AE8604 – AIRCRAFT DESIGN

SYLLABUS

OBJECTIVE:

 To make the student understand the choice of the selection of design parameters, Fixing
the geometry and to investigate the performance and stability characteristics of airplanes.
UNIT I INTRODUCTION
State of art in airplane design, Purpose and scope of airplane design, Classification of
airplanes based on purpose and configuration. Factors affecting configuration, Merits of
different plane layouts. Stages in Airplane design. Designing for manufacturability,
Maintenance, Operational costs, Interactive designs.
UNIT II PRELIMINARY DESIGN PROCEDURE
Data collection and 3-view drawings, their purpose, weight estimation, Weight equation
method – Development & procedures for evaluation of component weights. Weight fractions
for various segments of mission. Choice of wind loading and thrust. Loading.
UNIT III POWER PLANT SELECTION
Choices available, comparative merits, Location of power plants, Functions dictating the
locations.
UNIT IV DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE
Selection of aerofoil. Selection of Wing parameters, selection of sweep, Effect of Aspect ratio,
Wing Design and Airworthiness requirements, V-n diagram, loads, Structural features.
Elements of fuselage design, Loads on fuselage, Fuselage Design. Fuselage and tail sizing.
Determination of tail surface areas, Tail design, Structural features, check for nose wheel lift
off.
UNIT V DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE
Landing Gear Design, Loads on landing gear, Preliminary landing gear design. Elements of
Computer Aided and Design, Special consideration in configuration lay-out, Performance
estimation. Stability aspects on the design of control surface.
TEXT BOOKS: 1. Raymer, D.P. Aircraft conceptual Design, AIAA series, 5th edition, 2012. 2.
Torenbeck, E. Synthesis of Subsonic Airplane Design, Delft University Press, U.K. 1986.
REFERENCE: 1. Kuechemann, D, “The Aerodynamic Design of Aircraft, American Institute of
Aeronautics publishers, 2012
 UNIT -1
INTRODUCTION
1.PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN
• The design process involves the use of knowledge in various fields to reach a product
that meets the requirements related to functional aspects, safety and cost
• The design of an airplane involves gathering knowledge in areas like aerodynamics,
structures, propulsion, systems and manufacturing techniques.
• The objective is to reach the configuration of an airplane, which will satisfy
aforementioned requirements.
The design of an airplane is a complex engineering task. It generally involves the following.

❑ Obtaining the specifications of the airplane, selecting the type and determining the
geometric parameters.

❑ Selection of the power plant.

❑ Structural design and working out details of construction.

❑ Fabrication of prototype.

❑ Determination of airplane performance, stability, and structural integrity from flight

tests.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANES
It is generally based on
(a) The purpose of the airplane
(b) The configuration
(c) Design Mach number
BASED ON THE PURPOSE OF THE AIRPLANE :
There are two main types of airplanes are
• Civil airplanes – Passenger, Cargo, Agricultural, Sports and Ambulance.
• Military airplanes – Fighter, Bomber, Interceptor, Reconnaissance and airplanes for
logistic support like troop-carriers and rescue airplane.
INFLUENCE OF THE FUNCTION OF AIRPLANE ON SPECIFICATIONS/DESIGN REQUIREMENTS :
A passenger airplane should have :
• High level of safety in operation
 • Adequate payload carrying capacity
• Economy in operation,
• Comfort level depending on range and cruising altitude
• Ability to fly in weather conditions normally encountered on chosen routes
ability to use airfields of intended destinations.
A bomber airplane should have:
• Range corresponding to the mission,
• Capacity to carry and deploy intended bomb load,
• High values of speed, endurance, and ceiling
• Adequate protection against accidental fire.
An interceptor airplane should have:
• Adequate thrust to give high
(i) rate of climb,
(ii) maximum flight speed and
(iii) manoeuvrability
• Ceiling 3 to 4 km above that of contemporary bombers
• Ability to fly in adverse weather conditions
• Appropriate armament
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANES ACCORDING TO CONFIGURATION :
• Shape, number and position of wing.
• Type of fuselage.
• Location of horizontal tail.
• Location and number of engines.
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANES BASED ON WING CONFIGURATION :
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANES BASED ON FUSELAGE :
-Generally airplanes have a single fuselage with wing and tail surfaces mounted on the
fuselage
-In some cases the fuselage is in the form of a pod.
-The horizontal tail is placed between two booms originating from the wings
-It have two vertical tails located on the booms.
-The booms provide required tail arm for the tail surfaces
-Some airplanes with twin fuselage had been designed in the past
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANES BASED ON NUMBER OF ENGINES AND THEIR LOCATION

• The engine, when located in the fuselage, could be in the nose or in the rear portion
of the fuselage
• When located outside the fuselage the engines are enclosed in nacelles, which could
be located on the wings or on the rear fuselage
• In case of airplanes with engine-propeller combination, there are two configurations
– tractor propeller and pusher propeller

3. FACTORS AFFECTING THE CONFIGURATION :

The configuration of an airplane is finalized after giving consideration to the following
factors.
• Aerodynamics
• Low structural weight
• Lay-out peculiarities
• Manufacturing procedures
• Cost and operational economics
• Interaction between various features
1. AERODYNAMICS :
The aerodynamic considerations in the design process involve the following.
• Drag
• Lift
• Interference effects
DRAG :
• The drag of the entire configuration must be as small as possible.
• This requires
– THIN WINGS
– SLENDER FUSELAGE
– SMOOTH SURFACE CONDITIONS,
– PROPER VALUES OF ASPECT RATIO (A)
– SWEEP (Λ).
LIFT :
-The airplane must be able to develop sufficient lift under various flight conditions including
maneuvers.
-The maximum lift coefficient also decides the landing speed.
-These considerations require proper choice of
(a) Aerofoil
(b) Means to prevent flow separation
(c) High lift devices.

INTERFERENCE EFFECTS
• In aerodynamics the flows past various components like the wing, the fuselage and
the tail are usually studied individually.
• In an airplane these components are in proximity of each other and the flow past
one component affects the flow past the others(components).
 • The changes in aerodynamic forces and moments due to this proximity are called
interference effects.
• The lay-out of the airplane should be such that increase in drag and decrease in lift
due to interference effects are minimized.
• These can be achieved in subsonic airplanes by proper fillets at the joints between
(a) wing and fuselage, (b) tail and fuselage and (c) wing and engine pods.

2. LOW STRUCTURAL WEIGHT :

The weight of the aircraft must be as low as possible.

This implies use of
• High strength to weight ratio material
• Aerofoil with high thickness ratio
• Wing with low Aspect Ratio
• Relieving loads
The airplane structure must be strong enough, to take all permissible flight loads and
stiff enough to avoid instabilities like, divergence, aileron reversal and flutter.

3. LAYOUT PECULIARITIES:
• The specific function of the airplane often decides its shape
• The fuselage of a cargo airplane generally has a rectangular cross section and a large
cargo door.
• The height of fuselage floor should be appropriate for quick loading and unloading.
4. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES:
-During the detail design stage, attention must be paid to the manufacturing processes.
-The cost of manufacture and quality control also must be kept in mind.
5. COST AND OPERATIONAL ECONOMICS:
• The DOC relates to the cost of hourly operation of the airplane viz. cost of fuel,
lubricants, maintenance, overhaul, replacement of parts for airframe and engine.
• IOC relates to crew cost, insurance cost, depreciation of airplane and ground
equipment, hangar rental, landing charges and overheads.
• The total operating cost of an airplane = (DOC) + (IOC).
• For a personal plane lower initial cost of the airplane may be more important
• For a long range passenger airplane lower cost of fuel may be the primary
consideration.
6. INTERACTION OF VARIOUS FACTORS :
• Some of the considerations mentioned may lead to conflicting requirements.
 • Optimization techniques are employed to arrive at the best compromise.
• Wing with an airfoil of relatively higher thickness ratio, has lower structural weight
but at the same time has higher drag.

4. MERITS OF DIFFERENT PLANE LAYOUTS :

High Wing configuration
Merits :
• Allows placing fuselage closer to ground, thus allowing loading and unloading
without special ground handling equipment.
• Jet engines & propeller have sufficient ground clearance without excessive landing
gear length leading to lower landing gear weight.
• For low speed airplanes, weight saving can be effected by strut braced wing
• For short take off and landing (STOL) airplanes, the high wing configuration has the
following specific advantages.
(a) Large wing flaps can be used.
(b) Engines are away from the ground and hence ingestion of debris rising from
unprepared runways is avoided.
(c) Prevents floating of wing due to ground effect
which may occur for low wing configuration.
Demerits :
• Fuselage generally houses the landing gear in special pods leading to higher weight
and drag.
• Pilot’s visibility may be blocked during a turning flight.
Mid wing configuration
Merits :
• Lower drag.
• Advantages of ground clearance as in the case of high wing configuration.
• No blockage of visibility. Hence, used on some military airplanes.
Demerits:
• Wing root structure passing through the fuselage is not possible, which leads to
higher weight.
In HFB Hansa airplane, A swept forward mid-wing is located behind the passenger
cabin. This permits wing root structure passing through the fuselage
Low-wing configuration
Merits:
• Landing gear can be located in the wing thereby avoiding pods on the fuselage and
hence lower drag. However, to provide adequate ground clearance, the fuselage has
to be at a higher level as compared to the high wing configuration
 • Wing structure can be through the fuselage.

Demerits:
• Low ground clearance.
• A low-wing configuration has unstable contribution to the longitudinal and lateral
static stability.
• In addition that for low-wing airplanes the dihedral angle may be decided by need to
avoid wing tip hitting the ground during a bad landing.
• A wing with high value of dihedral may require higher vertical tail area to prevent
tendency to Dutch roll.

5. STAGES IN AIRPLANE DESIGN :

The design process can be divided into the following three stages.
• Project feasibility study.
• Preliminary design.
• Design project
1.PROJECT FEASIBILITY STUDY:
The aim of this study is to It involves the following steps.
i) Comprehensive market survey to assess the number of airplanes needed.
Evolve a complete set of specifications for the airplane.

ii) Study of the operating conditions for the proposed airplane. These conditions include
(a) Landing field length
(b) Type of landing field
(c) Weather conditions in flight and near landing sites
(d) Visibility.
iii) Study of the relevant design requirements as laid down by the civil and military
regulating agencies.
Some of the regulating agency for civil airplanes are :
-FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) in USA;
-EASA (European Aviation Safety Agency) in Europe;
-DGCA (Director General of Civil Aviation) in India.
-The military airplanes are governed by more stringent regulations called MIL specifications
in USA.
iv) Evaluation of existing designs of similar airplanes and possibility of incorporating new
concepts.
v) Collection of data on relevant power plants.
vi) Laying down preliminary specifications which may consist of the following.
 • Performance: Maximum speed, Maximum rate of climb, range, endurance, rate of
turn, radius of turn, take-off and landing field lengths.
• Payload.
• Operating conditions at the destinations.
• Maneuverability.
2. PRELIMINARY DESIGN :
This stage of design process aims at producing a brochure containing preliminary drawings
and stating the estimated operational capabilities of the airplane.This is used for seeking
approval of the manufacturer or the customer
This stage includes the following steps.
(i) Preliminary weight estimate.
(ii) Selection of geometrical parameters of main components based on design criteria.
(iii) Selection of power plant.
(iv) Arrangement of equipment, and control systems.
(v) Aerodynamic and stability calculations.
(vi) Preliminary structural design of main components.
(vii) Revised weight estimation and c.g. travel.
(viii) Preparation of 3-view drawing.
(ix) Performance estimation.
(x) Preparation of brochure (It is also called aircraft type specification)
3.DESIGN PROJECT :
After the preliminary design has been approved by the manufacturer / customer.
The detailed design studies are carried out
These include the following stages.
• Wind tunnel and structural testing on models of airplane configuration arrived after
preliminary design stage. These tests serve as a check on the correctness of the
estimated characteristics and assessment of the new concepts proposed in the
design.
Mock-up: This is a full scale model of the airplane or its important sections.This helps in
(a) efficient lay-out of structural components and equipments,
(b) checking the clearances, firing angles of guns, visibility etc.
Currently this stage is avoided by the use of CAD(Computer Aided Design) packages which
provide detailed drawings of various components and subassemblies.Complete wind tunnel
testing of the approved configuration. Currently CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) plays
an important role in reducing the number of tests to be carried-out.In CFD, the equations
governing the fluid flow are solved numerically. The results provide flow patterns, drag
coefficient, lift coefficient, moment coefficient, pressure distribution etc.
Through the results may not be very accurate at high angles of attack, they are generally
accurate near the design point. Further, they provide information on the effects of small
changes in the geometric parameters, on the flow field and permit parametric studies.
• Preparation of detailed drawings.
• Final selection of power plant.
• Calculations of (a) c.g. shift (b) performance and (c) stability.
• Fabrication of prototypes
– These are the first batch of full scale airplane. Generally six prototypes are
constructed.
– Some of them are used for verifying structural integrity and functioning of
various systems. Others are used for flight testing to evaluate performance
and stability.
• Series production and flight testing to meet specified operational and airworthiness
requirements
• Obtaining type certificate: it is a legal document, issued by a regulating agency like
DGCA in India allowing the manufacturer to offer the item (e.g. airplane) for sale.
• Cost analysis While purchasing a vehicle generally, the cost of the vehicle, running
expenses and maintenance are considered.
• In the case of an airplane the cost analysis is more complex because the design and
development of airplane is a very expensive activity and its cost must be added to
the cost of fabrication of the airplane.
• Further, use of airplane requires hangars, maintenance facilities and airport
equipment.
• The operation and maintenance of airplane requires significant investment and
needs services of a large body of professionals.
• Earlier way of carrying out the cost analysis was to calculate the direct operating cost
and indirect operating cost.
• However, the current approach is to calculate the life cycle cost which is the cost
involved over the useful life of the airplane.
 UNIT -2
PRELIMINARY DESIGN PROCEDURE

1.Data collection:
A typical format for collection of airplane data
It may be mentioned that this format includes information about the following aspects.
▪ General features of the airplane.
▪ Geometrical parameters of the major components of the airplane.
▪ Various types of weights of the airplane.
▪ Performance parameters.

2.Preliminary three-view drawing:

▪ An idea about the possible shape and size of the proposed airplane and forms the next
step after the data collection.
▪ To draw the preliminary three-view drawing, requires the approximate dimensions of
the wing, fuselage, tail and other components.

Sample Procedure
1.The payload is the weight of the items for which the airplane is being designed. This would
constitute
(a) the weights of passenger & cargo for a transport airplane
(b) the weight of the ammunition/special equipment for a military airplane. Depending on
the number of passengers, range etc., the payload can be estimated. For military airplanes,
the payload may be prescribed. Let the weight of payload be denoted by Wpay and W0 being
the design gross weight
2. From the data collection on similar airplanes, the ratio W0 / Wpay can be chosen;. Then,
W0 = Wpay x ( W0 / Wpay)
3. From the data collection on similar airplanes, the wing loading (W/S) is chosen.
S = W / (W /S)
4. From data collection on similar airplanes the aspect ratio (A) of the wing is chosen.
Consequently, the wingspan (b) is given by:
b = (S × A)1/2
5. The planform of the wing is chosen from the data collection. Let the taper ratio be λ.
S = b / 2 (cr + ct) and λ = ct / cr,
 cr= 2S / b (1+λ) and ct = λ . Cr
The sweep angle(Λ) of the wing can be chosen from the data on similar airplanes.
6. From the data on similar airplanes, choose the ratio (lf / b); lf = length of fuselage. Then:
lf = b × (lf / b)
7. From the data collection on similar airplanes, choose the cross-sectional size of the fuselage
and the region where the payload is located. Also find the ratios
(lnose / lf ) , (lcockpit / lf ) and (ltailcone/ lf ).
Obtain lnose, lcockpit and ltailcone as lf is known from step .Obtain the length of the payload section
as difference between lf and the sum of the lengths of lnose, lcockpit and ltailcone.
8. From the data on similar airplanes choose the values of Sht/ S, Svt / S.
Choose the values of aspect ratio, taper ratio and sweep for the horizontal and the vertical
tails. In this step, the suffixes “ht” and “vt” refer to the horizontal tail and the vertical tail
respectively.
Consequently,

9.From the data collection on similar airplanes, choose the values of Selevator / St,
Srudder / Svt , Saileron /S , Sflap / S , celevator / cht , crudder / cvt, caileron/ cwing , cflap / cwing.
Obtain the areas and chords of elevator, rudder, flap and aileron.
10. From the data collection on similar airplanes, choose the value of T/ W or W/ P; T is the
engine thrust and P is the engine power.
Hence, T = (T / W) × W or P = W / (W / P)
Choose the number of engines to be used and obtain the rating of engine (s). Obtain
approximate dimensions of the engine and the size(s) of the propellers/intake as appropriate.
11. From the data collection on similar airplanes, choose the locations of the wing, the
horizontal tail and the vertical tail on the fuselage.
12. From the data on similar airplanes, choose the landing gear type obtain
(wheelbase) / lf , (wheel tread) / lf. Obtain wheelbase and
wheel tread as lf is known.
3.WEIGHT ESTIMATION :
A good estimate of the gross weight (W0) is necessary for further progress in the design
process.Different approaches to estimate W0 are presented
As per the Raymer the gross weight (W0) is expressed as

W0 = Wcrew + Wpayload + Wfuel + Wempty

Payload Weight
▪ For a passenger airplane Wpayload would be the weight of the passengers plus the
baggage.
▪ For a cargo airplane Wpayload would be the weight of the intended cargo.
▪ For a trainer airplane Wpayload would be the weight of the trainee plus the instructor.
▪ For special purspose airplanes like agricultural airplane Wpayload would be the weight
of the fertilizer etc.
▪ For a fighter airplane Wpayload would be the weight of the missiles, guns and
ammunition.
▪ For a bomber airplane Wpayload would be the weight of bombs and associated
equipment.

Passengers and Baggage Weight

▪ As regards the weights of the passengers and baggage are concerned,
▪ A value of 110 kgf per passenger can be taken for long range airplanes
▪ 82 kgf for passengers plus the cabin baggage and 28 kgf for the check-in baggage
▪ The value of 16 kgf for check-in baggage can be taken for short and medium range
airplanes.

Crew Weight
 ▪ The crew members are : (a) the flight crew, (b) cabin crew in passenger airplanes
▪ Special crew in airplanes like reconnaissance/patrol or for scientific measurements.
▪ In passenger airplanes the number of cabin crew is: (a) one cabin crew for about 30
passengers in economy class and (b) one cabin crew for about 15 passengers in first
class.
▪ Presently the number of flight crew would be two for commercial airplanes. On long
range airplanes this number could be more to provide rest period for the pilot.
▪ For long range airplanes the weight of flight and cabin crew can be taken as 110 kgf.
For short range airplanes it could be 85 kgf
▪ The weight of the trainee and the instructor in trainer airplanes can be taken as 80
kgf. In combat airplanes the weight of the pilot could be 100 kgf due to the additional
weight of protection gear.

The weight of entire airplane can be sub divided into empty weight and useful
load.

The structures group consists of the following components.

▪ Wing
▪ Horizontal tail /canard
▪ Vertical tail
▪ Ventral fin
▪ Fuselage
▪ Landing gear – main and nose/tail wheel
▪ Arresting gear and catapult gear for sea planes
▪ Nacelle, Engine pod and Air intake
The propulsion group consists of the following components :
▪ Engine as installed; reduction gear for turboprop engine
▪ Propeller for piston and turboprop engines
 ▪ Exhaust system
▪ Cooling provisions
▪ Engine controls
▪ Starting system
▪ Fuel system and tanks
The equipment group consists of the following items:
▪ Flight controls
▪ Auxiliary power unit (APU)
▪ Instruments
▪ Hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, armament, air conditioning, anti-icing and
▪ Other systems
▪ Avionics
▪ Furnishings in passenger airplanes
▪ Photographic equipment in reconnaissance/patrol airplanes; weapon
▪ Deployment equipment and armament loading and handling systems in
▪ Military airplanes.
The useful load consists of :
▪ (i) crew
▪ (ii) fuel - usable and trapped
▪ (iii) oil
▪ (iv) payload - passengers, cargo and baggage in transport airplane; ammunition,
expendable weapons and other items in military airplanes.

3 .WEIGHT ESTIMATION METHODS :

The following two methods to estimate the weights.
▪ Approximate empty weight buildup.
▪ Statistical group weights method.

Approximate empty weight buildup.

The wing and tail weights are determined from the historical values for the weight per square
feet of exposed planform area. The fuselage is based on wetted areaThe Landing gear is
estimated based on the take off gross weight. The installed engine weight is the multiple of
the uninstalled engine weight. The remaining weights of the empty weight is estimated as a
fraction of take off gross weight. This technique also applies the approximate locations of the
component C.G.The resulting CG can be compared to the desired CG location with respect to
the Wing aerodynamic center.

Statistical group weights method.

• An expression for the weight of a specific airplane component is obtained, based on
statistical data on similar airplanes.
• The expression involves the geometrical parameters and other features of the
component.
• An expression for the weight of a specific airplane component is obtained, based on
statistical data on similar airplanes.
• The expression involves the geometrical parameters and other features of the
component.
For Fighter / Attack Airplanes
For Cargo / Transport Airplanes
For General Aviation Airplanes
3. WEIGHT ESTIMATION :
▪ The empty weight is the gross weight of the airplane minus the weight of crew,
payload and fuel.
▪ In some other approaches, in passenger airplanes, the weights of operational items
like food, water etc., are not included in the empty weight of the airplane.
▪ Thus, Wcrew & Wpayload are known from the design specifications.
▪ Wf & We depend on gross weight (W0).

Estimation of Empty - Weight Fraction (We / W0)

▪ The data on empty weights of different types of airplanes.
▪ When the data are plotted as (We / W0) vs log10(W0) the resulting curves are roughly
straight lines.
▪ This suggests that these curves can be approximated by an equation of the type:
Estimation of fuel fraction (Wf / W0)
The weight of fuel needed depends on the following.
• Fuel required for mission.
• Fuel required as reserve.
• Trapped fuel which cannot be pumped out.
The fuel required for the mission depends on the following factors.
1. Mission to be flown.
2. Aerodynamics of the airplane viz. (L / D) ratio.
3. SFC of the engine.

Dependence of airplane performance on airplane parameters and

atmospheric characteristics
▪ Steady level flight – Maximum flight speed (Vmax)
▪ Steady climb – maximum rate of climb (R/C)max
▪ Absolute ceiling (Hmax)
▪ Range and endurance for airplanes with engine-propeller combination and with jet
engine
▪ Turning – minimum radius of turn (Rmin) and maximum rate of turn (ψ max )
▪ Take-off distance (Sto)
▪ Landing distance (Sland)
 Estimation of fuel fraction (Wf/W0)
▪ Mission profile
▪ Weight fractions for various segments of mission
▪ Fuel fraction for warm up, taxiing and take-off(W1/W0)
▪ Fuel fraction for climb (W2/W1)
▪ Fuel fraction during cruise – outline of approach
▪ Fuel fraction during loiter – outline of approach
▪ Estimation of (L/D)max – outline of approach
▪ Drag polar of a typical high subsonic jet airplane

Mission Profile
Simple mission: For a transport airplane the mission profile would generally consist of

(a) Warm up and take off,

(b) Climb
(c) Cruise
(d) Descent
(e) loiter and
(f) Landing
Sometimes the airplane may be required to go to alternate airport if the permission to land
is refused. Allowance also has to be made for head winds encountered en-route.
For a military airplane the flight profile could consist of
(a) warm up and take-off
(b) climb
(c) cruise to target area
(d) performing mission in the target area
(e) cruise back towards the base
(f) descent
(g) loiter
(h) land.
In the target area the airplane may carry out reconnaissance, or drop bombs or engage in
combat.
As additional examples of the mission profiles, the following three cases can be cited.
(a) A trainer airplane, after reaching the specified area, may perform various maneuvers and
return to the base.
(b) An airplane on a humanitarian mission may go to the desired destination, drop food and
relief supplies and return to the base.
(c) In some countries the doctors from cities fly to the remote areas, examine the patients
and fly back.

Weight fractions for various segments of mission

The fuel required in a particular phase of the mission depends on
(a) The weight of the airplane at the start of that phase
(b) The distance covered or the duration of time for the phase.
Keeping these in view, the approach to estimate fuel fraction for chosen mission profile is, as
follows.
i) Let the mission consist of ‘n’ phases.
ii) The fuel fractions for the phase ‘i’ is denoted as Wi / Wi-1.
iii) Let W0 be the weight at the start of the flight (say warm up) and Wn be the
weight at the end of last phase (say landing).
Then, Wn/Wo is expressed as:

iv)The fuel fractions (Wi/Wi-1) for all phases are estimated and (Wn/W0) is
calculated from Eq

The fuel fraction (Wf/W0) is deduced as:

Fuel fraction for warm up, taxiing and take-off W1 / W0

The rough guidelines.
▪ For home built and single engine piston airplanes W1/W0 is 0.99.
▪ For twin engine turboprops, jet transports (both civil and military), flying boats and
supersonic airplanes W1/W0 is 0.98.
▪ For military trainers and fighters W1/W0 is 0.97.

Fuel fraction for climb (W2 / W1)

▪ The low speed airplanes including the twin-engine airplanes and flying boat cruise at
moderate altitude (say 4 to 6 km) and hence W2/W1 is taken as 0.99.
▪ The military and civil transport jets cruise around 11 km altitude and W2/W1 is taken
as 0.98.
▪ The fighter airplanes have very powerful engines and attain supersonic Mach number
at the end of the climb. In this case, W2/W1 is between 0.9 to 0.96.
▪ Similarly, the supersonic transport airplanes which cruise at high altitudes (15 to 18
km), W2/W1 is around 0.9.

Fuel fraction during cruise – outline of approach

It is assumed that the following quantities remain constant during the flight.
(a) Lift coefficient.
(b) Specific fuel consumption (BSFC or TSFC).
(c) Propeller efficiency for airplanes with engine-propeller combination and
(d) Flight altitude

,
It is assumed that the following quantities remain constant during the flight.
(a) Lift coefficient.
(b) Specific fuel consumption (BSFC or TSFC).
(c) Propeller efficiency for airplanes with engine-propeller combination and
(d) Flight altitude.

Estimation of (L/D)max – outline of approach

(L/D)max for a chosen type of airplane depends on the wetted aspect ratio (Awet) defined as :
where, A = wing aspect ratio
M = Mach number
S = wing area
t/c = wing thickness ratio
λ = taper ratio of wing
Λ 1/4 = quarter chord sweep of wing
Ne = number of engines, if any, located on top surface of wing
Af = airfoil factor. A value of 0.93 is suggested for special airfoils and 0.75 for older (NACA)
airfoils.
Clf = function of airfoil chord over which the flow in laminar.
Rw = Swet / S

Tf = a factor which is unity for a very streamlined shape and takes into account the increase
in CD due to departure from streamlined shape.
τ = A factor which gives correction for wing thickness ratio and is given by :

Fuel fraction for descent, landing and taxing

Following guidelines can be given based on the data.
 ▪ The homebuilt, low speed single engine and agricultural airplanes generally fly close
to the ground and the value of fuel fraction, for this phase of flight, of 0.99 is
suggested.
▪ For other types of airplanes, except supersonic cruise airplane, the suggested value is
0.98.
▪ For supersonic cruise airplanes, the descent phase would be longer and consequently
the suggested value is 0.937.

Fuel fraction for the mission

▪ After calculating the fuel fractions in various phases of the mission, the weight of the
airplane at the end of the mission is given by:

Generally an allowance of 6 % is provided for trapped fuel. Thus,

Mach Number

Loiter M ≈ 0.3 at sea level

Cruise M ≈ 0.5 at altitude ≈ 5km

TSFC of a typical turbofan engine

Above equation is valid for altitude < 11 km. above altitude of 11 km, TSFC is same as that at
h = 11 km . Taking typical values of M = 0.8 and h = 11 km, the following variation of TSFC with by-
pass ratio is obtained.
Consider loiter at sea level and M = 0.3,

Iterative procedure for take-off weight calculation

▪ Having obtained (Wf/W0) and (We/W0) the take-off weight can now be calculated.
▪ However, the expression for (We/W0) involves W0 and an iterative procedure is
needed.

Example
For the airplane considered in example 2.1, obtain the revised estimate of the gross weight.
The specifications are reproduced below.
Type: Regional transport airplane with turboprop engine
No. of passengers: 60
Vcruise: Around 500 kmph at around 4.5 km altitude,
Safe range: 1300 km;
Service ceiling: 8000 m
Balanced field length for take-off : Around 1400 m
Solution
estimate of the gross weight (WO) is obtained using the following steps.
i. Obtain weights of payload and crew.
ii. Estimate fuel fraction.
iii. Estimate empty weight fraction.

iv. Solve Eq iteratively

I) Estimation of weights of payload and crew
For a sixty seater airplane the cabin crew consists of two members.
The flight crew would consist of two members – pilot and co-pilot.
Taking 100 kgf(82+18) as weight of passenger + carry on + check-in baggage gives:
Wpay = 60 x 100 = 6000 kgf
Taking 85 kgf as weight per crew member yields:
Wcrew = 4 x 85 = 340 kgf
Thus, Wpay + Wcrew = 6000 + 340 = 6340 kgf
Estimation of fuel fraction
(A) Warm up and take-off
From the fuel fraction for this phase:
W1 / WO = 0.98
WO = take-off weight, W1 = weight at the end of take-off phase
(B) Fuel fraction for climb
The fuel fraction, in the present case, for this phase is: W2 / W1 = 0.99. W2 = weight at the end
of climb.
(C) Fuel fraction for cruise

Let W3 = Weight at the end of cruise.

(i) The safe range is specified as 1300 km. However, the airplane may encounter
head wind and would require extra amount of fuel.
It is assumed that the head wind is 15 m/s or 54 km/hr.
The time of flight is 1300/500 = 2.6 hrs.
Hence, additional distance to account for head wind would be: 54 x 2.6 = 140 km
Further, in the event of landing being refused at the destination, the airplane may
have to go to alternate airport. It is assumed that the distance would be 300 km.
R = 1300 + 140 + 300 = 1740 km
 ▪

For this airplane the wing area (S) is estimated to be 61.43 m2 and the aspect ratio (A) would
be around 12.

(D) Fuel fraction for loiter

It is generally assumed that the airplane would have to wait for about 30 min before
permission to land is granted. During this phase the airplane goes around in circular path at a
speed corresponding to maximum endurance. Let, W4 be the weight at the end of the loiter.

In the loiter phase:

(D) Fuel fraction for descent, landing and taxiing (W5/W4)
A value of W5/W4 = 0.98 is adopted.
(E) Using the above fractions yields:

(I) Empty weight fraction (We/W0):

For a twin turboprop airplane (We/Wo) is given as

▪ An iterative procedure is used to obtain W0

After the third iteration, the values in the first and third columns are almost the same.
The iteration is stopped.
Hence, the estimated gross weight (W0) is : 21280 kgf = 208,757 N.
Choice of wind loading and thrust. Loading
The wing loading (W/S) and the thrust loading (T/W) or the power loading (W/P) influence a
number of performance items like
▪ Take-off distance (Sto)
▪ Maximum speed (Vmax) ,
▪ Maximum rate of climb (R/C)max
▪ Max absolute ceiling (Hmax) and
▪ Maximum rate of turn (ψ max ).
Thus, the wing loading (W/S) and the thrust loading (T/W) or power loading (W/P) are the
two most important parameters affecting the airplane performance.
The approaches for estimation of (W/S) and (T/W) or (W/P) can be divided into two
categories.
(I) In the approach given by Lebedinski, the variations of the following quantities are
obtained when the wing loading is varied.

⮚ (T / W) or (W / P) required for prescribed values of Vp, Hmax (R/C)max and Sto.

⮚ Weight of the fuel (Wf) required for a given range (R).

⮚ Distance required for landing (sland).

(II) In the approach followed by Raymer, (T/W) or (P/W) is chosen

⮚ from statistical data correlations and then W/S is obtained from the requirements

⮚ regarding Vmax, Rmax, (R/C)max, Hmax, ψ max , landing distance and take-off distance.

⮚ Finally, W/S is chosen such that the design criteria are satisfied.

Selection of wing loading based on landing distance

▪ Landing distance (Sland) is the horizontal distance the airplane covers from being at the
screen height till it comes to a stop.
▪ The approach to landing begins at the screen height of 50’(15.2 m).
▪ The flight speed at this point is called ‘Approach speed’ and denoted by VA. The glide
angle during approach is generally 3o.
▪ Then, the airplane performs a flare to make the flight path horizontal and touches the
landing field at touch down speed (VTD).
▪ Subsequently, the airplane rolls for a duration of about 3 seconds and then the brakes
are applied.
 ▪ The horizontal distance covered from the start of the approach till the airplane comes
to a halt is the landing field length.

Selection of wing loading based on landing distance

Relation between sland and wing load

Guidelines for values of CLmax of wings with various high lift devices
The value of CLmax depends on the following.
a) The geometry of the wing i.e. aspect ratio (A), taper ratio (λ) and sweep (Λ).
b) Airfoil shape.
c) Flap type, ratio of flap area to wing area (Sflap /S) and flap deflection (δflap).
d) Type of leading edge slat and its deflection.
e) Reynolds number.
f) Surface texture.
g) Interference effects due to fuselage, nacelle and pylons.
h) Influence of propeller slip stream, if present.
When an Unswept wing without flap has CLmax of 1.5, the same wing with 300 sweep would
have roughly a CLmax = 1.5 × cos 300 or 1.3
Similarly, an Unswept wing with Fowler flap has CLmax of 2.5.
The same wing with 300 sweep would have CLmax of 2.5 × cos 300 or 2.17.
With addition of leading edge slat, this can go up to 2.43

Guidelines for CLmax of subsonic airplanes of moderate

Aspect Ratio
 ▪ The following may be noted.
(a) The value of C Lmax shown in Table (slide76) can be used in landing configuration. The flap
setting during take-off is lower than that during landing. The maximum lift coefficient during
take off can be taken approximately as 80% of that during landing.
(b) Do not use the values in Table (slide76) , for supersonic airplanes with low aspect ratio
wings and airfoil sections of small thickness ratio.

Maximum lift coefficient of passenger airplanes operating at high

subsonic Mach numbers

Landing distance vs wing loading

Permissible variation in pland by allowing reasonable variation in Sland
▪ The choice of wing loading will also be affected by other requirements like V max and
(R/C)max.
▪ Design is a compromise between possibly conflicting requirements, the change in pland
when Sland is varied within ± ΔSland needs to be examined
▪ The limits within which pland can be varied with landing distance within
S land ± Δ S land
▪ If Sland is permitted to vary between ±10% of the specified value, or
▪ Sland = (1500 ± 150.0) m,
▪ Then pland can be within a band of 4720.3 to 4933 N/m2 with choosen C Lmax = 3.0 and
σ = 1.0

Wing loading from landing consideration based on take-off weight (WTO /S)land
▪ The wing loading from landing consideration, based on take-off weight, is
(W/S)land = pland× ( WTO / Wland)
▪ The weight of the airplane at the time of landing (Wland) is generally lower than WTO.
▪ The difference between the two weights is due to the consumption of fuel and
dropping of any disposable weight.
▪ However, to calculate Wland only a part of the fuel weight is subtracted, from the take
off weight.
▪ The relationship between Wland and WTO is expressed as
 Selection of wing loading based on prescribed flight speed (Vp)

Selection of wing loading based on absolute ceiling (Hmax)

Selection of wing loading based on absolute ceiling (Hmax)

 Thrust required for chosen ceiling vs wing loading

Selection of wing loading based on rate of climb (R/C)max

The wing loading is optimised such that the thrust required is minimum for the specified rate
of climb (R/C)max or (Vc)max.
Effect of variation of thrust available with flight speed on (popt)R/C
(i) It is assumed that Ta is constant with flight velocity V.
(ii) In the case of high bypass turbofan engines, the thrust available at sea level is not constant
with flight speed (V). It decreases significantly with V. Further, the rating of a jet engine is the
thrust output at sea level at V = 0.
(iii) The final goal of the present optimization, (popt)R/C, is to obtain a wing loading which will
minimize the engine output, with engine setting adjusted for climb rating

Selection of wing loading based on range (R)

Wing loading based on consideration of wing weight
• The aim of airplane design is to arrive at a configuration, which satisfies the design
requirements, with minimum gross weight.
• This is achieved by minimizing the weights of components like wing, fuselage, etc.
• (Wwing) depends on wing parameters like aspect ratio, taper ratio, sweep, airfoil
thickness etc.
• It is also proportional to Sn where ‘n’ lies between 0.62 to 0.76 depending on the type
of airplane.
• Higher the wing area, larger is the wing weight and in turn the airplane weight.
• Thus, a smaller wing area or higher (W/S) is suggested by this consideration.

Selection of wing loading based on specific excess power and turn rate
The military airplanes have the following requirements.
(a) Rapid acceleration through a specified Mach number range for interceptor role
(b) Rapid rate of turn in air-to-air combat role.
 Before describing the choice of wing loading to satisfy these requirements, three concepts
viz. specific excess energy, sustained rate of turn and instantaneous rate of turn are
explained below.

UNIT -3
POWER PLANT SELECTION
1.Powerplant Choices Available
• After arriving at the thrust or power rating required, the next step is to choose the
engine.
• The development of a new engine generally takes much longer than the development
of the airframe and hence, general practice is to design the airframe around an
available engine.
• These engines would have ratings as per their design.
• The weight, frontal area and SFC of the engine would also have to be taken in to
account while arriving at the final choice.
• A higher frontal area would result in increased parasite drag and a heavier engine
would cause higher induced drag.
• After choosing the engine, the variations of thrust or power and TSFC or BSFC with
altitude and velocity need to be obtained. In the case of airplanes with engine-
propeller combination, the variation of propeller efficiency also needs to be
calculated.
The following power plants are considered for airplane applications.
(a) Piston engine-propeller combination.
(b) Gas turbine engines - turboprop, turbofan and turbojet.
(c) Ramjets.
(d) Rockets.
(e) Combination power plants like ramrocket and turboramjet
 • At present, piston engine-propeller combination and gas turbine engines are the
power plants used for airplanes.
• Ramjet would be the power plant for hypersonic airplanes.
• However, a ramjet cannot produce any thrust when flight speed is zero.
• Hence, a rocket or turbojet engine is used to bring the ramjet to a flight speed
corresponding to Mach number (M) of 2 or 3 and then the ramjet engine would take
over.
• Consequently, the combination power plants viz. ramrocket or turboramjet are the
alternatives.

2.Benefits of Jets Over Piston Powered Airplanes

1) Less Vibration. There's no reciprocating motion in turbine engines, so vibration is
reduced.
2) Time Between Overhaul.
3) Propeller Thrust Limitations.
4) More Overall Thrust Produced.
5) Higher Altitude.
6) Power To Weight Ratio.
7)Simple Pilot Controls.
Highly fuel efficient at lower altitudes: Turboprop engines push a large amount of air
through the fans (propellers) in denser air at lower altitudes. The specific fuel consumption,
i.e. thrust produced per pound of fuel is higher for turboprops as compared to turbojet
engines. Hence if the flight missions are short and require flying at lower altitudes, say below
25,000 ft. then from economic perspective, turboprops will deliver better fuel efficiency.
Better short and unpaved runway performance: Turboprop aircraft have lower landing
speeds and hence can land on short runways. Some airplanes such as Twin Otters can land
on runways which are less than 1,000 feet in length.
In addition, turboprop aircraft are better suited to unpaved runway conditions. Dust and
other FOD objects have a significant impact when ingested into turbojet engines thereby
causing extensive internal damage.
Cost effective operations: Turboprop aircraft have lower acquisition costs and operating
costs. Hence the lifecycle operation costs of turboprop aircraft are lower as compared
turbojet aircraft in comparable segments. In addition, if operations require short flights with
few passengers, then turboprop aircraft are comparatively far more efficient and cost
effective.

3.Benefits of Turbo jet over Turboprop Airplanes

Higher speeds:
Turbojet engines are installed where speeds in excess of 375 knots and above are
required. There are examples of slower aircraft though. But generally, as a thumb rule,
turbojets are preferred to cover long distances over shorter period of time.
Higher altitudes:
As opposed to turboprop engines, turbojets are designed to operate on efficiently at higher
altitudes. Commercial airliners operate higher than 35,000 feet during cruise to save fuel
during the longest phase of flight. Another huge advantage of flying higher is that the
airplanes are normally not impacted by en-route weather conditions as they fly higher where
impact of changing weather is minimal. This results in a comfortable flight experience for the
passengers.
Lesser cabin noise and vibrations:
The fans of the turbojet engines are enclosed inside the engine cowling and hence contain
the noise from the engines. This results in a quieter cabin experience and lesser vibrations.
In fact mostly noise in a turbojet aircraft is due to the air passing over the fuselage.
Longer range:
The range of turbojet aircraft can go up to 8,00 nautical miles as in the case of Gulfstream
650ER. Such range allows for non-stop flight operations between Delhi and New York. This
not only saves time due to layover, but the overall cycles of the airplane are also reduced
significantly.
Lower operating costs for large pax capacity:
When it is required to transport large number of passengers over long distances, then
turbojets are highly cost efficient in such operations.

4. Engine location
• The engine output required is already known from the performance requirements like
Vmax, (R/C)max, Hmax and take-off distance.
• The number of engines and their location need to be chosen.
• Airplanes have been designed with one, two, three, four and eight engines.
The following considerations decide the number of engines used in the airplane.
(a) The ratings of the available engines.
(b) Cost of the engine.
(c) Ease of maintenance
(d) Performance and stability of the airplane with one engine being inoperative.
 Type of aircraft No of engines

Low speed general aviation aircraft Single engine

Military airplanes in light weight and medium weight Single engine

Transport airplanes Two or more engines

Jet transport airplanes eg., Boeing 707,747 Four engines

Airplanes with medium range and 100 to 200 passenger

Twin engine
seating capacity eg., (Boeing 727,737; Airbus 320,340).

• Considerations and reliability of the engines reinforced this choice.

• The available thrust would reduce to half with one engine inoperative and hence,
these airplanes generally have higher thrust to weight ratio and a large vertical tail.
• As a compromise between two and four engines some airplanes have three engines
(e.g. McDonnell Douglas DC-10, Lockheed Tristar).
• Many military airplanes have a single jet engine. In these cases the engine is located
in the rear part of the fuselage. The air intakes are generally located on the sides of
fuselage
Advantages
(a) The engine is less vulnerable to enemy attack.
(b) The fuselage is elongated which results in slender fuselage and provides longer tail
arms for horizontal and vertical tails

Engine location- Location of engines on different airplanes

Single engine-propeller combination
Three arrangements are mainly used. These are :
(a) Tractor propeller ahead of engine located in nose of fuselage
(b) Pusher propeller behind the engine located at the rear end of the fuselage
(c) Pod mounted engine with tractor or pusher propeller.
In a tractor configuration the propeller is in front of the engine and is driven by a shaft in
tension.
In a pusher configuration the propeller is mounted behind the engine so that the drive shaft
is in compression
Single engine-propeller combination
-An amphibian airplane can land and take-off both on land and on water.
-In such airplanes the propeller should be away from the surface of water
-In some amphibian airplanes the propeller is mounted on a pod above the fuselage
Advantages and Disadvantages of Tractor and Pusher Propeller Configurations
• A tractor installation moves the C.G. of the airplane forward
• A pusher installations moves the C.G. rearwards
• The contribution of a tractor propeller is destabilizing to longitudinal, directional and
lateral stability. Whereas, the contribution of a pusher propeller is stabilizing
• A pusher propeller is in the wake of the wing and fuselage. Consequently, it is slightly
less efficient than a tractor propeller
Twin engine configuration
• Twin engine configurations with propellers may be driven by piston engines or
turboprop engines.
• The engines are commonly mounted on the wings with tractor propellers.
• The configuration with pusher propellers mounted on rear fuselage.
In the twin engine passenger airplanes with jet engines, the engines are located on pylons on
the wings or mounted on rear fuselage
Configurations with three engines
• Some jet airplanes have 3 engines.
• In this case two engines are located with pylons on the wing.
The third engine is located at the rear end of fuselage.
Four Engined Airplanes
• There have been four engine airplanes with piston engines.
• Presently, the four engine airplanes are either with turboprop engines or jet engines.
• The turboprop engines are more economical than the turbofan engines. Hence, the
turboprop engines are utilized on airplanes flying at Mach numbers from 0.5 to 0.7
• Airplane with four turboprop engines mounted in nacelles attached to the wing.
In the case of jet transport airplanes the engines are mounted in nacelles attached through
pylons to the wings
Four Engined Airplanes
• Engines mounted in nacelles attached to the wing.
• Engines are mounted in nacelles attached through pylons to the wings

Functions Dictating the Locations

Engines held by pylons on wing
Advantages
The engines act as a relieving load on the wing and the weight of the wing structure
could be decreased by about 15 percent.
The space inside the wing can be fully utilized for fuel.
Easy access for maintenance,
inspection and replacement
of engines.
Disadvantages
Smaller ground clearance increases the possibility of foreign objects being ingested in
the engines.
Failure of outboard engine creates a large yawing moment. To counteract this
moment requires larger vertical tail area and rudder deflection as compared to other
locations of engines. These result in higher structural weight and drag.
Noise level in the cabin is higher as compared to airplanes with engines mounted on rear
fuselage

Engines located in the wing root

Advantages
There is very little increase in frontal area of the airplane due to installation of power
plants.
Almost the entire wing span can be utilized for ailerons and high lift devices.
 Disadvantages
The space in the root section of the wing cannot be used for accommodating fuel.
The intake is located at a place where the boundary layer on the fuselage affects the
flow in it (intake).
The weight of the wing structure is increased due to presence of the cuts in wing spars.
Engines located on the rear fuselage
Advantages
There is less engine noise in the cabin.
The entire wing space can be used for storing fuel and for high lift devices.
The flow over the wing is clean due to absence of pylons.
Disadvantages
The fuel is located far from the engines, therefore the length of the pipeline is
increased and special fuel pumps are needed.
Due to engines being located at rear, the C.G. of the airplane moves aft.
Consequently, the tail arms of the horizontal and vertical tails are reduced.
Spanwise locations of wing mounted engines
The structural design of wing is carried out considering mainly the load due to lift
produced.
In normal configuration the lift acts upwards.
The weights of (a) fuel in the wing, (b) the engines attached to wing, (c) bombs
attached to wing, act downwards.
Thus, the bending moment produced due to the lift is reduced due to weights of
fuel, engines etc.,
Hence, the weights of these items are called relieving weights.
This also indicates that an engine located near the wing tip would cause maximum
reduction in bending moment
When all the engines (2 or 4) are operating, they do not produce any yawing
moment.
When one of the engines fails, the operating engine on the other wing half produces
a yawing moment.
This moment is balanced by a suitable deflection of rudder.
 In this situation, an engine located far outboard would require a large vertical tail
and rudder deflection.
This would increase overall weight and drag of the airplane.
Hence, there is an optimum spanwise location for the engines which will minimize
the overall weight and drag
From the data on twin engine turboprop airplanes the wing has constant chord up to
25% to 35% of the semi-span.
The engine nacelle is located such that it either starts or ends at this location.
In the case of airplanes with four engines (i.e. two engines on each wing half), the
inboard engine is located around 30% semi-span and outboard engine around 55%
of semi-span.
Location of nacelle relative to wing leading edge
Nacelle of the wing mounted engine projects beyond the leading edge of the wing.
The following considerations need to be taken into account.
(a) The interference between wing and nacelle should minimize loss of lift of wing and
increase of drag of airplane as a whole.
(b) In case of engines with propellers the slipstream of the propeller passes over the wing.
The slip stream has a dynamic pressure higher than the free stream dynamic pressure and
would result in increase in wing lift.
The increase in dynamic pressure would be higher when the propeller is farther
ahead of the wing.
However, an overhanging nacelle would need a heavier engine mount. The optimum
overhang of the nacelle would have to be decided after detailed aerodynamic and
structural calculation.
 UNIT-4
DESIGN OF WING ,FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE
DESIGN OF WING
The following aspects need to be consider for wing design
1.Wing area (S) : This is calculated from the wing loading and gross weight
which have been already decided i.e. S= W / (W / S)
2.Location of the wing on fuselage : High-, low- or mid-wing

3.Aerofoil : Thickness ratio, camber and shape

4.Sweep (Λ) : Whether swept forward, swept backward, angle of sweep, cranked wing,
variable sweep.

5.Aspect ratio (A) : High or low, winglets

6.Taper ratio (λ) : Straight taper or variable taper.

7.Twist (ε) : Amount and distribution

8.Wing incidence or setting (iw)

9.High lift devices : Type of flaps and slats; values of CLmax, Sflap/S

10.Ailerons and spoilers : Values of Saileron/S; Sspoiler/S XI) Leading edge strakes if any.
11.Dihedral angle ( Γ ).

12.Other aspects : Variable camber, planform tailoring, area ruling, braced wing,
aerodynamic coupling (intentionally adding a coupling lifting surface like canard).

AIRFOIL SELECTION
-Large airplane companies like Boeing and Airbus may design their own airfoils.

-During the preliminary design stage, the usual practice is the airfoil from the large number
of airfoils whose geometric ,an aerodynamic characteristics are available in the aeronautical
literature.

-To enable such a selection it is helpful to know the aerodynamic an geometrical

characteristics of airfoils and their nomenclature.

AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF AIRFOILS

Lift coefficient (CL ) vs angle of attack (α).

(I) Lift coefficient (CL ) vs angle of attack (α)
(II) . Four important features are
(a) Angle of zero lift (αL0),
(b) Slope of the lift curve denoted by dCL / dα or a0 or CL α
(c) Maximum lift coefficient (CLmax) and
(d) Angle of attack (αstall) corresponding to CLmax

Drag coefficient (CL ) vs angle of attack (α).

Two important features are

(a) Minimum drag coefficient (Cd min) and

(b) Lift coefficient ( CL) corresponding to Cd min. CL opt

 (c) Drag bucket - the minimum

Pitching moment coefficient about quarter-chord Cm c/4 vs α

. The location of the aerodynamic center (a.c.) and the moment about it

(Cm a.c ) can be worked out

(III) Stall pattern

: • Variation of the lift coefficient with angle of attack near the stall is an

indication of the stall pattern.

• Some airfoils display rapid decrease in CL after stall

. • This behavior is undesirable as pilot does not get adequate warning

regarding

• impending loss of lift.

• Airfoils with thickness ratio (t/c) between 6 – 10% generally display

sudden stall while those with t/c more than 14% display a gradual stall.

• It may be added that the stall patterns on the wing and on the airfoil are

directly • related only for high aspect ratio (A > 6) unswept wings.

• For low aspect ratio highly swept wings three-dimensional effects may

dominate
GEOMETRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF AIRFOIL

Airfoil shape and ordinates

The Aerofoil shape (Fig. c) is obtained by combining the camber line and the thickness
distribution in the following manner
. a) Draw the camber line shape and draw lines perpendicular to it at various locations along
the chord (Fig. c).
b) Lay off the thickness distribution along the lines drawn perpendicular to the mean line
(Fig. c).
c) The coordinates of the upper surface (xu , yu ) and lower surface (xl , yl ) of the airfoil are
given by the four equations
where yc and yt are the ordinates, at location x, of the camber line and the thickness
distribution respectively; tan θ is the slope of the camber line at location x
d)The leading edge radius is also prescribed for the Aerofoil. The center of the leading edge
radius is located along the tangent to the mean line at the leading edge e)Depending on the
thickness distribution, the trailing edge angle may be zero or have a finite value. In some
cases, thickness may be non-zero at the trailing edge
AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE/DESIGNATION

Effect of geometric parameters, Reynolds number and roughness on

aerodynamic characteristics of airfoils
– The surface roughness influences Clmax and Cdmin. With increase of roughness Clmax
decreases and Cdmin increases.
– The critical Mach number, in connection with the airfoil, is defined as the “Free stream
Mach number at which the maximum Mach number on the airfoil is unity”. This quantity
can be obtained theoretically by calculating the pressure distribution on the airfoil, but
cannot be determined experimentally. However, when the critical Mach number is
exceeded, the drag coefficient starts to increase. Making use of this behavior, the term
‘Drag divergence Mach number (MD )’ is defined as the Mach number at which the drag
coefficient shows an increase of 0.002 over the subsonic drag value.
– Some authors (Ref.4.3) define MD as the Mach number at which the slope of the Cd vs. M
curve has a value of 0.1 i.e. (dCd /dM ) = 0.1
– The drag divergence Mach number (MD) depends on airfoil shape, thickness ratio, and lift
coefficient. For a given airfoil MD is highest near Clopt. It decreases with thickness ratio
Supercritical Aerrfoil
– For airplanes flying at high subsonic speeds the lift coefficient under cruising condition (CL
cr) is around 0.5. At this value of lift coefficient, the older NACA airfoils have drag
divergence Mach number (MD ) of around 0.68 for a thickness ratio (t/c) of around 15%
. – With the advancements in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) it was possible, in 1970’s
to compute transonic flow past airfoils. This enabled design of improved airfoils, called
supercritical airfoils, which have MD around 0.75 for t/c of 15%

Effect of Reynolds number on Cd vs Cl curve Airfoil : NASA MS(1)-0317; M = 0.15 ; Smooth

surface
Effect of Reynolds number on Cd vs Cl curve Airfoil : NASA MS(1)-0317; M = 0.15 ; Rough
surface

Cl vs α, Cl vs Cd, Cl vs Cmc/4 curves for NASA LS(1)-0417 and α NASA MS(1)-0317 airfoils; Re
= 6 x 106 ; M = 0.15 ; Rough surface
CHOICE OF AIRFOIL CAMBER
-The choice of the airfoil for the airplane wing involves the selection of camber, thickness
ratio and shape of the airfoil.
-The camber decides the CLopt of the airfoil and the thickness ratio decides the
characteristics like CLmax, Cdmin, drag divergence Mach number (MD ), weight of the wing
and the stall pattern
.- For a good design, the camber should be chosen such that CLopt of the airfoil is close to
the lift coefficient of the aircraft (CL) in the flight corresponding to the mission of the
airplane.
-This lift coefficient is called design lift coefficient (CLdesign). In most of the cases, this
would correspond to the cruise flight condition.
-The camber of the airfoil is chosen such that CLopt approximately equals CLdesign
CHOICE OF AIRFOIL THICKNESS RATIO (t/c)
The thickness ratio (t/c) affects CDmin, CLmax, stall pattern, wing structural weight and MD
The effect of thickness ratio (t/c) on the structural weight of the wing are
• The wing structure consists of spars (front and rear), stingers and skin. The spars are like I
section beams.
• The flanges of the I section take the bending moment and the web takes the shear
• If the wing section is thicker, then the spar flanges will be away from the centroidal axis of
the section.
• Now, the bending moment resisted by an ‘I ’ section beam is proportional to the product
of the area of the flange and the distance of flange from centroidal axis
• Thus, for a given bending moment, a thicker I beam would require lower area of flange
• Consequently, it would be lighter. Thus, a thicker wing will result in lighter wing
 • The final selection of the airfoil involve trade-off studies. It is seen that an increase in
(t/c) results in increase of CLmax, decrease in wing weight and increase in Cdmin.
• The trade-off studies would involve selecting different (t/c) values and examining which
value gives minimum weight or fuel required etc.
• The high subsonic airplanes use supercritical airfoils of camber which would give CLopt =
CLdesign and (t/c) around 14%.
• Low speed airplanes have thickness ratio between 15 to 18%
• At supersonic speeds, Cdmin is proportional to (t/c)2 . These airplanes have (t/c) between
3 to 5%.
• Concorde airplane had biconvex airfoil of t/c = 0.035.
• Sometimes the (t/c) of the airfoil at the wing root is larger than the (t/c) of airfoil near
wing tip. This is a compromise between the conflicting effects of increase of (t/c) on Cdmin
and the wing weight. Values of (t/c) = 0.18 at root and 0.15 at tip have been used

CHOICE OF ASPECT RATIO (AR)

• Aspect ratio affects the slope of the lift curve CLα , the induced drag Cdi, the structural
weight of the wing and the wing span.
a)Effect of aspect ratio on slope of the lift curve
The slope of lift curve of a wing in subsonic flow for A > 4, is given by
 b)Effect of aspect ratio on induced drag
The induced drag coefficient (CDi) of a subsonic airplane is given by :

c)Effect of aspect ratio on structural weight

Equation shows that the wing weight increases as Ab where b = 0.5 to 0.79. The reason for
this is as follows. As the aspect ratio increases the wingspan(b) increases (b=Sqrt(A*S) ). An
increase in the span would increase the bending moment at the wing root. This would
require higher moment of inertia of the spar and hence higher weight.

d) Effect of aspect ratio on span

• For a chosen wing area, the aspect ratio decides the span of the wing
• In turn the span decides the hanger space needed for the airplane
• Hence, for personal airplanes, a moderate aspect ratio of 6 to 7 is generally chosen.
• Further, the ride in turbulent weather is poor for a high aspect ratio wing.
• Hence, agricultural and other airplanes, which fly in proximity of ground, are subjected to
air turbulence and have moderate aspect ratio of 6 to 7.
• Low speed airplanes of earlier designs had aspect ratio between 6 to 7.5, but the current
trend is to choose between 7.5 to 8.5.
• The medium speed airplane, using turboprop engines, of earlier design had aspect ratio
between 9 to 11. The current trend is the aspect ratio between 11 to 13.
• The high subsonic jet transport of earlier designs had aspect ratio between 7 to 8. The
current trend is between 8.5 to 10.0.
• The trend towards higher aspect ratio appears to be due to availability of carbon epoxy
material for fabrication of wing. This material is lighter than aluminium and has more
stiffness
Choice of sweep (Λ)
The wing sweep affects
• The slope of the lift curve (C Lα )
• The maximum lift coefficient CLmax
• The induced drag coefficient (CDi
• The drag divergence Mach number (MD )
• The wing weight
• The tip stalling.
a) Effect of sweep on slope of lift curve

• CLα decreases as sweep increases.

Eg., CLα of a wing of aspect ratio 9, operating at Mach number 0.8, would decrease by about
20% when sweep increases from 0o to 30o .
b) Effect of sweep on maximum lift coefficient(CLmax)

CLmax of a swept wing decreases in proportion to cos Λ

c) Effect of sweep on induced drag

K and the induced drag coefficient increases as angle of sweep increases.

d) Effect of sweep on divergence Mach number (MD)
For a swept wing the change in drag divergence Mach number due to sweep angle Λ
where, (MD )Λ = 0 and (MD )Λ are the drag divergence Mach numbers of the unswept and
the swept wing respectively Λ is quarter-chord sweep in degrees
For supercritical aerofoil,
Wing with Λ = 0, MD would be 0.78 Wing with Λ = 300 ,
MD would be 0.853 When M < MD ,
the lift to drag ratio (L/D) is high.
When MD increases the high value of (L/D) can continue up to higher values of Mach
numbers or flight speeds. Range also increases due to increase of flight speed
e) Effect of sweep on wing weight
Weight of the wing is proportional to (1 / cos Λ ). Thus, the weight of the wing increases as
sweep increases

i) Wing with cranked trailing edge:

Instead of having a trapezoidal wing planform, the wings of high subsonic airplanes have an
unswept trailing edge up to about 30% of semi-span in the inboard region.
These wings have the following favorable effects.
(a)Higher thickness at the root.
(b)Span-wise center of pressure is brought slightly inboard which reduces the bending
moment at the root as compared to the trapezoidal wing.
These two effects tend to reduce the weight of wing structure. The thicker inboard section
also provides room for accommodating the back-up structure for the landing gear
ii)The sweep has the beneficial effect of increasing MD.
However, it has the adverse effects of
(a) Increasing CDi and weight
(b) Decreasing CLmax
To avoid the adverse effects of sweep, the wings of high subsonic speed airplanes have,
features like
(a) Complicated high lift devices to take care of effect of sweep on CLmax,
(b) Low taper ratio and cranked wing to improve the increase in structural weight due to
sweep.
Airplanes flying up to M = 0.5 have unswept wings
• The airplanes like business jets and short large jet airplanes flying at M ≈ 0.7, have
moderate sweep of about 20o .
• For the jet transport airplanes cruising at Mach number between 0.8 to 0.85, the value of
sweep is chosen taking into account
(a) CLdesign
(b) airfoil used and
(c) aspect ratio of the wing.
The value of CLdesign for these airplanes is generally between 0.5 to 0.7.
• The wings of supersonic airplanes need values of Λ between 45o to 60o . Variable sweep
wings have been designed for such airplanes.
These wings have
(a) Low sweep at flight speeds near take-off and landing
(b) Moderate sweep Λ ( ≈ ) 35o for cruise at high subsonic Mach numbers
(c) Highest sweep for cruise at supersonic Mach numbers.
Choice of taper ratio (λ)
The taper ratio influences the following quantities. a) Induced drag b) Structural weight c)
Ease of fabrication
• An elliptic wing has the lowest induced drag (δ = 0 )
• A rectangular wing is easy to fabricate but has about 7% higher CDi as compared to the
elliptic wing (δ = 0.07 )
• An unswept wing, with λ between 0.3 to 0.5, has a slightly positive value of δ
• In a tapered wing, the span loading is concentrated in the inboard portions of the wing
and the airfoil at the root is thicker than that near the tip. These factors help in reducing the
wing weight
• Tip stalling is also not a problem when the taper ratio is between 0.3 and 0.5
• From these considerations, a taper ratio between 0.3 and 0.5 is common for low speed
airplanes.
• Some airplane wings have straight central portion
• This appears as a compromise between (a) ease of fabrication with untapered wing (b)
lower structural weight of a tapered wing
Twist
• A wing is said to have a twist when the chord lines of airfoils at different spanwise stations
are not parallel to each other.
• The difference between the angles of attack of the airfoil sections at the root and near the
tip is called geometric twist.
• The aerodynamic twist is the difference between zero lift lines of airfoils at root and near
the tip.
• Twist is used to prevent tip stalling
Tip stalling
• It is a phenomenon in which the stalling on the wing begins in the region near the wing tip.
• This is because the distribution of local lift coefficient (Cl ) is not uniform along the span
and as the angle of attack of the wing increases, the stalling will begin at a location where
the local lift coefficient exceeds the maximum lift coefficient (Clmax) there.
• Eg. Consider an unswept tapered wing. The lift distribution on such a wing has a maximum
at the root and goes to zero at the tip. This distribution is also known as Γ distribution.
• The local lift ΔL = 1/2 ( ρ )∞ V2 c CL Δy
• where c is the local chord and Cl is the local lift coefficient over an element ( Δy ) of span
• Γ distribution is proportional to the product (c*CL )
• The local lift coefficient (CL ) is proportional to Γ/c and is not uniform along the span.
• Γ distribution along the span can be approximately obtained by Schrenk’s method
• According to this method, (c Cl) distribution is roughly midway between the chord
distribution of the actual wing and that of an elliptic wing of the same area.

SCHRENK’S METHOD
• The angle of attack of the wing increases, the stalling will begin at the span-wise location
where local CL equals local CLmax .
• CL of wing will reach a maximum and then decrease
• Maximum lift coefficient (CLmax) of an airfoil depends on the airfoil shape, surface
roughness and Reynolds number.
• For simplicity, it is assumed that CLmax is approximately constant along the span
Wing incidence
• The mean aerodynamic chord is the reference line of the wing.
• Fuselage reference line (FRL) is the reference line for the entire airplane.
• The angle between fuselage reference line and the wing reference line is called wing
incidence and is denoted by iw .
• For the economy in fuel consumption, the drag should be minimum during cruise.
• The fuselage has a minimum drag when its angle of attack is zero.
• However, during cruise, the wing should produce sufficient lift to support the weight of
the airplane.
• Keeping these factors in view, the wing is mounted on the fuselage in such a manner that
it produces the required amount of lift in cruise while the fuselage is at zero angle of attack

The following procedure for a wing with aerodynamic twist of

where, ε is positive when the airfoil at the tip is at an angle of

attack higher than at root. The quantity J has a weak dependence on aspect ratio and taper
ratio of the wing.

The final choice of wing incidence

(iW )is arrived at from wind tunnel tests on the airplane model.
Dihedral (Γ)
• The dihedral angle is decided after the lateral dynamic stability calculations have been
done for the airplane.
• For preliminary design purposes a value based on data collection can be used.
Flaps
• The flaps are high lift devices.
• These devices are deployed to increase the maximum lift coefficient (CLmax) during take-
off and landing.
• The flaps in common use are : plain flap, split flap, zap flap, single slotted flap, double
slotted flap, triple slotted flap and fowler flap.
• Along with flaps, the medium speed airplanes and the jet airplanes have slats near the
leading edge
• The plain flap and split flap are simple to fabricate. The complexity of fabrication and the
weight of the wing increase progressively for zap flap, single slotted flap, double slotted
flap, triple slotted flap and fowler flap.
• The airplanes flying at high subsonic speed need high wing loading from the consideration
of cruise
• Complicated high lift devices are employed to reduce take-off and landing distances.
Considering these factors, the flaps used on different types of airplane are as follows.
(i) The homebuilt and general aviation aircraft use plain flap.
(ii) Single slotted flaps are used on general aviation aircraft and some transport airplanes
with turboprop engines e.g. SAAB 2000.
(iii) Double slotted flaps are used on some turbo-prop airplanes (e.g. ATR – 72 - 200) and on
some jet airplanes.(e.g. Boeing 767).
(iv) Triple slotted flaps are employed on large jet airplanes. Some airplane companies have
perfected the design of such flaps and use them.
(v) Fowler flaps are used on some turboprop airplanes (e.g. IPTN M – 250 – 100 and Dash 8 –
Q 300) and on many Boeing airplanes. The jet airplanes generally have leading edge slats in
combination with Fowler flap to increase CLmax further
Fuselage sizing
• The primary purpose of the fuselage is to house the payload.
• In transport airplanes the payload includes the passengers, their luggage and cargo.
• In military airplanes it is the ammunition and /or special equipment.
In addition to the payload, the fuselage accommodates the following.
(a) The flight crew and the cabin crew in the transport airplane and the specialist crew
members in airplanes used for reconnaissance, patrol and remote sensing.
(b) Fuel, engine and landing gear when they are housed inside the fuselage.
(c) Systems like air-conditioning system, pressurization system, hydraulic system, electrical
system, pneumatic system, electronic systems, emergency oxygen, floatation vests and
auxiliary power unit.
Desired features of fuselage design
The aim of fuselage design, at this stage of preliminary design, is to obtain the following.
(a) Lengths of nose, cockpit, payload compartment, tail cone and the overall length.
(b) Cross section shape and the heights and widths of nose, cockpit, payload compartment
and tail cone.
The desirable features of the design can be listed as follows.
• The flight crew, cabin crew and the passengers should have an environment of comfort.
The crew should be able to perform their duties effectively. The journey should be pleasant
for the passengers.
• Loading and unloading of passengers’ luggage and cargo should be efficient. The
regulating agencies like FAA, prescribe the size, number and locations of emergency exits
and equipment for emergency evacuation.
• Fuselage drag should be low. The lift produced by the wing – fuselage combination should
be close to that possible under ideal conditions.
• The tail arms for the horizontal and vertical tails should be long.
• The structural weight of fuselage should be low.
Guidelines for sizing fuselage of general aviation aircraft
Before carrying out the fuselage sizing, the following points are noted.
(i) At the start of the preliminary design, the category of the airplane has already been
chosen.
(ii) The preliminary design of the wing has been done and the wing parameters like span,
mean aerodynamic chord are known.
(iii) The engine has been tentatively chosen and the diameter of the propeller has been
arrived.
(iv) From the data collection on similar airplanes, the following ratios are known.
(a) lf /b ; where ‘lf ’ is length of fuselage and ‘b’ is wing span
(b) lengine compartment / lf
(c) lcabin / lf and
(d) L tail cone / lf
Based on the above data the following steps are suggested for fuselage sizing for single
engine airplanes in this category.
(1) Choose lf /b from data collection. Since ‘b’ has been obtained the first estimate of lf is
given by : lf = b x (lf /b)
(2) The propeller diameter (d) is known. Hence, the length of spinner (lspinner) is
approximately given as
lspinner ≈ 2 d (3) The
engine has been tentatively chosen. Hence, the length of the engine (l engine) and width of
the engine (wengine) can be obtained from sources
l engine compartment = 1.5 l engine
wengine compartment =1.2 wengine
The length of the engine compartment would be fine tuned after the design of the engine
mount. This is done during the structural design of the fuselage.
(4) The length of cabin. This item includes
(a) Portion between firewall and instrument panel
(b) The seating arrangement for pilot and the passenger(s) and
(c) baggage compartment.
❑ For agricultural airplane the length of the tank carrying pesticides can be included in the
cabin.
❑ In trainer airplanes the accommodation for trainee in side-by-side or tandem
arrangement be considered.
❑ The length and the width of the cabin can be estimated from the cabin length and width
of similar airplanes.`
❑ The outer dimensions of cabin can be obtained by adding suitable wall thickness to the
internal dimensions of the cabin
(5) The general aviation aircraft with upto 4 seats generally have elevator and / or rudder
extending beyond the rear end of the fuselage.
At this stage of preliminary design, the dimensions of horizontal and vertical tail be chosen
from data collection.
Then, the parameters like (ltail cone / lf ), height and width of real fuselage, can be chosen
based on data on similar airplanes
l tail cone = (Itail cone / lf ) x lf
(6) The total length of fuselage (lf ) is given by:
l f = lspinner + lengine compartment + lcabin + ltail cone
Tail Sizing
• The horizontal and vertical tails are designed to provide stability; the movable surfaces on
tails namely elevator and rudder provide control.
• The complete design of tail surfaces requires information on
(a) location of the centre of gravity(c.g.)of airplane,
(b) shift in c.g. location during flight
(c) the desirable level of stability.
• However, to obtain the c.g. location, the weights of horizontal and vertical tails are
needed which depend on their size.
Tail Sizing -Preliminary horizontal and vertical tail sizing
Hence, preliminary sizing of the two tails are carried out with the help of the following
steps.
1) Choose the tail arrangement from the various types
i. Nearly 70% of the airplanes have conventional tail i.e. horizontal tail is behind the wing
and located on the fuselage
ii. Nearly 25% of the airplanes have T-tail
iii. Cruciform tail
iv. H-tail and triple tail
v. V-Tail
2) While carrying out calculations leading to the preliminary three view drawing, the areas
of horizontal tail and vertical tails were based on the ratios (Sht / S) and (Svt/S) for similar
airplanes. Here, these areas are refined based on the tail volume ratios (Cht and Cvt) of the
similar airplanes.
These ratios are defined as
where,Cw bw and Sw are mean aerodynamic chord, span and area of the wing, Sht and
Svt are areas of horizontal and vertical tails ; lht is distance between c.g. of airplane and
aerodynamic centre of the horizontal tail and lvt is distance between c.g. of airplane and
a.c. of the vertical tail.

Location of c.g. is not known at this stage of preliminary design. Hence, taking
lht and lvt as the distances between the a.c. of the wing and the aerodynamic
centres of horizontal and vertical tail respectively, are close approximations to
lhtandlvt.
From the 3 - view drawings of the similar airplanes, the values of lht and lvt are
obtained. The area, span and mean aerodynamic chord of the wing are already
known. Hence, the areas of the tails are given by the following equations

4) The aspect ratio, taper ratio, sweep, airfoil section and incidence of the horizontal tail are
selected based on the following considerations.
It may be pointed out that the shapes of the horizontal tail and vertical tail are like that of a
wing. In such shapes, especially for subsonic airplanes, the span is much larger than the
chord and in turn the chord is much larger than the airfoil thickness. For example, in case of
subsonic airplanes the span is 6 to 10 times the average chord and the average chord in turn
is 6 to 10 times the thickness of the airfoil.
The flow past such shapes (wings) can be obtained in two stages. First by studying the flow
past the airfoil. Then the flow past the wing is obtained by applying corrections for the
effects of aspect ratio, taper ratio and sweep

Cross-check III – Adequacy of elevator to develop sufficient pitching moment

to enable nose wheel lift-off

During the ground run, the airplane starts from rest and accelerates to the takeoff speed
(VT0 or V1).
The flaps and engine(s) are adjusted for their take-off settings.
In the case of an airplane with tricycle type of landing gear, all the three wheels remain in
contact with the ground till a speed of about 85% of the VT0 is reached. This speed is called
‘Nose wheel lift-off speed’.
At this speed the pilot pulls the stick back and increases the angle of attack of the airplane
so as to attain a lift coefficient corresponding to take-off (CLT0).
At this stage, the nose wheel is off the ground and the speed of the airplane continues to
increase. As the speed exceeds the take-off speed the airplane gets airborne and the main
landing gear wheels also leave the ground.
• When the airplane has a tail wheel type of landing gear, the angle of attack is high at the
beginning of the take-off run.
• However, the tail wheel is lifted-off the ground as soon as some speed is gained and the
deflection of elevator can rotate the airplane about the main wheels.
• This action reduces the angle of attack and consequently the drag of the airplane during
most of the ground run.
-As the take-off speed is approached the tail wheel is lowered to get the incidence
corresponding to CLT0. When VT0 is exceeded, the airplane gets airborne .
• The point at which all the wheels have left the ground is called ‘Unstick point’.
-he requirement of the elevator in the case of airplane with tricycle landing gear is that it
should produce enough pitching moment to cause rotation of airplane at V = 0.85 VTO so
that it (airplane) attains angle of attack corresponding to CLTO.
-The angular acceleration for rotation of the airplane, is about the main landing gear. This
angular acceleration depends on
-elevator power (Cmδe),
-area of h.tail ( St),
-h.tail arm (lt),
-distance between airplane c.g. and main landing gear,
-airplane weight (f) coefficient of friction between ground and tyres
- moment of inertia of the airplane about y-axis.
Choice of aspect ratio for horizontal tail
The aspect ratio affects
(a) lift curve slope (CLα),
(b) induced drag coefficient (CDi)
(c) the structural weight.
• The purpose of the horizontal tail is to provide stability about Y-axis and the elevator
provides control about the Y-axis.
• The lift and drag produced by the horizontal tail are much smaller than those produced by
the wing.
• Consequently, while choosing aspect ratio of the horizontal tail, the reduction of structural
weight is accorded more importance than the reduction of drag.
• Further, the structural weight decreases as aspect ratio decreases.
• Hence, the aspect ratio of the horizontal tail is lower than that of the wing.
• A value of aspect ratio between 3 to 5 is commonly used for subsonic airplanes.
Choice of taper ratio for horizontal tail
The taper ratio influences
(a) induced drag,
(b) structural weight and
(c) ease of fabrication.
• The induced drag is low for λ between 0.3 and 0.5, structural weight decreases as λ
decreases and fabrication is easier for untapered wing ( λ =1.0 ).
• A tail with λ =1 is used for the low subsonic airplanes where cost of fabrication is the
prime consideration.
• For the general aviation aircraft and the medium speed airplanes, the taper ratio of the
horizontal tail is lower than that of the wing.
• For the high subsonic airplanes with swept wings having λ around 0.2, the horizontal tail has a
taper ratio between 0.3 to 0.6
Choice of sweep for horizontal tail
A sweep has adverse effect of
a) lower CLα ,
b) lower CLmax ,
c) higher CDi
d) higher structural weight.
• The advantage of sweep is to increase the drag divergence Mach number (M D ).
• At flight Mach number less than 0.7, drag divergence Mach number is not a consideration.
• Hence, airplanes flying at low and medium subsonic Mach numbers generally have
unswept wing and horizontal tail. (some airplanes in these categories (e.g. XAC Y-7, AN-140)
have tails with moderate quarter chord sweep Λ < 100 - This would increase the tail arm
slightly )
• In the case of high subsonic airplanes the tail should have a value of drag divergence Mach
number (MD ) equal to higher than that of the wing. Hence, the sweep angle of the
horizontal tail is equal to that of the wing or slighter higher Λ h.tail ≈ Λwing + 5( degres )
Airfoil section for horizontal tail
• The elevator and rudder have deflections on both sides of the undeflected positions.
• Hence, horizontal and vertical tails always have symmetric airfoil section.
• NACA 0009 and NACA 0012 airfoils are commonly used for tails of airplanes flying at low
and medium subsonic Mach numbers.
• For airplane flying at high subsonic Mach numbers, the drag divergence Mach number of
the tail should be higher than that of the wing. A symmetrical airfoil with (t/c) of 90 % of the
(t/c) of the wing can be a rough guideline for preliminary design purpose
• The incidence of the horizontal tail (it) is the angle between the reference chord of the
horizontal tail and the fuselage reference line.
• The horizontal tail incidence is chosen such that during the cruise, the lift required from
the tail, to make the airplane pitching moment zero, is produced without elevator
deflection.
• This is because, the drag at low angles of attack, is the least when the lift by the tail is
produced without elevator deflection.
• The value of it is also chosen to reduce trim drag.
• The angle (it ) is measured clockwise from fuselage reference line. It generally has a small
negative value.
• Determination of it requires knowledge of (a) the angle of attack of the airplane during
cruise and (b) downwash at the tail
 UNIT V
DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE
landing gear design
Steps involved in Preliminary landing gear design
(a) Selection of the type of landing gear viz. nose wheel, tail wheel or bicycle type.
(b) Selection of retractable or non-retractable configuration
(c) After the type of landing gear is chosen, the details like wheel arrangement, tyre size,
shock absorbers and retraction mechanism are designed during structural design.
In the preliminary design(aerodynamic) the type of landing gear and wheel base and wheel
track are decided. The use of tail wheel type of landing gear is currently limited to low
subsonic small airplanes meant to operate from unprepared fields. Nose wheel type of
landing gear is used in other types of airplanes. The non- retractable type is used on airplanes
flying at speeds lower than about 250 kmph. At higher speeds the drag of landing gear
becomes excessive and retractable landing gear is the choice.
The location of landing gear is such that the main wheels take 85% to 90% of the weight. This
consideration
decides the wheel base. The wheel tread depends on the location of wheel wells for retraction
of main wheels. The tread is small if the wheels are retracted in pods on fuselage. It is large
if the wheels are retracted in wings or in nacelles mounted on wings.

landing gear arrangements

The landing gear is also called undercarriage or alighting gear.
The following three types of landing gears are mainly used on airplanes.
(i) Tricycle or nose wheel type
(ii) Tail wheel type
(iii) Bicycle with outtrigger wheels on wings

Tricycle type or nose wheel landing gear

This is the most commonly used landing gear. The nose wheel is near the nose of the fuselage
and the two wheels located on the wings, in this case, form the tricycle arrangement.
Sometimes the rear wheels may be attached to the fuselage. The main wheels and nose wheel
are located
such that they share roughly 90% and 10% of the airplane weight. The nose wheel is generally
steerable. However, as the size of the airplane increases, multiple wheels are used. This is
called bogie.

Retractable and non-rectractable landing gear

In low speed airplanes the landing gear is fixed to the airplane. Such a landing gear
configuration is called
non-retractable. This type of landing gear is simple. However, it is exposed to the airstream
throughout the flight and increases the drag of the airplane. The drag of the landing gear is
proportional to the square of flight speed and when the cruising speed of the airplane
exceeds about 250 kmph the drag of landing gear becomes excessive. Then a retractable
landing gear is used. In this case all the wheels of the landing gear are retracted in the
respective wheel wells. The nose wheel has the wheel well in the nose. The wheel wells for
the main wheels are either
(i) in the wing or
(j) (ii) in the nacelle attached to wing or
(iii) in special pods attached to fuselage. The last alternative for wheel well is used in
airplanes with high wing configuration. In this case, retracting the main landing gear in
wings or nacelles attached to wing would require long landing gear legs and relatively
large wheel well. A retractable landing gear is heavy and increases the complexity of the
airplane. As a compromise the airplanes below cruising speed of about 250 kmph have
non-retractable landing gear and above that speed they have retractable gear.
Sometimes, airfoil shaped fairing is attached to the main wheels of the non-retractable
landing gear. This fairing reduces the drag coefficient to some extent.

Tail wheel type landing gear

In this type of landing gear main wheels are ahead of c.g. and the tail wheel is at the rear end
of fuselage. This type of landing gear is mainly used on low speed air-planes and is generally
is non-retractable. Simplicity in the advantage of this type of landing gear. Tail dragger is an
aircraft with tail wheel or tail skid.

Bicycle type landing gear

In this type of landing gear the front and rear wheel(s) are located on the fuselage centre line.
Outrigger wheels are provided on wing tips to prevent the airplane from toppling sideways.

Elements of Computer Aided Design (CAD)

A set of methods and tools to assist product designers in

 Creating a geometrical representation of the artifacts they are designing

 Dimensioning, Tolerancing

 Configuration Management (Changes)

 Archiving

 Exchanging part and assembly information between teams,organizations

  Feeding subsequent design steps

 Analysis (CAE)
Manufacturing (CAM)

Benefits of CAD
 Productivity (=Speed) Increase
 Automation of repeated tasks
 Insert standard parts (e.g. fasteners) from database

 Supports Changeability
 . Don’t have to redo entire drawing with each change .
 Keep track of previous design iterations

 Communication
 With other teams/engineers, e.g. manufacturing, suppliers
 With other applications (CAE/FEM, CAM)
 Marketing, realistic product rendering
 Accurate, high quality drawings

 Some limited Analysis

 Mass Properties (Mass, Inertia)
 Collisions between parts, clearances

Major CAD Software Products

 AutoCAD (Autodesk)

 Pro Engineer (PTC).

 SolidWorks (Dassault Systems).

  CATIA (IBM/Dassault Systems). Unigraphics (UGS).

 I-DEAS (SDRC)

Special consideration in configuration lay out

 Aerodynamic considerations
 Structural considerations
 Crashworthiness
 Producibility or manufacturing considerations
 Maintainability
 Environmental considerations
o Airplane noise
o Emmissions

 Additional considerations for military airplanes

o Radar detectability
o Infrared detectability
o Visual detectability
o Vulnerability
After dimensions of the major components have been obtained the subsequent steps in the
design process are as follows.
i) Development of a smooth, producible and aerodynamically efficient external
geometry. The methods to obtain smooth external geometry are called lofting.
ii) Installation of internal features such as crew station, payload, landing gear and various
systems. Iii) Integration of propulsion system.
iv) Working out details such as wetted area, cross sectional areas, volume etc.
The final layout is a compromise between aerodynamic, structural, and functional
requirements. Producibility, maintainability, and environmental considerations also affect
the layout.

Aerodynamic considerations
A poorly designed external shape of the airplane could result in undesirable flow separation
resulting in low CLmax, low lift to drag ratio and, large transonic and supersonic wave drag.
 (i) Minimization of wetted area is an important consideration as it directly affects skin
friction drag and in
turn parasite drag. One way to achieve this is to have smallest fuselage diameter and low
fineness ratio (between 3 and 4). However, proper space for payload, ease of maintenance
and tail arm also needs to be considered.
(ii) To prevent flow separation, the deviation of fuselage shape from free stream direction
should not exceed 10o – 12o .
(iii) Proper fillets should be used at junctions between
(a) wing and fuselage,(b) fuselage and tails and (c) wing and pylons.
(iv) Base area (unfaired, rearward facing blunt surface) should be minimum.
(v) Canard, if used, should be located such that its wake does not enter the engine inlet
as it may cause engine stalling.
(vi) Area ruling
The plan view of supersonic airplanes indicates that the area of cross section of fuselage is
decreased in the region where wing is located. This is called area ruling. A brief note on this
topic is presented below. It was observed that the transonic wave drag of an airplane is
reduced when the distribution of the area of cross section of the airplane, in planes
perpendicular to the flow direction, has a smooth variation. In this context, it may be added
that the area of cross section of the fuselage generally varies smoothly. However, when the
wing is encountered there is an abrupt change in the cross-sectional area. This abrupt
change is alleviated by reduction in the area of cross section of fuselage in the region where
the wing is located. Such a fuselage shape is called ‘Coke-bottle shape’.

(a) Abrupt change in cross sectional area at wing fuselage junction

(b) Coke-bottle shape
Maximum transonic wave drag coefficient of three different shapes
(a) body of revolution (b) wing-body combination without area ruling (c) wing-body
combination with area ruling

Structural considerations
Primary concern in the design process is to obtain an airplane with low structural weight. This
is achieved
by provision of efficient load path i.e. structural elements by which the opposing forces are
connected. It may be recalled that the structural members are of the following types.
a) Struts which take tension
b) Columns which take compressive load
c) Beams which transfer normal loads
d) Shafts which transmit torsion
e) Levers which transfer the load along with change of direction.
The most efficient way of transmitting the load is when the force is transmitted in an axial
direction or
the opposing forces are aligned with each other. This led to the flying wing or blended wing-
body concept in which the structural weight is minimized as the lift is produced by the wing
and the entire weight of the airplane is also in the wing.
However, in a conventional airplane the payload and systems are in the fuselage. The wing
produces the
lift and as a structural member it behaves like a beam. Hence to reduce the structural weight,
the fuel tanks, engines and landing gears are located on the wing, as they act as relieving
load.
Reduction in number of cutouts and access holes, consistent with maintenance requirements,
also reduces structural weight.

Crashworthiness
During a crash, parts of airplane would break loose and fly forward. Hence heavy items should
not be located behind and above the passengers. Landing gear and engine nacelles may get
ripped away during a crash. Hence, they should be located such that they do not rip open
fuel tanks. Lower portion of fuselage should be such that it does not dig into ground.
In the case of passenger airplanes emergency exits and evacuation system need to be
provided.

Producibility or manufacturing considerations

The cost of an airplane is generally proportional to its weight. However, factors like material
chosen, fabrication processes (machining, forging, molding, welding, finishing etc.), tooling
required and assembly man - hours also influence the cost. Hence, ease of fabrication is an
important consideration in design of an airplane.
(i) There should be commonality of parts e.g. left and right landing gear, left and right
halves of tail, ailerons etc., should be identical.
(ii) Forgings are expensive and should be reduced in number.
(iii) Installations of internal components, hydraulic lines, electrical wiring, cooling ducts
need careful layout to avoid excessive cost.
(iv) For convenience in assembly of entire airplane, it (the airplane) is built from sub-
assemblies. This
needs incorporation of suitable subdivisions and allocation of parts to different sub-
assemblies. This requires an adequate knowledge of structural design, fabrication
techniques and principles of operation of major subsystems.
(v) Use of CAD / CAM techniques require standardization of drawings and processes.
(vi) Components made of FRP materials are lighter but need altogether different
manufacturing techniques than the metal components.

Airplane Noise
Noise during the arrival and departure of the airplane affects the community around the
airport. In 1994, ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) and later FAR (Federal
Aviation Regulation) prescribed limits on noise level at three different points near the airport.
The noise is generated by:
a) The engines,
b) Parts of the airframe like control surfaces and high lift devices which significantly
change the airflow direction.
c) Projections in airflow like landing gear and spoilers.
Considerable research has been carried out to reduce the engine noise. High by-pass ratio
engines with lobed nozzle have significantly lowered the noise level. Noise level inside the
cabin has to be minimal. This is achieved by suitable noise insulation. Further, the clearance
between cabin and the propeller should not be less than the half of the radius of the
propeller.

Emissions
Combustion of the fuel in an engine produces carbon dioxide, water vapor, various oxides of
nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide, unburnt hydrocarbons and sulphur dioxide (SO2). The
components other than carbon dioxide and water vapor are called pollutants. ICAO has
prescribed acceptable limits of pollutants (grams of pollutant per kgf of fuel burnt). The thrust
setting changes during the flight and hence the emission levels have to be controlled during
landing, take-off and climb segment up to 3000 ft (1000 m). At high altitudes the NOx
components may deplete ozone layer. Hence, supersonic airplanes may not be allowed to fly
above 50000 ft (15 km) altitude. It may be noted that cruising altitude for Concorde was 18
km. Improvements in engine design have significantly reduced the level of pollutants.
The amount of pollution caused by air transport is negligible as compared to that caused by
road transport, energy generation and industry. However, the aircraft industry has always
been responsive to the ecological concerns and newer technologies have emerged in the
design of engine and airframe.

Maintainability
An airplane being a costly means of transport, the general policy is to carry out periodical
maintenance and not wait for break down. Different parts of the airplane have different
service life. Hence, inspection and maintenance are carried out after a specified number of
hours of flight. This practice enhances safety. To carry out inspections, proper access doors
need to be provided. However, such cut outs increase structural weight and a proper
compromise is required. Civil airplanes also require ground servicing. The lay out of the
airplane should enable low turn-around time for items like re-fuelling, fresh water
replenishment, re-supply of food, toilet servicing, cabin cleaning and cargo/baggage
handling. The military airplanes also require ground servicing like refuelling and
replenishment of armament.

Radar detectability
A radar installation consists of a transmitter antenna that sends a directed beam of
electromagnetic wave and receiver antenna which picks up the faint radio waves that bounce
off the object. The extent to which an object returns electromagnetic energy is a measure of
its “Radar cross section (RCS)”. Following remarks are made in this context.
(i) Radar signal strength is inversely proportional to the 4th power of distance of the
target.
(ii) RCS depends on “look angle” i.e. the direction from threat radar.
(iii) Following factors contribute to RCS.
(a) Flat surfaces perpendicular to incoming radar beams for example flat sides of fuselage.
 (b) Leading edges.
(c) Inlet and exhaust cavities of engine.
(d) Discontinuities in surface.
(iv) Stealth technology
The ways to reduce RCS are referred to as stealth technology. This requires proper shaping of
the airplane - buried engines (no nacelles), flying wing, intakes on top of the airplane, exhaust
with 2 – D nozzles. Use of radar beam absorbing materials like composites and special paints
also reduces RCS

Infra-red detectability
Guidance of air-to-air and ground-to-air missiles is many times based on seeking source of
infra-red (IR) radiation. Following are the sources of IR.
(i) Engine exhaust
(ii) Hot parts of airplane. Heating being caused by aerodynamic heating, at high speeds.
(iii) Solar IR radiation reflected by skin and cockpit.
The Radiation from engine exhaust can be reduced in the following manner.
(a) Having a bypass engine as power plant.
(b) Increased mixing and lower temperature by using 2-D nozzle

Visual detectability
Visual detection depends on the size of the airplane and color. Aircraft can also be detected
in night by glow of engine exhaust. Camouflage schemes are used to avoid detection.

Vulnerability
Vulnerable area or component is that which when struck by a weapon will cause the aircraft
to be lost. Following considerations reduce vulnerability.
(i) Fuel should not be stored over or around engines and inlet ducts.
(ii) Hydraulic lines and reservoirs should be away from engine.
(iii) Engine bays, fuel bays and weapons bay should have fire suppressing systems.
(iv) In twin-engined airplanes there should be enough separation between the two
engines. This prevents the damaged engine affecting the other engine.
(v) Critical components, crew and passengers should not be placed within 5 degrees arc
of propeller disc.
(vi) There could be redundancy in important systems like hydraulic, electrical, flight
control and fuel systems.
Performance estimation
-After carrying out the stability analysis, the major dimensions of the airplane have been
arrived at. This will
-enable preparation of the revised three view drawing. Using this drawing and the flight
conditions, a drag polar of the airplane can be estimated.
The performance analysis includes the following:
--The variation of stalling speed (Vs) at various altitudes.

--Variations with altitude of maximum speed (Vmax) and minimum speed from power output

consideration (Vmin)power. The minimum speed of the airplane at an altitude will be the higher

of Vs and (Vmin)power. The maximum speed and minimum speed will decide the flight envelope.

--Variations with altitude of the maximum rate of climb (R/C)max and maximum angle of climb

(γmax)

; the flight being treated as steady climb. Variations with altitude of V(R/C)max and Vγmax. To

arrive at these quantities, choose a set of altitudes and at each of these altitudes, obtain the

R/C and γ at

different flight velocities. From the plot of (R/C)max vs. h, the values of absolute ceiling and

service ceiling can be obtained. At absolute ceiling (R/C)max is zero and at service ceiling

(R/C)max is 30 m/min. For multi-engined airplanes, the rate of climb with one engine

inoperative must satisfy the airworthiness regulations.

--To arrive at the cruising speed and altitude, choose a range of altitudes around the cruising

altitude mentioned in the specifications. At each of these altitudes obtain the range in constant

velocity flights choosing different velocities. The information on appropriate values of specific

fuel consumption (SFC) can be obtained from the engine charts.

The values of range obtained at different speeds and altitudes be plotted as range vs velocity

curves with altitude as parameter. Draw an envelope of these curves.The altitude and velocity

at which the range is maximum can be considered as the cruising speed (Vcruise) and cruising

altitude (hcruise). These

curves also give information about the range of flight speeds and altitudes around Vcruise and

hcruise at which near optimum performance is obtained.

--The maximum rate of turn (ψmax ) and the minimum radius of turn (rmin) in steady level turn

depend on the thrust available, CLmax and the permissible load factor (nmax). The value of

CLmax used here is that without the flaps. For high speed airplanes the value of CLmax depends

also on Mach number. The value of nmax depends on the weight and the type of airplane.

Choose a set of altitudes and at each of these altitudes obtain the values of V and Vrmin. From

plots of these quantities obtain variations, with altitude, of rmin, and Vrmin. ψmax

--Take - off run and take - off distance: During take-off an airplane accelerates on the ground.

For an airplane with nose wheel type of landing gear, around a speed of 85% of the take-off

speed, the pilot pulls the stick back. Then, the airplane attains the angle of attack corresponding

to take-off and the airplane leaves the ground. The point at which the main wheels leave the

ground is called the unstick point and the distance from the start of take-off point to the unstick

point is called the ground run. After the unstick, the airplane goes along a curved path as lift is

more than the weight. This phase of take-off is called transition at the end of which the airplane

climbs along a straight line. The take-off phase is said to be over when the airplane attains

screen height which is generally 15 m above the ground. The horizontal distance from the start

of the take-off to the point where the airplane attains screen height is called take-off distance.

The take-off run and the take-off distance can be estimated by writing down equations of

motion in different phases.

--Landing Distance: The landing flight begins when the airplane is at the screen height at a

velocity called the approach speed. During the approach phase the airplane descends along a

flight path of about 3 degrees. Subsequently the flight path becomes horizontal in the phase

called ‘flare’. In this phase the pilot also tries to touch the ground gently. The point where the

main wheels touch the ground is called touch down point. Subsequent to touch down, the

airplane rolls along the ground for about 3 seconds during which the nose wheel is off the

ground. Then, with speed somewhat reduced, the nose wheel touches the ground. This phase is

called free roll. After this phase the brakes are applied and the airplane comes to halt. In some
airplanes, thrust in the reverse direction is applied by changing the direction of jet exhaust or

by reversible pitch propeller. In some airplanes, the drag is increased by speed brakes, spoilers

or parachutes. For airplanes which land on the deck of the ship, an arresting gear is employed

to reduce the landing distance. The horizontal distance from the start of approach at screen

height till the airplane comes to rest is called landing distance

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