KPS PU COLLEGE, ARSIKERE

Chapter – 14
Semiconductor Electronics

Classification of conductors, semiconductors and insulators:

Conductors or Metals: They possess very low resistivity (or high conductivity)
𝜌 ~ 10 − 10 𝛺𝑚
𝜎 ~ 10 − 10 𝑆𝑚
Semicondutors: They have resistivity or conductivity intermediate to metals and insulators
𝜌 ~ 10 − 10 𝛺𝑚
𝜎 ~ 10 − 10 𝑆𝑚
Insulators: They have high resistivity (or low conductivity)
𝜌 ~ 10 − 10 𝛺𝑚
𝜎 ~ 10 − 10 𝑆𝑚
Energy bands in Solids:
Formation of energy bands. [3 mark]

In case of an isolated atom, the energy levels of electrons are discrete. When atoms come
very close to each other to form solids, each electron in an atom interacts with the charge
distributions of all other atoms of the solid. As a result each energy level splits into a number of
closely spaced energy levels known as bands.
The energy band which includes the energy levels of valence electrons is called the valence
band. The energy band above valence band is called conduction band. The gap between the top of
valence band and bottom of conduction band is the energy gap.

Some important definitions:

Energy band: A group of closely spaced energy levels is called energy band.
Valence band: The band of energies possessed by the valence electrons is called valence band.
Conduction band: The energy band above the valence band is called conduction band.
Energy band gap: The energy gap between the lowest energy level of the conduction band and
highest energy level of the valence band.
Note: Electrical conductivity of conductors depends of number electrons present in the conduction
band.

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Classification of solids on the basis of Band theory:
Explain the formation of energy bands in solids. On the basis of energy bands distinguish between a
metal, a semiconductor and an insulator. [5 mark] [March 2014]
In case of an isolated atom, the energy levels of electrons are discrete. When atoms come
very close to each other to form solids, each electron in an atom interacts with the charge
distributions of all other atoms of the solid. As a result each energy level splits into a number of
closely spaced energy levels known as bands.
The energy band which includes the energy levels of valence electrons is called the valence
band. The energy band above valence band is called conduction band. The gap between the top of
valence band and bottom of conduction band is the energy gap.

Sl Insulators Semiconductors Conductors

No
1 The energy gap between
the valence band and
conduction is large
(𝐸 > 3𝑒𝑉).
The energy gap between Valence band and
the valence band and conduction bands overlap
conduction is small each other.
(𝐸 < 3𝑒𝑉).

2 Conduction band is Few electrons are present in Large number of

completely empty at room the conduction band at electrons are present in
temperature. room temperature. the conduction band at
room temperature.
3 Conductivity is almost zero Conductivity is Conductivity is high
intermediate of insulators
and conductors
4 Due to large energy gap Electrons can be thermally Most of the electrons are
thermal excitation of excited from valence band present in conduction
electrons from valence to conduction band. band
band to conduction band
cannot take place.
5 So, Conductivity remains So, Conductivity increases Conductivity decreases
zero even if temperature with increase in with increase in
increases. temperature. temperature.
Note: Thermal excitation also takes place in metals. Increase in temperature adds still more
electrons to the already existing large number of electrons in the conduction band. But due to this
the number of collision between electrons increases and hence conductivity of the conductors
decreases.
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 The forbidden energy band of silicon is 1.1eV. What does it mean? [1 mark]
If 1.1eV energy is given to silicon, electrons in valence band jump to conduction band.
What is the width of forbidden energy gap in a metallic conductor? [1 mark]
Zero.
What is a semiconductor? Give an example. [1 mark]
A solid having conductivity between that of a conductor and insulator. Eg: Silicon, Germanium
What is the conductivity of a semiconductor at 0K? [1 mark]
Zero.
In which solids the forbidden gap is (a) least (b) highest [2 mark]
(a) conductors (b) insulators

Intrinsic semiconductors:
A pure semiconductor is called intrinsic semiconductor
Formation of a hole in an intrinsic semiconductor: [3 mark]

Consider a pure Germanium (Ge) crystal (intrinsic semiconductor) at 0K. The four valence
electrons of each atom form covalent bonds with surrounding four atoms sharing an electron with
each other. So there are no free electrons for conduction.
Thus a pure Ge crystal at 0K has completely filled valence band and completely empty conduction
band. So, it acts as an insulator at 0K.
As the temperature increases, because of thermal energy some of the electrons break away from the
covalent bonds, becoming free for conduction.
The thermal energy effectively ionizes only a few atoms in the crystal lattice. When an electron
leaves an atom it creates a vacancy in the bond as shown. This vacancy is called a hole. The hole
behaves as an apparent free particle with effective positive charge.
Here the number of conduction electrons is equal to the number of holes. 𝑛 = 𝑛
What is a hole? [1 mark]
When an electron moves from valence band to conduction band a vacancy is created in the
semiconductor crystal. This vacancy of electron is called hole.
How does conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor change with temperature? [1 mark]
Increases with increase in temperature.
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 Two ways of increasing the conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor. [2 mark]
i. By increasing the temperature
ii. By doping the semiconductor.

Extrinsic semiconductors:
An intrinsic semiconductor with a suitable impurity is called extrinsic semiconductor.
Doping: The process of adding impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor is called doping.
Dopants: The impurity added are called dopants or doping agents.
Two necessary conditions for doping. [2 mark]
i. The size of the dopant atom should be almost the same as that of the semiconductor atom.
ii. The dopant atoms should not distort the crystal lattice.

n-type semiconductor:
It is the semiconductor obtained by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with a pentavalent impurity.
Pentavalent impurity: Atoms having 5 valence electrons are called pentavalent impurities.
Ex: Phosphorus (P), Bismuth (B), Arsenic (Ar)
Formation of n-type semiconductor: [3 mark]

𝑛 − 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 semiconductor is formed when a pure Germanium (Ge) crystal is doped with pentavalent
impurity like Phosphorous (P) or Arsenic (As). Consider a pentavalent dopant atom inside the
crystal. Four of its five valence electrons form covalent bonds with neighbouring germanium atoms
while the fifth electron is weakly bound to it. A small ionization energy is required to set this
electron free and even at room temperature it will be free to move in the crystal lattice and hence
available for conduction.
Since each dopant atom donates an extra electron for conduction, the dopant is called donor
impurity. The number electrons made available for conduction by dopant atoms depends on doping
level.
There are also intrinsically generated electrons and holes which are equal but small in number.
Due to the extra electrons added by the dopant, the total number of conduction electrons is greater
than the number of holes i.e, 𝑛 > 𝑛 . So, for 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 semiconductors electrons are majority
charge carriers and holes are the minority charge carriers.

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p-type semiconductor:
It is the semiconductor obtained by doping an intrinsic semiconductor by trivalent impurity.
By doping the intrinsic semiconductor with a trivalent impurity.
Tivalent impurity: Atoms having three valence electrons are called trivalent impurity.
Ex: Boron (B), Aluminium (Al), Indium (In).
Formation of p-type semiconductor. [3 mark]

𝑝 − 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 semiconductor is formed when a pure Germanium (Ge) crystal is doped with trivalent
impurity like Boron(B) and Indium(In). Consider a trivalent dopant atom inside the crystal. All its
three valence electrons form covalent bonds with three neighbouring germanium atoms but does
not have any electron to offer to the fourth Ge atom. So, the bond between the fourth neighbour
and the dopant atom has a vacancy or hole as shown in the figure. An electron in the outer orbit of
some other Ge atom in the neighbourhood may jump to fill this hole and thereby leaving a hole in
its own site. Thus a hole is available for conduction. As each dopant atom creates a hole in the
crystal lattice which can accept an electron from a neighbouring Ge atom. The dopant is called
acceptor impurity.
There are also intrinsically generated electrons and holes which are equal but small in number.
Due to the extra holes added by the dopant, the total number of holes is greater than the number of
conduction electrons i.e, 𝑛 > 𝑛 . So, for 𝑝 − 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 semiconductors holes are majority charge
carriers and electrons are the minority charge carriers.
What are the majority and minority charge carriers in n-type semiconductor? [1 mark]
Majority charge carriers: electrons
Minority charge carriers: holes

What are the majority and minority charge carriers in p-type semiconductor? [1 mark]
Majority charge carriers: holes
Minority charge carriers: electrons
What are the charge carriers in (a) metallic conductors (b) semiconductors (intrinsic and extrinsic) [2
mark]
(a) electrons (b) electrons and holes.

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p-n junction:
A junction separating two regions of a single semiconductor one doped to become p-type and the
other doped to become n-type is called p-n junction.
Semiconductor diode or p-n junction diode [1 mark]
A semiconductor diode is basically a p-n junction with metallic contacts provided at the ends for
application of an external voltage.
Circuit symbol of p-n junction diode. [1 mark]

Formation of 𝒑 − 𝒏 junction. [5 mark]

A junction separating two regions of a single semiconductor one doped to become p-type and the
other doped to become n-type is called p-n junction.
Two important processes occur during the formation of p-n junction, they are diffusion and drift.
In the 𝑛 − 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 concentration of electrons is greater than holes and in the 𝑝 − 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 concentration
of holes is greater than electrons. Due to the concentration gradient, electrons diffuse from n side
to 𝑝 − 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 and holes diffuse from 𝑝 − 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 to 𝑛 − 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒. This motion of charge carriers gives rise to
diffusion current across the junction.
A diffusing electron leaves behind a positively charged donor on 𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 and a diffusing hole leaves
behind a negatively charged acceptor on 𝑝 − 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒. So, a fixed layer of positive ions near the
junction is formed on the 𝑛 − 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 and a fixed layer of negative ions is formed near the junction on
𝑝 − 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒. This space-charge region on either side of the junction together is known as depletion
region (or layer). The width of the depletion region is about one tenth of a micrometer.
As depletion region starts forming, an electric field develops across the junction from positive layer
to the negative layer. Due to this field, electrons on 𝑝 − 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 of the junction move to 𝑛 − 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 and
holes on 𝑛 − 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 of the junction moves to 𝑝 − 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒. The motion of charge carriers due to electric
field is called drift. Thus a drift current which is opposite in direction to the diffusion current
starts.
Initially, diffusion current is large and drift current is small. As the diffusion process continues, the
charge layers on either side of the junction extend, thus increasing the electric field and hence drift
current. This process continues until the diffusion current is equal to drift current and equilibrium
is established. Thus a 𝑝 − 𝑛 junction is formed. In a 𝑝 − 𝑛 junction in equilibrium there is no net
current.
A potential difference develops across the junction whose polarity is such that it opposes further
net flow of carriers so that equilibrium exists. This potential is called is barrier potential.

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Forward bias:
Explain the working of 𝒑 − 𝒏 junction diode in forward bias. [3 mark]

When an external voltage is applied across the diode such that positive terminal of the battery is
connected to 𝑝 side and negative terminal to 𝑛 side, then the 𝑝 − 𝑛 junction is said to be in forward
bias.
The applied voltage opposes the barrier potential. As a result the effective height of barrier
potential and width of the depletion layer decreases.
When the applied voltage is less than barrier potential only a small number of electrons in the 𝑛
side possess enough energy to diffuse to the 𝑝 side crossing the junction and a small number of
holes in 𝑝 side diffuse to 𝑛 side. So, the current will be small. This current increases with the
increase in applied voltage.
When the applied voltage is greater than the barrier potential, large number of electrons in 𝑛 side
and holes in 𝑝 side cross the junction barrier and reach the opposite side. So, a large current flows.
Forward current is of the order of 𝑚𝐴.
Forward bias voltage beyond which the current starts to increase rapidly with voltage is called cut
in voltage 𝑽𝑪 .

Reverse Bias:
Explain the working of 𝒑 − 𝒏 junction diode in reverse bias. [3 mark]

When an external voltage is applied across the diode such that positive terminal of the battery is
connected to 𝑛 − 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 and negative terminal to 𝑝 − 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒, then the 𝑝 − 𝑛 junction is said to be in
reverse bias.
The direction of the applied voltage is same as that of barrier potential. As a result the effective
height of barrier potential and width of the depletion layer increases. Due to this the diffusion of
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electrons from 𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑝 region and holes from 𝑝 𝑡𝑜 𝑛 region across the junction is greatly suppressed.
But, the electric field across the junction sweeps (drift) the holes close to the junction on 𝑛 − 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
to 𝑝 − 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 and electrons close to the junction on 𝑝 − 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 to 𝑛 − 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒. This gives rise to a small
current of the order of 𝜇𝐴.
This current is voltage independent upto a critical reverse bias voltage known as Breakdown
voltage. At breakdown voltage, the reverse current increases sharply. Even a slight increase in
applied voltage causes large increase in the current.
The voltage independent current upto breakdown voltage is called Reverse saturation current.
Diffusion current: [1 mark]
The movement of electrons from 𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑝 side and holes from 𝑝 𝑡𝑜 𝑛 side due to concentration
gradient is called diffusion. The current due to this process is called diffusion current.
Note: Diffusion can also be said as the movement of majority charge carriers in each side to the
opposite side due to concentration gradient.
Drift current: [1 mark]
The movement of holes from 𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑝 side and electrons from 𝑝 𝑡𝑜 𝑛 side due electric field at the
junction is called drift. The current due to this process is called is drift current.
Note: Drift can also be said as the movement of minority charge carriers in each side to the
opposite side due to electric field at the junction.
Draw I-V characteristics for both forward bias and reverse bias of a semiconductor. [2 mark]

What is barrier potential? [1 mark]

The potential difference across the junction which opposes the net flow of charge carriers across
the junction is called barrier potential.
What are values of barrier potential for (a) Silicon (b) Germanium diodes? [2 mark]
(𝑎)~0.2𝑉 (𝑏)~0.7𝑉
What is depletion region or layer? [1 mark]
The space charge region on either side of the junction is known as depletion region.
What is the order of thickness of depletion region? [1 mark]
10 𝑚
What happens to the width of the depletion layer in forward bias? [1 mark]
Decreases

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What happens to the width of the layer in reverse bias? [1 mark]
Increases.
How does the width of the depletion layer of a p-n junction diode change with increase in reverse
bias voltage? [1 mark]
The width of the depletion layer increases with the increase in reverse bias voltage.
When is a p-n junction diode said to be forward biased? [1 mark]
When positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-region and negative terminal of the
battery is connected n-region.
When is a p-n junction diode said to be reverse biased? [1 mark]
When positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n-region and negative terminal of the
battery is connected p-region.
What is cut-in voltage? [1 mark]
Forward bias voltage beyond which the current starts to increase rapidly with voltage is called cut
in voltage.
What is breakdown voltage? [1 mark]
Reverse bias voltage at which the reverse current increases sharply is called Breakdown voltage
What is reverse saturation current? [1 mark]
The current that remains constant with respect to reverse bias voltage is called reverse saturation
current.
In an unbiased p-n junction, why holes diffuse from the p-region to n-region? [1 mark]
In an unbiased p-n junction, the diffusion of charge carriers across the junction takes place from
higher concentration to lower concentration. Hole concentration in p-region is more compared to
n-region.
Which type of biasing results in very high resistance of a p-n junction diode? [1 mark]
Reverse biasing.
Zener diode:
Zener diode is a heavily doped p-n junction diode having a sharp breakdown usually operated in
reverse bias.
Circuit symbol for Zener diode. [1 mark]

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I-V characateristics of a Zener diode: [2 mark]

Since it has a sharp breakdown voltage, it is used for voltage regulation.

Zener diode as a Voltage Regulator:
Explain the working of Zener diode as a voltage regulator. [3 mark] [March 2014]

The circuit is as shown above. The circuit consists of a Zener diode, an unregulated voltage source,
a series resistance 𝑅 . Any change in the input voltage results in increase or decrease of voltage
drop across 𝑅 without any change in voltage across the Zener diode. Thus the Zener diode acts as
voltage regulator.
Name the device D which is used as a voltage regulator in the given circuit. Give its working
principle. [3 mark]

Zener Diode
It works as a voltage regulator at reverse breakdown voltage.
Name the device which acts as a voltage regulator? [1 mark]
Zener diode.
Mention one application of Zener diode. [1 mark]
Voltage regulation
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Application of a diode as a Rectifier:
Rectification: [1 mark] [July 2015, March 2017]
The process of converting AC to pulsating DC is called rectification.
Rectifier: [1 mark]
A device which converts AC to pulsating DC is called rectifier.
The electronic element used in a rectifier circuit is a p-n junction diode. Property of diode is used
in rectification is that a diode conducts only when it is connected under forward bias.

Half wave Rectifier:

With a circuit diagram explain the working of a half wave rectifier. Draw the input and output
waveforms. [5 mark] (Imp)

The AC voltage to be rectified is applied across the primary of the transformer P. The
rectifier output can be drawn across the load resistance 𝑅 as shown.
During the positive half cycle of AC, the end 𝐴 is positive and end 𝐵 is negative. The diode
𝐷 is forward biased and conducts current.
During the negative half cycle of AC, the end 𝐴 is negative and end 𝐵 is positive. The diode
is reverse biased and does not conduct current.
So, a unidirectional current through flows through 𝑅 only during positive half cycles of
input AC. Thus AC is rectified.

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Full wave Rectifier:
With a circuit diagram explain the working of a full wave rectifier. Draw the input and output
waveforms. [5 mark] [July 2014, July 2015, March 2016, March 2017] (Very Imp)

The AC voltage to be rectified is applied across the primary of the transformer. The rectifier
output can be drawn across the load resistance 𝑅 as shown.
During the positive half cycle of 𝐴𝐶, the end 𝐴 is positive and end 𝐵 is negative. The diode
𝐷 is forward biased and 𝐷 is reverse biased. So, 𝐷 conducts and 𝐷 does not conduct. A current
flows through the 𝑅 from 𝑋 to 𝑌.
During the negative half cycle of 𝐴𝐶, the end 𝐴 is negative and end 𝐵 is positive. The diode
𝐷 is reverse biased and 𝐷 is forward biased. So, 𝐷 conducts and 𝐷 does not conduct. A current
flows through the 𝑅 from 𝑋 to 𝑌.
So, a unidirectional current through flows through 𝑅 during the complete cycle of input
AC. Thus AC is rectified.
In a half wave rectifier, what is the output frequency if the input frequency is 50Hz. What is the
output frequency of a full wave rectifier for the same input frequency? [2 mark]
Given, 𝑓 = 50𝐻𝑧
For a half wave rectifier 𝑓 = 𝑓 ∴ 𝑓 = 50 𝐻𝑧
For a full wave rectifier 𝑓 = 2𝑓 ∴ 𝑓 = 2(50) = 100 𝐻𝑧
Filter circuit: [1 mark]
A filter circuit smoothens the AC ripples present at that output of a rectifier.

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 Differences between intrinsic and extrinsic semi conductors. [3 mark]
Intrinsic semiconductors Extrinsic semiconductors
1 These are pure semiconductors These are doped semiconductors
2 Number of holes is equal to the Number of holes and electrons are unequal
number of electrons
3 Conductivity is low Conductivity is high
4 Conductivity depends on the Conductivity depends on the temperature
temperature and also doping level

Differences between n-type an p-type semiconductors. [3 mark] [July 2014, July 2016, March 2018]
n-type semiconductor
1 It is obtained by adding pentavalent
impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor
2 Electrons are the majority charge
carriers and holes are the minority
charge carriers
3 Majority charge carriers are in the
conduction band
4 Energy level of the impurity atom is
closer to the conduction band
p-type semiconductor
It is obtained by adding trivalent
impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor
Holes are the majority charge carriers
and electrons are the minority charge
carriers
Majority charge carriers are in the
valence band
Energy level of the impurity atom is
closer to the valence band

Differences between forward bias and reverse bias. [3 mark]

Forward bias Reverse bias
1 p-n junction is forward biased when p p-n junction is reverse biased when p
side is connected to the positive side is connected to the negative
terminal and n side is connected to the terminal and n side is connected to the
negative of the battery positive of the battery
2 The junction offers low resistance The junction offers high resistance
3 Applied potential opposes the junction Applied potential adds to the junction
potential potential
4 Width of the depletion region decreases Width of the depletion region increases
5 Height of the barrier potential decreases Height of the barrier potential increases

Optoelectronic devices:
Semiconductor diodes in which carriers are generated by photons are called optoelectronic diodes.
The three optoelectronic devices are [2 mark]
1. Photodiodes (PD)
2. Light emitting diodes (LED)
3. Solar cells
Photodiode: [1 mark] [March 2015]
It is a diode which converts light energy into electrical energy.
Principle of photo diode. [1 mark]
When a p-n junction diode is reverse biased, it does not conduct. However a small current flows
due to minority charge carriers. When the junction is illuminated with white light of suitable
frequency, electron hole pairs are produced in the depletion region and hence current increases.

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 Light Emitting Diode (LED) [1 mark]
LED is a diode is a diode which converts electrical energy into light energy.
Principle of LED. [1 mark]
When LED is forward biased, both the majority charge carriers on each side move towards the
junction and recombines with minority charge carriers. As a result energy is released in the form of
photons.
Solar cell: [1 mark]
Solar cell is device which converts light energy into electrical energy.
Principle of solar cell [1 mark]
Solar cell is also a diode. When it illuminated by light of suitable frequency, electron hole pairs are
created close to the junction and hence emf is generated.
Uses of photodiode. [2 mark] [March 2015]
1. To detect both visible and invisible radiations
2. In fast switching circuits
3. To measure intensity of light in camera
4. In optical communication equipments as detectors of light.

Uses of LED. [2 mark] [July 2014]

1. In seven segment displays in clocks and calculators
2. As indicators for power on, overload, short circuit etc
3. In optical communication as a source of light.
4. In remote controls
5. In image sensing circuits
Uses of solar cells. [2 mark]
1. Artificial Satellites and Space vehicles
2. Calculators.
Advantages of Light Emitting Diode (LED) over conventional incandescent low power lamps [July
2018]
i. Low operational voltage and less power
ii. Fast action and no warm up time required
iii. Long life and ruggedness
iv. Fast on-off capability

Digital electronics and Logic gates:

Logic gate: [1 mark]
A logic gate is a digital circuit which performs a logical operation
NOT gate:
Circuit symbol

𝑌 = 𝐴̅

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Truth Table
Input Output
A Y
0 1
1 0

AND gate:
Circuit symbol

𝑌 = 𝐴. 𝐵
Truth table
Input Output
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

OR gate:
Circuit symbol

𝑌 =𝐴+𝐵
Truth table
Input Output
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

NAND gate:
Circuit symbol

𝑌 = 𝐴. 𝐵

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 Truth table
Input Output
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
NOR gate:
Circuit symbol

𝑌 =𝐴+𝐵

Truth table
Input Output
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

Inputs of NAND gates are A=1, B=1. What is the output? [1 mark] [July 2015]
Output = 1
The output of AND gate is connected to the input of NOT gate. Name the equivalent logic gate. [1
mark]
NAND gate.
The output of OR gate is connected to the input of NOT gate. Name the equivalent logic gate. [1
mark]
NOR gate.
Name the logic gate which has one input and one output. [1 mark]
NOT gate.
Applications of logic gates. [2 mark]
i. Used in Digital counters, digital computers and calculators.
ii. Telephone switching and traffic signal circuits.

Integrated circuits:
What is an integrated circuit. (IC)? Mention the widely used technology in the fabrication of IC.[1
mark]
Integrated Circuit (IC): An entire circuit consisting of many components like resistors, capacitors,
diodes and transistors on a small single block of chip of a semiconductor.
The most widely used technology in the fabrication of IC’s is called Monolithic technology.

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