Introduction to Sociology

sociology, scientific study of human social behavior. As the study of humans in their collective aspect,
sociology is concerned with all group activities—economic, social, political, and religious. Sociologists study
such areas as bureaucracy, community, deviant behavior, family, public opinion, social change, social
mobility, social stratification, and such specific problems as crime, divorce, child abuse, and substance
addiction. Sociology tries to determine the laws governing human behavior in social contexts; it is
sometimes distinguished as a general social science from the special social sciences, such as economics
and political science, which confine themselves to a selected group of social facts or relations

Evolution of Sociology

A number of Western political theorists and philosophers, including Plato, Polybius, Machiavelli, Vico,
Hobbes, Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau, have treated political problems in a broader social context.
Thus Montesquieu regarded the political forms of different states as a consequence of the working of deep
underlying climatic, geographic, economic, and psychological factors. In the 18th cent., Scottish thinkers
made inquiries into the nature of society; scholars like Adam Smith explored the economic causes of social
organization and social change, while Adam Ferguson considered the noneconomic causes of social
cohesion.
It was not until the 19th cent., however, when the concept of society was finally separated from that of the
state, that sociology developed into an independent study. The term sociology was coined (1838) by
Auguste Comte . He attempted to analyze all aspects of cultural, political, and economic life and to identify
the unifying principles of society at each stage of human social development. Herbert Spencer applied the
principles of Darwinian evolution to the development of human society in his popular and
controversial Principles of Sociology (1876–96). An important stimulus to sociological thought came from
the work of Karl Marx , who emphasized the economic basis of the organization of society and its division
into classes and saw in the class struggle the main agent of social progress.
The founders of the modern study of sociology were Émile Durkheim and Max Weber . Durkheim pioneered
in the use of empirical evidence and statistical material in the study of society. Weber's major contribution
was as a theorist, and his generalizations about social organization and the relation of belief systems,
including religion, to social action are still influential. He developed the use of the ideal type—a working
model, based on the selective combination of certain elements of historical fact or current reality—as a tool
of sociological analysis. In the United States the study of sociology was pioneered and developed by Lester
Frank Ward and William Graham Sumner .
The most important theoretical sociology in the 20th cent. has moved in three directions: conflict theory,
structural-functional theory, and symbolic interaction theory. Conflict theory draws heavily on the work of
Karl Marx and emphasizes the role of conflict in explaining social change; prominent conflict theorists
include Ralf Dahrendorf and C. Wright Mills. Structural-functional theory, developed by Talcott Parsons and
advanced by Robert Merton , assumes that large social systems are characterized by homeostasis,
or steady states. The theory is now often called conservative in its orientation. Symbolic interaction,
begun by George Herbert Mead and further developed by Herbert Blumer and others, focuses on subjective
perceptions or other symbolic processes of communication.
Sociology: Uses, Careers and Importance of Studying Sociology
Sociology seeks to deepen our understanding of human relationships by unravelling new truths
about them. It helps in removing ignorance about human relationships. It is relevant wherever
human relations are at work. Whatever the field the emphasis will be on understanding human
behaviour and relationships. ‘Sociology enables us to understand the world we live in but also to
understand ourselves, for we are the products of that world.
This understanding can help us to gain more control over our lives but it can also be put to more
practical uses as well’ (Fulcher and Scott, 2003). In fact, it can be argued that sociology is
indispensable for understanding the present complex world. There are several reasons (listed below
under the sub-heading ‘uses of sociology”) why sociological knowledge is essential in making
sense of the contemporary world.
‘Sociology is not only an intellectual discipline, it is also a profession … when we speak of a
profession, we refer mainly to themes as the uses or applications of a body of knowledge’ (Inkeles,
1964). The student may sometimes get confused about sociology and social reform.
But sociology is not social reform. The essential principles of sociology are a prerequisite in any
study of human relationships and in any proposed solution to a social problem. It is desirable, of
course, that ‘solutions’ be found for the problems of society and that certain universal principles
of social life be established.
A student may study sociology for his own sake, just to know more about society and culture. But
mere knowledge does not satisfy him. He may probably seek sociological knowledge just to apply
it to the social situations in which he finds himself.
In general, it may be said that sociological knowledge lends itself to helping an individual and his
society achieve results in terms of better social relations. But, a very few students pursue the
subject of sociology to either seek knowledge for knowledge sake or applying it in the solution of
their own day-to-day life problems.
A person can be an expert in sociology but may not be able to solve his own family problems or
may behave as a social deviant. Relatively few students become professional sociologists but
everybody must all times live in society, associate with people, and enact social roles. It is obvious
that sociological knowledge is a basic help in choosing one’s own career and vocation.
Positions in teaching, salesmanship, business administration or local bodies administration, law,
journalism and even in politics and other fields, where an essential occupational activity is ‘dealing
with people’, require more than ordinary knowledge of human relations in society. Reliable
knowledge about social phenomena is an essential and basic prerequisite for better human
relationships and, in turn, for a better society.

Uses of Sociology:
Famous Swedish Noble laureate Gunnar Myrdal (1970) long back said that the social sciences are
important in a democracy because they encourage the open discussion of important issues by
appealing to the people’s rationality rather than to superstition and narrowness. The sociologist
can make this contribution. Sociology has its uses.
The main uses of sociology may be as listed below:
1. It provides a basic understanding of human society, how social system work, how people’s
behaviour is modified by their circumstances.
2. It broadens the range of our perspective from which we try to understand the social world.
3. It gives us an insight into our daily life like a tourist guide.
4. It helps in removing ignorance about human relationships.
5. The world we live in is in trouble. It besets with many dilemmas. Sociology guides us in sorting
out such dilemmas. The world is shrinking in many ways too—satellite TV, cell phone networks
and Internet have created many new conditions and problems. Contact between culturally different
groups has increased enormously in the present time. Sociology helps in studying cultures of
different societies in various circumstances.
6. It provides us an orientation to the use of research techniques applicable in a wide variety of
contexts.
7. It helps us understand ourselves and our positions in society. It is a source of self-enlightenment
and increases self-understanding.

8. It is a useful preparation for our careers.

9. It helps us in developing awareness of cultural differences. We adopt the views transmitted to
us by our culture, but these views are often limited and superficial and do not constitute any
understanding. Quite often, if we properly understand how others live, we also require a better
understanding of what their problems are.
10. There is educational value of sociology. It learns us how other people manage their societies
and solve their problems. It may lead us to healthy scepticism, a tendency to ask intelligent
questions about our own. It has been said that the hallmark of a university trained mind is
intelligent and unprejudiced scepticism.
11. Sociological research provides practical help in assessing the results of policy initiatives. A
programme of practical reform may simply fail to achieve what its designers sought, or may
produce unintended consequences of an unfortunate kind.
12. Knowledge gives humans the power to shake off the past and shape their destiny—and
sociology brings this power into the social world.
13. Society and culture change rapidly in our day and age. The stable joint family and even nuclear
family is no longer the only common and socially acceptable way of life. It is being replaced slowly
by a new type of relationship called ‘living together’ ‘or’ ‘live-in relationship’.
Youth culture and trends in fashion and music change so fast that older people have difficulties in
following their twists and turns, food habits are being transformed, leading together diversity
within many countries, and so on. These and other changes which impinge upon human behaviour
make it necessary to study sociology.
The discipline of sociology can play a valuable role in developing critical thinking. It can help
students to better understand the working of their own society and of other cultures. Students will
be able to use sociological concepts, approaches and theories in emaciating human interactions
and institutions. Sociological imagination can be useful in examining such public policy issues as
capital punishment, feminism, reservation (affirmative action) and the AIDS crisis, etc.
All sciences are emancipatory, including sociology. The prime objective of all sciences is to
improve the human conditions and liberate the man from all shackles of exploitation and
deprivation. Anthony Giddens (1997) aptly remarked: ‘Studying sociology should be liberating
experience sociology enlarges our sympathies and imagination, opens up new perspectives on the
sources of our own behaviour, and creates an awareness of cultural settings different from our own
… sociological thinking is a vital help to self-understanding, which in turn can be focussed back
on an improved understanding of the social world.’
Perhaps, the main contribution of sociology is that it makes more sense of our lives. It does so by
explaining the relationships between personal experience and ‘external events’, between self and
society. Charles Wright Mills (1956) described the links between self and society in terms of
‘personal troubles’, such as losing one’s job or being wounded in combat and ‘public issues’, such
as rising unemployment or war phobia.
It is befitting to conclude this section with the views of founder sociologist Max Weber (1970)
who nearly a century ago argued in his lectures on ‘Science as a Vocation’ and ‘Politics as a
Vocation’ that sociology could not tell members of society what values to hold, but it could
demonstrate the possibilities and constraints facing them within their social structure.

Careers in Sociology:
Sociology is not only an intellectual discipline, it is also a profession. When we speak of a
profession, we refer mainly to such things as the uses or applications of a body of knowledge.
Sociologists play a rich and varied role in today’s society.
They serve in a variety of capacities, such as consultant, teacher, policy maker, researcher,
administrator, clinical counsellor, social critic, interviewer, journalist, probation and parole
worker, career counsellor, social worker, recreation worker, programme evaluator, urban planner,
marketing administration coordinator, personnel manager, etc. They work in areas as broad and
diverse as the discipline they have chosen.

Knowledge of sociology can be used in the following areas of

social life:
1. Teaching
2. Social research
3. Social work
4. Professions—medicine, law, engineering, business, etc.
Industry
6. Rural and urban planning
7. Public administration—civil services
8. Policy making
9. Business consultancy
10. Politics
11. Architecture
12. Child welfare and health care
13. Gerontology (study of old age people)
14. Computer industry
15. Military intelligence and military
16. Entrepreneurship
17. International relations
18. Criminal justice
19. City management
20. New emerging careers:
(a) action programme,
(b) development, and
(c) human resource management.
Sociology and Common Sense:
Many a time, it is charged that sociology is nothing but sheer common sense in the garb of jugglery
of words or bombastic expression used in the name of science. It is often said that whatever
sociologists say, we already have at least a bit of knowledge of it or we may have experienced it
at some juncture of our life. Some people opined that it is just our popular wisdom couched in
metaphoric language.
This notion is not correct. Such knowledge, while sometimes accurate, is not always reliable
because it rests on commonly held beliefs rather than systematic analysis of facts. It was once
considered ‘common sense’ to accept that the earth was flat or the sun revolves round the earth.
Such notions still remain with us even today. These questions were raised by many early thinkers
such as Pythagoras, Aristotle and many others.
For thousands of years people’s common sense has made them believe that big objects are faster
than small ones, that stone and iron are perfectly solid materials, that the desire for children is
instinctive, that the institutions of caste and joint family or the custom of dowry will automatically
wither away with the spread of education, that the high caste or white people are more talented
than the low caste or black people, etc.
But when these statements were investigated scientifically, it was found that they were not true.
These common sense statements based on popular wisdom illustrate our point that common sense
knowledge is not always true.
Many common sense conclusions are based on guesses, ignorance, prejudices, mistaken interpreta-
tions and haphazard trial and error learning’s. On the other hand, scientific observations are based
on verifiable evidence or systematic body of proofs.
Like other scientists, sociologists’ perspective of looking at social phenomena is different from the
layman or common sense perspective. Sociologist sees the society through the trained eyes of a
scientist. Sociologists do not accept something as a fact because ‘everyone knows it’.
Sociological perspective consists of objectivity, empiricism, precision, ethical neutrality and
verifiability. Sociologists gather facts scientifically in order to describe understand and predict any
social phenomenon. Sociologists look at the world critically and do not take things for granted
based on traditional beliefs and practices.

Sociology and Social Policy:

Sociology at its best is the science of social interactions and social relationships which are the core
to the formation of society. While not a precise science that can predict behaviour, it is nonetheless
a valuable discipline assisting the search for more rational social arrangements and preparing social
policy.
The term ‘policy’ commonly refers to clearly articulated set of ideas about what should be done in
a particular sphere. It differs from a plan. Plans specify in detail the way in which objectives are
to be achieved, whereas a policy is typically formulated at a more general level, indicating only
objectives and the intended direction of change. A policy is begun in the hope that it will produce
a desired effect.
What is social policy? To answer this question in a few words is slightly problematic. Some people
chose to answer this question by listing the areas of public (government) policy under this heading.
The main areas are social security and social welfare, social services, health service, education,
employment services and housing.
This simple definition, i.e., listing the areas of welfare fields, is too narrow. It is argued that
exclusive concentration on government policies is mistaken and that one should also include the
policies of religious and charitable bodies as well as of private corporations also aiming to meet
the social needs of the population.
Some have gone to the extent of including even economic policies in the gamut of social policy.
We shall use the term ‘social policy to mean all policies (carried out by government and private
agencies) that are directed towards meeting the social needs (welfare needs) of the population
including policies concerning social security, health, education, housing, child, women, sick and
disabled and old age welfare.
It also includes social division of welfare, or the management of public, fiscal and private
allocation of wealth, the organization of employment, the management of wage system and the
creation of styles of living. In short, social policy is about the kind of society people want to create
and what they do to create it.
There have been a range of approaches to the analysis of social policy. T.H. Marshall (1963), in
his classic statement, stated that ‘the avowed objective of 20th century social policy is welfare’.
Marxists and others argue that the objective of certain social policy measures is to control
disaffected groups in the population rather than to act out of concern for their welfare.
Similarly, Peter Townsend (1979), Professor of International Social Policy, London School of
Economics, argued that the main aim of social policy is the institutional control of services,
agencies and organizations, which are engaged in maintaining of changing social structure and
values.
It is to be noted that much of the work has been done in departments of social administration
outside the framework of sociology. ‘Social administration’ refers to the means by which social
policy is implemented.

Pure and Applied Sociology:

All sciences contribute to the knowledge base and also to the solution and resolution of practical
problems and issues.
As such, all sciences have two faces:
1. Pure Science/Pure Sociology
2. Applied Science/Applied Sociology:
Logically, the distinction is one between ‘pure’ research—concerned with advancing fundamental,
theoretical knowledge—and ‘practical’ or ‘applied’ research—applying already existing scientific
knowledge to the solution of practical problems.
Both are interdependent, rather than one being dependent on the other. Although technology
(applied science) does in fact advance by applying scientific principles to practical problems, its
own successes often contribute in anticipated ways to basic science.
Pure Science/Pure Sociology:
Pure science is a search for knowledge, without primary concern for its practical use. Knowledge
for knowledge sake is the main aim of a pure scientist. Scientists, who seek knowledge for its own
sake, no more moved by the question of its utility like the mother and the father who protect and
nourish their children without expecting anything in return.
Parents commonly love their children without calculating their usefulness. Many
students/researchers of science feel much the same thing about their work. Pure sciences (Physics,
Chemistry, Biology, Botany, Physiology, Economics, Political Science, Psychology,
Anthropology and Sociology, etc.) are concerned with the advancement of knowledge.
Their main aim is to investigate the underlying principles of the natural and social world which
sustain and change the natural and social order. They are not concerned with the practical
application of their results or curing the immediate ills of our natural or social order. The goal of
each natural science, including sociology, is the formulation of scientific laws.
Sociology is a pure science, not an applied one. As a scientific endeavor, it is not directly concerned
with social welfare or with solving social problems and building a better society. The knowledge
gained by sociology can help formulate public policies. Sociologists investigate why people do the
things they do and feel and think the way they do.
The immediate goal of sociology is the acquisition of knowledge about human society, and not the
utilization of that knowledge. According to Lester F. Ward (1841-1913), a pioneer sociologist of
America, the main aim of pure sociology is ‘to investigate fundamental rules of social structure
and social change’.
Robert Bierstedt (1974) wrote: ‘Sociologists do not determine questions of public policy, do not
tell legislators what laws should be passed or repealed and do not dispense relief to the ill, the
lame, the blind, or the poor—except, of course, in their capacity as citizens—apply the knowledge
that it is their duty and profession to acquire.’
This view was held by early sociologists between 1920 and 1940 who believed sociology as a
value-free science. But this view is now no more accepted in totality by all sociologists.
Applied Science/Applied Sociology:
Applied science is the search for ways of using scientific knowledge to solve practical problems.
The sciences, which apply the principles of knowledge or use principles to manipulate something,
gained from the basic or pure sciences, are known as applied sciences.
All branches of engineering, science of medicine,’ architecture and social work come under the
category of applied sciences. An applied science has quite opposite aim and intent than a pure
science.
It is not concerned with the theory or formulation of laws or development and systematization of
principles. For example, an average doctor is not primarily interested in the theory of disease or
the principles that underlie diagnosis but he is primarily concerned with the treatment of the disease
of his patient.
The social sciences (e.g., sociology) like all sciences have dual function. They serve to help the
people to solve their problems and at the same time explore and understand the world around them.
As such, there is an interest in application and also in understanding.
When social scientific findings are applied to the solutions of social problems, it is called applied
sociology. Sociology, as an applied discipline, uses the knowledge of the pure social scientist to
improve social life.
Immediately, sociology seeks to understand the fundamental mechanism of social reality, but the
desire to understand is always motivated by the wish to control. The main aim of applied sociology
is to bring social welfare in society through social scientific investigation.
For example, a sociologist making a study of the social structure of a slum is working as a pure
scientist but if he studies how to prevent or control delinquency in a slum or how to remove
poverty, then he is working as an applied scientist. In the role of applied scientist, a sociologist
tries to solve the social problems.
Though sociologists and social workers do share some common tasks, still it is a mistake to regard
sociology as equivalent to social work or social welfare.
Types of Applied Sociology:
Applied sociology may be divided into five main branches:
1. Clinical Sociology:
It refers to the use of sociological knowledge in providing assistance to individuals and
organizations. This term, analogous to clinical psychology, was introduced in 1931 by Chicago
sociologist Louis Wirth for the work of sociologists employed in clinical settings alongside social
workers, psychologists and psychiatrists. Clinical sociology involves the use of sociological
knowledge to aid diagnosis, treatment, teaching and research. A clinical sociologist may study the
ways of improving employee morale.
2. Social Engineering:
It attempts to use sociological knowledge to design social policies or institutions with a specific
purpose. It refers to planned social change and social development. The planned improvement of
society is practically impossible without the scientific knowledge provided by sociology.
Social engineering involves the intelligent application of sociological knowledge. It is based on
the idea that governments can shape and manage key features of society in much the same way as
the economy is managed.
For example, the extent of women’s employment is clearly determined in part by government
policy to promote to impede women’s paid work. For doing such works, applied sociologists use
social indicators and social trend reports. Every family, school, club, business and local bodies
recognizes and pursues its goal. This is nothing more or less than social engineering.
3. Social Work:
Though it is a distinct discipline, it is considered as an applied aspect of sociology. Social work is
the field in which the principles of the social sciences, especially sociology, are applied to actual
social problems in the same way the principles of physiology are applied in medicine or the
principles of economics are applied in business management. A social worker might, for example,
use information obtained from family research to try to place children in foster homes or to
establish centres of spouse abuse.
The term ‘social work’ is applied to the various organized methods for promoting human welfare
through the prevention and relief of suffering. In the late 19th century, social work was largely
voluntary (notably as a charitable activity).
Since the Second World War, social work practice has become increasingly professionalized. In
India, many institutions of social work training and education were established; notable among
them is the renowned Tata Institute of Social Work, Mumbai. Many state governments have also
started such institutions on its pattern. These institutions have the aim to train people to step out
into society and to assist in the solution of its immediate problems.
4. Applied Social Research:
It is similar in many respects to the basic/pure research conducted in universities and colleges. At
one end of the continuum of social research would be the disciplines involved in research, not to
solve a specific problem, but simply to increase our understanding of the social world. Such
researches are known as pure/basic research.
At the other end of the continuum would be the disciplines that use knowledge to solve actual
problems, these researches is called applied social research. Social workers devise their own
research methods and techniques to help people solve personal and group problems, and the
resulting applications contribute to our existing body of knowledge.
Applied social research may take the form of descriptive research, survey research, analytical or
evaluation research such as systematic attempts to estimate the potential effects of a proposed
social programme or effects of planned change or a new approach to management in a business
firms.
5. Action Sociology:
Action sociology is also a form of applied sociology in which sociologist is asked to participate in
the development process and tackle vital social problems actively. It is directly concerned with the
solutions of the social problems. It requires the involvement of the sociologist in all stages of
development or the solutions of the problem.
This means not only to find out the roots of the social problem and suggest it remedy but to
associate ourselves in the diagnosis of the problem, planning, execution, monitoring and evaluation
of the programme designed to solve the problem. In India, a fine example of this approach (action
sociology) we find in the project of Sulabh International started by a sociologist Bindeswar Pathak.
Intervention is needed to make society better. Action sociology/action research places emphasis
on the sociologist not only to work as a researcher but to assume the role of a change agent also.
Such change agents are often used in local communities, local bodies or in companies as
consultants. They work as part of the change process itself.
This view was supported by Herbert Gans (in Paul Felix Lazarsfeld et al., 1967). He wrote: ‘I
believe that the sociologist ought to be more than a detached researcher and he should participate
more directly in social action programmes…. The sociologist can help to develop the means
necessary to achieve the goals, i.e., by participating in the development of programmes of action.
It is here that he can perhaps make his most useful contribution.’
Currently, there is a strong trend toward action sociology. Indeed, radical sociologists maintain
that action sociology is sociology of engagement. Recently, French sociologist Alain Touraine
(1988) developed a radical new theoretical framework known as actionalism. He claimed that the
sociologist is an agent of change, not a neutral observer. He has a stake in the conflicts of his or
her society.
As such he or she should play the role of a ‘sociological interventionist’ in which he/she should
study social change movements by participating in them directly. This actionalist sociology,
Touraine believed, will ‘replace a sociology of society with a sociology of actors’.
The new world of information society with global networks and cyberspace will inevitably
generate a wide variety of social, political, and ethical problems. Many problems related to human
relationships and the communities become apparent, when most human activities are carried on in
cyberspace. Using the library-based methodology, the study focuses on the ethical issues in
information technology. Based on extant literature, several ethical issues such as plagiarism,
hacking, viruses, data access rights, piracy, ergonomy and health issues amongst others were
identified as possible ethical issues related to IT. These basic issues have been solved partially
using technological approaches, such as encryption technique, SSL, digital IDs and computer
firewalls. Besides these protection technologies, legal laws are also needed in cyberspace to
address hundreds of countries, which are incorporated into one global network. Guidelines and
strategies should be implemented so that global information can be exploited in a socially and
ethically sensitive way for our future benefit and applications.
1.0. INTRODUCTION THE CONCEPT OF ETHICS THEORY
The notion of ethics is regularly drawn upon in the context of expected patterns of behaviors
written or unwritten, consistent with generally accepted standards for those to whom it may
concern. However, there are various perspectives on the concept of ethics. Griffin cited in
Agbonifoh (2002) defines the concept as an individual’s personal belief about what is right or
wrong, good or bad. Conversely, Miner (2002) defined ethics as right or wrong actions that
stems from the value and expectation of society. Mintz and Morris (2007) notes that ethics are
acceptable standards of behaviour that define how people ought to act (i.e. prescriptive) not
how people really act (i.e. descriptive). Nevertheless, the generic sociological meaning of the
concept of ethics seems to provide a common ground for most of them. Sociologically
speaking, ethics are provided in order to render behavior intelligible and to “prevent conflicts
from arising by bridging the gap between action and expectation” (Scott & Lyman, 1968).

In the context of an operational definition with regards to professions, Ethics generally refers
to those principles and codes of behaviour that guide the conduct of any profession. The term
usually carries along moral values, normative judgments and moral obligations. At any rate,
every profession possesses its own ethics. However, there are some commonalities in
professional ethics. These ethics that are common derive from the general expectations of the
public from either a public officer or a professional practitioner. The issue of ethics usually
goes along with allocation of value judgment such as good or bad; right or wrong. Fisher
(2004) defines the concept as an individual’s personal belief about what is right or wrong,
good or bad. It is the arbiter of an individual’s evaluation of the “rightness” or otherwise of
his or her actions. Though often regarded as subjective, it is traceable to the foundation of an
individual’s belief system and judged within context. Conversely, Logsdon and Yuthas (1997)
notes that the ethical stance of a firm is constructed based on the expectation of society, that
is, the legitimate claims made by the constituencies to whom the firm interacts. According to
Hanekom (1984), the question of ethics is one that is linked with the history of mankind. Ethics
deals with the character and conduct and morals of human beings. It deals with good or bad,
right or wrong behaviour. It evaluates conduct against some absolute criteria and puts negative
orpositive values on it. It is the reflective study of what one ought to do, or how one ought to
live. Erondu, Sharland and Okpara (2004) hold that the study of “ethics” focuses on issues of
practical decision making, including the nature of ultimate value, and standards by which a
human action can be judged right or wrong, good or bad. For Adenubi (1999), ethics applies
to any system or theory of moral values or principles. For Beauchamp and Bowie (2001),
ethics is the general term referring to both moral beliefs and ethical theory on human conduct
Ethics is a reflection on morality. It refers to the principles of right and wrong in making
choices by individuals. It has been described as the art and science that seeks to bring
sensitivity and methods to the discernment of moral values (Carbo, 2006). Thus, ethics guide
human and societal behavior. Capuro (2006) had no difficulty in asserting that ethics is an
unending quest on explicit and implicit use of the moral code. It can also be describe as the
rules of conduct or moral principles that are recognised in respect to a particular class of human
action or a particular group, culture, profession. Rue and Byars (2000) are of the views that
ethics are principles of conduct used to govern the decision-making and behaviour of an
individual or a group of individuals. They further indicate that because management is
concerned with making decisions within an organization, the ethics of the individual or group
making these decisions have significant implications for the organization’s stakeholders:
employees, customers, shareholders, suppliers, the government, and the public at large.
According to Cyert and March (1992) Ethics and morals are synonymous. Ethics is derived
from Greek while morals are derived from Latin. They are identical terms referring to ideals
of character and conduct. These ideals, in the form of codes of conduct become the criteria for
distinguishing between right and wrong”. Ethics is therefore the same thing as morality and
they shape our conduct and behaviour right from childhood through adolescence and
adulthood. In every aspect of life our conduct and behaviour is guided by what we were taught
to be right or wrong. Heynes (1986) is of the opinion that ethics has to do with the actions of
man. Consequently, it requires adjustments in the actions and attitudes of the individual in
whatever context in relation to his environment as well as in relation to himself. He notes that
ethics are basic perceptions of the relative importance of our elements of existence. These
perceptions always have to do with priorities, whereas norms are the function by which direct
evaluation of human attitudes and actions is made possible

2.0. PHILOSOPHICAL THEORIES OF ETHICS

2.1. Ethical theories
Utilitarianism
Two British philosophers, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, developed utilitarianism as
an ethical model in the early 1800’s. Utilitarianism is a consequence based theory, stating that
the only real factor a person should consider when making a decision is the consequence of
the action and the number of people positively affected. The right (or good) choice is the one
that provides the best outcome for the majority of people. At the basic level, this theory has
the decision maker focusing on the consequences of his decision, looking for the best solution
for all affected parties. Human nature makes it difficult to determine what choice provides the
most positive benefit. There is no universal scale with which to measure the utility of a decision
with regard to its overall effects. It is easy for consequence-based decisions to become
situational, with the decision maker rationalizing actions for a self-serving purpose. Focusing
on the consequences of a decision first does not necessarily create situations that are conducive
 to choosing the most ethical path when the less ethical path can be reasoned to be the better
choice in general.

Pluralism
Resnik (2010) notes that as a theory based in doing one’s duty, pluralism holds that decisions
should be made out of a sense of duty to do the right thing. According to this ethical theory,
as rational beings, humans are able to resist impulse and do the right thing absolutely,
regardless of the consequences. The concept of duty within this theory is that of doing the right
thing with the right attitude for the right reason. Proponents of this theory espouse that the duty
to do the “right” thing is absolute, without exception, regardless of circumstance. This is where
the opponents of this theory take issue. Nothing can be considered absolute in the arena of
personal human interaction because of the innumerable variables involved. The models above
illustrate the very basics of ethics and ethical theory.

Justice
Generally, justics is as fairness, which refers to the correlation between contribution and
reward. However, fairness alone cannot define the term justice (according to R.A.
ANISEREHAMEED & F.M AJIDE) Ethics in accounting, there are also forms of justice,
which includes equality (assumes that all people have equal worth), procedural justice
(concerns with due process) and compensatory justics (addresses the loss from a wrongful act).

Theory of justice, which is based on the principles of distributive justics, it focuses on how
fairly one’s decisions distribute benefits and burdens amongst members of the group. Unjust
distribution of benefits and burdens is an unjust act and an unjust act is a morally wrong act.
Hence, under this theory, an ethical decision is one that produces the fairest overall distribution
of benefits and burdens

3.0 Ethical Issues in Information Technology

Before now, business success was built on the ability to move goods and services with speed
and accuracy. Today, information has become the fuel that propels business success.
Information technology has been defined as the processing and distribution of data using
computer hardware, software, telecommunications and digital electronics. . As noted by Carbo
(2006) ethical considerations for ICT related issues first appeared under the topic ‘’information
ethics’’ in the Annual Review of Information Science and Technology in 1992. This suggests
that there is an ethical agenda associated with the use of ICT. Individuals and organisations
therefore need to be ethically sensitive as they deploy ICT on their operations. The impact of
ICT on human relationship has been tremendous. ICT has helped to enhance family
relationship (e.g. mobile phones, palmtops, laptops, virtual conferencing and so on), as well
help to separate family and friends from each other. ICT has enabled new friendship
and relationships in virtual communities. How genuine are such relationship? What does it
portend for individual satisfaction? In the workplace for instance, new kinds of jobs are being
created such as data miners, web-counselors etc, but these opportunities are also endangered
by problems of unemployment from computer replacing humans. A wide range of new laws,
regulations, rules and practices are therefore needed if society is to manage these workplace
and other changes and development brought about by ICT. Thus the society need to consider
the following ethical and social challenges related to ICT use:
➢ Recognition for personal and corporate ethics associated with ICT.
➢ Striking a balance between ethical, economic and technological (Rogerson, 2008) as well
as political considerations.
1. Intellectual property rights issue (trademarks, patents, copyright and trade secrets).
2. Non violation of privacy and associated rights amidst electronic information data mining.
3. The opportunity to commit crime with ICT (computer crime).
4. Legal issues and limitations. 5. Consequence of using ICT.
6. Professional responsibilities (Kallman and Grillo, 1999)

4.0. CONCEPTS OF ETHICAL ISSUES

In the rapidly changing technological environment in which we live; ethical issues are
increasingly been raised, demanding attention and efforts towards resolution. Of particular
interest for us and the information society are those related to information communication
technologies (ICTs). The explosive growth of ICT and the use of its enabling technologies
have had major impacts on society and thus raise serious ethical questions for individuals and
organisations. These issues have been raised to a new and often perplexing level which has
greatly affected the society in various ways. The pressing issues raised by ICT include the
invasion of individual and corporate privacy, intellectual property rights, individual and
societal rights, values preservation and accountability for the consequences arising from the
use of ICT, etc.These issues have thrown up important challenges in the area of employment;
working conditions and individuality. However, not much progress has been made in
addressing these issues and challenges associated with ICT.
According to Fielden, (2004), Information Technology (IT) has a central role in commerce,
industry, government, medicine, education, entertainment and society at large. Its economic
and social benefits hardly need explanation. But like any other technologies, IT also has
problematic implications, and some negative impacts on our society. It poses and creates some
problems related to ethics, and contains in general three main types of ethical issues: personal
privacy, access right, and harmful actions. In terms of personal privacy, IT enables data
exchange of information on a large scale from anybody, on any locations or parts of the world,
at any times. In this situation, there is increased potential for disclosing information and
violating the privacy of any individuals and groups of people due to its widespread
disseminations worldwide. It is our challenge and responsibility to maintain the privacy and
integrity of data regarding individuals. This also includes taking precautions to ensure the
accuracy of data, as well as protecting it from unauthorized access or accidental disclosure to
inappropriate individuals.
The second aspect of ethical issues in computing systems is access right. Due to the current
popularity of international commerce on the Internet, the topic of computer security and access
right has moved quickly from being a low priority for corporations and government agencies
to a high priority. This interest has been heightened by computer breakins at places like Los
Alamos National Laboratories and NASA in the US. Many attempts of such illegal access to
United States government and military computers by computer hackers have been widely
reported. Without implementation of proper computer security policies and strategies, network
connections on the Internet can’t be made secure from illegal accesses (Grimesm Fleischman
& Jaeger 2009).

Grimes, Fleischman & Jaeger (2009) notes that in computer ethics, harmful action means
injury or negative consequences, such as undesirable loss of information, loss of property,
property damage, or unwanted environmental impacts. This principle prohibits use of
computing technology in ways that result in harm to any of users, the general public,
employees, and employers. Harmful actions include intentional destruction or modification of
files and programs leading to serious loss of resources or unnecessary expenditure of human
resources such as the time and effort required to purge systems from "computer viruses. We
shall also examine other specific ethical issues arising from IT below;

4.1. Plagiarism
Plagiarism is where the work of others is copied, but the author presents it as his or her own
work. This is a highly unethical practice, but happens quite frequently, and with all the
information that is now available on the Internet it is much easier to do and is happening more
often

Information and copyright

Education
Commerce and industry are certainly arenas in which the Internet has had a profound effect,
but what of the foundational institutions of any society—namely, those related to education
and the production of knowledge? Here the Internet has had a variety of effects, some of which
are quite disturbing. There are more computers in the classroom than ever before, but there is
scant evidence that they enhance the learning of basic skills in reading, writing, and arithmetic.
And while access to vast amounts of digital information is convenient, it has also become
apparent that most students now see libraries as antiquated institutions better used for their
computer terminals than for their book collections. As teachers at all education levels can
attest, students typically prefer to research their papers by reading online rather than wandering
through a library's stacks.
In a related effect the Internet has brought plagiarism into the computer era in two distinct
senses. First, electronic texts have made it simple for students to “cut and paste” published
sources (e.g., encyclopaedia articles) into their own papers. Second, although students could
always get someone to write their papers for them, it is now much easier to find and purchase
anonymous papers at Web sites and to even commission original term papers for a fixed fee.
Ironically, what the Internet gives, it also takes away. Teachers now have access to databases
of electronically submitted papers and can easily compare their own students' papers against a
vast archive of sources. Even a simple online search can sometimes find where one particularly
well-turned phrase originally appeared.

Piracy
Piracy, the illegal copying of software, is a very serious problem, and it is estimated that
approximately 50% of all programs on PCs are pirated copies. Programmers spend hours and
hours designing programs, using elaborate code, and surely need to be protected. Although
some might argue that some pirating at least should be permitted as it can help to lead to a
more computer literate population. But, for corporations, in particular, this is a very serious
issue, and can significantly damage profit margins (White 2002).

File Sharing
College students have been at the leading edge of the growing awareness of the centrality of
intellectual property in a digital age. When American college student Shawn Fanning invented
Napster in 1999, he set in motion an ongoing legal battle over digital rights. Napster was a
file-sharing system that allowed users to share electronic copies of music online. The problem
was obvious: recording companies were losing revenues as one legal copy of a song was shared
among many people. Although the record companies succeeded in shutting down Napster,
they found themselves having to contend with a new form of file sharing, P2P (“person-to-
person”). In P2P there is no central administrator to shut down as there had been with Napster.
Initially, the recording industry sued the makers of P2P software and a few of the most prolific
users—often
students located on university campuses with access to highspeed connections for serving
music and, later, movie files—in an attempt to discourage the millions of people who regularly
used the software. Still, even while some P2P software makers have been held liable for losses
that the copyright owners have incurred, more-devious schemes for circumventing
apprehension have been invented. The inability to prevent file sharing has led the recording
and movie industries to devise sophisticated copy protection on their CDs and DVDs. In a
particularly controversial incident, Sony Corporation introduced CDs into the market in 2005
with copy protection that involved a special viruslike code that hid on a user's computer. This
code, however, also was open to being exploited by virus writers to gain control of users'
machines.

Hacking
A hacker is an individual who is knowledgeable enough to gain access without authorization
to computer systems to identify security flaws. Hackers break into, or ‘hack’ into a system.
Hacking can be undertaken for a variety of reasons, such as the wish to damage a system or
the wish to understand how a system works, so that money can be made out of it. Alternatively,
there might be a desire to alert people to the fact that a system is insecure and needs improving.
Due to this some argue that there are ‘hacker ethics’. Hacking can present a moral dilemma.
This is because ‘reformed hackers’ sometimes offer their expertise to help organisations
protect themselves against other hackers. Hackers cannot just wander into a system, as they
could into an unlocked door. Instead, it requires a lot of skill. With this skill hackers can
demonstrate that a system is insecure and needs improving. In this way, it could be argued that
hackers play a valuable role. Many argue that hacking might lead to some improvements, but
that it causes such a lot of disruption that it is not worth it in the long-run (McCarthy, Halawi
., Aronson, 2005)

Computer Crime
By some estimates the personal records of about 73 million people in the U.S. were
accidentally disclosed, lost, or stolen in 2006. In one high-profile case, a burglary at the home
of an employee of the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs resulted in the theft of a computer
that contained personal data on more than 26 million current and former members of the U.S.
military. The computer was later recovered, its data apparently untouched by the thieves, who
had not realized what they had taken. There were fears that millions of other people might not
be so lucky, however. In many cases the lost information included credit-card and Social
Security numbers, which fueled concerns that stolen information could lead to widespread
consumer fraud. In an 18-month period during 2005–06, well over 200 different security
breaches at companies and government agencies were reported. As a result, credit-card issuers
tried to reduce their vulnerability by pressuring companies that handled credit-card
transactions to comply with strict new credit-card security standards that were backed by Visa
and MasterCard. As the year ended, it appeared that identity theft had not risen to the level
suggested by the amount of personal information that had been compromised, but there was
no way to know whether identity thieves were simply biding their time before they used the
information to steal money through bank or credit-card accounts.
Perpetrators of identity theft who had been caught recounted the ease with which they cashed
in on stolen information. Thieves typically stole identity information when it was inadvertently
disclosed or through “phishing” schemes, in which they used e-mail to persuade people to
submit a creditcard number or other personal information to a fake Web page that pretended
to represent a real business. Using a stolen credit-card number, the thieves then transferred
money to themselves from a victim's account or purchased goods by using the victim's identity.
The scope of the theft efforts was huge; in a single month more than 17,000 phishing attacks
were reported to volunteer groups trying to prevent identity theft.
Many different computer crimes are committed, which clearly poses ethical questions for
society. Various illegal acts are performed on computers, such as fraud and embezzlement.
This includes, for example, using imaging and desktop publishing to create, copy or alter
official documents and graphic images. There are also various ethical dilemmas, such as
whether copying such files is as bad as stealing something.

Malicious Code
Malicious code attacks include a number of types of computer programs that were created with
the intention of causing data loss or damage. The three main types of malicious code attacks
are viruses, Trojan horses, and worms. A virus is malicious software that is attached to another
program to execute a particular unwanted function on a workstation. An example is a program
that is attached to command.com (the primary interpreter for Windows systems) and deletes
certain files and infects any other versions of command.com that it can find. A Trojan horse is
different only in that the entire application was written to look like something else, when in
fact it is an attack tool. An example of a Trojan horse is a software application that runs a
simple game on a workstation. While the user is occupied with the game, the Trojan horse
mails a copy of itself to every address in the user's address book. The other users receive the
game and play it, thereby spreading the Trojan horse to the addresses in each address book.
Viruses normally require a delivery mechanism, a vector, such as a zip file or some other
executable file attached to an email, to carry the virus code from one system to another. The
key element that distinguishes a computer worm from a computer virus is that human
interaction is required to facilitate the spread of a virus. Worms are self-contained programs
that attack a system and try to exploit a specific vulnerability in the target. Upon successful
exploitation of the vulnerability, the worm copies its program from the attacking host to the
newly exploited system to begin the cycle again A virus consists of a set of instructions that
attaches itself to other computer programs, usually in the computer's operating system, and
becomes part of them. In most cases, the corrupted programs continue to perform their
intended functions but surreptitiously execute the virus's instructions as well. A virus is usually
designed to execute when it is loaded into a computer's memory. Upon execution, the virus
instructs its host program to copy the viral code into, or “infect,” any number of other programs
and files stored in the computer. The infection can then transfer itself to files and code on other
computers through magnetic disks or other memory-storage devices, computer networks, or
online systems. The replicating viruses often multiply until they destroy data or render other
program codes meaningless. A virus may simply cause a harmless joke or cryptic message to
appear on a computer user's video monitor each time he turns on his computer. A more
damaging virus can wreak havoc on an extremely large computer system within a matter of
minutes or hours, causing it to crash and thereby destroy valuable data. Clearly writing and
spreading virus programs are unethical acts; they have very serious consequences, and cause
systems to crash and organisations to cease operating for certain periods. One of the most
concerning consequences of such actions is when viruses interrupt the smooth functioning of
an organisation which could in extreme cases even cause people to die. Logic bombs are also
sometimes planted. There is obviously a lot of anti-virus software on the market now though
that helps to deal with this ever-growing problem.

Ergonomics/Health Issues
There are many ergonomic/health issues related to I.T. Responsible/ethically-minded
employers will, hopefully, give due consideration to this, as indeed should all employers. This
includes issues such as the importance of taking adequate breaks from using the computer and
ensuring that the screens comply with the regulations. Also, ensuring that the positioning of
the chair and the computer is appropriate for the user and providing foot rests, when required.
Some organisations will give special advice to their employees on these matters. Without such
ethical/moral awareness and taking the necessary action, many workers will suffer health
problems directly from I.T., such as back problems, eyestrain and eye infections and repetitive
strain injury (RSI).

Job displacement/work pressures imposed on computer professionals

Computers are changing the face of the work scene. For some people, their jobs are becoming
redundant or they have to play quite different roles, and others are suffering increasing levels
of stress from work pressures. Others are, obviously, reaping the benefits of having more
rewarding jobs, and there is certainly more emphasis on knowledge, information and I.T. skills
than ever before. However, this all clearly poses various ethical issues. Should those that lose
their jobs be compensated? How can the pressure be eased on those that are suffering stress?
Is it acceptable for computer programmers to be made redundant ‘on the spot’ etc? There are
many ethical issues that need to be addressed here

Digital Divide
The digital divide poses a serious problem today. A new breed of haves’ and ‘have nots’ are
being created, between those that have access and can use a computer and the Internet, and
those that do not have such access. There are clearly serious ethical implications here. Those
that do not have such access may well be discriminated against, feel ‘socially excluded’ and
miss out on many life opportunities

5. International Efforts on Legislations

According to Bessen and Hunt (2004), the growing threat to individuals is beginning to claim
attention in national and international community. In many countries around the world,
existing laws are likely to be unenforceable against such crimes. This lack of legal protection
means that businesses and governments must rely solely on technical measures to protect
themselves from those who would pose false information, from who steal, deny access to, or
even destroy valuable information. Self-protection is not sufficient to make cyberspace a safe
place to conduct business. The rule of law must also be enforced. Countries where legal
protections are inadequate will become increasingly less able to compete in the new economy.
As cybercrime increasingly breaches national borders, nations perceived as havens run the risk
of having their electronic messages blocked by the network. National governments should
examine their current statutes to determine whether they are sufficient to combat such kinds
of crimes. Until now, only few nations have amended their laws to cover computer crimes that
need to be addressed, as shown in Table 3. Other countries begin to implement some
initiatives, and it is clear that a great deal of additional work and efforts are needed before
organizations and individuals can be confident that cyber criminals will think twice before
attacking valued systems and information

Computer/Cyber Fraud:
The term fraud may be defined as the intentional misrepresentation of financial information
by one or more individual among management, employees or third parties. The use of a
computer as an instrument to further illegal ends, such as committing fraud, trafficking in child
pornography and intellectual property, stealing identities, or violating privacy. Cybercrime,
especially through the Internet, has grown in importance as the computer has become central
to commerce, entertainment, and government. Because of the early and widespread adoption
of computers and the Internet in the United States, most of the earliest victims and villains of
cybercrime were Americans. By the 21st century, though, hardly a hamlet remained anywhere
in the world that had not been touched by cybercrime of one sort or another.

Defining Cybercrime
New technologies create new criminal opportunities but few new types of crime. What
distinguishes cybercrime from traditional criminal activity? Obviously, one difference is the
use of the digital computer, but technology alone is insufficient for any distinction that might
exist between different realms of criminal activity. Criminals do not need a computer to
commit fraud, traffic in child pornography and intellectual property, steal an identity, or violate
someone's privacy. All those activities existed before the “cyber” prefix became ubiquitous.
Cybercrime, especially involving the Internet, represents an extension of existing criminal
behaviour alongside some novel illegal activities. Most cybercrime is an attack on information
about individuals, corporations, or governments. Although the attacks do not take place on a
physical body, they do take place on the personal or corporate virtual body, which is the set of
informational attributes that define people and institutions on the Internet. In other words, in
the digital age our virtual identities are essential elements of everyday life: we are a bundle of
numbers and identifiers in multiple computer databases owned by governments and
corporations. Cybercrime highlights the centrality of networked computers in our lives, as well
as the fragility of such seemingly solid facts as individual identity. An important aspect of
cybercrime is its nonlocal character: actions can occur in jurisdictions separated by vast
distances. This poses severe problems for law enforcement since previously local or even
national crimes now require international cooperation. For example, if a person accesses child
pornography located on a computer in a country that does not ban child pornography, is that
individual committing a crime in a nation where such materials are illegal? Where exactly does
cybercrime take place? Cyberspace is simply a richer version of the space where a telephone
conversation takes place, somewhere between the two people having the conversation. As a
planet-spanning network, the Internet offers criminals multiple hiding places in the real world
as well as in the network itself. However, just as individuals walking on the ground leave
marks that a skilled tracker can follow, cybercriminals leave clues as to their identity and
location, despite their best efforts to cover their tracks. In order to follow such clues across
national boundaries, though, international cybercrime treaties must be ratified. In 1996 the
Council of Europe, together with government representatives from the United States, Canada,
and Japan, drafted a preliminary international treaty covering computer crime. Around the
world, civil libertarian groups immediately protested provisions in the treaty requiring Internet
service providers (ISPs) to store information on their customers' transactions and to turn this
information over on demand. Work on the treaty proceeded nevertheless, and on November
23, 2001, the Council of Europe Cybercrime Convention was signed by 30 states. Additional
protocols, covering terrorist activities and racist and xenophobic cybercrimes were proposed
in 2002. In addition, various national laws, such as the USA PATRIOT Act of 2001, have
expanded law enforcement's power to monitor and protect computer networks

Types of cybercrimes
Cybercrime ranges across a spectrum of activities. At one end are crimes that involve
fundamental breaches of personal or corporate privacy, such as assaults on the integrity of
information held in digital depositories and the use of illegally obtained digital information to
blackmail a firm or individual. Also at this end of the spectrum is the growing crime of identity
theft. Midway along the spectrum lie transaction-based crimes such as fraud, trafficking in
child pornography, digital piracy, money laundering, and counterfeiting. These are specific
crimes with specific victims, but the criminal hides in the relative anonymity provided by the
Internet. Another part of this type of crime involves individuals within corporations or
government bureaucracies deliberately altering data for either profit or political objectives. At
the other end of the spectrum are those crimes that involve attempts to disrupt the actual
workings of the Internet. These range from spam, hacking, and denial of service attacks against
specific sites to acts of cyberterrorism— that is, the use of the Internet to cause public
disturbances and even death. Cyberterrorism focuses upon the use of the Internet by nonstate
actors to affect a nation's economic and technological infrastructure. Since the September 11
attacks of 2001, public awareness of the threat of cyberterrorism has grown dramatically.

Identity theft and invasion of privacy

richer version of the space where a telephone conversation takes place, somewhere between
the two people having the conversation. As a planet-spanning network, the Internet offers
criminals multiple hiding places in the real world as well as in the network itself. However,
just as individuals walking on the ground leave marks that a skilled tracker can follow,
cybercriminals leave clues as to their identity and location, despite their best efforts to cover
their tracks. In order to follow such clues across national boundaries, though, international
cybercrime treaties must be ratified. In 1996 the Council of Europe, together with government
representatives from the United States, Canada, and Japan, drafted a preliminary international
treaty covering computer crime. Around the world, civil libertarian groups immediately
protested provisions in the treaty requiring Internet service providers (ISPs) to store
information on their customers' transactions and to turn this information over on demand.
Work on the treaty proceeded nevertheless, and on November 23, 2001, the Council of Europe
Cybercrime Convention was signed by 30 states. Additional protocols, covering terrorist
activities and racist and xenophobic cybercrimes were proposed in 2002. In addition, various
national laws, such as the USA PATRIOT Act of 2001, have expanded law enforcement's
power to monitor and protect computer networks
Security card; it is then possible to open bank accounts and receive loans—all with the victim's
credit record and background. The original cardholder might remain unaware of this until the
debt is so great that the bank contacts the account holder. Only then does the identity theft
become visible. Although identity theft takes places in many countries, researchers and law-
enforcement officials are plagued by a lack of information and statistics about the crime
worldwide. Interpol, the international policing agency, has not added any type of cybercrime,
including identity theft, to its annual crime statistics. Cybercrime is clearly, however, an
international problem. In 2003 the U.S. Federal Trade Commission released the first national
survey on identity theft; according to the report, in the previous year 3.3 million Americans
had their identities fraudulently used to open bank, credit card, or utility accounts, with losses
of $32.9 billion to businesses and $3.8 billion to individuals. The report also stated that 6.6
million Americans were victimized by account theft, such as use of stolen credit cards and
automatic teller machine (ATM) cards, with losses of $14 billion to businesses and $1.1 billion
to individuals.

Internet Fraud
Schemes to defraud consumers abound on the Internet. Among the most famous is the
Nigerian, or “419,” scam; the number is a reference to the section of Nigerian law that the
scam violates. Although this con has been used with both fax and traditional mail, it has been
given new life by the Internet. In the scheme, an individual receives an e-mail asserting that
the sender requires help in transferring a large sum of money out of Nigeria or another distant
country. Usually, this money is in the form of an asset that is going to be sold, such as oil, or
a large amount of cash that requires “laundering” to conceal its source; the variations are
endless, and new specifics are constantly being developed. The message asks the recipient to
cover some cost of moving the funds out of the country in return for receiving a much larger
sum of money in the near future. Should the recipient respond with a check or money order,
he is told that complications have developed; more money is required. Over time, victims can
lose thousands of dollars that are utterly unrecoverable. In 2002 the U.S. Internet Fraud
Complaint Center reported that more than $54 million dollars had been lost through a variety
of fraud schemes; this represented a threefold increase over estimated losses of $17 million in
2001. In the United States, the largest source of fraud was online auctions. In many cases,
individuals would put products up for sale on Internet auction sites, demand money before
delivery, and never fulfill their obligations to the consumer. Such scams accounted for 46
percent of the fraud cases in 2002, with an average individual loss of $299. Unlike identity
theft, where the theft occurs without the victim's knowledge, these more traditional forms of
fraud occur in plain sight. The victim willingly provides private information that enables the
crime; hence, these are transactional crimes. Few people would believe someone who walked
up to them on the street and promised them easy riches; however, receiving an unsolicited e-
mail or visiting a random Web page is sufficiently different that many people easily open their
wallets. Despite a vast amount of consumer education, Internet fraud remains a growth
industry for criminals and prosecutors. Europe and the United States are far from the only sites
of cybercrime. South Korea is among the most wired countries in the world, and its cybercrime
fraud statistics are growing at an alarming rate. In 2003 some 40,000 cases of cybercriminal
activity, mostly fraud, had been reported to authorities. This represented an 18 percent increase
from 2002. Japan has also experienced a rapid growth in similar crimes; in 2003 official
National Police Agency statistics cited a 94 percent increase in Internet fraud since 2000.

ATM Fraud
Computers also make more mundane types of fraud possible. Take the automated teller
machine (ATM) through which many people now get cash. In order to access an account, a
user supplies a card and personal identification number (PIN). Criminals have developed
means to intercept both the data on the card's magnetic strip as well as the user's PIN. In turn,
the information is used to create fake cards that are then used to withdraw funds from the
unsuspecting individual's account. In 1999 there were 251 reported cases of ATM fraud in the
United States; in 2002 the New York Times reported that more than 21,000 American bank
accounts had been skimmed by a single group engaged in acquiring ATM information
illegally. A particularly effective form of fraud has involved the use of ATMs in shopping
centres and convenience stores. These machines are free-standing and not physically part of a
bank. Criminals can easily set up a machine that looks like a legitimate machine; instead of
dispensing money, however, the machine gathers information on users and only tells them that
the machine is out of order after they have typed in their PINs. Given that ATMs are the
preferred method for dispensing currency all over the world, ATM fraud has become an
international problem with multiple solutions. In August 2003 an individual in Australia
pleaded guilty to stealing $A 623,000 from bank customers by using a small camera and an
electronic recording device at multiple ATMs. Australia is now considering a ban on the
purchase of equipment that criminals might use in ATMs to defraud customers. However, the
range of equipment under consideration is quite large and useful for a variety of legitimate
purposes as well.

File Sharing and Privacy

Sales of compact discs (CDs) are the major source of revenue for recording companies.
Although piracy—that is, the illegal duplication of copyrighted materials—has always been a
problem, especially in the Far East, the proliferation on college campuses of inexpensive
personal computers capable of capturing music off CDs and sharing them over high-speed
(“broadband”) Internet connections has become the recording industry's greatest nightmare. In
the United States, the recording industry, represented by the Recording Industry Association
of America (RIAA), attacked a single file-sharing service, Napster, which from 1999 to 2001
allowed users across the Internet access to music files, stored in the datacompression format
known as MP3, on other users' computers by way of Napster's central computer. According to
the RIAA, Napster users regularly violated the copyright of recording artists, and the service
had to stop. For users, the issues were not so clear-cut. At the core of the Napster case was the
issue of fair use. Individuals who had purchased a CD were clearly allowed to listen to the
music, whether in their home stereo, automobile sound system, or personal computer. What
they did not have the right to do, argued the RIAA, was to make the CD available to thousands
of others who could make a perfect digital copy of the music and create their own CDs. Users
rejoined that sharing their files was a fair use of copyrighted material for which they had paid
a fair price. In the end, the RIAA argued that a whole new class of cybercriminal had been
born—the digital pirate—that included just about anyone who had ever shared or downloaded
an MP3 file. Although the RIAA successfully shuttered Napster, a new type of file-sharing
service, known as peer-to-peer (P2P) networks, sprang up.
These decentralized systems do not rely on a central facilitating computer; instead, they consist
of millions of users who voluntarily open their own computers to others for file sharing. The
RIAA continues to battle these file-sharing networks, demanding that ISPs turn over records
of their customers who move large quantities of data over their networks, but the effects have
been minimal. The RIAA's other tactic has been to push for the development of technologies
to enforce the digital rights of copyright holders. So-called digital rights management
technology is an attempt to forestall piracy through technologies that will not allow consumers
to share files or possess “too many” copies of a copyrighted work. As companies work on the
hardware and software necessary to meet these goals, it is clear that file sharing has brought
about a fundamental reconstruction of the relationship between producers, distributors, and
consumers of artistic material. As broadband Internet connections proliferate, the motion-
picture industry faces a similar problem, although the digital videodisc (DVD) came to market
with encryption and various built-in attempts to avoid the problems of a video Napster.

Child Pornography
With the advent of almost every new media technology, pornography has been its “killer app,”
or the application that drove early deployment of technical innovations in search of profit. The
Internet was no exception, but there is a criminal element to this business bonanza—child
pornography, which is unrelated to the lucrative business of legal adult-oriented pornography.
The possession of child pornography, defined here as images of children under age 18 engaged
in sexual behaviour, is illegal in the United States, the European Union, and many other
countries, but it remains a problem that has no easy solution. The problem is compounded by
the ability of “kiddie porn” Web sites to disseminate their material from locations, such as
states of the former Soviet Union as well as Southeast Asia, that lack cybercrime laws. Some
lawenforcement organizations believe that child pornography represents a $3-billion-a-year
industry and that more than 10,000 Internet locations provide access to these materials.

ETHICAL CHANLLENGES ON INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

As much as information technology is important to our lives, it is facing some serious ethical
challenges, and it is up to the IT experts and users of information technology to be ready for
these challenges. As more emerging information technologies pop up on the market, most of
the IT experts and users do not know how to go about the challenges brought by these
technologies. Information technology is facing one of its biggest challenges which are lack of
privacy, security, copyright infringement and increased computer crimes. This has stimulated
criminals to exploit users of IT basing on the lope holes left in these technologies. Since
information technology speeds the access and flow of information, many businesses and
organizations are at risk of losing this data because experienced criminals can easily tap that
information for their personal use. Also unfaithful employees can use information technology
to archive their personal goals which might be harmful to an organization. IT is not bad by its
self, but the way humans use the tools provided by information technology has brought some
serious challenges.
Below are some issues on Ethical Challenges of Information Technology

• Security:
With tools like the internet, hackers have found it very easy to hack into any computer or
system as long as it is connected on internet. Hackers can easily use an IP (Internet Protocol)
address to access a user’s computer and collect data for selfish reasons. Also the wide spread
of internet cookies which collect information whenever we use the internet , has exposed IT
users to high risks of fraud and conflicting interests. Many big companies use these cookies to
determine which products or service they can advertise to us. When it comes to online banking,
the transfer of money can easily be interrupted by a hacker and all the money will be
transferred to their desired accounts , which affects both the bank and the customers who is
using online banking technology.

• Copyright Infringement:
Information technology has made it easy for users to access any information or artifact at any
given time. With the increased development of music sharing networks and photo
bookmarking sites, many original creators of these works are losing the credibility of their
works, because users of IT can easily gain access and share that data with friends. Free music
and file downloading sites are popping up on internet every day , lots of original work like
music albums, books , are being downloaded for free. In this case one legitimate user will
purchase the book , software, web template or music album, and they will submit it to a free
download site where others will simply just download that data for free. It is good news for
the users because it saves them money, but it harms the original creator of these works. The
government has closed some of these sites likeMEGAUPLOAD.COM , but many are popping
up using funny URLs.

• Increased pressure on IT experts.

Since information technology systems have to run all the time, pressure is mounted on IT
experts to ensure the accuracy and availability of these systems. Many big organizations which
need to operate 24 hours will require a standby IT team to cater for any issues which might
arise during the course of operation. This pressure results into stress and work overload which
some times results into Imperfection.
• Digital divide:
Information technology has many opportunities and it has shaped many industries in
developed countries; however, developing countries have difficulties of enjoying the same
benefits of Information technology. To get these benefits they have to train their labor and
users should also adopt the new culture which is a bit costly in these developing countries. In
some remote areas they do not even have power, so information technology tools like
computers can not be used. In other sectors like education, most of these developing countries
have poor old education systems, so a student will not be aware of new information
technologies
INTRODUCTION
Social science especially sociology has remained in focus since nineteenth century. Previously it
was considered with the same subject matter as of humanities and philosophy. Pioneers as Comte,
Spencer and Marx made a conscious attempt to build a single science of society. They saw the
study of society "as a unified enterprise (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1982). However, by the end
of 19th century, this unified conception of social sciences gradually yielded to specialisation of
knowledge alternatively known by various terms such as "segmentation," "fragmentation,"
"sectorialisation" and "polarisation" (Inayatullah, 1986; Preiswerk, 1982; Wallerstein, 1984,
Galtung, 1969).

Communication and information technology is considered pr-requisite for the development of any
discipline. Several authors have emphasized the importance of communication technology in their
research works (Garvey, 1979). Without communication no discipline can promote ((Lacy & Bush,
1983). Information and communication technologies have transformed our world in many ways.
Information and communication technologies have transformed our world in many ways; yet,
informal scholarly scientific communication forms a socio-technical interaction network in which
communication is influenced by technology but defined by the social structures of scientists and
their organizations (Kling, McKim, & King, 2003; Lamb, Sawyer, & Kling, 2000).
Communication technology has eased the life and provided all basic facilities for the promotion
and enhancement of education ((Fawcett, Francisco, & Schultz, 2000). It has also opened a new
chapter in the community service ((Telenor, 2004).

The present world is the scientific one where technology is considered as an extra eye to see the
world around .It is also observed that technology has eased the life itself .It has supported the
society in general formally and informally in all spheres of life (Midgley, 1998) .Therefore, in the
present area no one can deny from the importance of communication and information technology.
It is also believed that the use of communication and information technology is generally used in
medical and physical science subjects. It has ushered area in the field of medicine .Medical
innovations with the help of modern technology the use of different serious diseases has been
invented. As a result, the sphere of life is prolonged where diseases control has become possible.
In Engineering and physical sciences the modern technology has also done and remarkable job. It
has given extra wings to these subjects to take the world at possible advantageous level. The
use of communication and information technology is also as important as for sociology as for any
other subject. The reason is that the end users of any technology are human beings. Therefore,
social science in humanities is also as important as for other physical science subjects’ .Therefore,
Information and Communication Technology is as important for all other subjects. Sociology is
considered as the youngest and the most functional of all the social science subjects (Horton,
1998). As a discipline it is also considered as coin of all subjects. The subject matter of sociology
is the problems of society and humanity itself. Therefore, the use of Information and
Communication Technology needs to be as important for sociology as for any discipline. However,
it is generally believed that sociology is theoretical in its essence. This is the distorted notion,
because sociology as a discipline touches all the aspects including physical, social, environmental,
psychological, and economic life on the planet. In developing countries of the world due to the
scarcity of resources Information and Communication Technology is yet to be included in subjects
on equal footing. As result, in those countries all emphasis is emphasized on natural science
subjects. As a result the use of Information and Communication Technology has been limited as
per demand of subjects .Pakistan is also a developing country where economics conditions do not
allow investing money on the use of Information and Communication Technology especially for
social science subjects. In Pakistan Sociology has discipline yet to get a due recommendation in
term of market value and jobs .Therefore ,the use of Information and Communication Technology
is limited to certain stand.

THE ROLE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN SOCIOLOGY

Information and Communication Technology & Sociology are well integrated and connected with
each other. The scope and subject matter of sociology have reached new horizons due to the widely
application of Information and Communication Technology (WAJCMAN, 1990).Digital networks
are embedded in both the technical features and standards of the hardware and software, and in
actual societal structures and power dynamics (Latour, 1991; Lovink and Riemens, 2002;
MacKenzie and Wajcman, 1999).

The society and the world are shrinking into village because computer and internet has made life
easy to access anything present at any corner of the world. Before the use of Information and
Communication Technology sociology was limited into certain limited area. The cross-cultural
and cross-global research studies were impossible to be conducted in such a manner. Due to the
Information and Communication Technology sociological studies have became possible to be
conducted anywhere in the world. The scope of sociology has remarkably expanded due to the
use of Information and Communication Technology. The reason is that the books and printed
material is easily accessible and can be used while sitting in any part of the world. The interaction
between sociologists of East and West has made it possible to share their ideas and academic
achievements. As a result, it has benefited the sociologists of less developing countries of 3rd
world to get optimum benefit from the studies conducted in the developed part of the word. Due
to the rapid changes taking place in the world new sociological concepts are in emerging.
Spirituality it is considered necessary for smooth running of social order and social system of the
society. The reason is that the religion is solely a powerful agent of informed social control within
the society. The concept of social life also got a new shape. Education as social institution has also
got a total new shape. The sociology of education in these days is totally depends on the use of
Information and Communication Technology. Gone are those days when out-dated patterns and
methods were used to be applied for educational purposes. The widely use of Information and
Communication Technology has also open a new era with multi functions and dimensions. In the
same way politics as a social institution is total reshaped and changed. Gone are those days when
due to unawareness and illiteracy the sociology of people was different than in these days.
Sociologically people now-a-days are wellaware and well-equipped about their social rights.
Empty slogans and propaganda are not well heeded and responded by the masses. The reason is
that people are aware the reality they are exposed with the help of Information and Communication
Technology. ‘Folkways’ and ‘Mores’ in genre have also got a new definitions and dimensions with
new functions and patterns. Family as key intuition in sociology got a new shape with new multi-
faceted patterns and functions. Joint family is diminishing and nuclear family is emerging. The
reason is that Information and Communication Technology has provided and supplemented the
basic functions of joint family. The entertainment and sociological functioning of family has been
almost stolen. People in general prefer to keep their day-to-day business with the keep of
Information and Communication Technology. The economics as social institution has been set as
per market demand and needs. Global economy has almost been replaced the local economy. The
economy of the new banking system has been changed. Likewise religion is also getting a new
shape. It has also got a setback due to scientific look and rationalization. The slogan of
secularization is echoed everywhere and created a new chaos for sociologist to cope with emerging
problems in general and community problems in particular. With the help of webcam people due
to the face-to-face interaction sitting at any corer of the world avail at almost free of cast. The use
of internet has also ushered a new era in the field of sociology. In olden
days people try to resolve all issues and problems at global level with holistic approach. There was
nothing as such a powerful social interaction which is vital and has linked the world around. As a
result, sociology achieved a new shape with new development and with new dimensions. In short
sociology and Information and Communication Technology is closely linked and cannot be
separated and segregated from each other.