.
a) Diode
Voltage is not proportional to current
Page 178
The graph bends over as V and I increase. Then this means the gradient (I/V) decrease and hence
the resistance (V/I) increases and makes the filament hotter.
c) Thermistor
A thermistor is an electrical component which is used in temperature
-operated circuits such as
the circuits used to control air conditioning units. It is a -ohmic
non resistor, its resistance
decreases as the current increases.
>/D/dd/KE^K&d,K,D͛^>t
Under normal working conditions a resistor is ohmic, its resistance does not depend on the current or voltage
applied to it. If too much current flows through the resistor, it will become hot and its resistance will start to
increase. This resistor has become -ohmic
non
Therefore, in general, when the temperature increase the resistance of metals will also increase
. The
resistance of some conduct
ors will also change when they are bent or placed under pressure.
16.2.6 QUESTIONS
a). What is the resistance of its element?
b) Why does the element need to have resistance?
Page 179
e) The resistance of a wire which under a potential difference of 6 V allows a current of 0.1 A to flow.
f) The resistance of a heater which under atential
po difference of 230 V allows a current of 10 A to
flow.
Q6. Explain clearly the difference between electromotive force of a cell and potential difference across a lamp.
b) What is the current in a circuit if the charge passing in each point is i) 10 C in 2 s, ii) 20 C in 40 s iii) 200 C
in 2 minutes?
Q8. The p.d across the lamp is 12 V. How many joules of electrical energyanged
are chinto light and heat
when:
Series circuit
Components are in series when they are connected into a continuousend
line,to end such that the same
current flows through each component
Page 181
iii) Resistance in parallel resistors
16.2.8 ELECTRI
CAL ENERGY
When electrons flow through any component, some of their stored electrical energy is released in (converted
to) different forms:
e.g
x light bulb: electrical energy------------> light and heat
x kettle: electrical energy--------> heat
x resistor: electrical energy-------> heat
How to calculate the amount electrical energy
converted to other forms (or consumed) by an electrical
appliance:
Recall:The amount of electrical energy being transferred to other form(s) when a unit charge flows through a
component (appliance) in a circuit is called the
potential difference(voltage).
Page 182
From the definition it follows;
Voltage (p.d) = Energy transferred/Charge
Then
E = VIt
P =VI
= 240 V x 5 A
= 1200 W
c) Data; V = 240 V, I = 5 A, t = 5 minutes =330 s, P = 1200 W, E =?
Page 183
E = VIt E = Pt
= 240 V x 5 A x 330 s OR = 1200 W x 330 s
= 396 000 J = 396 000 J
#2: A 220 V, 10 A electric motor takes 20 seconds
o lifttaload of bricks to the top of a building 15 m above the
ground. Each brick has a mass 0f 1.5 kg.
a) What energy changes occur as the bricks are lifted?
b) How much electrical energy is supplied to the motor in 20 seconds?
c) Assuming the motor is 100
% efficient, how many bricks can be lifted in a single load?
Ans:
a) Electrical energy----------> gravitational potential energy
b) Data; E =?, I = 10 A, V = 220 V, t = 20 s
E = VIt
= 220 V x 10 A x 20 s
= 44 000 J
c) Total electricalenergy converted = total GPE
44 000 J = mgh
44 000 J = 15 m x 10 N/kg x total mass
m of bricks
m = 44000 J/15 m x 10 N/kg
m = 293 kg
number of bricks =m/mass of a single brick = 293 kg/1.5 kg
= 195 bricks
2. Neutral wire (blue or black)- completes the circuit by providing the return path to the supply (or
mains). The neutral wire is earthed at the electricity substation, therefore it is at 0 V
*Although theneutral wirecarries electric charge there is no danger of electric shock if it is touched
since it is at the same potential as a person who stands on the floor.
Page 184
3. Earth wire (green and yellow) or (green)
- this wire is for safety purposes. On
e end of the Earth wire is
connected to the metal case of the appliance. The other end is connected via the wall sockets and metal
pipe to Earth box outside the house.
Theearth wire provides a path of almost zero resistance from the case of the appliance to the earth. If the
live wire accidentally touches the metal case of the appliance, a large current will flow through the earth
wire and the fuse melts, isolating the app
liance.
Without an earth wire, the case would become live anyone touching it would receive a dangerous shock.
Function: to prevent excessive current to flow through an appliance.Too high current may cause some electric
fire or accident.
Fuse is a wire made from a metal with a lowlting me point. If a fuse is part of a circuit, it will eventually melt if
the current is too excessive and the circuit will break. But excessive current may flow through an appliance
even if a fuse there if a short circuit is present.
Page 185
*Fuses must be connecte
d into the live wire. This ensures that when the fuse melts, the appliance is no longer
“live”.
Fusing Rating
Fuses are rated according to the amount of current required to melt/blow it. E.g. 1 A fuse will melt if a current
of 1 A flows through it, a 5 Ause
f will melt if a current of 5 A flows through it, etc. Fuse rating are always whole
number integers. The plugs are usually fitted with either3 A, 5 A or 13 A.
It is vital that the correct fuse is installed into an appliance. The fuse rating shouldreater
be gthan the normal
operating current of appliance, but as close to it as possible - so that the fuse will be blown as soon as the
current gets too high.
Example
An electrical kettle is labelled 230 V 2300 W. Work out whether a 3 A, 5 A or 13 Aneeded.
fuse is
Ans: First, calculate the normal operating current
P = 2300 W V = 230 V I=?
P = VI
I =2300 W/230 V
= 10 A
If the normaloperatingcurrent is 10 A, a13 Afuse should be fitted.
#2 DVD PLAYER: 100 240
W, V
I = 100 W/240 V
= 0.4 A
So a3 A fuse is ideal.
*Note: 1) The DVD playe r would still work with a fuse of
13 A. But if a fault develops, the current will continue
to flow without the fuse blowing and this might cause the appliance to overheat and catch fire.
2) For currents higher than 13 A, circuit breakers are used instead of fuses. Circuit breakers operate
electromagnetically and can be res
et by flicking a switch (they do not have
to be replacedlike fuses)
THREE
-PIN PLUG
Page 186
cable is pulled or tugged.
*The fuse is chosen to suit the circuit which it protects.
DOUBLE INSULATION
Some household appliances,.g.e radios, have plastic cases and their cables do not have an earth wire. They
have only the live and neutral wires. There is no risk getting an electrical shock from a plastic case since plastic
is an electrical insulator. This is described as double
ulation
ins because:
x The live and neutral wires are covered in an insulated sheath,
x The appliance itself is covered by an insulated case.
FEATURES OF A HOUSE CIRCUIT
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Electrical metres (joule
-meter) are included in our houses to measure the amount of electrical energy
consumed by the household. The household harged
is c for the electrical energy they consumed. Electricity
supply companies (e.g. B.P.C) measure electrical energy consumed
kilowatt
in -hours (kWh) or units’.
simply ‘
1 kWh = 1 unit
1 kWh is the measure of the amount of the electrical energy consumed1 for
hour (3600 s) at the rate of1 kW
(1000 W) or the energy used by an appliance rated 1 kW in 1 hour.
i.e. 1 kWh = 1000 W x 3600 s
= 1000 J/s x 3600 s
= 3 600 000 J
1 kWh = 3.6 MJ
Then;
Example:
a) How much energy is used by a500
3 W heater which is on for 30 minutes
b) How muchwill it cost to run the heater if one unit of electricity costs 5 thebe
Ans:
a) P = 3500 W (3.5 kW), t = 30 minutes (1/2 h), E=?
E = Pt
= 3.5 kW x ½ h
= 1.75 kW or 1.75 units
b) E = 1.75 kW, cost per kW = 5 thebe
Total cost = E x cost per kW
= 1.75 kW x 5 thebe/kW
= 8.75 thebe
= P0.09
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS AND DANGERS
1. DAMP CONDITIONS : Water can conduct current. And also our
and hence a great amountof current will flow through it. Therefore if electrical equipment gets wet
or touched with wet hands, there is a risk someone being electrocuted (getting an electric shock).
2. OLD, FRAYED WIRING AND DAMAGED INSULATION :- broken strands mean a wire will have
a higher
resistance at one point. When current flows through it, there might be more heat produced, enough
to melt the insulation and cause a fire.
Damaged insulation can cause ;i) an electrical sh
ii) a short circuit if the bare wires touch.
SHORT CIRCUIT : results if the ‘Live’ wire -passes touches the the
appliance and the current can increase to such a high value that it can cause an electric fire especially
if there is nofuse.
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To prevent this,always inspect your cords more frequently and replace worn or damaged cables.
3. OVERHEATING OF CABLES : caused by passing a high current on a wire designed for a low current.
Overheating can cause the insulat
ion to melt or burn and can cause fires.
4. OVERLOADING OF SOCKETS : connecting many appliances in one socket can lead to overheating of
cables and hence cause electric fires.
FINDING A FAULT
When an appliance stops working it may be due to a fault that is
y to
easrectify. Before calling a technician it is
wise to try to diagnose the fault.
You may follow the steps below;
1. Check that the appliance is switched on.
2. Check that the power is on. Do other appliances work?
3. Check the fuse. If it is blown, replace it.the
If new fuse blows, check for a short circuit.
4. Check that the plug is correctly connected, with no loose wires or untidy strands of wire sticking out.
5. Check that the cable connection to the appliance is firm.
6. Check that the insulation is in good condition . If it looks worn or torn replace it with a similar cable.
*NB:- If after checking all the above, the appliance is still not worki
ng, engage a trained technician.
16.2.11 QUESTIONS
Q1. What is meant by the statement V’? When ‘the the batterye.m.f. of
is ain
b
p.d. between the terminals is found to be 11.5 V. What reasons might there be for that?
Q3. You have a selection of fuses available: 1 A, 2 A, 3 A, 5 A, 7 A, 10 A, 13 A. Which would be the most suitable
fuse for (i) a TV set labelled 230 V, 140 W, (ii) an electric fire
elled
lab230 V, 2 kW, (iii) a kettle labelled V,
750 W?
c) An appliance which has metal parts, for example an electric kettle, should be earthed. Explain why this
should be done.
d) In some countries it is illegal to have power sockets in a bathroom, to stop you using hairdryers. Why
would it be foolish to use a hairdryer near to a washbasin?
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Q7. The diagram below shows the inside of a three
-pin plug.
Q9. A student using the circuit shown below investigates the relationship between the current flowing through
a resistor and the p.d. across it.
a) What is A?
b) What is B?
c) What is C?
d) What is D?
p.d./V 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
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Q11. An electric lamp is marked 250 V, 100 W
d an
an immersion heater is marked 250 V, 2 kW.
When a wire is moved across a magnetic field, an E.M.F is induced between the ends of the wire. One end of
the wire becomes positively charged and the other end becomes negatively charged. If the wire forms part of a
complete circuit, the EMF makes (induced) current flow.
In the above diagram, first the wire is held at rest between the poles of the magnet and the galvanometer
observed. The wire is then moved in each of the six directions shown
Observations:
a. There is deflection on he t galvanometer only when the wire is moving upwards (direction 1) or
downwards (direction 2) indicating flow of current in the circuit.
b. No deflection on the galvanometer when the wire is moving in other directions (3, 4, 5 & 6), showing
that there is no u
c rrent induced in those cases.
c. Explanation of observations
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x An EMF is induced in a conductor (e.g. wire) only when it crosses (cuts) magnetic field lines and this
cause a current to flow if the conductor is part of a complete circuit.
x There is no inducedMFE or current when the wire is not moving or is moving parallel to the lines.
Direction of induced current
The direction in which the current flows through the wire depends on the following factors
a. The direction of motion of the wire
b. The magnetic field dir
ection.
Therefore reversing the direction of motion or polarity will reverse the current direction.
The direction can be predicted using
ĨůĞŵŝŶŐ͛ƐƌŝŐŚƚŚĂŶĚƌƵůĞ
Page 192
When the magnet is held still inside the coil, the needle returns to its zero position. This shows that no current
is flowing because there is no movement refore
the no magnetic field lines are being cut.
When the bar is pulled out of the coil, the needle is deflected to the left. This shows that moving the magnet in
the opposite direction reverses the current direction.
*NB:- 1) the similar er sults as the above can be obtained by moving a coil of wire over a stationary magnet.
2) But if the S pole of a magnet, rather than the N pole, is used the direction of the current also reverses
and opposite results will be obt
ained for diagrams (a) and (b) above.
The size of the induced EMF (and hence of current) can be increased
- by:
- moving the coil or magnet faster
- using a stronger magnet
- increasing the number of turns on the coil (this increase the length of wire cutting
ough
thr the
magnetic field).
>E͛^>t
The direction of the induced current through the coil
Lenz’s law states that:
͚dŚĞĚŝƌĞĐƚŝŽŶŽĨƚŚĞŝŶĚƵĐĞĚĐƵƌƌĞŶƚŝƐŝŶƐƵĐŚĚŝƌĞ
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But when the magnet is removed, the top of the coil should be S pole
a so that the removal of the magnet will
be opposed as the N pole is attracted and the current will thus
flow in the opposite direction to that when the
magnet is pushed in.
16.3.2 A simple a.c. generator (alternator)
a). In a simple a.c. generator (alternator) the coil is rotated by the shaft.
b). the slip ringsrotate with the coil. When the coil is rotated, it cuts magnetic field lines so a voltage is
generated. This makes a current flow. As the coil rotates, each side travels upwards, downwards,
upwards.... and so on through the field.So the current flows backwards, forwards..... etc. Therefore it is a.c.
c). the current passes to the outside circuit carbon
via brusheswhich press against the side of each slip ring.
A typical graph that shows how voltage (or current) varies over one
omplete
c rotation
Note: . a). The current is greatest when the coil is horizontal because it will be cutting field lines most rapidly.
But current is zero when the coil is vertical since it will be along the field
es and
lin no cutting
happens. Also the current will change the direction when in a vertical position.
b). increasing the speed of rotation increases the frequency of an
. generated.
a.c Frequency of an c.a.is
the number of complete cycles it makes in each second. For the mains supply.’sa.cfrequency is
Hz.
The voltage (or current) from the generator can be increased by:
a). using a stronger magnet
b). increasing the number of turns in the coil.
c). winding the coil on a soft-iron armature and using a bigger coil
d). rotating the coil at a higher speed.
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16.3.3 A simple d.c. generator (dynamo)
An a.c. generator becomes a direct current one theif slip rings are replaced by a commutator (which contains
two half-rings known as split rings). The carbon brushes are arranged such that as the coil goes through the
vertical, changeove
r of contact occurs from one half of the split ring of the commutato
r to the other and the
commutator reverses the voltage induced and so one brush is always positive and the other negative. And this
ensures that current to the outside circuit always flows in the same direction.
Just like in an a.c. generator, when thel coi
rotates, a current is produced by electromagnetic induction and the
current passes to the external circuit through the brushes in contact with the commutator . Although the
induced is d.c.t ivaries in value unlike the d.c from the battery.
The current is maximum when the coil is horizontal and minimum (or zero) when the coil is vertical.
Bicycle dynamo
It uses the principles of electromagnetic induction to generate electricity in bicycles. The driving wheel of the
dynamo presses against the tyre of the bicycle. When the tyre rotates, it turns the driving wheel of the
dynamo and causes a cylindrical permanent magnet to turn as well. The turning permanent magnet reverses
the magnetism through the soft -iron core everytime the coil is rotated by 180°. This change in the magnetic
Page 195
field through the core induces an a.c.
in the coil wire (stator coil). The size of the current produced can be
increased by increasing the speed of the bicycle.
16.3.4 MUTUAL INDUCTION
This involves the induction of current in one circuit, whenever it cuts a magnetic field produced by another
circuit i.e current induced in a circuit due to the changing magnetic field of another circuit.
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If the alternating voltage is applied to the primary coil, the. a.c
produces a changing field in the core. This
changing magnetic field induces anternating
al current in the secondary coil.
* Note:- 1). The purpose of the iron core is
to ensurethat all the magnetic field lines generated in the primary
coil is made to pass through all the turns of the secondary coil.
2). A transformer can only ope
rate on a varying voltage. A D.C.
voltage in the primary coil will not
produce any changeni the magnetic field so with D.C.
no current is induced in the secondary coil.
Two types of transformers
1). Step-down transformer
2). Step-up transformer
1). Step-down transformer- has fewer turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil. Therefore it
produces a smaller voltage in the
secondary coil(less output voltage).
2). Step-up transformers- have more turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil, so their
output/secondary voltage is greater than the input voltage.
The relationship between the number of turns and voltage in the secondary and primary coils can be given by
the equation:-
Primary coil voltage/secondary coil voltage = number of primary turns/number of secondary turns
VP/V S = NP/N S
TRANSFORMER EQUATION
If no energyis wasted in a transformer, the power (energy per second) delivered by the output coil will be the
same as the power supplied to the input.
Then, since P =VI, we can have the transformer equation as;
Input voltage x input current = output voltage utput
x o current
V1I1 = V2I2
EŽƚĞ͗sɲϭͬ/
This follows that a transformer which increases the voltage will reduce the current in the same propotion, and
vice versa.
ENERGY LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER
All transformers waste some energy because of the following factors
1). Resistance ofhet copper coils.
Copper coils are not perfect electrical conductors
. Whenever some urrent
c flow through them, some
electrical power/energy is used to overcome their resistance and this energy will then be given out as
useless heat tothe surrounding. Therefore, their resistance need to be kept low, so thick copper wire
should be used where possible.
2). Eddy currents
The core is itself a conductor, so the changing field induces current called eddy current in it. The eddy
currents also cause heating effects. To reduce this, core is laminated si.e.
made
it i of thin sheets of ironor(
mumetal) instead of a solid block, which are insulated from each other to have a high resistance.
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3). Leakage of field lines
All the lines produced by the primary coil may not cut the secondary coil, especially if the core has an air
gap or badly designed.
*Large transformers have to be oil
-cooled to prevent overheating
.
TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL POWER
1). Power for thea.c. mains is generated in power stations and then transmitted through– long
distance
cables. A network of overhead cables, supported on pylons, which connect power station/s to consumers is
called a National Grid. Power from the grid is ributed
dist by a series of substations. These contain -step
down transformers which reduce voltage in stages to level needed by consumers.
2). A.C or D.C?
Electric power is generally transmitted as a.c. This is so because
. cana.c
be easily and che
aply stepped up
or down using a transformer. A transformer does not work with D.C.
3). High or Low voltage?
Transmission cables have significant resistance, especially when they are hundreds of kilometres long. This
means energy is wa
sted because of the heating effect of the current.
Page 198
Rule for field direction: the right-hand screw rule
- Imagine gripping the wire with your right hand so that your
thumb points in the direction of the current. Your fingers then point in the direction of the field.
NOTE:
i). The field lines are in circles.
ii) The field lines are shown closest together near to the wire, because the field is strongest there, and lines get
further apart away from the wire where the field is weaker.
iii). If the current is increased, the
field is made stronger.
iv). If you reverse the current direction, this reverses the field.
b). Field due to a circular coil
The field lines pattern is as shown below;
Page 199
a). the current direction is from the + to the
–(use the conventional current)
b). the magnetic field direction is the direction the N end
of a compass needle would point.
16.4.0 MOTOR EFFECT
If a wire that is carrying an electric
current is put in a magnetic field, thewire experiences a sideways force and
moves. This effect is used to make the electric motor work in devices such loudspeakers,
as electric drill, etc
Demonstration
A flexible wire is supported in the strong magnetic field of-shaped
aC magnet. When the switch is pressed,
current flows in the wire which jumps upwards.
Explanation: when a current flows through the coil of wire, it creates a magnetic field, which interacts with the
field produced by the two permanent magnets. The two fields exert a force that pushes the wire at right angles
to the permanent magnetic field.
The field lines due to the wire are circles and their direction is as shown above. The dotted lines represent the
field lines of the magnet and their direction. The resultant field of the two fields is as shown iniagram
the d b.
There are more lines below than above the wire since both fields act in the same direction but in opposition
above. If you imagine that the lines are like stretched elastic, those below will try to straighten out and in so
doing will exert an upwards force on the wire.
To increase the strength of the force;
i). Increase the current
ii). Usea stronger magnet
iii). Increase the length of wire in the field.
If you reverse either the current or the field, the force is reversed
&ůĞŵŝŶŐ͛ƐůĞĨƚŚĂŶd rule:
This is the rule used to work out the direction of the force or thrust on the wire. It works like this:
Hold the thumb and the first two fingers of your left hand at right angles. First
The finger is pointing in the
direction of theField and the e
sCond finger in the directionof Current, then theThumb points in the direction
of the Thrust(Motion).
Page 200
(When using this rule, remember that (i) the current direction is from +–and
to the field lines run from N to
S.)
Examples:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Page 201
6.
7.
8.
Page 202
a). increasing the current
b). using a stronger magnet
c). increasing the number of turns on the coil
d). increasing the area of the coil.
16.4.2 Practical motors
- They haveseveralcoils with each set at a different angle and each with its own pair of commutator pieces.
This increases the turning effect and also gives a smoother running.
-The coils contain hundreds of turns of wire wounded on a iron core called
rmature.
a The armature gets
magnetised and increases the strength of magnetic field
-The poles of the magnet
are curved to create a radial magnetic field. This keeps the turning effect
at
maximum for most of the coil’s rotation.
16.4.3 Moving-coil loudspeaker
In the loudspeaker, the magnet is specially shaped so that the wire of the coil is at the right angle
radical
to its
field. The loudspeaker is connected to an amplifier which gives out an alternating current, this current flows
backwards, forwards, backwards, .......... and so on, causing a force on the coil which is also backwards,
forwards, backwards....... lAl
these cause the cone to vibrate and creates sound waves.
16.4.4 Microphone
The moving-coil microphone contains a thin metal foil diaphragm. There is a small coil attached to the rear of
the diaphragm. This coil is situated in a magnetic fieldvided
pro by a cylindrical permanent magnet. Sound
waves cause the diaphragm and coil to vibrate. As the coil moves in the magnetic field a current is induced in
it. This varying current can be amplified and heard in a loudspeaker.
Page 203
Meters for measuring current and voltage frequently have a coil which is pivoted in a magnetic field.
a). Current enters and leaves the coil by hair springs above and below it.
b). When current flows, itproduces a magnetic field
that would interact with the field due to the permanent
magnet. This would produce a couple on the coil (as in an electric motor) and cause it rotate and turns
along with the pointer attached.
c). As the coil turns and twist the spring, the springs
would try to stop the coil turning. The coil turns until the
turning effect of the forces due to the current balance the turning effect of the spring. The greater the
current in the coil, the coil would turn further and the greater the deflecti
on shown by the pointer.
d). The soft-iron cylinder/drum produces a radial magnetic field which makes the coil deflection proportional
to the current and this gives a linear scale.
16.4.6 QUESTIONS
Q2. Fig. 2.1. shows a magnet being pushed into a coil of wire, which is connected to a galvanometer. Which of
the following statements is/are correct?
Fig. 2.1
Q4. Fig. 4.1 shows a conductor AB in a magnetic field. Mark in the direction of the magnetic field. Which
direction will current be induced in theonductor
c AB when it is moved:
Page 204
(b) Out of the page?
Fig. 4.1.
Q5. i) The diagram below shows a bar magnet, and a coil of wire connected to a sensitive ammeter.
As the magnet was pushed slowly into the coil the ammeter pointer moved 10 divisions to the right.
ii) The diagram shows the direction in which a galvanometer needle is ected
defl when a magnet is moved
towards a coil. The size of the arrow represents the speed at which the magnet is moved.
Show the position of the galvanometer needle in each of the following cases:
Page 205
Q6. Fig. 6.1. shows a structural diagram of bicycle dynamo. Study the diagram and answer the following
questions:
Q7. Draw a sketch graph to show how the EMF of a simple a.c. generator varies with time over two full
revolutions. Relate the positions of the coil to the value
s shown on your graph.
b) draw a second sketch graph showing what you would expect if the speed of rotation of the coil were
doubled.
c) i. Describe the main difference in the construction between a d.c dynamo and an a.co.dynam
ii. Sketch a graph to show how the current generated by a d.c dynamo varies with time. How would the
output change if a coil with twice as many turns were used?
a) Use the axes in Fig. 8.1 to sketch a graph which shows the variation with time of the voltage of the
live wire during one cycle. The zero of the voltage scalerth
is ea
voltage.
Page 206
Fig. 8.1
b) On the axes in Fig. 8.2 show the corresponding variation of voltage of the neutral wire.
Fig. 8.2
Fig. 9.1
a) Explain why the needle deflects when a steady current passes through the coil.
b) Explain why the direction of the deflection is unchanged when
the direction of the current is reversed.
c) State and explain what would be observed when the steady current is replaced by an alternating
current with a frequency of 50 Hz.
Page 207
Fig. 9.2
d) Calculate the effective resistance of the coil and the resistor when connected as shown in f.g. 9.2.
e) Calculate the potential difference between the points A and B.
f) Calculate the current in the coil of the ammeter.
Page 208
17.0 ATOMIC PHYSICS
17.1.1 RADIOACTIVITY
Some materials (isotopes) contain atoms with unstable nucleiand these isotopes are said to be radioactive.
The nuclei can become stable by emitting tiny particles, energy or both. These particles and energy from the
nucleus are calledradioactive emissions/radioactivity/nuclear radiationand the breaking -up process is called
radioactive decay.
a) ůƉŚĂƌĂĚŝĂƚŝŽŶ;ɲ
- radiation)
b) Beta ƌĂĚŝĂƚŝŽŶ;ɴ
-radiation)
c) 'ĂŵŵĂƌĂĚŝĂƚŝŽŶ;ɶ
-radiation)
* Ionization occurs when a radioactive emission such alpha particle knocks electrons out of the surrounding
molecules oratoms leaving them as charged ions. Alpha particle is the
most ionizingradiation because it has
the greatest size and mass
.
* Penetration power: all the three radioactive emissions can penetrate materials because their sizes are much
smaller than the spaces separating the atoms in materials, even in solids.
Beta particles aremore penetrating
than alpha particles because theyare much smaller.Gammaradiation is themost penetrating because it is an
electromagnetic wavewithout massor size.
x Alpha particles will be attracted towards negatively charged plates because they are positively
charged.
Page 209
x Beta particles are attracted towards
positively charged plates because they are negatively charged.
Radioactive decay can be definedaas process in which a heavy nuclides (radioisotopes) spontaneously break
down/disintegrates to smaller more stable nuclides. This is arandom process; it can never be predicted when
an individual nucleus will suddenly split up. It does not matter whether the substance is in its pure state or
combined with others. Also cooling or heatingsha no effect on the disintegration of the nucleus.
Examples of
radioactive elements
: carbon-14, uranium-235, uranium-238, cobalt-60, caesium-137, polonium-213, iodine-
131, barium-143
;ĂͿůƉŚĂ;ɲͿĚĞĐĂLJ
During alpha decay, an unstable nucleus emits 2 protons and 2 neutrons as single particle , known as alpha
particle, that travels at high speed. Therefore an alpha particle is a nucleus of a helium atom. When an atom
decays by ion, itsα
massemiss
number decreases by 4 and its atomic number decreases by 2.
Page 210
A A-4 4
Z X -------------------------
> Z-2 Y + 2 He
226
e.g. 88 Ra > 86222Rn
------------------- + 4
2 He
238
92 U ------------------> 90234Th +24He
*Note: when an element decays by emission of an alpha particle it turns into an element with chemical
properties similar to those of an element two places earlier in the periodic table.
;ďͿĞƚĂ;ɴͿĚĞĐĂLJ
In a beta decay, a neutron changes to a proton and an electron. The proton remains in the nucleus but the
electron escapes at high speeds in form of atabe
particle. The new nucleus has the same mass number but its
atomic number increases by one.
A A 0
Z X ------------------------------
> Z+1 Y + -1 e
14 14 0
e.g. 6 C ----------------------------
> 7 N + -1 e
40 40 0
19 K ------------------------
> 20 Ar + -1 e
Most methods of detection depend on the fact that all three radiations can ionize air molecules.
b) The gold-leaf electroscope : a charged electroscope discharges if a radioactive isotope is moved to the
cap. The radioactive emissions ionize the surrounding air molecules. If the electroscope is negatively
charged, the positively charged ion s are attracted to the cap and the charge on the electroscope is
neutralized. If the electroscope is positively charged the electrons which were removed from the air
molecules are attracted to the electroscope.
c) Geiger-Muller tube
Page 211
G.M tube contains argon gas that ionizes when radiation passes through, thereby creating ions and
electrons. The positive ions move towards the cathode and negative electrons move to the anode.
This produces some electric current which will be fed scaler
to a or ratemeter.
Other detectors are i)spark counter, ii) ionization detectorand iii) cloud chamber
17.1.3 HALF-LIFE
Some isotopes decay much more rapidly than others. Scientists measure the decay rate of an isotope in the
form of half-lives.
Half-life is defined asthe time taken for half the original number of radioactive nuclid es to decayor the time
taken for the activity of a radioactive isotope to fall to half its original value.
This time is thesameno matter
what the original activity is.
*very unstable nuclides decays quickly than one with greater stability but in every case the rate of radioactive
decay is proportional to number of nuclei present.
Rate of decay α N
ZĂƚĞŽĨĚĞĐĂLJсʄE
where N = number of nuclei present
ʄ= is a constant
EXAMPLES
Cobalt-60 β, γ 5 years
Sodium-24 β 15 hours
Strontium-93 β, γ 8 minutes
Barium-143 β 12 seconds
Page 212
A graph for radioactive decay (Decay curve)
The graphis known asexponential curve. Even though the curve falls, it never quite reaches
-axis.
x The graph
shows that activity reduces by the same fraction in successive equal time. E.g.
*If count rate is N at time 1t and has fallen to N/2 at time 2t then half-life t 1/2 is t2 ʹt 1. Similarly, if the count
rate has fallen to N/4 at time 3t, the half-life is t3 ʹt 2.
If at the beginning there are N undecayed nuclei, after 1-life halfthere will be N/2, after a second half
-life
there will be ½ x N/2 = N/4, after third half
-life there will be ½ x N/4 = N/8 undecayed nuclei, etc.
1. Thickness gauges : Radioactive isotopes help manufacturers to check and carefully control the
thickness of product like duplicating machines paper.
x a radioactive is otope is placed on one side of the material and a detector on the other side.
x The amount of particles (radiation) reaching the detector is monitored closely by the
machine operator or control unit. If the thickness of the material (paper) increases, fewer
particles will reach the detector and visa versa
*The isotope has to be chosen to suit the requirements of the manufacturer. For example, alpha
an
emitting isotope would be suitable choice for paper
a factoryand abeta sourcewould be more
suitable for asteel mill. Gamma sourcesare not suitable since gamma is very
a penetrating radiation.
Page 213
sterile until the bag is opened.
4. Medical tracers- some isotopes are useds atracers to see the performance of specific organs in the body
such as kidneys or the thyroid gland. The patient will be given a liquid containing-123,
iodinea gamma
emitter and a detector would then be used to measure the activity of the trace
r to find out how quickly
iodine becomes concentrated in the gland.
6. In Agriculture isotopescan be used: - i) as tracers to find how fertilisers and other nutrients are used in
plants. ii) to alter genes inseeds to produce genetically modified plants with superior qualities to natural
plants.
7. Carbon dating: this technique is used by historians and archaeologists to estimate age of historic artefacts
and also it is used by geologists to estimate
the age of rocks and fossils.
Handling:
Storage
x Burn low-level waste or bury it in the ground or release it into the sea
x High-level waste in steel drums are buried in disused mines anite or gr caves or bedded in concrete
and dumped in deep oceans. Or stored at special factories -processing.
for re
It is low level radiation that is always present around, mainly because of radioactive materials in the ground
and air. Every person on Earth is exposed to this form
of radiation. Major sources are:
x Rocks
x Soils and underground water
x Cosmic and solar rays
x Food and drinks
x Man-made radiation
x Buildings
The source is a piece of radium which emits all the three types of radiation.
X Y
Aluminium (3 mm) 87 6 γ 81
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17.2.1 Nuclear fission
If the chain reaction is uncontrolled, huge numbers of nuclei are split in a very short time. The heat builds up
so rapidlythat the material bursts apart into an explosion. This happens in a nuclear (atomic) bomb. If the
chain reaction is controlled, there is a steady output of heat. This happens in a nuclear reactor.
A NUCLEAR REACTOR
In nuclear reactors, fission is carried out in a controlled way. Reactors use naturally occurring uranium,
-235 U
and U-238 but only U-235 undergoes fission with slow neutrons. Neutrons from the fuel rods go into graphite
core, where they collide with graphite atoms and lose K.E. The graphite is called a moderator because it slows
down the neutrons. The neutrons then pass into fuel rod (which consists of uranium) and cause fission. The
boron steel rods control the rate of fission by absorbing someneutrons. The heat generated by nuclear fission
warms a coolant fluid which circulates through the moderator. The coolant may be water or gas 2 . The
COheat
is used to turn water into steam. The steam drives the turbines and generates electricity.
In fission a heavy nucleus split in two to release energy. On the other hand in nuclear fusion the opposite is
done to produce large amounts of energy.
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Nuclear fusion is the combination of two light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus,two
e.g.nuclei of hydrogen
-2
(deuterium) can be combined to form a nucleus of helium
-3.
2 2 3 1
1 H + 1 H --------------> 2 He + 0 n
For two nuclei to fuse, they must be brought sufficiently close to each
ther.oBut it is difficult to dothis as they
repel each other with large electrical force. To overcome this repulsion, the nuclei have to be heated to high
8
temperature (e.g. 10 K) so that they gain enough K.E.
x The sun obtains its energy from nuclear fusion. In the sun the temperature is about 10 million
°C and
the hydrogen-2 atoms have enough energy to fuse.
x Uncontrolled fusion on Earth can result with hydrogen bomb. Initial high temperature required is
obtained by using an atomic (nuclear) bomb to trigger off fusion. A hydrogen bomb releases much
more energy than an atomic bomb.
E = mc2
where c2 = speed of light, 3 x 10
8
m/s
E.G:- When radium decays into radon, about 1/40 000 0f the mass of each decaying atom disappears. Calculate
the energy released from 1 g (1/1000 kg) when it decay
s to radon.
Data: m = mass disappearing = (1/400 000) x (1/1000 kg) = 1/(4 7)x =102.5 x 10-8 kg
8
c = 3 x 10 m/s
E = mc2
-8
= 2.5 x 10 x (3 x 108)2
= 2.25 x 109 J
QUESTIONS
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Count rate (average) Counts per second
c) If the source emits one type of radiation only, what type is it? Give reasons to your answer
.
2. A figurebelow show the arrangementof equipment in paper industry. A radioactive source is used to
monitor the thickness of the paper.
GM-tube
rollers
paper
Radioactive source
a) What is the GM
-tube used for?
c)Briefly explain how the equipment can keep the paper at constant thickness.
3. The half life of iodine 128 is 25minutes. If the activity of a sample is 800Bq, what would you expect the
activity to be after,
a)25minutes
b)50minutes
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c)100minutes
4. In an experiment to find the half life of radioactiveiodine,the countrate falls from 200Bq to 25Bq in
75minutes. What is its half life.
5. If the half life of a radioactive gas is 2minutes. After 8minutes the activity would have
len to
fala fraction of
its initial value. What is this fraction.
a) fission
b) fusion
c) chain reaction
9. Give an example of
10. In a yt pical fission process, Uranium 235 absorbs a neutron, creating a nucleus which splits to form Barium
141, Krypton 92 and 3 neutrons .
-27
Neutron = 1.674x 10 kg
-27
Uranium 235 = nucleus 390.250x10kg
-27
Barium 141 nucleus = 233.964x10kg
-27
Krypton 92 nucleus =52.628x10
1 kg
a) Using the data above, calculate the total mass of the uranium nucleus and the neutron.
b) Calculate the total mass of the barium and krypton nuclei and the three neutrons.
2
c) Use E = mcto calculate the energy released per decay by the
ission
f process.
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