PYQ 2022

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2(a) Explain the principle and construction of an
electrostatic voltmeter for very high voltages. What are its
merits and demerits for high-voltages a.c. measurements?
An electrostatic voltmeter is a device used for measuring voltage,
particularly high voltages. The principle behind its operation lies in the
electrostatic force experienced by charged plates.

Principle:

1. Electrostatic Force: According to Coulomb's law, like charges

repel each other, and opposite charges attract. In an electrostatic
voltmeter, two plates are charged with a potential difference. The
electrostatic force between these plates is proportional to the
voltage applied across them.
2. Balance Condition: By applying an opposing force, typically
through a spring mechanism, the electrostatic force can be
balanced. When the electrostatic force is balanced by an opposing
force, the system reaches equilibrium. The amount of opposing
force required to achieve equilibrium is proportional to the voltage
being measured.
3. Measurement: The opposing force required to balance the
electrostatic force can be measured and calibrated to determine
the voltage being applied.

Construction:

1. Fixed and Moving Plates: The voltmeter consists of two plates –

one fixed and one movable. The fixed plate is usually connected to
the circuit whose voltage is to be measured, while the movable
plate is attached to a spring.
2. Spring Mechanism: The movable plate is connected to a spring or
other mechanism that provides an opposing force to balance the
electrostatic force.
3. Damping Mechanism: A damping mechanism is often
incorporated to prevent oscillations and ensure stability during
measurement.
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4. Scale and Pointer: A scale and pointer system is used to indicate
the voltage measurement based on the position of the movable
plate.
Merits and Demerits:

 Merits:
o Low power consumption.
o Suitable for both AC and DC measurements.
o No hysteresis loss.
o No stray magnetic ield error.
o High input impedance due to high insulation resistance.
o Precise measurements for high voltages.
 Demerits:
o Non-uniform scale (may not be linear).
o Low operating force (friction errors can be challenging to
avoid).
o Expensive and large in size.
o Not robust in construction

2(b) A coaxial shunt is to be designed to measure an

impulse current of 50kA. If the bandwidth of the shunt is to
be at least 10 MHz and if the voltage drop across the shunt
should not exceed 50v, ind the ohmic value of the shunt
and its dimensions.
To design a coaxial shunt for measuring an impulse current of 50 kA
with a bandwidth of at least 10 MHz and a maximum voltage drop of 50
V, we need to calculate the ohmic value of the shunt and determine its
dimensions.

Step 1: Calculate Ohmic Value of Shunt

The ohmic value of the shunt (𝑅𝑠) can be calculated using Ohm's law:

𝑉=𝐼×𝑅𝑠

Given:
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 𝑉=50
 𝐼=50,000A

𝑅𝑠=𝑉/𝐼=50/50,000=0.001Ω

Step 2: Determine Shunt's Dimensions

The dimensions of the coaxial shunt are crucial for its performance,
especially for achieving the desired bandwidth.

Bandwidth Requirement:
The bandwidth of the shunt is determined by its physical dimensions.
Generally, a shorter length and larger diameter will provide a higher
bandwidth.

Given:

 Bandwidth (𝐵𝑊) = 10 MHz

Formula for Coaxial Line Bandwidth:
𝐵𝑊=0.35/(𝐿×(𝐿𝐶)^0.5)

Where:

 𝐿 = length of the shunt

 𝐶 = capacitance per unit length of the shunt

Given that the shunt is coaxial, we can estimate 𝐶 using the capacitance
formula for a coaxial cable:

𝐶=2𝜋𝜖/ln(𝑏/𝑎)

Where:

 𝜀 = permittivity of the material between the conductors (usually

air or a dielectric material)
 𝑎 = inner conductor radius
 𝑏 = outer conductor radius

Solving for Dimensions:

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Given the bandwidth (𝐵𝑊), we rearrange the bandwidth formula to
solve for the length (𝐿) of the shunt:

𝐿=0.35/(𝐵𝑊×(𝐿𝐶)^0.5)

Given the capacitance per unit length of a coaxial cable, we can estimate
the capacitance 𝐶. Then we can plug in the values to find the length (𝐿).

Once we have 𝐿, we can choose suitable values for the inner (𝑎) and
outer (𝑏) conductor radii. However, for the given problem, specific
dimensions for 𝑎 and 𝑏 are not provided, so we'll assume typical values.

Conclusion:

To design the coaxial shunt, we first calculated the ohmic value (𝑅𝑠)
based on the maximum voltage drop requirement. Then, using the
bandwidth requirement, we can determine the length of the shunt (𝐿)
based on the coaxial line bandwidth formula. Finally, specific
dimensions for the inner and outer conductor radii can be chosen to
meet the design requirements.

3(a) What are different tests done on insulators?

Insulators are crucial components in electrical systems, used to prevent
the flow of current between conductors. Various tests are conducted on
insulators to ensure their reliability, durability, and suitability for
specific applications. Here are some common tests done on insulators:

1. Dielectric Strength Test:

 Purpose: To determine the maximum voltage an insulator can

withstand without breaking down.
 Procedure: Apply a gradually increasing voltage until breakdown
occurs.
 Types:
 AC Dielectric Strength Test: Applies alternating current.
 DC Dielectric Strength Test: Applies direct current.

2. Insulation Resistance Test:

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 Purpose: To measure the resistance of insulating materials to
current flow.
 Procedure: Apply a voltage and measure the leakage current.
 Standard: Typically measured using a megohmmeter (or megger)
according to ASTM D149.

3. Power Frequency Voltage Test:

 Purpose: To assess insulator performance under normal

operating conditions.
 Procedure: Apply a continuous voltage at power frequency
(usually 50 or 60 Hz) for a specified duration.

4. Thermal Aging Test:

 Purpose: To simulate the effects of long-term exposure to high

temperatures.
 Procedure: Subject the insulator to elevated temperatures for a
specified period and evaluate any changes in properties.

5. Mechanical Strength Test:

 Purpose: To evaluate the mechanical integrity of insulators.

 Types:
 Tensile Strength Test: Measures the maximum load a
material can withstand without breaking.
 Flexural Strength Test: Measures resistance to bending
forces.
 Compression Test: Measures resistance to crushing forces.

6. Tracking and Erosion Test:

 Purpose: To assess insulator performance in contaminated

conditions.
 Procedure: Subject the insulator to high voltage in the presence of
contaminants (e.g., salt spray) and evaluate the formation of
conducting paths (tracking) and material erosion.

7. Hydrophobicity Test:
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 Purpose: To assess the ability of insulators to repel water.
 Procedure: Measure the contact angle of water droplets on the
surface of the insulator. Lower contact angles indicate better
hydrophobicity.

8. Partial Discharge Test:

 Purpose: To detect insulation defects and weaknesses.

 Procedure: Apply a voltage below the breakdown voltage and
monitor for partial discharges, which indicate localized
breakdowns.

9. Corona Test:

 Purpose: To assess the tendency of insulators to generate corona

discharge.
 Procedure: Subject the insulator to high voltage and observe for
corona discharge, which appears as a faint glow or hissing sound.

10. Environmental Aging Test:

 Purpose: To evaluate insulator performance under various

environmental conditions (e.g., humidity, UV exposure).
 Procedure: Subject the insulator to accelerated aging conditions
representative of its intended service environment.

By conducting these tests, manufacturers and users can ensure that

insulators meet the required standards and specifications for their
intended applications, leading to safe and reliable operation in electrical
systems.

3(b) Differentiate lashover and puncture in detail.

Flashover and puncture are two distinct electrical phenomena that
occur in insulating materials under high voltage conditions. Here's a
detailed differentiation between the two:

Flashover:
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1. Definition: Flashover is the sudden and complete breakdown of
the insulating material, causing a conductive path to form across
the surface of the insulator.
2. Nature: Flashover is a surface breakdown phenomenon.
3. Appearance: It appears as a bright luminous arc or discharge
across the surface of the insulator.
4. Cause: Flashover occurs when the electric field strength across the
surface of the insulator exceeds the dielectric strength of the
material.
5. Effect: Flashover typically results in a short-duration, high-current
arc that may damage the insulator and surrounding equipment. It
can cause equipment failure and disrupt the operation of electrical
systems.
6. Prevention: Flashover can be prevented or mitigated by designing
insulators with higher dielectric strength, improving surface
cleanliness, using insulation coatings, and maintaining appropriate
spacing between conductors.

Puncture:

1. Definition: Puncture is the complete breakdown of the insulating

material, leading to the formation of a permanent conductive path
through the material.
2. Nature: Puncture is an internal breakdown phenomenon.
3. Appearance: There may not be any visible external signs of
puncture.
4. Cause: Puncture occurs when the electric field strength within the
insulating material exceeds the dielectric strength of the material,
causing it to break down.
5. Effect: Puncture results in a permanent conductive path through
the insulator, which can lead to insulation failure and short-
circuiting of the system. It may cause catastrophic failure of
equipment and pose safety risks.
6. Prevention: Puncture can be prevented by using insulating
materials with higher dielectric strength, ensuring proper material
selection for specific operating conditions, maintaining insulation
integrity, and avoiding excessive voltage stresses.

Differentiating Factors:
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 Location: Flashover occurs on the surface of the insulator, while
puncture occurs within the material.
 Appearance: Flashover produces a visible arc or discharge, while
puncture may not have any visible external signs.
 Effect: Flashover results in a temporary breakdown with a
potential for system disruption, while puncture results in a
permanent breakdown with a potential for equipment failure and
safety hazards.
 Prevention: Different preventive measures are required for each
phenomenon based on their causes and nature.

In summary, flashover and puncture are both breakdown phenomena in

insulating materials, but they occur through different mechanisms and
have distinct effects on electrical systems. Understanding these
differences is crucial for designing and maintaining reliable insulation
systems in electrical engineering applications.

4(a) What are the advantage of using cascade transformer

with isolating transformer?
Cascade transformers, also known as stacked transformers, are
transformers that are connected in series to achieve a higher voltage
level than that provided by a single transformer. Isolating transformers,
on the other hand, are transformers used to isolate a circuit from the
source of power, providing galvanic isolation. When cascade
transformers are used with isolating transformers, several advantages
can be observed:

1. Increased Voltage Level: By cascading transformers, you can

increase the voltage level. This is particularly useful in situations
where the voltage requirements exceed what a single transformer
can provide. Isolating transformers can be placed between each
stage of the cascade to provide galvanic isolation and safety.
2. Galvanic Isolation: Isolating transformers provide galvanic
isolation, which means there is no direct electrical connection
between the input and output sides of the transformer. This helps
in preventing ground loops, reducing noise, and enhancing safety
by isolating sensitive equipment from potentially harmful voltages.
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3. Voltage Regulation: Cascade transformers combined with
isolating transformers can provide better voltage regulation.
Isolating transformers can help stabilize the voltage output by
isolating the load from the input power source and mitigating
voltage fluctuations or surges.
4. Enhanced Safety: Galvanic isolation provided by isolating
transformers ensures safety by preventing direct contact with high
voltage levels, reducing the risk of electric shock and protecting
sensitive equipment from damage due to power surges or faults.
5. Flexibility: Cascade transformers with isolating transformers
offer flexibility in designing power distribution systems. They can
be configured in various ways to meet specific voltage
requirements and provide the necessary isolation for different
applications.
6. Noise Reduction: Isolating transformers can also help in reducing
noise and electromagnetic interference (EMI) by isolating the load
from the power source. This is particularly important in sensitive
electronic equipment where noise interference can affect
performance.
7. Fault Isolation: In the event of a fault or short circuit in one stage
of the cascade, isolating transformers can help isolate the fault and
prevent it from affecting other stages or connected equipment,
thereby enhancing the reliability of the system.

Overall, the combination of cascade transformers with isolating

transformers offers several advantages including increased voltage
levels, improved safety, better voltage regulation, and flexibility in
designing power distribution systems for various applications.

4(b) What are the method to generate High alternating

voltages?
Generating high alternating voltages typically involves the use of
specialized equipment and techniques. Here are some common methods
used to generate high alternating voltages:

1. Transformer-Based Voltage Multipliers: This method involves

using a transformer to step up the input voltage to a higher level
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and then rectifying and filtering the output to produce a high-
voltage direct current (HVDC). This HVDC can then be converted
back to high alternating voltage using voltage multiplier circuits
such as Cockcroft-Walton multipliers.
2. Tesla Coils: Tesla coils are resonant air-core transformers that
can generate extremely high voltages at high frequencies. They
operate on the principle of electromagnetic induction and
resonance. A high-voltage, high-frequency alternating current is
applied to the primary coil, inducing a high-voltage alternating
current in the secondary coil.
3. Van de Graaff Generators: Van de Graaff generators use a
motorized belt and a hollow metal sphere to accumulate
electrostatic charge. The charge is then transferred to a high-
voltage terminal, creating a high-voltage potential. Van de Graaff
generators can generate very high voltages, typically in the
hundreds of kilovolts to megavolt range.
4. Marx Generators: Marx generators are pulse generators that use
a cascade of capacitors and spark gaps to generate high-voltage
pulses. Each stage of the Marx generator charges capacitors in
parallel and then discharges them in series, resulting in a high-
voltage pulse at the output.
5. Resonant Circuits: Resonant circuits can be used to generate high
voltages at specific frequencies. By tuning the circuit to its
resonant frequency, voltage magnification can be achieved. This
method is often used in radio frequency (RF) applications where
high voltages are required for transmitting signals.
6. Cockcroft-Walton Voltage Multipliers: Cockcroft-Walton voltage
multipliers are circuits that can generate high-voltage DC from
low-voltage AC inputs. They use a series of diodes and capacitors
to charge and multiply the input voltage, resulting in a high-
voltage DC output.
7. Flyback Transformers: Flyback transformers are commonly used
in television and CRT displays to generate the high voltages
needed to accelerate electrons toward the screen. They operate by
storing energy in the transformer's primary winding and then
rapidly releasing it to the secondary winding, producing a high-
voltage pulse.
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5(a) De ine Townsend’s irst and second ionization
coef icients. How is the condition for breakdown obtained
in a Townsend discharge?
In the context of gas discharge physics, Townsend's first and second
ionization coefficients are parameters used to describe the process of
gas ionization within a discharge.

1. Townsend's First Ionization Coefficient (α):

 The first ionization coefficient, denoted by α, represents the
probability that an electron will cause the ionization of a gas
molecule per unit distance traveled.
 Mathematically, it is defined as the number of ion pairs
produced per unit path length by each electron in the gas.
 It is a measure of the efficiency of the gas in supporting the
production of ionization under the influence of an electric
field.
2. Townsend's Second Ionization Coefficient (β):
 The second ionization coefficient, denoted by β, represents
the probability that an ion will cause further ionization of the
gas per unit distance traveled.
 It quantifies the likelihood of ion-induced ionization within
the gas.
 It is an important parameter in understanding the
amplification of ionization within a gas discharge.

Now, regarding the condition for breakdown in a Townsend discharge:

In a Townsend discharge, breakdown occurs when the rate of electron

multiplication due to ionization exceeds the rate of electron loss due to
recombination and attachment processes. This condition can be
expressed mathematically using the Townsend avalanche equation,
which relates the electron multiplication factor (αN) to the applied
electric field (E) and the first and second ionization coefficients (α and
β, respectively).

The Townsend avalanche equation is given by:

𝑑𝑁/𝑑𝑥=𝛼𝑁
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Where:

 𝑑𝑁/𝑑𝑥is the rate of change of electron density per unit distance

travelled,
 𝛼 is the first ionization coefficient, representing the ionization
probability per unit distance travelled by an electron,
 𝑁 is the electron density.

The condition for breakdown occurs when 𝛼𝑁 exceeds unity, meaning

that each electron produces more than one secondary electron before
being absorbed or lost. This condition leads to an exponential increase
in the number of electrons, resulting in a self-sustaining avalanche of
electron multiplication known as the Townsend avalanche.

In summary, the condition for breakdown in a Townsend discharge is

obtained by analysing the balance between electron multiplication
(governed by the first and second ionization coefficients) and electron
loss processes. When electron multiplication exceeds electron loss,
breakdown occurs, leading to the establishment of a sustained
discharge.

5(b) A 12-stage impulse generator has 0.126 pF

condensers. The wave front and the wave tail resistances
connected are 800 ohms and 5000 ohms respectively. If the
load condenser is 1000 pF, ind the front and tail times of
the impulse wave produced.

6(a) What is Vacuum? Discuss the various mechanisms of

Vacuum breakdown?
In the context of electricity and electrical engineering, a vacuum is a
space devoid of matter, particularly gas or any other material. Achieving
and maintaining a vacuum in electrical systems is essential for various
applications such as vacuum tubes, particle accelerators, high-voltage
equipment, and vacuum insulation.
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Vacuum breakdown in electrical systems refers to the phenomenon
where the insulating properties of a vacuum are compromised, leading
to the low of electric current or the breakdown of the insulation.
Several mechanisms can cause vacuum breakdown in electrical systems:
1. **Field Electron Emission**: In high-voltage systems, electric ields
can cause electrons to be emitted from the surface of electrodes or
insulating materials via a process called ield electron emission. These
emitted electrons can initiate an electric discharge or breakdown in the
vacuum gap.
2. **Thermionic Emission**: Thermionic emission occurs when
electrons are emitted from a heated surface. In vacuum tubes and
electron guns, thermionic emission is commonly used to generate a
stream of electrons. However, excessive heating or high temperatures
can lead to thermal breakdown, where the insulating properties of the
vacuum are compromised due to the increased emission of electrons.
3. **Electron Avalanche**: In a high-voltage electric ield, electrons
accelerated across a vacuum gap can gain suf icient kinetic energy to
ionize gas molecules through collisions, creating additional free
electrons and ions. This process can lead to an electron avalanche,
where the number of free electrons rapidly increases, resulting in a
breakdown of the vacuum insulation.
4. **Secondary Electron Emission**: Secondary electron emission
occurs when energetic electrons collide with a surface and eject
additional electrons from the surface. In high-voltage systems,
secondary electron emission can contribute to electron avalanches and
breakdown by providing additional electrons for ionization.
5. **Field Emission**: Field emission is a phenomenon where electrons
tunnel through the potential barrier of a material's surface under the
in luence of a strong electric ield. In vacuum gaps with sharp or pointed
electrodes, ield emission can occur at relatively low voltages, leading to
breakdown.
6. **Photocurrent Generation**: In systems exposed to light or radiation,
photons can excite electrons, leading to the generation of photocurrent.
In a vacuum environment, photocurrent can contribute to breakdown
by providing additional charge carriers for electron avalanches and
discharge.
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7. **Surface Contamination**: Contaminants or impurities on electrode
surfaces can create localized areas of reduced breakdown voltage or
initiate breakdown paths. Surface contamination can occur due to
outgassing, deposition of materials, or exposure to contaminants from
the environment.
Vacuum breakdown in electrical systems is a complex phenomenon
in luenced by factors such as electric ield strength, temperature,
surface conditions, and the presence of impurities or contaminants.
Understanding and mitigating the mechanisms of vacuum breakdown
are crucial for the design, operation, and reliability of vacuum-based
electrical equipment and systems.

6(b) Explain the phenomenon of electrical conduction in

liquids. How does breakdown occur due to electron in a
solid dielectric?
Electrical conduction in liquids occurs when electric current lows
through a conductive liquid medium. Unlike solid conductors where
electrons carry the current, in liquids, the conduction can occur via
several mechanisms:
1. **Ionic Conduction**: In ionic liquids or solutions, current can low
due to the movement of ions (charged particles) through the liquid.
When an electric ield is applied, positive ions migrate towards the
negative electrode (cathode) while negative ions migrate towards the
positive electrode (anode), resulting in a net low of charge and current.
2. **Electron Conduction**: Some liquids, especially those containing
dissolved conductive substances, can conduct electricity through the
movement of free electrons. This mechanism is similar to electrical
conduction in metals, where mobile electrons carry the current through
the liquid medium.
3. **Electrolysis**: In electrolytic solutions, current can cause chemical
reactions at the electrodes, leading to the generation of ions and
subsequent conduction. For example, in water (H2O), electrolysis can
produce hydrogen (H+) and hydroxide (OH-) ions, allowing for electrical
conduction.
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4. **Discharge Conduction**: In insulating liquids subjected to high
electric ields, breakdown can occur, leading to the formation of
conductive paths through the liquid due to phenomena such as electrical
breakdown, partial discharge, or corona discharge.
Breakdown in solid dielectrics, on the other hand, occurs due to the
accumulation of charges and the resulting electric ield exceeding the
dielectric strength of the material. When a solid dielectric is subjected to
a suf iciently high electric ield, electrons within the material gain
enough energy to overcome the band gap and become mobile, leading to
the generation of charge carriers (electrons and holes).

The breakdown process typically involves the following steps:

1. **Electron Generation**: Electrons are thermally generated or
injected into the dielectric material due to applied voltage or other
external factors.
2. **Charge Accumulation**: As the electric ield increases, charges
accumulate at interfaces, defects, or impurities within the dielectric
material, leading to the formation of space charge regions.
3. **Electron Impact Ionization**: In regions of high electric ield
strength, electrons gain enough energy to collide with atoms or
molecules within the material, causing ionization and the generation of
additional charge carriers (electrons and holes).
4. **Avalanche Breakdown**: The process of electron impact ionization
can lead to an avalanche effect, where the number of free charge
carriers rapidly increases, resulting in a signi icant increase in current
and a breakdown of the insulating properties of the material.
5. **Formation of Conductive Paths**: Once breakdown occurs, the
material becomes conductive, and current can low through the
dielectric via the generated charge carriers. This can lead to further
degradation of the material and potential damage to the electrical
system.
In summary, breakdown in solid dielectrics occurs due to the generation
and movement of charge carriers within the material under the
in luence of a high electric ield, leading to a breakdown of insulation
and the formation of conductive paths.
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7 What do you understand by intrinsic strength of a solid
dielectric? How does breakdown occur due to electron in a
solid dielectric?
The intrinsic strength of a solid dielectric refers to the maximum electric
ield that the dielectric material can withstand without undergoing
electrical breakdown or failure. It represents the inherent ability of the
material to resist breakdown under applied voltage stress. In other
words, it is the maximum electric ield strength that the dielectric
material can sustain without undergoing a disruptive change in its
insulating properties.
The intrinsic strength of a solid dielectric is in luenced by various
factors, including:
1. **Material Composition**: The chemical composition of the dielectric
material plays a signi icant role in determining its intrinsic strength.
Different materials have different intrinsic breakdown strengths due to
variations in their atomic and molecular structures.
2. **Crystal Structure**: The crystalline structure of the dielectric
material can affect its intrinsic strength. Defects, dislocations, and grain
boundaries within the crystal lattice can act as initiation sites for
breakdown, reducing the material's intrinsic strength.
3. **Purity**: The purity of the dielectric material is crucial for its
intrinsic strength. Impurities, contaminants, or foreign particles within
the material can introduce defects and weaken its insulating properties,
leading to a lower intrinsic strength.
4. **Processing Conditions**: The manufacturing and processing
conditions of the dielectric material can in luence its intrinsic strength.
Factors such as temperature, pressure, and annealing procedures can
affect the material's microstructure and overall quality, thereby
impacting its intrinsic strength.
5. **Thickness**: The thickness of the dielectric layer also plays a role in
determining its intrinsic strength. Thicker dielectric layers may have a
higher breakdown strength compared to thinner layers, as they provide
more material to withstand the applied electric ield.
6. **Temperature**: The temperature of the dielectric material can
affect its intrinsic strength. In general, higher temperatures can reduce
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the material's breakdown strength due to increased thermal energy and
enhanced mobility of charge carriers.
Understanding the intrinsic strength of a solid dielectric is essential for
designing reliable insulation systems in electrical and electronic devices.
By ensuring that the applied electric ield does not exceed the material's
intrinsic strength, engineers can prevent electrical breakdown and
ensure the long-term performance and safety of the equipment.

Breakdown in a solid dielectric due to electrons occurs when the electric

ield within the material exceeds its intrinsic strength, leading to the
initiation and propagation of an avalanche breakdown process. This
breakdown process typically involves several key steps:
1. **Electron Generation**: Electrons may be generated within the
dielectric material through various mechanisms, such as thermal
generation, injection from external sources, or electron emission from
defects or impurities.
2. **Charge Accumulation**: As an external voltage is applied across the
dielectric material, electrons begin to accumulate within the material,
leading to the formation of localized regions of negative charge
(electron-rich) and positive charge (electron-de icient).
3. **Electron Drift and Acceleration**: Under the in luence of the
applied electric ield, electrons within the dielectric material drift
towards the anode (positive electrode) or cathode (negative electrode),
depending on their charge. As they drift, electrons gain kinetic energy
and accelerate within the material.
4. **Electron Impact Ionization**: When electrons gain suf icient kinetic
energy, they can collide with atoms or molecules within the dielectric
material, transferring energy to the atoms and causing them to ionize.
This ionization process leads to the creation of additional charge
carriers (electrons and positive ions).
5. **Avalanche Breakdown**: As the number of charge carriers
increases due to impact ionization, an avalanche effect occurs, resulting
in a rapid and exponential increase in current within the material. This
avalanche breakdown leads to the formation of conductive paths and a
breakdown of the dielectric's insulating properties.
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6. **Formation of Conductive Paths**: Once breakdown occurs, the
dielectric material becomes conductive, allowing current to low
through it. This can result in further degradation of the material and
potentially lead to catastrophic failure of the electrical insulation
system.
Overall, breakdown in a solid dielectric due to electrons occurs when
the electric ield within the material exceeds its intrinsic strength,
initiating an avalanche breakdown process that results in the formation
of conductive paths and failure of insulation. Understanding the
mechanisms of electron-induced breakdown is crucial for designing
reliable insulation systems and ensuring the safe and ef icient operation
of electrical and electronic devices.

8(a)Describe the various factors that in luence breakdown

in a gas.
Breakdown in a gas refers to the phenomenon where the insulating
properties of the gas are compromised, leading to the low of electric
current or the breakdown of the insulation. Several factors in luence
breakdown in a gas:
1. **Electric Field Strength**: The electric ield strength is one of the
primary factors in luencing breakdown in a gas. Breakdown occurs
when the electric ield exceeds the dielectric strength of the gas, causing
the gas to ionize and become conductive. Higher electric ield strengths
increase the likelihood of breakdown.
2. **Gas Pressure**: Gas pressure affects breakdown in a gas. Generally,
breakdown voltage decreases with increasing gas pressure. This is
because higher gas pressures result in more frequent collisions between
gas molecules, leading to increased ionization and easier breakdown.
3. **Gas Type and Composition**: Different gases have different
breakdown voltages due to variations in their molecular structure and
ionization potentials. For example, noble gases like helium and argon
have higher breakdown voltages compared to air. The composition of
the gas mixture can also affect breakdown characteristics.
4. **Electrode Con iguration**: The shape, size, and spacing of
electrodes play a signi icant role in breakdown. Sharp or pointed
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electrodes can lead to localized electric ield enhancements, known as
corona discharge, which can trigger breakdown at lower voltages.
Electrode spacing also affects breakdown voltage, with closer electrode
spacing generally resulting in lower breakdown voltages.
5. **Temperature**: Gas temperature in luences breakdown in a gas.
Higher temperatures can increase the thermal energy of gas molecules,
making them more likely to ionize and contribute to breakdown.
However, extreme temperatures can also affect gas properties and alter
breakdown characteristics.
6. **Humidity**: Moisture content in the gas can affect breakdown
characteristics. In humid conditions, water vapor can ionize and
contribute to breakdown. Additionally, moisture can create surface
conduction paths and reduce the breakdown voltage.
7. **Gas Flow Rate**: Gas low rate or velocity can impact breakdown in
a gas. In lowing gases, convection and turbulence can affect the
distribution of electric ield and ionization processes, potentially
altering breakdown characteristics.
8. **Electrical Waveform**: The waveform of the applied voltage can
in luence breakdown. Different waveforms (such as AC, DC, or pulsed)
can produce different breakdown behaviors due to variations in
ionization processes, charging mechanisms, and electrode interactions.
9. **Electrical Frequency**: In AC systems, the frequency of the applied
voltage can affect breakdown. At higher frequencies, the skin effect and
dielectric relaxation phenomena can in luence breakdown
characteristics, potentially leading to changes in breakdown voltage.

Understanding these factors is crucial for designing and operating

electrical systems with gas insulation, such as gas-insulated switchgear,
gas- illed cables, and gas discharge lamps. Proper consideration of these
factors helps ensure the reliable and safe operation of the equipment.
8(b)What is composite insulation? How does short-term
breakdown differ from long term breakdown?
Composite insulation refers to a type of insulation system that consists
of multiple layers or materials with different electrical properties,
combined to achieve improved overall performance compared to
 20
individual insulation materials. Composite insulation is commonly used
in electrical systems to provide enhanced insulation strength, withstand
higher voltages, and improve reliability.

The components of a composite insulation system may include:

1. **Solid Insulating Materials**: Such as paper, pressboard, or polymer
ilms, which provide mechanical support and dielectric strength.
2. **Liquid Insulating Materials**: Such as insulating oils or silicone
luids, which ill voids and impregnate the solid insulation, improving
the overall dielectric properties and thermal performance.
3. **Gas Insulating Materials**: Such as sulfur hexa luoride (SF6) or
nitrogen, which are used in gas-insulated switchgear (GIS) to provide
superior dielectric strength and reduce the size of the equipment.
4. **Barrier Materials**: Such as metal shields or foil layers, which
provide shielding against electromagnetic interference (EMI) and
improve the overall performance of the insulation system.
Composite insulation combines the advantages of different insulation
materials to achieve properties such as high dielectric strength, thermal
stability, moisture resistance, and mechanical strength, making it
suitable for a wide range of electrical applications.

Short-term breakdown and long-term breakdown are two different

types of breakdown phenomena that occur in insulation systems:
1. **Short-term Breakdown**: Short-term breakdown, also known as
transient breakdown or lashover, refers to the sudden and temporary
breakdown of insulation under the in luence of a high-voltage transient
or impulse. Short-term breakdown typically occurs over a very short
duration, ranging from microseconds to milliseconds. It can be caused
by factors such as lightning strikes, switching surges, or capacitor
discharges. Short-term breakdown does not necessarily cause
permanent damage to the insulation, but it can result in a temporary
loss of insulation integrity and may require mitigation measures to
prevent equipment damage.
2. **Long-term Breakdown**: Long-term breakdown, also known as
sustained breakdown or insulation aging, refers to the gradual
degradation of insulation properties over an extended period under
 21
continuous or repetitive stress. Long-term breakdown occurs due to
factors such as thermal aging, electrical aging, moisture ingress,
chemical degradation, and mechanical stress. It leads to a progressive
reduction in insulation strength, increase in leakage currents, and
eventual failure of the insulation system. Long-term breakdown can
result in permanent damage to the insulation and may necessitate
repair or replacement of the affected components.
In summary, short-term breakdown is a sudden and temporary
breakdown of insulation under transient voltage stress, while long-term
breakdown is the gradual degradation of insulation properties over time
under continuous or repetitive stress. Composite insulation systems are
designed to withstand both types of breakdown phenomena and
provide reliable insulation performance in electrical systems.

9 Write short notes on the following:

(a) Half-effect generators

Half-effect generators, also known as Hall-effect generators, are devices

that utilize the Hall effect to generate a voltage difference (Hall voltage)
across a conductor or semiconductor material subjected to a magnetic
ield and a current low perpendicular to each other. Here are some short
notes on Hall-effect generators:
1. **Principle**: The Hall effect, discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879, states
that when a conductor or semiconductor with a current lowing through
it is placed in a magnetic ield perpendicular to the current low, a
transverse electric ield is generated across the material. This electric
ield, known as the Hall voltage, is proportional to both the strength of
the magnetic ield and the current lowing through the material.
2. **Operation**: In a Hall-effect generator, a magnetic ield is applied
perpendicular to the direction of current low in a conductor or
semiconductor material. As the charge carriers (electrons or holes) move
through the material, they experience a Lorentz force due to the magnetic
ield, causing them to de lect. This de lection leads to the accumulation of
charge on one side of the material, resulting in the generation of a voltage
difference perpendicular to both the current low and the magnetic ield
direction.
 22
3. **Construction**: Hall-effect generators typically consist of a
semiconductor material (e.g., silicon or gallium arsenide) with a current-
carrying conductor and contacts for applying a magnetic ield. The
semiconductor material is often doped to increase its conductivity and
improve Hall-effect sensitivity.
4. **Applications**: Hall-effect generators are commonly used in various
applications, including:
- Proximity sensing: detecting the presence or absence of a magnetic
ield.
- Current sensing: measuring current low in electrical circuits.
- Speed sensing: detecting the rotational speed of motors or machinery.
- Position sensing: determining the position of objects in linear or
angular displacement systems.
- Magnetic ield measurement: quantifying the strength and direction of
magnetic ields.
5. **Advantages**: Hall-effect generators offer several advantages,
including:
- Non-contact operation: They do not require physical contact with the
measured object or electrical conductor, reducing wear and tear.
- Wide dynamic range: They can detect a wide range of magnetic ield
strengths, from weak ields to strong magnetic ields.
- High sensitivity: They can detect small changes in magnetic ield
strength, making them suitable for precise measurements.
- Solid-state construction: They are durable and reliable, with no
moving parts, making them suitable for harsh environments and long-
term use.
Overall, Hall-effect generators are versatile devices that utilize the Hall
effect to generate voltage differences in response to magnetic ields,
inding applications in various industries and electronic systems.
(b) Capacitance voltage transformer

Capacitance Voltage Transformers (CVTs) are electromagnetic devices

used to measure high voltages accurately. Here are some short notes on
CVTs:
 23
1. **Principle of Operation**: CVTs operate on the principle of
electrostatic capacitance. They consist of a series of capacitors connected
in a voltage divider con iguration. When a high voltage is applied across
the primary capacitor, it induces an electric ield, causing a proportional
voltage to appear across the secondary capacitor. This voltage is then
scaled down to a measurable level suitable for instrumentation or control
systems.
2. **Construction**: CVTs typically consist of a high-voltage primary
capacitor and a low-voltage secondary capacitor separated by an
insulating material such as oil or gas. The primary capacitor is connected
across the high-voltage line being measured, while the secondary
capacitor is connected to a voltage measurement device such as a
voltmeter or protective relay.
3. **Dielectric Material**: The dielectric material between the plates of
the capacitors is chosen to withstand the high voltage and provide
insulation. Common dielectric materials include oil, gas (e.g., SF6), or a
combination of both. The dielectric properties of the material in luence
the accuracy and performance of the CVT.
4. **Accuracy**: CVTs offer high accuracy in voltage measurement,
typically with a class designation indicating the accuracy level. Common
classes include Class 0.2, Class 0.5, and Class 1.0, where the number
represents the percentage error in voltage measurement under speci ied
conditions.
5. **Frequency Response**: CVTs are designed to operate over a speci ic
frequency range, typically from 50 Hz to 60 Hz in power systems. They
may also have limited frequency response beyond this range for
specialized applications.
6. **Application**: CVTs are commonly used in high-voltage power
systems for voltage measurement, protection, and control purposes. They
are often employed in conjunction with protective relays, meters, and
SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) systems to monitor
and safeguard electrical networks.
7. **Advantages**: CVTs offer several advantages, including:
- High accuracy and reliability in voltage measurement.
- Galvanic isolation between the high-voltage primary and low-voltage
secondary circuits.
 24
- Minimal power consumption and low maintenance requirements.
- Suitable for outdoor and indoor installations in various environmental
conditions.
8. **Safety Considerations**: Proper installation, grounding, and
maintenance are essential for the safe and reliable operation of CVTs.
Adequate insulation coordination and protection measures should be
implemented to prevent damage to equipment and ensure personnel
safety.

In summary, Capacitance Voltage Transformers (CVTs) are essential

components in high-voltage power systems, providing accurate voltage
measurement and facilitating reliable operation and protection of
electrical networks.
 PYQ 2021
25
2(A) With a neat sketch, explain the impulse testing on the
power transformer.
Certainly! Below is a simpli ied sketch illustrating the setup for impulse
testing on a power transformer:
DIAGRAM
**Description**:
1. **Transformer**: This is the power transformer under test. It typically
has high-voltage (HV) and low-voltage (LV) windings. The transformer is
the device being evaluated for its ability to withstand high-voltage
impulses.
2. **HV Bushing and LV Bushing**: These are the terminals or bushings
through which the high-voltage and low-voltage windings of the
transformer are connected to external circuits. The HV bushing is used
for applying the impulse voltage to the high-voltage winding, while the LV
bushing may be connected to ground or left open during testing,
depending on the test requirements.
3. **Impulse Voltage Generator**: This is the specialized equipment used
to generate high-voltage impulses for testing. The impulse voltage
generator is capable of producing high-voltage impulses with speci ied
waveform characteristics, such as amplitude, duration, and rise time, in
accordance with international standards and test speci ications.

**Procedure**:
1. The HV bushing of the transformer is connected to the output terminal
of the impulse voltage generator using suitable test leads and
terminations.
2. The LV bushing of the transformer may be connected to ground or left
open, depending on the test requirements and insulation con iguration of
the transformer.
3. The impulse voltage generator is activated, and high-voltage impulses
are applied to the transformer's high-voltage winding through the HV
bushing.
4. Voltage measurement and monitoring equipment, such as
oscilloscopes and voltage dividers, are used to measure the impulse
 26
voltage waveform across the transformer winding terminals and assess
the transformer's response to the applied impulses.
5. The transformer's insulation is evaluated for its ability to withstand the
applied impulse voltage without experiencing disruptive breakdown,
lashover, or insulation failure.
6. The test results, including waveform measurements and any observed
abnormalities or failures, are recorded and analyzed to determine the
transformer's insulation integrity and suitability for service under
transient voltage conditions.
This sketch provides a simpli ied overview of the impulse testing setup
for a power transformer, illustrating the key components and connections
involved in the testing process.
2(B)
3(A)What is capacitance voltage transformer? Explain with
phasor diagram how a tuned capacitance voltage
transformer can be used for voltage measurements.
A Capacitance Voltage Transformer (CVT) is an electromagnetic device
used for voltage measurement in high-voltage power systems. It operates
based on the principle of electrostatic capacitance and is designed to
provide accurate voltage measurements for monitoring, protection, and
control purposes.

**Operation of a Capacitance Voltage Transformer (CVT)**:

1. **Basic Principle**: A CVT consists of two main components: a primary
capacitor (connected across the high-voltage line being measured) and a
secondary capacitor (connected to the measuring instrument). When a
high voltage is applied across the primary capacitor, it induces an electric
ield, resulting in a proportional voltage appearing across the secondary
capacitor.
2. **Insulating Material**: The two capacitors are separated by an
insulating material, often oil or gas, to withstand the high voltage and
provide electrical insulation between the primary and secondary circuits.
3. **Voltage Scaling**: The ratio of the secondary voltage (Vs) to the
primary voltage (Vp) is determined by the ratio of the capacitance values
 27
of the secondary capacitor (Cs) to the primary capacitor (Cp), according
to the formula Vs / Vp = Cs / Cp.
4. **Measurement**: The secondary voltage, which is a scaled-down
version of the primary voltage, is connected to the measuring instrument
(e.g., voltmeter, protective relay) for voltage measurement and
monitoring purposes.

**Operation of a Tuned Capacitance Voltage Transformer (TCVT) for

Voltage Measurement**:
A Tuned Capacitance Voltage Transformer (TCVT) is a specialized type of
CVT that incorporates additional components to improve its performance
and accuracy, particularly for high-frequency transient voltage
measurements. Here's how a TCVT can be used for voltage
measurements, along with a phasor diagram illustrating its operation:
1. **Resonance Condition**: By adding inductive elements (inductors or
reactors) to the CVT circuit, the capacitance voltage transformer can be
tuned to resonate at a speci ic frequency, typically the system frequency
or a harmonic frequency of interest.
2. **Enhanced Performance**: At the resonant frequency, the impedance
of the TCVT circuit is minimized, resulting in maximum voltage transfer
ef iciency and improved accuracy for voltage measurements at the tuned
frequency.
3. **Phasor Diagram**: In the phasor diagram for a TCVT, the primary
voltage vector (Vp) and the secondary voltage vector (Vs) are shown. At
the resonant frequency, the phase angle between the primary and
secondary voltages is minimized, indicating maximum voltage transfer
ef iciency.
4. **Frequency Response**: The tuning elements in the TCVT circuit
determine its frequency response characteristics. By selecting
appropriate tuning elements, the TCVT can be optimized for speci ic
frequency ranges or harmonic content present in the power system.

In summary, a Capacitance Voltage Transformer (CVT) is an

electromagnetic device used for voltage measurement in high-voltage
power systems. A Tuned Capacitance Voltage Transformer (TCVT)
incorporates additional tuning elements to enhance its performance and
 28
accuracy, particularly at speci ic frequencies of interest, and can be
represented using a phasor diagram to illustrate the voltage transfer
characteristics at resonance.
3(B)
4(A) Explain the high voltage Schering bridge for the tan δ
and capacitance measurement of insulators and bushings.
The High Voltage Schering Bridge is a specialized bridge circuit used for
the measurement of dissipation factor (tan δ) and capacitance of
insulating materials, such as bushings, cables, and capacitors, at high
voltages. It is particularly useful for assessing the dielectric properties
and insulation integrity of high-voltage equipment.

**Components of a High Voltage Schering Bridge:**

1. **Standard Capacitor (C_s)**: This is a high-precision capacitor with a
known capacitance value. It serves as the reference standard in the bridge
circuit.
2. **Unknown Capacitor (C_x)**: This is the capacitor whose capacitance
and dissipation factor (tan δ) are to be measured. It represents the
insulating material under test, such as a bushing or an insulator.
3. **High Voltage AC Source**: This is the voltage source that provides the
high-voltage AC signal necessary for the measurement. The voltage level
is typically several kilovolts or more, depending on the insulation system
being tested.
4. **Variable Resistance (R_s)**: This resistance is adjustable and is used
to balance the bridge circuit. It is adjusted until the bridge is balanced,
indicating that the ratio of the unknown capacitor to the standard
capacitor is accurately determined.

**Operation of the High Voltage Schering Bridge:**

1. **Bridge Balance**: The bridge circuit is initially unbalanced, and the
unknown capacitor (C_x) and the standard capacitor (C_s) are connected
in parallel branches of the bridge circuit. The variable resistance (R_s) is
adjusted until the bridge is balanced.
2. **Measurement**: Once the bridge is balanced, the values of the
unknown capacitor (C_x) and the variable resistance (R_s) are recorded.
 29
At this point, the bridge is in a balanced state, and the ratio of the
unknown capacitor to the standard capacitor (C_x / C_s) can be
calculated.
3. Calculation of Dissipation Factor (tan δ): The dissipation factor (tan δ) of the unknown
capacitor is calculated using the formula:
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛿=𝑅𝑠/(2𝜋𝑓𝐶𝑥)
Where:
 𝑅𝑠 is the resistance value in the balanced state.
 𝑓 is the frequency of the AC source.
 𝐶𝑥 is the capacitance of the unknown capacitor.
4. **Calculation of Capacitance**: The capacitance of the unknown
capacitor (C_x) can be calculated using the ratio of the unknown capacitor
to the standard capacitor (C_x / C_s) obtained during the measurement.

**Applications of the High Voltage Schering Bridge:**

- **Insulation Testing**: It is widely used for the assessment of insulation
properties and dielectric losses in high-voltage equipment such as
transformers, bushings, cables, and capacitors.
- **Quality Control**: It is used in the manufacturing process to ensure
the quality and reliability of insulating materials by measuring their
capacitance and dissipation factor.
- **Diagnostic Testing**: It is used for diagnostic purposes to detect
potential insulation defects or degradation in aging equipment.

In summary, the High Voltage Schering Bridge is a valuable tool for

measuring the capacitance and dissipation factor of insulating materials
at high voltages, providing crucial information about the condition and
performance of electrical insulation in high-voltage equipment.

4(B) Explain the partial discharge tests on high-voltage

cables. How is a fault in the insulation located in this test?
Partial discharge (PD) testing is a non-destructive diagnostic technique
used to assess the condition of high-voltage cables and other electrical
insulation systems. Partial discharges are localized breakdown events
that occur within insulation materials, indicating the presence of defects,
voids, or weaknesses in the insulation. Here's an explanation of partial
 30
discharge tests on high-voltage cables and how faults in the insulation can
be located using this test:

**Partial Discharge Testing Procedure**:

1. **Preparation**: Before conducting the partial discharge test, the cable
under test is typically subjected to a series of preliminary checks,
including visual inspection, insulation resistance measurement, and
dielectric withstand testing, to ensure its suitability for testing.
2. **Setup**: The cable is energized with a high-voltage AC or DC source,
typically at its rated voltage level or slightly above. The cable is connected
to a partial discharge measurement system, which includes sensors,
ampli iers, ilters, and monitoring equipment for detecting and analyzing
partial discharge signals.
3. **Partial Discharge Measurement**: The partial discharge
measurement system continuously monitors the cable for the presence of
partial discharge events. Partial discharges emit electromagnetic pulses
and acoustic waves, which are detected by sensors placed along the
length of the cable.
4. **Data Acquisition**: The signals detected by the sensors are ampli ied,
iltered, and processed by the measurement system. The amplitude,
phase, frequency, and location of the partial discharge events are
recorded and analyzed to assess the condition of the insulation.
5. **Analysis and Interpretation**: The data collected during the partial
discharge test are analyzed to determine the severity, location, and nature
of any insulation defects or weaknesses present in the cable. Advanced
signal processing techniques, such as time-domain analysis, frequency-
domain analysis, and pattern recognition algorithms, may be employed
to identify characteristic patterns associated with different types of
partial discharge activity.
6. **Fault Localization**: By analyzing the spatial distribution of partial
discharge events along the length of the cable, it is possible to localize the
location of insulation faults or defects with high precision. The sensors
used in the partial discharge measurement system are typically arranged
in a phased array con iguration, allowing for accurate mapping of partial
discharge activity to speci ic locations on the cable.
 31
**Bene its of Partial Discharge Testing**:
- Early Detection of Insulation Defects: Partial discharge testing can
detect insulation defects at an early stage, allowing for proactive
maintenance and remedial action to prevent catastrophic failures.
- Improved Reliability: By identifying and addressing insulation
weaknesses, partial discharge testing helps improve the reliability and
performance of high-voltage cables and electrical insulation systems.
- Condition Monitoring: Partial discharge testing can be used as part of a
comprehensive condition monitoring program to assess the health and
integrity of high-voltage cables over time, enabling predictive
maintenance and asset management strategies.

In summary, partial discharge testing is a valuable diagnostic technique

for assessing the condition of high-voltage cables and locating faults in
the insulation. By detecting and analyzing partial discharge events, this
test provides valuable insights into the integrity, reliability, and
performance of electrical insulation systems, helping to ensure the safe
and ef icient operation of high-voltage equipment.
5(A) Give the temperature classi ication for solid insulating
materials. Why is this classi ication not done for liquids and
gases?
Temperature classi ication for solid insulating materials is a standardized
system used to categorize insulating materials based on their maximum
allowable operating temperature. This classi ication helps ensure that
insulating materials are used within their temperature limits to maintain
their electrical and mechanical properties and prevent degradation or
failure. The temperature classi ication is typically expressed as a letter
code, with each letter corresponding to a speci ic maximum temperature
rating. Common temperature classi ications for solid insulating materials
include:
1. **Class A (105°C)**: Suitable for use in applications where the
maximum operating temperature does not exceed 105°C. Examples
include general-purpose electrical insulation in low-temperature
environments.
 32
2. **Class B (130°C)**: Suitable for use in applications where the
maximum operating temperature does not exceed 130°C. Examples
include electrical insulation in moderate-temperature environments.
3. **Class F (155°C)**: Suitable for use in applications where the
maximum operating temperature does not exceed 155°C. Examples
include insulation for motors, transformers, and other electrical
equipment operating at elevated temperatures.
4. **Class H (180°C)**: Suitable for use in applications where the
maximum operating temperature does not exceed 180°C. Examples
include insulation for high-temperature electrical equipment and
components.
5. **Class C (200°C)**: Suitable for use in applications where the
maximum operating temperature does not exceed 200°C. Examples
include insulation for high-temperature electrical equipment and
components operating in extreme environments.
These temperature classi ications provide guidance to designers,
manufacturers, and users of electrical equipment and components
regarding the suitability of insulating materials for speci ic temperature
conditions.
Temperature classi ication is not typically done for liquids and gases
because their properties, such as boiling points and vapor pressures, are
more dependent on factors such as pressure and composition rather than
a single temperature limit. Liquids and gases used as insulating materials,
such as insulating oils and sulfur hexa luoride (SF6) gas, are instead
characterized based on their dielectric strength, chemical stability,
viscosity, and other relevant properties.

Additionally, the behavior of liquids and gases under temperature

variations can be more complex than that of solid materials. For example,
the dielectric strength of insulating oils may change with temperature
due to factors such as viscosity and moisture content, making it
challenging to de ine a single temperature classi ication. Similarly, the
dielectric properties of gases can vary with temperature, pressure, and
humidity, making it impractical to assign a speci ic temperature rating to
them.
 33
Overall, while temperature classi ication is essential for solid insulating
materials to ensure their thermal stability and performance, it is not
typically applied to liquids and gases due to the complexities of their
behavior under temperature variations and the dependence of their
properties on factors other than temperature alone.
5(B) Explain the streamer theory of breakdown in air at
atmospheric pressure.
The streamer theory of breakdown in air at atmospheric pressure is a
widely accepted explanation for the phenomenon of electrical
breakdown or discharge that occurs when a suf iciently high electric ield
is applied to air. This theory helps understand the initiation and
propagation of electrical discharges, such as lightning, corona discharges,
and spark discharges. Here's an explanation of the streamer theory:

**Initiation of Breakdown**:
1. **Electric Field Intensi ication**: When a high electric ield is applied
to air, the electric ield intensity becomes strong enough to ionize the air
molecules, creating free electrons and positive ions through processes
such as electron impact ionization and photoionization.
2. **Formation of Electron Avalanches**: The free electrons generated by
ionization events are accelerated by the electric ield and gain suf icient
kinetic energy to ionize additional air molecules as they collide with
them. This process leads to the formation of electron avalanches, where
a small number of initial free electrons rapidly multiply into a large
number of electrons and ions.
**Propagation of Streamers**:
3. **Streamer Formation**: As electron avalanches propagate through the
air, they form elongated ionized channels called streamers. These
streamers consist of regions of highly ionized plasma surrounded by less
ionized air.
4. **Positive Feedback Mechanism**: The presence of ionized plasma
within the streamers reduces the effective breakdown voltage in the
vicinity of the streamer, creating a positive feedback mechanism. This
causes the electric ield to intensify further in the vicinity of the streamer,
 34
promoting the formation and propagation of additional electron
avalanches and streamers.
5. **Branching and Rami ication**: Streamers may branch and ramify as
they propagate through the air, creating a complex network of ionized
channels. This branching phenomenon contributes to the rapid spread
and expansion of the discharge.
**Transition to Spark Discharge**:
6. **Development of Leader and Return Stroke**: In lightning discharges,
the initial streamer propagates upward from a grounded object or
downward from a charged cloud. As the streamer approaches its
destination, it may initiate a more intense discharge known as a leader.
The leader discharge is followed by a return stroke, which is the main
luminous discharge channel of the lightning bolt.

**Key Features and Applications**:

- **Streamer Theory**: The streamer theory provides a comprehensive
explanation for the breakdown process in air at atmospheric pressure,
encompassing the initiation, propagation, and branching of electrical
discharges.
- **Corona Discharges**: In corona discharges, such as those occurring in
high-voltage transmission lines and electrical equipment, streamer
theory helps understand the mechanisms by which the discharge occurs
and how it can be controlled or mitigated.
- **Lightning Phenomena**: In lightning research, the streamer theory
helps explain the formation and propagation of lightning discharges,
including the initiation of leaders, the development of return strokes, and
the branching patterns observed in lightning channels.

In summary, the streamer theory of breakdown in air at atmospheric

pressure provides a fundamental framework for understanding the
complex process of electrical discharge initiation and propagation, with
applications ranging from corona discharge control to lightning research.
6(A)Explain the various theories that explain the
breakdown in commercial liquid dielectrics.
 35
Breakdown in commercial liquid dielectrics, such as insulating oils used
in transformers and other electrical equipment, can be explained by
several theories that describe the mechanisms of electrical breakdown
and insulation failure in liquids. These theories provide insights into the
factors in luencing breakdown in liquid dielectrics and help develop
strategies for improving the reliability and performance of electrical
insulation systems. Here are the various theories that explain breakdown
in commercial liquid dielectrics:
1. **Electron Emission Theory**:
- According to this theory, breakdown in liquid dielectrics occurs due to
the emission of electrons from electrode surfaces or within the liquid
itself.
- Electrons emitted from electrodes or charged particles in the liquid
gain suf icient energy to ionize the surrounding molecules, leading to the
formation of ionized channels and breakdown.
- Factors such as electrode material, surface roughness, and applied
voltage in luence electron emission and breakdown characteristics in
liquid dielectrics.
2. **Gas Bubble Theory**:
- This theory proposes that breakdown in liquid dielectrics is initiated
by the formation and growth of gas bubbles within the liquid.
- Gas bubbles can form due to various mechanisms, including thermal
decomposition of insulating materials, electrolysis of dissolved gases, or
physical processes such as cavitation.
- The presence of gas bubbles disrupts the uniformity of the electric
ield and promotes localized breakdown, leading to insulation failure.
3. **Electrochemical Theory**:
- The electrochemical theory of breakdown in liquid dielectrics focuses
on chemical reactions occurring at electrode interfaces and within the
liquid under the in luence of electric ields.
- Electrochemical reactions, such as oxidation, reduction, and
electrolysis, can lead to the formation of conductive species,
decomposition products, and degradation of insulating properties.
- Factors such as electrode material, electrode polarization, and the
presence of impurities in luence electrochemical processes and
breakdown behavior in liquid dielectrics.
 36
4. **Thermal Breakdown Theory**:
- Thermal breakdown theory attributes insulation failure in liquid
dielectrics to excessive heating and thermal stress under high electric
ield conditions.
- Joule heating, dielectric losses, and localized hot spots within the
liquid can lead to thermal runaway and breakdown.
- Factors such as voltage level, frequency, temperature, and thermal
conductivity of the liquid affect thermal breakdown characteristics.
5. **Mechanical Breakdown Theory**:
- Mechanical breakdown theory considers the role of mechanical stress,
such as hydrostatic pressure, luid low, and mechanical vibration, in
promoting insulation failure in liquid dielectrics.
- Mechanical stress can cause physical deformation, cavitation, and
microstructural changes in the liquid, leading to localized breakdown and
insulation degradation.
- Factors such as mechanical properties of the liquid, container design,
and operating conditions in luence mechanical breakdown behavior.

These theories provide complementary explanations for the complex

mechanisms underlying breakdown in commercial liquid dielectrics.
Understanding these mechanisms is essential for designing reliable
insulation systems, optimizing performance, and preventing premature
failure in electrical equipment.
6(B) What is ‘stressed oil volume theory’? How does it
explain breakdown in large volumes of commercial liquid
dielectrics?
The "stressed oil volume theory" is a concept used to explain breakdown
phenomena in large volumes of commercial liquid dielectrics,
particularly insulating oils used in high-voltage electrical equipment such
as transformers. This theory focuses on the distribution and interaction
of electric ield stress within the oil volume and how it contributes to
breakdown. Here's an overview of the stressed oil volume theory and
how it explains breakdown in large volumes of liquid dielectrics:

**Concept of Stressed Oil Volume**:

 37
1. **Electric Field Distribution**: When a high voltage is applied to a large
volume of liquid dielectric, such as insulating oil in a transformer, the
electric ield is distributed unevenly within the volume. Areas of high
electric ield intensity, known as "stress concentrations," may occur near
electrodes, insulating barriers, or points of geometric irregularity.
2. **Stress Gradient**: The uneven distribution of electric ield creates a
gradient of electrical stress within the oil volume, with higher stress
levels in regions of higher ield intensity and lower stress levels in regions
of lower ield intensity. This gradient of electrical stress extends
throughout the entire volume of the oil.
3. **Stress Accumulation**: Over time, the stressed oil volume theory
suggests that certain regions of the oil volume may experience a gradual
accumulation of electrical stress due to factors such as dielectric losses,
charge accumulation, and insulation degradation. These regions may
become "hot spots" of elevated stress levels compared to the surrounding
areas.

**Breakdown Mechanism**:
4. **Initiation of Breakdown**: In the stressed oil volume, breakdown
occurs when the accumulated electrical stress exceeds the breakdown
strength or dielectric strength of the oil. This can lead to the formation of
localized breakdown channels or "streamers" within the oil volume.
5. **Propagation of Breakdown**: Once breakdown initiates in a localized
region, it may propagate rapidly through the oil volume due to factors
such as positive feedback mechanisms, ionization processes, and thermal
effects. This can result in a cascading effect where multiple breakdown
channels form and expand, ultimately leading to complete breakdown of
the insulation.
**Key Points**:

- The stressed oil volume theory emphasizes the importance of

understanding the distribution and accumulation of electrical stress
within large volumes of liquid dielectric.
- It highlights the role of stress concentrations, stress gradients, and
stress accumulation in promoting breakdown phenomena.
 38
- By identifying and mitigating potential stress concentrations and
sources of stress accumulation, such as insulation defects or impurities,
the risk of breakdown in large volumes of liquid dielectrics can be
minimized.

In summary, the stressed oil volume theory provides valuable insights

into the mechanisms of breakdown in commercial liquid dielectrics,
helping to improve the reliability and performance of electrical insulation
systems in high-voltage equipment.
7(A)
7(B) What are ‘treeing’ and ‘tracking’? Explain and compare
the two processes in solid dielectrics.
"Treeing" and "tracking" are two degradation processes that occur in
solid dielectric materials, particularly polymers, when subjected to high
electric ields over an extended period. While both processes involve the
breakdown of insulation materials, they differ in their mechanisms,
appearances, and effects on the dielectric properties. Let's explore each
process and compare them:

**Treeing**:
1. **Mechanism**: Treeing occurs when small, localized breakdown
channels, resembling tree branches, form within the bulk of the solid
dielectric material. These channels typically originate from microscopic
defects, impurities, or voids in the material.
2. **Initiation**: Treeing is initiated by the accumulation of electrical
stress at the tip of a defect or impurity within the dielectric material. The
high electric ield at the defect site causes localized breakdown and the
formation of an initial "nucleation site" for the treeing process.
3. **Growth**: Once initiated, the treeing process progresses as the
breakdown channel extends deeper into the material, branching out and
forming a characteristic tree-like pattern. This branching occurs as the
electric ield intensi ies along the length of the channel, promoting
further breakdown and growth.
4. **Appearance**: Under microscopic examination, treeing appears as a
network of interconnected channels or "trees" extending through the
 39
dielectric material. The branches of the trees may vary in size and
complexity, depending on the severity and duration of the electrical
stress.

**Tracking**:
1. **Mechanism**: Tracking involves the formation of surface erosion or
tracking paths on the surface of the solid dielectric material. These paths
are typically caused by localized heating, melting, or decomposition of the
material due to prolonged exposure to high electric ields.
2. **Initiation**: Tracking is initiated by the accumulation of electrical
stress at points of surface irregularity, such as scratches, contamination,
or roughness, on the surface of the dielectric material. The high electric
ield at these points can cause localized heating and thermal degradation.
3. **Growth**: Once initiated, the tracking process progresses as the
localized heating and thermal degradation propagate along the surface of
the material, forming visible erosion paths or "tracks." These tracks may
deepen and widen over time, extending across the surface of the
dielectric material.
4. **Appearance**: Under visual inspection, tracking appears as
darkened or burnt tracks on the surface of the dielectric material. These
tracks may exhibit a characteristic pattern corresponding to the
geometry of the surface irregularities and the direction of the electric
ield.

**Comparison**:
- **Location**: Treeing occurs within the bulk of the dielectric material,
while tracking occurs on the surface.
- **Initiation**: Treeing is initiated by defects or impurities within the
material, while tracking is initiated by surface irregularities.
- **Appearance**: Treeing appears as internal channels or trees within
the material, while tracking appears as surface erosion or burnt tracks.
- **Effects**: Both processes degrade the dielectric properties and
increase the risk of electrical breakdown, but they may have different
impacts on the performance and reliability of the insulation system.
 40
In summary, while treeing and tracking are both degradation processes
that occur in solid dielectric materials under high electric ields, they
differ in their mechanisms, locations, appearances, and effects on the
dielectric properties. Understanding these processes is essential for
assessing the condition and reliability of insulation systems and
developing strategies for preventing or mitigating degradation.

8(A) What is the principle of operation of a resonant

transformer? How is it advantageous over the cascade
connected transformers?
A resonant transformer operates on the principle of resonance, where the
transformer's inductance and capacitance are tuned to resonate at a
speci ic frequency. This resonance allows for ef icient transfer of energy
between the primary and secondary windings of the transformer. The
primary and secondary windings are typically coupled through a
magnetic core, and the resonant frequency is determined by the
combination of the transformer's inductance and the capacitance of the
load or circuit.

The principle of operation can be explained as follows:

1. **Resonance**: When the resonant transformer is excited with an AC
voltage source at its resonant frequency, the primary winding and the
capacitor connected in parallel form a resonant LC circuit. At resonance,
the reactance of the inductor and the reactance of the capacitor cancel
each other out, resulting in a low impedance path for the AC current to
low.
2. **Energy Transfer**: The low impedance at resonance allows for
ef icient transfer of energy from the primary winding to the secondary
winding. Energy is transferred back and forth between the inductor and
the capacitor, inducing a voltage in the secondary winding proportional
to the primary voltage.
3. **Voltage Transformation**: Like any other transformer, the resonant
transformer can step up or step down the input voltage depending on the
turns ratio between the primary and secondary windings.
 41
Advantages of Resonant Transformers over Cascade Connected
Transformers:
1. **Ef iciency**: Resonant transformers operate at high ef iciency levels
due to their ability to transfer energy with minimal losses. At resonance,
the circulating energy between the inductor and capacitor is maximized,
resulting in ef icient power transfer.
2. **Voltage Regulation**: Resonant transformers provide better voltage
regulation compared to cascade connected transformers. The resonance
phenomenon allows for a more stable output voltage even when the input
voltage or load conditions vary.
3. **Reduced Size and Weight**: Resonant transformers can be designed
with fewer windings and a smaller core compared to cascade connected
transformers with similar power ratings. This results in a more compact
and lightweight transformer design, making it suitable for applications
with space constraints.
4. **Improved Power Quality**: Resonant transformers can help improve
power quality by reducing harmonic distortion and minimizing voltage
spikes and transients. The resonant operation smoothens out the voltage
waveform and reduces stress on the electrical system.
5. **Lower Cost**: In some cases, resonant transformers can be more
cost-effective than cascade connected transformers, especially for high-
frequency applications where the resonance phenomenon can be
exploited to achieve ef icient power transfer with simpler circuitry.

In summary, resonant transformers offer several advantages over

cascade connected transformers, including higher ef iciency, better
voltage regulation, reduced size and weight, improved power quality, and
potentially lower cost. These advantages make resonant transformers a
preferred choice for various applications, including power electronics,
high-frequency inverters, induction heating, and resonant power
supplies.
 42
8(B) Explain how a sphere gap can be used to measure the
peak value of voltages. What are the parameters and factors
that in luence such voltage measurement?
A sphere gap is a simple and commonly used apparatus for measuring the
peak value of voltages, especially for high-voltage applications. It consists
of two spherical electrodes, typically made of metal, placed a certain
distance apart in air. The electrodes are mounted on insulating supports
and connected to the terminals of the circuit or equipment under test.
Here's how a sphere gap can be used to measure the peak value of
voltages and the factors that in luence such voltage measurement:

**Principle of Operation**:
1. **Breakdown Voltage**: When a high voltage is applied across the
spherical electrodes, an electric ield is established between them. As the
applied voltage is gradually increased, the electric ield intensity at the
gap between the electrodes also increases.
2. **Breakdown Phenomenon**: At a certain critical voltage level, known
as the breakdown voltage, the electric ield becomes strong enough to
ionize the surrounding air molecules, causing electrical breakdown or
discharge to occur across the gap between the electrodes.
3. **Discharge Characteristics**: The breakdown or discharge that occurs
in the sphere gap is typically in the form of a visible spark or arc. The
duration and intensity of the discharge depend on factors such as the
applied voltage, gap distance, air pressure, humidity, and electrode
geometry.
4. **Peak Voltage Measurement**: By observing the breakdown voltage
at which discharge occurs in the sphere gap, the peak value of the applied
voltage can be determined. This is because the breakdown voltage
corresponds to the maximum voltage that the gap can withstand before
breakdown occurs.

**Parameters and Factors In luencing Voltage Measurement**:

1. **Gap Distance**: The distance between the spherical electrodes (gap
distance) plays a crucial role in determining the breakdown voltage. A
shorter gap distance generally results in a lower breakdown voltage,
 43
while a longer gap distance requires a higher voltage for breakdown to
occur.
2. **Electrode Geometry**: The shape, size, and surface condition of the
spherical electrodes can in luence the breakdown characteristics of the
sphere gap. Smooth, polished electrodes with a uniform surface reduce
the likelihood of premature breakdown and provide more accurate
voltage measurements.
3. **Air Pressure and Humidity**: The breakdown voltage of the sphere
gap is affected by the surrounding atmospheric conditions, such as air
pressure and humidity. Higher air pressure and humidity levels tend to
increase the breakdown voltage, while lower levels decrease it.
4. **Voltage Waveform**: The shape, duration, and frequency of the
applied voltage waveform also in luence the breakdown characteristics
of the sphere gap. For accurate peak voltage measurement, the applied
voltage should be a sinusoidal waveform with a well-de ined peak value.
5. **External Factors**: External factors such as temperature variations,
contamination on the electrode surfaces, and electromagnetic
interference can affect the breakdown characteristics of the sphere gap
and should be minimized to ensure accurate voltage measurements.

In summary, a sphere gap can be used to measure the peak value of

voltages by observing the breakdown voltage at which discharge occurs
between the spherical electrodes. The gap distance, electrode geometry,
atmospheric conditions, voltage waveform, and external factors are
important parameters and factors that in luence the accuracy and
reliability of voltage measurements using a sphere gap.

9(a) Why are both electrical and thermal properties

important for liquids for use in an apparatus like
transformer?
Both electrical and thermal properties are crucial considerations for
liquids used in apparatuses like transformers due to the demanding
operating conditions and requirements of these devices. Let's delve into
why each of these properties is important:

1. **Electrical Properties**:
 44
- **Insulation**: One of the primary functions of the liquid insulation in
transformers is to provide electrical insulation between conductive
components such as windings, core, and tank. High electrical resistivity
and dielectric strength are essential properties to prevent electrical
breakdown and ensure the safe operation of the transformer.
- **Dielectric Constant**: The dielectric constant or permittivity of the
liquid affects the capacitance of the transformer winding. A higher
dielectric constant result in increased capacitance, in luencing the overall
electrical performance and ef iciency of the transformer.
- **Dielectric Dissipation Factor**: This property represents the energy
loss in the liquid due to dielectric losses. Low dissipation factor is
desirable to minimize energy losses and improve the ef iciency of the
transformer.
- **Partial Discharge Resistance**: The liquid should have good
resistance to partial discharge phenomena, such as corona discharge and
treeing, to prevent insulation degradation and maintain the reliability of
the transformer over its lifespan.
- **Stability**: Electrical stability ensures that the liquid insulation
maintains its dielectric properties under various operating conditions,
such as temperature luctuations, voltage stresses, and aging. Stability
against oxidation, hydrolysis, and chemical degradation is critical to
preserve the insulation integrity.

2. **Thermal Properties**:
- **Heat Transfer**: The liquid coolant in a transformer serves as a heat
transfer medium to dissipate the heat generated during operation. High
thermal conductivity facilitates ef icient heat transfer from the
transformer windings and core to the cooling system, preventing
overheating and ensuring proper temperature regulation.
- **Heat Capacity**: The heat capacity of the liquid determines its
ability to absorb and store thermal energy. A higher heat capacity allows
the liquid to absorb more heat without signi icant temperature rise,
helping to stabilize the temperature of the transformer.
- **Boiling Point and Flash Point**: The boiling point should be
suf iciently high to prevent vaporization and maintain the liquid state
 45
under normal operating conditions. Additionally, a high lash point is
essential to minimize the risk of ire hazards and ensure safety.
- **Thermal Stability**: The liquid should exhibit thermal stability to
withstand high temperatures and thermal cycling without degradation.
Thermal stability helps prevent the formation of decomposition
products, sludge, and carbon deposits that can impair the transformer's
performance and reliability.
- **Viscosity**: Proper viscosity is necessary to ensure smooth
circulation and distribution of the liquid coolant within the transformer
system. Excessive viscosity can lead to low restrictions and poor heat
transfer, while low viscosity may result in leakage and inadequate
cooling.

In summary, both electrical and thermal properties are essential for

liquids used in transformers to provide effective electrical insulation,
ef icient heat dissipation, and reliable operation under varying
conditions. A balance between these properties is crucial to optimize the
performance, safety, and longevity of the transformer.

9(b) What is composite insulation? How does short-term

breakdown differ from long-term breakdown?
Composite insulation refers to a type of insulation system used in
electrical equipment and devices, consisting of multiple layers or
materials with different electrical and mechanical properties. These
layers are combined to create a composite structure that provides
enhanced performance, reliability, and safety compared to single-
material insulation systems. Composite insulation is commonly used in
high-voltage equipment such as transformers, generators, cables, and
bushings. Here's an overview of composite insulation and the differences
between short-term and long-term breakdown:

**Composite Insulation**:
1. **Layered Structure**: Composite insulation typically consists of
several layers of different materials, such as solid dielectrics, liquids,
gases, and insulating ilms. Each layer is selected based on its speci ic
properties and functions within the insulation system.
 46
2. **Functionality**:
- **Solid Insulation**: Provides electrical insulation and mechanical
support to the system. Common solid insulating materials include paper,
pressboard, epoxy resin, and polymer ilms.
- **Liquid Insulation**: Enhances cooling and thermal conductivity
while providing additional dielectric strength. Mineral oils, synthetic
esters, and silicone luids are commonly used as liquid insulation.
- **Gas Insulation**: Used in gas-insulated equipment to reduce the
overall size and weight of the system while providing high dielectric
strength and insulation performance. Sulfur hexa luoride (SF6) is a
commonly used gas insulant.
- **Insulating Films**: Provide surface insulation, corona protection,
and moisture resistance. Materials such as varnishes, tapes, and coatings
are used to encapsulate and protect the insulation layers.
3. **Bene its**:
- Improved Dielectric Strength: By combining materials with different
dielectric properties, composite insulation can achieve higher dielectric
strength compared to single-material insulation systems.
- Enhanced Thermal Performance: The use of liquid and gas insulation
layers enhances the cooling capacity and thermal conductivity of the
insulation system, allowing for ef icient heat dissipation.
- Mechanical Robustness: Composite insulation provides better
mechanical stability and resistance to mechanical stresses, such as
vibration, thermal expansion, and external impacts, compared to single-
material insulation.

**Short-term Breakdown vs. Long-term Breakdown**:

1. **Short-term Breakdown**:
- **De inition**: Short-term breakdown refers to the rapid and
temporary failure of insulation under transient or impulse voltage
conditions.
- **Causes**: Short-term breakdown can be caused by voltage surges,
lightning strikes, switching transients, or other sudden disturbances in
the electrical system.
- **Effects**: Short-term breakdown may result in localized discharge,
arcing, or insulation lashover, leading to temporary disruption of system
 47
operation. However, the insulation may recover once the transient
voltage subsides.
2. **Long-term Breakdown**:
- **De inition**: Long-term breakdown refers to the gradual and
permanent degradation of insulation over extended periods of operation.
- **Causes**: Long-term breakdown is often caused by factors such as
electrical stress, thermal aging, moisture ingress, chemical degradation,
and mechanical wear.
- **Effects**: Long-term breakdown results in progressive deterioration
of insulation properties, including reduced dielectric strength, increased
leakage currents, thermal degradation, and ultimately, complete
insulation failure if left unchecked.

In summary, composite insulation provides a versatile and robust

solution for electrical insulation applications, combining multiple
materials to achieve superior dielectric, thermal, and mechanical
performance. Understanding the differences between short-term and
long-term breakdown is essential for designing and maintaining reliable
insulation systems in electrical equipment.