INTRODUCTION TO
PHILOSOPHY
OPINIONS – are statements that go
beyond providing facts
CONCLUSION – a judgement based on
certain facts
BELIEFS – are statements that expresses
convictions that are not easily and clearly
explained by facts.
EXPLANATIONS – are statements that
assume the claim to be true and provide
reasons why the statement is true
ARGUMENTS – are a series of
statements that provide reasons to
convince the reader or listener that a claim
or opinion is truthful.
FALLACIES – are arguments based on
faulty reasoning.
BIAS – a disproportionate weight in favor
of or against an idea or thing, usually in a
way that is close-minded, prejudicial or
unfair.
FALLACY, CHARACTERISTICS AND
EXAMPLES
 AD HOMINEM – attacking the
person presenting the argument
instead of the argument itself.
ex. “of course, he believes that
the government is flawed, he is a
rebel and a communist!”
 APPEAL TO FORCE – using
the threat or force or an
undesirable event to advance an
argument.
ex. “if this peace agreement will
not be signed by the government,
then we will have no recourse
but to go to the war.”
 APPEAL TO EMOTION –
using emotions such as pity or
sympathy
ex. “all these charges are
baseless; this is just plain
harassment- can’t you see how
this is affecting my family?”
 APPEAL TO THE POPULAR
– the idea is presented as
acceptable because a lot of
people accept it.
ex. “every boy your age already
has a girlfriend. You should go
find one!”
 APPEAL TO TRADITION –
the idea is acceptable because it
has been true for a long time.
ex. “marriage should be between
a man and a woman. It has been
so for a long time in this
country; it should remain so
today and in the future”
 BEGGING THE QUESTION
– assuming the thing or idea to
be proven is true; also known as
circular argument.
ex. “I have the right to free
speech, therefore you cannot
stop me from talking.”
 CAUSE-AND-EFFECT –
assuming ‘cause-and-effect’
relationship between unrelated
events.
ex. ”ever since you bought that
sweater, everything has been
going wrong in your life. You
should get rid of it.”

 FALLACY OF
COMPOSITION – assuming
that what is true for the whole
ex. “these cases of robbery in
this district have convinced me
that the city has become a den of
thieves and criminals.”
 FALLACY OF DIVISION –
assuming that what is true for the
whole is true for its parts.
ex. “you come from a family of
doctors and intellectuals! Surely
you can do better in this course!”
BIAS, CHARACTERISTICS AND
EXAMPLES
 CORRESPONDENCE BIAS
OR ATTRIBUTION EFFECT
– tendency to judge a person’s
personally by his or her actions,
without regard for the external
factors or influence.
ex. “these soldiers who fought in
the war are all bloodthirsty
murderers!”
 CONFIRMATION BIAS –
tendency to look for and readily
accept information which fits
one’s own beliefs or views and
to reject ideas or views that go
against it.
ex.”how can I accept his view
that there is no God? I’m a
Christian!”
 FRAMING – focusing on a
certain aspect of a problem while
ignoring other aspects.
ex. “preliminary evidence has
still not pointed out the actual
cause of the plane crash, but
investigators are currently
focusing on the possibility of
pilot error”
 HINDSIGHT – the tendency to
see past events as predictable, or
to ascribe a pattern to historical
events.
ex.” Magellan’s assault on
Mactan island was a foolhardy
venture, made by an
overconfident, careless man who
underestimated the valor of the
native Filipinos.”
 CONFLICT OF INTREST – a
person or group is connected to
or has a vested interest in the
issue being discussed.
Ex. “as the daughter of the
accused, I believe I have the
right to express my opinion on
the issue of his alleged corrupted
practices.”
 CULTURAL BIAS – analyzing
an event or issue based on one’s
cultural standards.
ex. “ I do not agree with this
Western practice of placing aged
parents in retirement homes. We
Filipinos take care of our family
members.”
METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING
There are four methods of philosophizing,
these are:
 Logic
 Existentialism
 Analytic tradition
 Phenomenology
LOGIC – it is a truth which is based on
reasoning and critical thinking. It is the
analysis and construction of argument and
serves as the path to freedom from half
truths and deception.
Logic is also one of the major branches of
philosophy which increases one’s ability to
reason correctly and distinguish rational
reasoning.
TWO TYPES OF REASONING
1. DEDUCTIVE REASONING
(from conclusion to
introduction) – in this type of
reasoning, conclusion comes
first followed by main points,
and the last will be the
supporting data, facts, examples
and evidences. General idea
comes first before the specific or
particular area.
2. INDUCTIVE REASONING
(from introduction to
conclusion) – in this type of
reasoning, supporting data, facts,
examples and evidences come
first followed by the main points
and conclusion will be the last
part. This is the opposite of
deductive reasoning because a
particular idea comes first before
the general idea.
EXISTENSIALISM – it is a philosophy
that emphasizes the importance of free
individual choice, regardless of the power
of other people to influence and coerce our
desires, beliefs and decisions.
An example of existentialism would be
when a person makes a decision about
their life, follows through or does not
follow through on that decision and begins
to create their essence. The idea of
existentialism is a person will create their
essence over their lifetime and will be
finished or fully formed in existentialism.
In existentialism, the existence comes first
and the essence comes second.
ANALYTIC TRADITION – this
philosophy was founded by Gottlob Frege
in the late 19th century. It is said that the
Philosophy should apply logical
techniques to attain conceptual clarity.
Analytic philosophy is also called
linguistic philosophy, a related set of
approaches to philosophical problems.
This philosophy means the using common
experience and ordinary language to
analyze concepts and language in
philosophy. Example o analytic philosophy
is The Star Strek’s Mr. Spock. Gene
Roddenberry, the creator of the original
show was famous for his intense interest in
philosophy and religion and he was
probably aware of the developments in
analytic philosophy during the 1960’s
when Star Trek was first made.
PHENOMENOLOGY – a broad
discipline and methods of inquiry in
philosophy which is based on the premise
that reality consists of objects and events
(“phenomena”) as they are perceived or
understood in human consciousness and
not of anything independent of human
consciousness. It is the study of structures
of consciousness as experienced from the For St. Thomas, the total vision of man
first point of view. This philosophy was would be the embodied spirit.
founded by Edmund Husserl who worked
copiously to establish it as a rigorous
science.
THE HUMAN BODY IN IMPOSING
Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs LIMITS AND POSSIBILITIES

SOCRATIC METHOD – an  Mental and emotional

argumentative dialogue between disorders (e.g. anxiety,
individuals, based on asking and intellectual disability)
answering questions.  Disabilities (e.g. amputated leg,
deafness)
 Diseased and illness (3.g.
OCCAM’S RAZOR – it is a problem- hypertension, cough)
solving device used by the philosophers in  Failures and experiences (e.g.
analyzing possible explanations regarding failing a subject)
a phenomenon.  Location of neighborhood (e.g.
armed, disorganized, or violent
neighborhood)

PYTHAGORAS – a Greek philosopher,

from the Greek island of Samos. A mystic,
mathematician, and founder of SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL
Pythagorean theorem. LIMITATIONS

 Abusive relationships (e.g.

emotional abuse)
THE HUMAN PERSON AS AN  Negative influence (e.g. drug
EMBODIED SPIRIT abuse, smoking)

”MAN IS A RATIONAL ANIMAL/ HUMAN PERSON IN THE

BEING.” ENVIRONMENT
“Happiness is the meaning and the
purpose of life, the whole aim and end of
human existence.” – Aristotle HUMAN PERSON

 A human person is a living being

that contains real and existing to
direct its own development
toward fulfilment through
perfect, unconditional and
infinite, truth, love, goodness,
beauty, and unity, and will do so
if all the proper conditions are
met (Spitzer 1999)
ENVIRONMENT

 It is the sum total of all

surroundings o a living
organism, including natural DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTAL
forces and other living things, THEORIES
which provide conditions for
 DEEP ECOLOGY
development and growth as well
 SOCIAL ECOLOGY
as of danger and damage
 ECOFEMINISIM
(Endriga 2017)
 This means that as a human
person we interact not only with
our fellow human beings, but DEEP ECOLOGY – for this theory,
also with other living and non- ecological crisis is an outcome of
living elements in our anthropocentrism, which is already
environment. Like other discussed. The controlling attitude of
sciences, philosophy also seeks humankind is extended to nature, when in
to explore the relationship fact, humanity is part of nature. Deep
between humanity and the ecologists encourage humanity to shift
environmental philosophy or away from anthropocentrism to
environmental ethics. ecocentrism.

ENVIRONMENTAL PHILOSOPHY SOCIAL ECOLOGY – for this theory,

OR ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS ecological crisis results from authoritarian
social structures. Destroying nature is a
 As defined by Abella (2016), reflection wherein few people overpower
environmental philosophy or others while exploiting the environment
environmental ethics is the for profit or self interest.
discipline that studies the moral
relationship of human beings Social ecologists call for small scale
with the environment and its societies which recognize that humanity is
non-human contents. linked with the well being of the natural
 He also described environmental world in which human life depends.
philosophers as philosophers
who tackle issues that is related
to humanity’s role in the natural ECOFEMINISM – male traits as in the
world, the interaction between anthropocentric model are superior as
nature and human activities, and opposed to female traits as in the
humanity’s response to ecocentric model.
environmental challenges. And
that environmental philosophers
have radical views which argue
that a paradigm shift or cultural
revolution is what will save all
from ecological crisis.
PRUDENCE – is defined as the ability to
have a good judgment that allows
avoidance of dangers and risks.
Meanwhile,

FRUGALITY – is the act of using money

or other resources wisely and practically.