KPS PU COLLEGE, ARSIKERE

Chapter – 13
Nuclei

Atomic masses and Composition of Nucleus:

Atomic mass unit ‘amu’ or ‘u’: [1 mark]
Atomic mass unit is defined as mass of carbon–12 isotope.

The device used for measurement of atomic masses is Mass Spectrometer.

Neutron
Neutron was discovered neutron by James Chadwick in 1930.

Properties of neutrons. [2 mark]

i. Neutrons are uncharged or neutral particles
ii. Have high penetrating power
iii. Neutrons have low ionisation power

Atomic number 𝒁 [1 mark]

Atomic number of an atom is the number of protons present in the nucleus of the atom.

Mass number 𝑨 [1 mark]

Mass number of an atom is the total number of protons and neutrons (nucleons) present in the
nucleus of the atom.

Note:
An atom/nucleus is represented as X ZA or Z X A
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 − 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑍 − 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

Electron is represented as 1 e 0 or e
Positron is represented as 1 e 0 or e 
Neutron is represented as 0 n1 or 𝑛
Proton is represented as 𝑝 or 1 H 1
How many neutrons are present in 56 Ba 141 ? [1 mark]
Ans: 85
{𝑁 = 𝐴 − 𝑍 = 141 − 56 = 85}
Which nucleus does not contain neutrons? [1 mark]
1 H (Hydrogen)
1

Isotopes: [2 mark] [July 2014, March 2016]

Nuclei having same atomic number but different mass numbers are called isotopes
Eg, 92 U 235 & 92 U 238
12
6C & 6 C 14
1
1H ,1 H 2 ,1 H 3
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 Isobars: [2 mark] [March 2016]
Nuclei having same mass number but different atomic numbers are called isobars.
Eg, 8 O 16 & 7 N 16
1 H 3 & 2 He3

Isotones: [2 mark]
Nuclei having same number of neutrons are called isotones.
Eg, 7 N 14 & 6 C 13
6 C 14 & 8 O 16

Size of the nucleus:

Nuclear radius depends on its mass number as follows
𝑅∝𝐴
𝑅=𝑅 𝐴
𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦,
𝑅 = 1.2 × 10 𝑚
So, Nuclear radius is proportional to the cube root of the mass number.

Now, nuclear volume is given by

4 4
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑅 = 𝜋𝑅 𝐴
3 3
So, nuclear volume is directly proportional to mass number.

But, nuclear density 𝝆𝑵 is independent of mass number.

The order of magnitude of nuclear density is ~10 𝑘𝑔𝑚

Write the relation between the radius of the nucleus and mass number. [1 mark]
𝑅∝𝐴

What is the order of nuclear radius or diameter? [1 mark]

~10 𝑚

What is the order of nuclear volume? [1 mark]

~10 𝑚

What is the order of magnitude of nuclear density? [1 mark]

10 𝑘𝑔𝑚

How does the nuclear density depend on the size of the nucleus? [1 mark]
Nuclear density is independent of the size of the nucleus.

What is the ratio of nuclear densities of two nuclei having mass numbers in the ratio of 1:3?
[July 2016]
1:1 or 1
{∵ 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 }

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 [Prob] Two nuclei have mass numbers in the ratio of 8 : 125. Calculate the ratio of their nuclear radii.
[2 mark]
Using the relation 𝑅=𝑅 𝐴
Given, 𝐴 : 𝐴 = 8: 125
𝐴 8
=
𝐴 125
𝑅 𝑅 𝐴
=
𝑅 𝑅 𝐴
𝑅 𝐴
=
𝑅 𝐴
𝑅 𝐴
=
𝑅 𝐴

𝑅 𝐴
=
𝑅 𝐴

𝑅 8
=
𝑅 125
𝑅 2
=
𝑅 5
𝑅 : 𝑅 = 2: 5

Mass-energy and nuclear binding energy:

Einstein in his Special theory of Relativity showed that mass and energy are inter-convertible.
When a mass ‘m’ is converted into energy, the energy released is
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐

Mass defect ′∆𝒎′ [1 mark]

Difference between the sum of the masses of the nucleons forming a nucleus and rest mass of the
nucleus is known as mass defect.

Binding energy ′𝑬𝑩 ′ [1 mark]

Energy released when the constituent nucleons fuse to form a nucleus is called binding energy or
Energy required to separate a nucleus into its constituent nucleons is called binding energy.

Consider a nucleus Z X A . So it contains Z protons and (A-Z) neutrons.

Let,
𝑀 → 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠
𝑚 → 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑚 → 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
Mass defect is
∆𝑚 = 𝑍𝑚 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚
Then,
𝐸 = ∆𝑚𝑐

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 Specific binding energy/ Binding per nucleon [1 mark] [March 2015]
The ratio of binding energy of a nucleus to its mass number is called specific binding energy.
𝐸
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐸 =
𝐴

Significance of specific binding energy or binding energy per nucleon [1 mark]

It is a measure of the stability of the nucleus.
(Larger binding energy per nucleon, greater the stability.)

Packing Fraction
The ratio of mass defect to mass number is called packing fraction
∆𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑓 =
𝐴

Variation of Specific Binding energy with Mass number

Draw a plot showing the variation of binding energy per nucleon with mass number.
[3 mark]

Features or observations of binding energy curve. [2 mark]

i. The binding energy per nucleon is low for lighter nuclei (A<30) as well as heavy nuclei
(A>170) and hence these nuclei are relatively unstable.
ii. The binding energy per nucleon is practically constant for nuclei of middle mass
numbers (30<A<170)

Conclusions of binding energy curve. [3 mark]

i. The force is attractive and sufficiently strong to produce a binding of few MeV per
nucleon.
ii. The consistency of binding energy per nucleon in the range of 30 < 𝐴 < 170 is a
consequence of the fact that the nuclear force is short ranged.
iii. When a heavy nucleus splits up into two lighter nuclei as in nuclear fission, the product
nuclei formed have higher binding energy per nucleon than the parent. This implies
that energy would be released in the process.

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 iv. In case of nuclear fusion, binding per nucleon of the fused product nucleus is more than
the binding energy per nucleon of the reactant nuclei. Again energy would be released
in this process.

Nuclear force:
The force which binds the nucleons together to form a stable nucleus is called nuclear force.

Properties of nuclear force [3 mark] [July 2014, March 2016]

i. Strongest force in nature
ii. Short range force
iii. Charge independent
iv. Spin dependent
v. Non central force
vi. Shows the property of saturation.

Radioactivity:
Natural radioactivity [1 mark]
The spontaneous disintegration of certain naturally occurring heavy nuclei with the emission of
radiations is called natural radioactivity.

Natural radioactivity was discovered by Henry Becquerel.

There are three types of radioactive radiations

i. 𝛼 decay
ii. 𝛽 decay
iii. 𝛾 decay

𝜶-decay: [3 mark]
An 𝛼 particle consists two protons and two neutrons which is nothing but helium nucleus.
General reaction: Z X A  Z  2Y A 4  2 He 4
4
2 He → 𝛼 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
Eg: 92 U 238  90Th 234  2 He 4
When a nucleus emits 𝛼 particle its atomic number decreases by two and its mass number
decreases by four.

𝜷-decay:
In 𝛽 decay there are mainly two types.

𝜷 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚: In this type the decay the radioactive nucleus emits an electron e  and an antineutrino

General reaction: Z X A  Z 1Y A  e   
Eg: 90Th 234  91 Pa 234  e   
Here the atomic number increases by one and the mass number remains same.
The basic reaction responsible is
n  p  e 

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A neutron in the nucleus transforms to a proton, an electron and an antineutrino.
𝜷 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚: In this type the decay the radioactive nucleus emits a positron e  and a neutrino 
General reaction: Z X A  Z 1Y A  e   
Eg: 9 F 18  8 O 18  e   
Here the atomic number decreases by one and the mass number remains same.
The basic reaction responsible is
p  n  e  
A proton in the nucleus transforms to a neutron, a positron and a neutrino. Positron is antiparticle
of electron.

𝜸 decay: [3 mark]
When a nucleus emits 𝛼 or 𝛽 particle, the daughter nucleus formed will be in an excited state.
When this nucleus comes to its ground state, the excess of energy is emitted as 𝛾 ray photon.

Eg: 60
27 Co decay
 28
60
Ni   e   
60
28 Ni    28
decay 60
Ni    (1.17 MeV )
60
28 Ni    28
decay 60
Ni   (1.33MeV )

During 𝛾 decay both atomic number and mass number remain same.

Explain 𝜶-decay, 𝜷-decay and 𝜸-decay in nuclear reactions with suitable examples. [5 mark]
𝜶 decay:
An 𝛼 particle consists two protons and two neutrons which is nothing but helium nucleus.
General reaction: Z X A  Z  2Y A 4  2 He 4
Eg: 92 U 238  90Th 234  2 He 4
When a nucleus emits 𝛼 particle its atomic number decreases by two and its mass number
decreases by four.

𝜷 decay:
In 𝛽 there are mainly two types.
𝜷 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚: In this type the decay the radioactive nucleus emits an electron e  and an antineutrino

General reaction: Z X A  Z 1Y A  e   
Eg: 90Th 234  91 Pa 234  e   
Here the atomic number increases by one and the mass number remains same.
The basic reaction responsible is
n  p  e 
A neutron in the nucleus transforms to a proton, an electron and an antineutrino.

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𝜷 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚: In this type the decay the radioactive nucleus emits a positron e  and a neutrino 
General reaction: Z X A  Z 1Y A  e   
Eg: 9 F 18  8 O 18  e   
Here the atomic number decreases by one and the mass number remains same.
The basic reaction responsible is
p  n  e  
A proton in the nucleus transforms to a neutron, a positron and a neutrino. Positron is antiparticle
of electron.

𝜸 decay:
When a nucleus emits 𝛼 or 𝛽 particle, the daughter nucleus formed will be in an excited state.
When this nucleus comes to its ground state, the excess of energy is emitted as 𝛾 ray photon.

Eg: 60
27 Co decay
 28
60
Ni   e   
60
28 Ni    28
decay 60
Ni    (1.17 MeV )
60
28 Ni    28
decay 60
Ni   (1.33MeV )
During 𝛾 decay both atomic number and mass number remain same.

Name the radioactive radiation, which is not deflected by electric and magnetic fields? [1 mark]
Gamma rays

In which type of 𝜷-decay neutrino is emitted? [1 mark]

𝛽 decay.

In which type of 𝜷-decay antineutrino is emitted? [1 mark]

𝛽 decay.

In the following nuclear reaction, identify the particle 𝑿. [1 mark] [March 2016]
𝒏 →𝒑+𝒆 +𝑿
Ans: 𝜗̅ − 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑜

In the following nuclear reaction, identify the particle 𝑿. [1 mark]

𝒑→𝒏+𝒆 +𝑿
Ans: 𝜗 − 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑜
Note: 𝑝 can also be written as 1 H 1
The decay of proton to neutron is possible only inside the nucleus. Why? [March 2018]
The mass of proton is smaller than mass of neutron.

Note: {In 𝛽 decay a proton in the nucleus is converted to a neutron, a positron and a neutrino. A
small amount of binding energy of the nucleus is spent in this process. One part of that energy
provides the extra mass to the proton to convert it to neutron and the other part appears as the
total energies of emerging positron and neutrino.}

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 A radioactive element 92 X 238 emits one 𝜶 particle and one 𝜷 particle in succession. What is the mass
number of the new element formed? [1 mark]
Ans: The mass number of the new element formed is 234.
 
{92 X 238 
 90Y
234

 91 Z
234
}

When a radioactive element emits 𝜶, 𝜷 𝒐𝒓 𝜸 ray, how does its atomic number and mass number
change? [3 mark]
When a nucleus emits 𝛼 particle its atomic number decreases by two and its mass number
decreases by four.
When a nucleus emits 𝛽 particle the atomic number increases by one and the mass number
remains same.
When a nucleus emits 𝛽 particle the atomic number decreases by one and the mass number
remains same.
When a nucleus emits 𝛾 photon, both atomic number and mass number remain same.

Radioactive decay law:

State and explain the law of radioactive decay. [1 mark] [March 2014]
The rate of decay of a radioactive sample at any instant is directly proportional to the number
atoms present in the sample at that instant.
𝑑𝑁
𝑖. 𝑒, ∝𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
= −𝜆𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝜆 is decay constant. Negative sign indicates that the number of atoms decreases with time.

State the law of radioactive decay. Derive 𝑵 = 𝑵𝟎 𝒆 𝝀𝒕 for a radioactive element. [5 mark]
[March 2017]
Statement: The rate of decay of a radioactive sample at any instant is directly proportional to the
number atoms present in the sample at that instant.
Consider a radioactive sample containing 𝑁 number of parent atoms initially i.e, at 𝑡 = 0. Let 𝑁
be the number of atoms at any later instant of time 𝑡.
Then by radioactive decay law,
𝑑𝑁
= −𝜆𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝜆 is decay constant. Negative sign indicates that the number of atoms decreases with time.
Integrating the above equation, we get
𝑑𝑁
= (−𝜆𝑑𝑡)
𝑁
𝑑𝑁
= −𝜆 𝑑𝑡
𝑁
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑁 = −𝜆𝑡 + 𝑐 → (1)
where 𝑐 is a constant of integration
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑡 = 0, 𝑁 = 𝑁
(1) becomes
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑁 = −𝜆(0) + 𝑐

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 ∴ 𝑐 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑁 → (2)
Substitute (2) in (1)
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑁 = −𝜆𝑡 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑁
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑁 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑁 = −𝜆𝑡
𝑁
𝑙𝑜𝑔 = −𝜆𝑡
𝑁
𝑁
=𝑒
𝑁
𝑁=𝑁 𝑒
is the number of parent atoms remaining at a later time 𝑡.

How does number of parent atoms in a radioactive sample vary with time? [1 mark]
𝑁=𝑁 𝑒
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑁 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠, 𝜆 − 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Half life of a radioactive sample: [1 mark] [July 2014]

The time at which the number of parent atoms in the sample has been reduced to one half of its
initial value.

Obtain the expression for half life period of a radioactive element. Or

Arrive at the relation between half life and decay constant. [2 mark] [July 2014]
The number of atoms present in a radioactive sample at any instant of time 𝑡 is given by,
𝑁=𝑁 𝑒
where 𝑁 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠, 𝜆 − 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
If 𝑇 is the half life period, then by the definition 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑇 , 𝑁 =
𝑁
=𝑁 𝑒
2
1
=2
𝑒
𝑒 =2
𝜆𝑇 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2
𝑙𝑜𝑔 2
𝑇 =
𝜆
0.693
𝑇 =
𝜆
is the expression for half life.

Define half life of a radioactive element and mention expression for it. [2 mark]
The time at which the number of parent atoms in the sample has been reduced to one half of its
initial value.
0.693
𝑇 =
𝜆
𝑇 − ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒, 𝜆 − 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

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 Mean life of a radioactive sample
The time at which the number of parent atoms in the sample has been reduced to 1 𝑒 of its initial
value.
1
𝑇 =
𝜆
𝑇 − 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒, 𝜆 − 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Definition decay constant. [1 mark]

The reciprocal of the time at which the number of parent atoms in the sample has been reduced to
1 of its initial value.
𝑒

Activity or Rate of decay of a radioactive sample ‘A’:

Activity of a radioactive sample is defined as number of disintegrations per second.
𝑑𝑁
𝐴=
𝑑𝑡
Variation of activity with time is similar to the variation of number of parent of atoms in the
sample with time.
𝐴=𝐴 𝑒
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐴 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒, 𝜆 − 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

SI unit of activity. [1 mark] [July 2015, March 2017]

becquerel or 𝐵𝑞
1𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑙 = 1 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

Other units of activity

1𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑒 = 3.7 × 10 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑙
1 𝑟𝑢𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑑 = 10 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑙

Nuclear Energy:
Disintegration energy or Q value? [1 mark]
The difference between mass energy of the reactants and the mass energy of the products in a
nuclear reaction.

Give an example for alpha decay and mention the range of 𝑸 value for alpha decay. [2 mark]
92 U
238
 90Th 234  2 He 4 +𝑄(𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦)
𝑄 value range for alpha decay is 4 − 9𝑀𝑒𝑉

Nuclear Fission:
The process of splitting of a heavy nucleus into lighter nuclei with the release of few neutrons and
energy is called nuclear fission.
92 U
235
 0 n1  56 Ba 141  36 Kr 92  30 n1  216 MeV

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Nuclear Fusion:
The process in which two or more lighter nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus releasing large
amount of energy is called nuclear fusion.
Eg:
1 H 1 H  2 He  0 n  3.27 MeV
2 2 3 1

1 H 2 1 H 3 2 He 4  0 n1  17.59MeV
41 H 1  2e   2 He 4  2  6  26.7 MeV

Note: A high temperature of 10 𝐾 is required to start nuclear fusion reaction. Hence nuclear fusion
reactions are also known as thermonuclear reactions.
What is the order of temperature required for nuclear fusion reaction to occur? [1 mark]
~10 𝐾

Give the differences between Nuclear fission and Nuclear fusion. [3 or 5 mark]
SN Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion
1 A process in which heavy nucleus splits A process in which two lighter nuclei
into two nuclei of comparable masses combine to form a heavier nucleus with
releasing few neutrons and energy is the release of energy is fusion.
fission.
2 Energy released per fission is high. Energy released per fusion is low.
3 Energy released per unit mass is low. Energy released per unit mass is high.
4 Can occur even at room temperature. Takes place only at high temperature
(~10 𝐾).
5 Slow neutrons are required. Slow neutrons are not required.
6 Can be controlled. Cannot be controlled.
7 Radioactive waste is left behind. No radioactive waste is left behind.

Nuclear chain reaction:

A chain reaction is a self sustained process in which the number of neutrons in fission goes on
multiplying rapidly until the entire fissile material disintegrates.

Controlled and uncontrolled chain reactions: [2 mark]

In controlled chain reaction the number of released neutrons is allolwed to increase upto a certain
level and thereafter maintained constant. In this manner a controlled supply of energy can be
obtained. Nuclear reactors are based on this principle.
In uncontrolled chain reaction, the number of neutrons are allowed to multiply indefinitely. All
the atoms present in the sample undergo fission and release large amount of energy in a short
interval of time. This results in an explosion. This is the principle behind atom bomb.

Write a note on neutron multiplication factor. [3 mark]

The state of a chain reaction depends on the neutron multiplication factor 𝐾 which is defined as
the ratio of number of neutrons in the present generation to the number of neutrons in the
previous generation.
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐾=
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
If 𝐾 < 1 the state is said to be sub critical.

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 If 𝐾 = 1 the state is said to be critical.
If 𝐾 > 1 the state is said to be supercritical
A nuclear reactor operates in the critical state for which 𝐾 is slightly greater than one. Care is
taken that a reactor does not operate in the supercritical state otherwise the neutron number and
reactor power increases exponentially and may lead to an explosion.

Nuclear Reactor:
A device in which controlled nuclear fission chain reaction takes place.

With a neat schematic diagram, explain the different components of a nuclear reactor.
[3 mark]

Nuclear fuel: The fissile material used in the reactor is called nuclear fuel. Commonly used fuels in
nuclear reactor are 92 U 235 , 94 Pu 239 . These fuels are in the form of rods tightly sealed in aluminium
cylinders.
Moderator: The purpose of moderator is to slow down the fast moving neutrons produced during
nuclear fission. Suitable materials used as moderators are water, heavy water (𝐃𝟐 𝐎), graphite,
beryllium etc.
Control rods: These materials in the nuclear reactors absorb excess neutrons and control the
nuclear chain reaction. Cadmium or Boron rods are generally used for this purpose.
Neutron reflector: The core of the reactor is surrounded by neutron reflector which reflects the
leaking neutrons back to the reactor. Graphite is commonly used as neutron reflector.
The above comprise the core of the reactor.
Coolant: It is used to remove heat energy produced in the core of the reactor. Commonly used
coolants are molten sodium, water at high pressure, pressurised 𝑪𝑶𝟐 .
When the coolant reaches the heat exchanger, water is pumped in. The resulting steam is used to
run a turbine and thereby generate electricity.

Thermal neutrons [1 mark]

Neutrons of energy less than 0.04MeV are called thermal neutrons.

Fast neutrons [1 mark]

Neutrons whose energies are greater than or equal to 1MeV are called fast neutrons.

What type of neutrons are required for nuclear reactor? [1 mark]

Thermal neutrons or slow neutrons

What is the function of moderators in a nuclear reactor? [1 mark]

Slowing down the neutrons
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 Give an example of moderator. [1 mark]
Heavy water (D O), graphite, beryllium

What is the function of control rods in a nuclear reactor? [1 mark]

Absorb excess neutrons to maintain controlled chain reaction.

Why control rods are made of Cadmium? [1 mark]

They absorb neutrons to maintain controlled chain reaction.

Energy generation in stars

In stars energy is generated through nuclear fusion process.
There are two main processes
i. Proton-Proton cycle
ii. Carbon-Nitrogen cycle

Proton-proton cycle. [5 mark]

The energy obtained from the sun and other stars is called stellar energy. The cause of this energy
is the nuclear fusion reaction taking place inside the stars.
Bethe suggested that all stars emit energy by two series of ions called Carbon-Nitrogen (C-N) cycle
and Proton-Proton (P-P) cycle. In these reactions combination of four protons to form a helium
nucleus releases large amount of energy.
Proton-Proton cycle
1 H  1 H 1 H  e    0.42 MeV      (i )
1 1 2 

e   e       1.02MeV          (ii )
1 H 2  1 H 2  2 He 3    5.49MeV        (iii )
He 3  2 He 3  2 He 4  1 H 1  1 H 1  12.86MeV  (iv )
2

For the fourth reaction to occur, the first three reactions must occur twice, in which case two light
helium nuclei fuse to form ordinary helium nucleus. If we consider the combination
2(i )  2(ii )  2(iii )  (iv ) , the net effect is
41 H 1  2e   2 He 4  2  6  26.7 MeV
(41 H 1  4e  ) 2 He 4  2e   2  6  26.7 MeV
Thus, four hydrogen atoms combine to form a 2 He 4 atom with the release 26.7 MeV of energy.

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