COMPUTER NETWORKING

A. What is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a system in which multiple computers and devices are connected to each other through
communication channels to allow users to share data, information and resources.

B. Components of a Network
A basic computer network comprises the following components:
• A minimum of at least 2 computers
• Cables that connect the computers to each other, or wireless communication
• A network interface device on each computer (this is called a network interface card or NIC)
• A ‘Switch’ used to move the data from one point to another.
• Network operating system software

C. Networking Hardware
A computer network can consist of the following hardware:

1. Network Cables
Network cables are used to connect computers. The most commonly used cables are
• Coaxial • Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) • Fiber Optic

2. Distributors
A computer can be connected to another one via a serial port but if we need to connect many computers to
produce a network, this serial connection will not work. The solution is to use a central body to which other
computers, printers, scanners etc. can be connected and then this body will manage or distribute network traffic.

3. Repeaters
As signals travel along a network cable (or any other medium of transmission), they degrade and become
distorted in a process that is called attenuation. If a cable is long enough, the attenuation will finally make a
signal unrecognizable by the receiver.

A Repeater enables signals to travel longer distances over a network. A repeater regenerates the received signals
and then retransmits the regenerated (or conditioned) signals on other segments.

4. Bridges
Bridges can be used to join network segments and/or divide a network to isolate traffic or problems. For
example, if the volume of traffic from one or two computers or a single department is flooding the network with
data and slowing down entire operation, a bridge can isolate those computers or that department.

Bridges can be used to:

• Expand the distance of a segment.
• Provide for an increased number of computers on the network.
• Reduce traffic bottlenecks resulting from an excessive number of attached computers.

Bridges simply pass all protocols along the network from which individual computers determine which
protocols they can utilize.

As traffic passes through the bridge, information about the computer addresses is then stored in the bridge's
RAM. The bridge will then use this RAM to build a routing table based on source addresses.
 5. Routers
Routers are small electronic devices that join multiple computer networks together via either wired or wireless
connections. A router is equipped with holes called ports and computers and other devices are connected to a
router using network cables.

In environments consisting of several network segments with different protocols and architecture, a bridge may
not be adequate for ensuring fast communication among all of the segments. A complex network needs a
device, which not only knows the address of each segment, but also can determine the best path for sending data
and filtering broadcast traffic to the local segment.

6. Gateways
Gateways make communication possible between different architectures and environments. They repackage and
convert data going from one environment to another so that each environment can understand the other's
environment data.

A gateway repackages information to match the requirements of the destination system. Gateways can change
the format of a message so that it will conform to the application program at the receiving end of the transfer.

A gateway links two systems that do not use the same:

• Communication protocols
• Data formatting structures
• Languages
• Architecture

For example, electronic mail gateways, such as X.400 gateway, receive messages in one format, and then
translate it, and forward in SMTP format used by the receiver, and vice versa.

7. Network Cards
A network card, also known as Network Adapter or Network Interface Card (NIC), is a circuit board or chip,
which allows the computer to communicate to other computers on a Network.

This board when connected to a cable or other method of transferring data such as infrared can share resources,
information and computer hardware. Most branded computers have network card pre-installed.

Network cards are of two types:

a) Internal Network Cards: - installed on the motherboard using the
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) slot or Industry Standard
Architecture (ISA) slot. Network cables are required to provide
network access.

b) External Network Cards: - External network card also need to be

inserted into the motherboard but no network cable is required to
connect to network

External network cards come in two types:

o Wireless e.g. WiFi, Bluetooth, WiMax and Infrared
o USB.
Figure 1
Top: Internal Network Cards
Bottom: External Network Cards
Network cards have three main types of connectors.

Figure 2 Connectors on a NIC

D. Classification of Computer Networks

Computer networks can be classified on the basis of the following features:

a) Scale: This is the geographical area (regional coverage) of the network.

• Personal Area Network (PAN) • Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Local Area Network (LAN) • Wide Area Network (WAN)

b) Connection Method: Hardware technology used to connect the computers/devices.

• Fiber optic • Ethernet • Wireless LAN

c) Network Architecture: Functional relationships that exist between the elements of a network.
• Client-Server • Peer-to-Peer

d) Network Topology: Way in which computers/devices in a network see their logical/physical relations to
one another.
• Bus Network • Ring Network • Hierarchical
• Star Network • Mesh Network Network (Tree)

e) Access Restrictions: Extent the computers/devices on network are visible to other networked devices
• Private Network • Public Network

f) Transmission Modes: How data is transmitted within the communication channel.

i. Direction of the Exchange: The direction in which signal travels
• Simplex • Half-Duplex • Full-Duplex
ii. No of Bits Sent: the number of bits sent at a given time
• Serial • Serial-Parallel
• Parallel • Parallel-Serial
iii. Synchronization: timing between sending and receiving data the transmitter and receiver
• Synchronous • Asynchronous

Types of Computer Networks

1. Local Area Network
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is confined to a relatively small area. It is generally limited to a
geographic area such as a lab, school, or building. Rarely are LAN computers more than 3 km apart.

In a typical LAN configuration, one computer is designated as the file server. It stores all of the software that
controls the network, as well as the software that can be shared by the computers attached to the network.
Computers connected to the file server are called workstations. The workstations can be less powerful than the
file server, and they may have additional software on their hard drives. On most LANs, cables are used to
connect the network interface cards in each computer.

2. Metropolitan Area Network

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) covers larger geographic areas, such as cities or school districts. By
interconnecting smaller networks within a large geographic area, information is easily disseminated throughout
the network. Local libraries and government agencies often use a MAN to connect to citizens and private
industries. (Note that this only applies in some developed countries not in Kenya).

3. Wide Area Network

Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect larger geographic areas, such as districts, countries, continents and the
world. Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be used to connect this type of network. Using a
WAN, universities in Kenya can communicate with other places in the world like Tokyo in a matter of minutes,
without paying enormous phone bills. A WAN is complicated. It uses multiplexers to connect local and
metropolitan networks to global communications networks like the Internet. To users, however, a WAN will not
appear to be much different than a LAN or a MAN.

Intranets and Extranets

Intranets. Intranets use the same Web browsers and other software and the same TCP/IP protocol as the public
Internet, but intranets exist as a portion of a company’s private network. Typically, intranets comprise one or
more LANs that are connected to other company networks, but, unlike the Internet, the content is restricted to
authorized company users only. Essentially, an intranet is a private Internet. Thus an intranet is a local internet.

Extranets. Intranets that share a portion of their content with customers, suppliers, or other businesses, but not
with the general public, are called extranets. As with intranets, the same Web browsers and other software are
used to access the content.

Wireless Networks
The term 'wireless network' refers to two or more computers communicating using standard network rules or
protocols, but without the use of cabling to connect the computers together. Instead, the computers use wireless
radio signals to send information from one to the other. A wireless local area network (WLAN) consists of two
key components: an access point (also called a base station) and a wireless card. Information can be transmitted
between these two components as long as they are fairly close together (up to 100 meters indoors or 350 meters
outdoors).

Advantages of WLANs
• It is easier to add or move workstations
• It is easier to provide connectivity in areas where it is difficult to lay cable
• Installation can be fast and easy and can eliminate the need to pull cable through walls and ceilings
• Access to the network can be from anywhere in the school within range of an access point
• Portable or semi-permanent buildings can be connected using a wireless LAN
• Where laptops are used, the ‘computer suite’ can be moved from classroom to classroom on mobile carts
• While the initial investment required for wireless LAN hardware can be similar to the cost of wired
LAN hardware, installation expenses can be significantly lower
 • Where a school is located on more than one site (such as on two sides of a road), it is possible with
directional antennae, to avoid digging trenches under roads to connect the sites
• In historic buildings where traditional cabling would compromise the façade, a wireless LAN can avoid
drilling holes in walls
• Long-term cost benefits can be found in dynamic environments requiring frequent moves and changes
• They allow the possibility of individual pupil allocation of wireless devices that move around the school
with the pupil.

Disadvantages of WLANs
• As the number of computers using the network increases, the data transfer rate to each computer will
decrease accordingly
• As standards change, it may be necessary to replace wireless cards and/or access points
• Lower wireless bandwidth means some applications such as video streaming will be more effective on a
wired LAN
• Security is more difficult to guarantee, and requires configuration
• Devices will only operate at a limited distance from an access point, with the distance determined by the
standard used and buildings and other obstacles between the access point and the user
• A wired LAN is most likely to be required to provide a backbone to the wireless LAN; a wireless LAN
should be a supplement to a wired LAN and not a complete solution
• Long-term cost benefits are harder to achieve in static environments that require few moves and changes
• It is easier to make a wired network ‘future proof’ for high data transfer.

Other Network Types

Network type in this context describes the manner in which attached resources can be shared. Resources can be
clients, servers, or any devices, files, and so on that reside on client or server. These resources can be accessed
in either of the following ways: via peer-to-peer networks or server-based networks.

Peer-to-Peer Networks
Peer-to-peer network allow users to share resources and files located on their computers and to access shared
resources found on other computers. However, they do not have a file server or a centralized management
source in a peer-to-peer network, all computers are considered equal; they all have the same abilities to use the
resources available on the network. Peer-to-peer networks are designed primarily for small to medium local area
networks.

Client/Server Networks
Client/server network allow the network to centralize functions and applications in one or more dedicated file
servers. The file servers become the heart of the system, providing access to resources and providing security.
Individual workstations (clients) have access to the resources available on the file servers.

The network operating system provides the mechanism to integrate all the components of the network and allow
multiple users to simultaneously share the same resources irrespective of physical location.

Advantages of a Client/Server Network

• Centralized - Resources and data security are controlled through the server.
• Scalability - Any or all elements can be replaced individually as needs increase.
• Flexibility - New technology can be easily integrated into system.
 • Interoperability - All components (client/network/server) work together.
• Accessibility - Server can be accessed remotely and across multiple platforms.

Disadvantages of a Client/Server Network

• Expense - Requires initial investment in dedicated server.
• Maintenance - Large networks will require a staff to ensure efficient operation.
• Dependence - When server goes down, operations will cease across the network.

E. Servers
A sever in a network is dedicated to perform some specific task in support of other computers on the network.
One server may perform all these tasks, or a separate server may be dedicated to each task.

Common server types

• File server • Application server • Database server
• Print server • Message server

One Windows server can support all these capabilities i.e. it can serve in all these capabilities simultaneously on
a small network.

1. File Server
It offers services that allow network users to share files a within network. In file servers, users can exchange,
read, write and manage shared files and the data contained in them. They are designed specifically to support
the file services for a network. The file servers include:
• File transfer
• File storage
• File update synchronization
• File archiving

2. Print Server
A print server on a network will offer the following advantages:
• Allow user to share printers
• Allow users to place the printer where convenient not just near individual computer
• Achieve better performance by using high -speed network data transfer and print queues.
• Allow user to share network fax services.
• Cuts cost by allowing shared access to printing devices.

Network operating systems offers print queues, which are special storage area, where print jobs are stored and
then sent to the printer in an organized fashion. The print jobs are stored in the queue and then forwarded to the
printer when the printer has finished the jobs scheduled ahead of it. At times jobs may be printed in the order of
priority according to other criteria

3. Application Servers
They allow personal computers to access and have extra computing power and expensive software applications
that are required on shared computer. Specialized servers can be used to provide specific application on a
network. Application servers can be dedicated computers setup specifically for the purpose of providing
application services or they can serve multiple functions.
 4. Message Servers
Message servers provide message in variety of communication methods that go far beyond simple file services.
Message services must coordinate the complex interaction between user’s documents to applications.

F. Network Topologies
A network topology is the basic design of a computer network. It is very much like a map of a road. It details
how key network components such as nodes and links are interconnected.

Topology, in relation to networking, describes the configuration of the network; including the location of the
workstations and wiring connections. Basically, it provides a definition of the components of a Local Area
Network (LAN). A topology, which is a pattern of interconnections among nodes, influences a network's cost
and performance.

There are three primary types of network topologies which refer to the physical and logical layout of the
Network cabling.

1. Star Topology
All devices connected with a Star setup communicate through a central Hub by cable segments. Signals are
transmitted and received through the Hub. It is the simplest and the oldest and all the telephone switches are
based on this. In a star topology, each network device has a home run of cabling back to a network hub, giving
each device a separate connection to the network. So, there can be multiple connections in parallel.

Advantages
• Network administration and error detection is easier because problem is isolated to central node
• Networks runs even if one host fails
• Expansion becomes easier and scalability of the network increases
• More suited for larger networks

Disadvantages
• Broadcasting and multicasting is not easy because some extra functionality needs to be provided to the
central hub
• If the central node fails, the whole network goes down; thus making the switch some kind of a
bottleneck
• Installation costs are high because each node needs to be connected to the central switch.

2. Bus Topology
The simplest and one of the most common of all topologies. Bus topology consists of a single cable, called a
Backbone that connects all workstations on the network using a single line. All transmissions must pass through
each of the connected devices to complete the desired request. Each workstation has its own individual signal
that identifies it and allows for the requested data to be returned to the correct originator.

In the Bus Network, messages are sent in both directions from a single point and are read by the node (computer
or peripheral on the network) identified by the code with the message. Most Local Area Networks (LANs) are
Bus Networks because the network will continue to function even if one computer is down.

This topology works equally well for either peer to peer or client server. The purpose of the terminators at either
end of the network is to stop the signal being reflected back.
Advantages
• Broadcasting and multicasting is much simpler
• Network is redundant in the sense that failure of one node doesn't affect the network. The other part may
still function properly
• Least expensive since less amount of cabling is required and no network switches are required
• Good for smaller networks not requiring higher speeds

Disadvantages
• Trouble shooting and error detection becomes a problem because, logically, all nodes are equal
• Less secure because sniffing is easier
• Limited in size and speed

3. Ring Topology
All the nodes in a Ring Network are connected in a closed circle of cable. Messages that are transmitted travel
around the ring until they reach the computer that they are addressed to, the signal being refreshed by each
node.

In a ring topology, the network signal is passed through each network card of each device and passed on to the
next device. Each device processes and retransmits the signal, so it is capable of supporting many devices in a
somewhat slow but very orderly fashion. There is a very nice feature that everybody gets a chance to send a
packet and it is guaranteed that every node gets to send a packet in a finite amount of time.

Advantages
• Broadcasting and multicasting is simple since you just need to send out one message
• Less expensive since less cable footage is required
• It is guaranteed that each host will be able to transmit within a finite time interval
• Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the opportunity to transmit
• Performs better than a star network under heavy network load

Disadvantages
• Failure of one node brings the whole network down
• Error detection and network administration becomes difficult
• Movements, additions and changes of devices can affect the network
• It is slower than star topology under normal load

Generally, a BUS architecture is preferred over the other topologies – of course, this is a very subjective opinion
and the final design depends on the requirements of the network more than anything else. Lately, most networks
are shifting towards the STAR topology. Ideally we would like to design networks, which physically resemble
the STAR topology, but behave like BUS or RING topology.

4. Mesh Topology
As the name suggests the nodes are connected to one another with multiple links. This has advantages in that
one link can fail and the communication can continue through alternative paths. The main disadvantage to mesh
networks is the amount of cabling required.
 5. Tree/ Hierarchical Topology
A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of groups of star-
configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable (See fig. below). Tree topologies allow for
the expansion of an existing network, and enable schools to configure a network to meet their needs. This
topology sometimes is referred to as hybrid.

Figure 3 Network Topologies

G. Transmission Media
A transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e., it is the channel through
which data is sent from one place to another.

1. Guided Transmission Media

It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being transmitted are directed and
confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.

Features:
• High Speed
• Secure
• Used for comparatively shorter distances

a) Twisted Pair
Contain up to eight (8) wires wound together in an helical form to minimize electromagnetic interference (EMI)
from external sources, and crosstalk between neighboring pairs.
The most common application of twisted pair is the telephone system. Nearly all telephones are connected to
the telephone company office by a twisted pair.

Twisted pair can run several kilometers without amplification, but for longer distances repeaters are needed.
Twisted pairs can be used for both analog and digital transmission. The bandwidth depends on the thickness of
wire and the distance traveled. Twisted pairs are generally limited in distance, bandwidth and data rate.

Twisted pair cables are of two main types:

• Unshielded Twisted Pair: - The cables are typically made with copper wires with the colored insulation
typically made from an insulator such as polyethylene or FEP and the total package covered in a
polyethylene jacket.

• Shielded Twisted Pair: - Twisted-pair cables are often shielded in an attempt to prevent electromagnetic
interference. Shielding can be applied to individual pairs or quads, or to the collection of pairs.
Individual pairs are foiled, while overall cable may use braided screen, foil, or braiding with foil.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Inexpensive • Susceptible to RFI and EMI
• Often available in existing phone system • Not as durable as coax
• Well tested and easy to get • Doesn't support as high a speed as other
media

b) Coaxial
These cables consist of an inner copper wire of varying thickness surrounded by a tubular insulating layer,
surrounded by a tubular conducting shield. Many coaxial cables also have an insulating outer sheath or jacket.
The term coaxial comes from the inner conductor and the outer shield sharing a geometric axis. The dimensions
of the cables is controlled to give a precise, constant conductor spacing, which is needed for it to function
efficiently as a transmission line.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Fairly resistant to RFI and EMI • Can be effected by strong interference
• Supports faster data rates than twisted pair • More costly than TP
• More durable than TP • Bulkier and more rigid than TP

c) Fiber Optic
Consist of fiber made by glass (silica) or plastic of a diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair.

Fiber optics transmit data in the form of light particles -- or photons -- that pulse through a fiber optic cable. In
general terms presence of light is taken as bit 1 and its absence as bit 0.

The glass fiber core and the cladding each have a different refractive index that bends incoming light at a
certain angle. When light signals are sent through the fiber optic cable, they reflect off the core and cladding in
a series of zig-zag bounces, adhering to a process called total internal reflection.

They permit transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than wire cables. Fibers
are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with lesser amounts of loss; in addition, fibers
are also immune to electromagnetic interference.
Parts of Optical Fibers
• Outer insulating jacket is made of Teflon or PVC.
• Kevlar fiber helps to strengthen the cable and prevent breakage.
• A plastic coating is used to cushion the fiber center.
• Center (core) is made of glass or plastic fibers.

The most common connector used with fiber optic cable is an ST connector. It is barrel shaped, similar to a
BNC connector. A newer connector, the SC, is becoming more popular. It has a squared face and is easier to
connect in a confined space.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Highly secure • Extremely costly in product and service
• Not affected by RFI and EMI • Sophisticated tools and methods for
• Highest bandwidth available installation
• Very durable • Complex to layout and design

Figure 4 Left-Right; Unshielded Twisted Pair, Shielded Twisted Pair, Coaxial and Fiber Optic Cables
Comparison of Network Cables

Feature Thinnet Coaxial Thicknet Coaxial Twisted Pair Fiber Optic

Cable Cost More than Twisted More than thinnet Less expensive Most expensive
Pair
Usable Cable 185 meters 500 meters 100 meters 2 kilometers
Length
Transmission 10 Mbps 10 Mbps 4 - 100 Mbps 100 Mbps or more
Rates
Flexibility Fairly flexible Less flexible Most flexible Not flexible
Ease of Installation Easy to install Easy to install Very easy to Difficult to install
install
Susceptibility to Good resistance to Good resistance to Susceptible to Not susceptible to
Interference interference interference interference interference
Special Features Electronic support Electronic support Same as Supports voice,
components components telephone wire; data and video
Less expensive than Less expensive than often preinstalled
twisted pair twisted pair in buildings
Preferred Uses Medium to large As a backbone to UTP-smaller Any size
sites with high connect thinnet- sites on budget installation
security needs based networks STP-Token ring requiring speed,
in any size high data security,
and integrity

2. Unguided /Wireless Transmission

It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical medium is required for the
transmission of electromagnetic signals.

Features:
• The signal is broadcasted through air
• Less Secure
• Used for larger distance

Types of Wireless Media

a) Radio
Radio is a general term that is used for very low to ultra-high frequency Electromagnetic Waves

Features
• Radio waves are easy to generate
• Can penetrate through buildings
• The sending and receiving antennas need not be aligned.
• Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz.

Radio waves are used in communication in Bluetooth, Wireless LAN, Mobile, AM/FM Radio, Cordless Phones,
and TVs.
 b) Terrestrial Microwave
In terrestrial microwave two antennas are used for communication. A focused beam emerges from an antenna
and is received by the other antenna.

Features:
• It is a line-of-sight transmission i.e., the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly aligned with
each other. For this reason, antennas are situated on high towers.
• The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height of the antenna.
• Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz.
• Due to curvature of earth terrestrial microwave can be used for long distance communication with high
bandwidth.

Microwaves are use in Radar, Satellite, Space Communication, mobile phone communication and television
distribution

c) Infrared
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication.

Features
• It is a line-of-sight transmission
• Uses for very short distances
• They cannot penetrate through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems.
• Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz.

It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

d) Satellite
Satellite acts as a switch in sky. On earth VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) are used to transmit and
receive data from satellite. Generally, one station on earth transmits signal to a satellite and it is received by
many stations on earth. Satellite communication is generally used in those places where it is very difficult to
obtain line of sight i.e., in highly irregular terrestrial regions.

The most promising advantage of satellite is broadcasting. If satellites are used for point-to-point
communication, then they are expensive as compared to wired media.

Use of Computer Networks

Computer networks are used to:
1. Share files and data
2. Share resources e.g., printers and internet connection
3. Communicate through email, instant messaging (chats) and video-conferencing
4. Store data centrally
5. Keep system settings centralized
6. Access to entertainment e.g., games
 H. Transmission Modes
A given transmission on a communications channel between two machines can occur in several different ways.
The transmission is characterized by:
• the direction of the exchanges
• the number of bits sent simultaneously
• synchronization between the transmitter and receiver

1. Direction of the Exchanges

There are 3 different transmission modes characterized according to the direction of the exchanges:

a) SIMPLEX Mode
In this type of transmission mode data can be sent only through one direction i.e. communication is
unidirectional. We cannot send a message back to the sender. Unidirectional communication is done in Simplex
Systems.

Examples of simplex Mode is loudspeaker, television broadcasting, television and remote, keyboard and
monitor, computer and printer etc.

b) HALF DUPLEX Mode

In half duplex system we can send data in both directions but it is done one at a time that is when the sender is
sending the data then at that time, we can’t send the sender our message. The data is sent in one direction.

Example of half duplex is a walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in both
the directions.

c) FULL DUPLEX Mode

In full duplex system we can send data in both directions as it is bidirectional. Data can be sent in both
directions simultaneously. We can send as well as we receive the data.

Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a
telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.
In full duplex system there can be two lines one for sending the data and the other for receiving data.

2. The Number of Bits Sent Simultaneously

Refers to the number of elementary units of information (bits) that can be simultaneously translated by the
communications channel. In fact, processors (and therefore computers in general) never process (in the case of
recent processors) a single bit at a time; generally, they are able to process several (most of the time it is 8: one
byte), and for this reason the basic connections on a computer are parallel connections.

a) Parallel Connection
Parallel connection means simultaneous transmission of N bits. These bits are sent simultaneously over N
different channels (a channel being, for example, a wire, a cable or any other physical medium). The parallel
connection on PC-type computers generally requires 10 wires.

These channels may be:

• N physical lines: in which case each bit is sent on a physical line
(which is why parallel cables are made up of several wires in a
ribbon cable)
• one physical line divided into several sub-channels by dividing
up the bandwidth. In this case, each bit is sent at a different
frequency.

Since the conductive wires are close to each other in the ribbon cable, interference can occur (particularly at
high speeds) and degrade the signal quality.
 b) Serial Connection
In a serial connection, the data are sent one bit at a time over the
transmission channel. However, since most processors process data in
parallel, the transmitter needs to transform incoming parallel data into
serial data and the receiver needs to do the opposite.

These operations are performed by a communications controller

(normally a UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter)
chip). The communications controller works in the following manner:

The parallel-serial transformation is performed using a shift register. The shift register, working together with a
clock, will shift the register (containing all of the data presented in parallel) by one position to the left, and then
transmit the most significant bit (the leftmost one) and so on:

The serial-parallel transformation is done in almost the same way using a shift register. The shift register shifts
the register by one position to the left each time a bit is received, and then transmits the entire register in parallel
when it is full:

3. Synchronization
It is the process of timing the serial transmission to properly identify the data being sent. Serial transmission is
used due to the problems that arise with a parallel-type connection.

a) Asynchronous Connection
Each character is sent at irregular intervals in time (for example a user sending characters entered at the
keyboard in real time). So, for example, imagine that a single bit is transmitted during a long period of silence...
the receiver will not be able to know if this is 00010000, 10000000 or 00000100.

To remedy this problem, each character is preceded by some information indicating the start of character
transmission (the transmission start information is called a START bit) and ends by sending end-of-transmission
information (called STOP bit, there may even be several STOP bits).
 b) Synchronous Connection,
The transmitter and receiver are paced by the same clock. The receiver continuously receives (even when no
bits are transmitted) the information at the same rate the transmitter send it. This is why the transmitter and
receiver are paced at the same speed. In addition, supplementary information is inserted to guarantee that there
are no errors during transmission.

During synchronous transmission, the bits are sent successively with no separation between each character, so it
is necessary to insert synchronization elements; this is called character-level synchronization.

The main disadvantage of synchronous transmission is recognizing the data at the receiver, as there may be
differences between the transmitter and receiver clocks. That is why each data transmission must be sustained
long enough for the receiver to distinguish it. As a result, the transmission speed cannot be very high in a
synchronous link.

Advantages of Installing a Network

1. Speed. Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring files. Without a network, files
are shared by copying them to floppy disks, then carrying or sending the disks from one computer to
another. This method of transferring files (referred to as sneaker-net) is very time-consuming

2. Cost. Networkable versions of many popular software programs are available at considerable savings
when compared to buying individually licensed copies. Besides monetary savings, sharing a program on
a network allows for easier upgrading of the program. The changes have to be done only once, on the
file server, instead of on all the individual workstations.

3. Security. Files and programs on a network can be designated as "copy inhibit," so that you do not have
to worry about illegal copying of programs. Also, passwords can be established for specific directories
to restrict access to authorized users.

4. Centralized Software Management. One of the greatest benefits of installing a network at a school is the
fact that all of the software can be loaded on one computer (the file server). This eliminates the need to
spend time and energy installing updates and tracking files on independent computers throughout the
building.

5. Resource Sharing. Sharing resources is another area in which a network exceeds stand-alone computers.
Most schools cannot afford enough laser printers, fax machines modems, scanners, and CD-ROM
players for each computer. However, if these or similar peripherals are added to a network, they can be
shared by many users.

6. Electronic Mail. The presence of a network provides the hardware necessary to install an e-mail system.
E-mail aids in personal and professional communication for all school personnel, and it facilitates the
dissemination of general information to the entire school staff. Electronic mail on a LAN can enable
students to communicate with teachers and peers at their own school. If the LAN is connected to the
Internet, students can communicate with others throughout the world.

7. Flexible Access. School networks allow students to access their files from computers throughout the
school. Students can begin an assignment in their classroom, save part of it on a public access area of the
 network, then go to the media center after school to finish their work. Students can also work
cooperatively through the network.

8. Workgroup Computing. Workgroup software allows many users to work on a document or project
concurrently. For example, educators located at various schools within a county could simultaneously
contribute their ideas about new curriculum standards to the same document and spreadsheets.

Disadvantages of Installing a Network

1. Expensive to Install. Although a network will generally save money over time, the initial costs of
installation can be prohibitive. Cables, network cards, and software are expensive, and the installation
may require the services of a technician.

2. Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a network requires considerable time and
expertise. Many schools have installed a network, only to find that they did not budget for the necessary
administrative support. · File Server May Fail. Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure
than any other computer, when the files server "goes down," the entire network may come to a halt.
When this happens, the entire school may lose access to necessary programs and files.

3. Cables May Break. The Topology chapter presents information about the various configurations of
cables. Some of the configurations are designed to minimize the inconvenience of a broken cable; with
other configurations, one broken cable can stop the entire network.