i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 2 8 6 2 9 e2 8 6 4 8

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

ScienceDirect

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/he

Review Article

A review of hydrogen utilization in power

generation and transportation sectors:
Achievements and future challenges

Joonsik Hwang*, Krisha Maharjan, HeeJin Cho

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA

highlights

A comprehensive review on hydrogen production and utilization.

AcHievements in hydrogen-powered system are discussed by world-wide projects.

Technical challenges in hydrogen utilization are discussed.

Ideal scenario of hydrogen-powered transportation is suggested.

article info abstract

Article history: Decarbonizing the power generation and transportation sectors, responsible for ~65% of
Received 8 December 2022 Green House Gas (GHG) emissions globally, constitutes a crucial step to addressing climate
Received in revised form change. Accordingly, the energy paradigm is shifting towards carbon-free and low-
8 March 2023 emission alternative fuels. Even though the current decarbonization using hydrogen is
Accepted 2 April 2023 not large since 96% of global hydrogen production is relying on conventional fossil fuels
Available online 26 April 2023 that produce GHGs in the process, hydrogen fuel has been considered a promising fuel for
fuel cell and combustion engines. Various renewable approaches utilizing biomass and
Keywords: water have been investigated to produce green hydrogen. With this, recent developments
Hydrogen showed viability to achieve deep decarbonization in the power generation and trans-
Decarbonization portation sectors. Hydrogen-powered vehicles are commercially available in many coun-
Combined heat and power tries, and over 300,000 fuel cell appliances were sold to produce hot water and electricity.
Fuel cell This review aims to provide an overview of the potential role of hydrogen in power gen-
Gas turbine eration and transportation systems, recent achievements in research development, and
Internal combustion engine technical challenges to successfully applying hydrogen as a primary fuel. Especially this
review will focus on the hydrogen application in power generation and transportation
sectors using fuel cells, gas turbines, and internal combustion engines (ICEs).
© 2023 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hwang@me.msstate.edu (J. Hwang).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.04.024
0360-3199/© 2023 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
28630 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 2 8 6 2 9 e2 8 6 4 8

Abbreviations HGV heavy goods vehicles

HOR hydrogen oxidation reaction
AC alternating current
HRSG heat recovery steam generator
AFC alkaline fuel cell
H2ICEs hydrogen internal combustion engines
APU auxiliary power unit
LSM-YSZ strontium doped lanthanum manganite
BEVS battery electric vehicles
MCFC molten carbonate fuel cell
BTE Brake thermal efficiency
MEA membrane electrode assembly
CAD crank angle degree
MtH2 million tons of hydrogen
CCGT combined cycle gas turbine
NieYSZ nickeleYSZ composite
CCHP combine cooling, heating, and power
NOx nitrogen oxides
CCS carbon capture storage
ORC organic rankin cycle
CHP combined heat and power
ORR oxygen reduction reaction
CL catalyst layer
PAFC phosphoric acid fuel cell
CNG compressed natural gas
PEMFC proton exchange membrane fuel cell
CO carbon monoxide
PFI port fuel injection
CO2 Carbon dioxide
PM particulate matters
CueGDC copper gadolinium-doped cerium oxide
PTFE polytetrafluoroethylene
DC direct current
PV photovoltaic
DLN dry low NOx
RON research octane number
DI Direct injection
RQL rich-quench-lean
DLE dry low emissions
SMR steam methane reforming
EGR exhaust gas recirculation
SOFC solid oxide fuel cell
FCEVs Fuel cell electric vehicles
TRL technology readiness level
GHG greenhouse gas
VCC vapor compression cycle
GLD gas diffusion layer
YSZ yttria-stabilized zirconia
HCCI homogenous charge compression ignition

Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28630
Hydrogen production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28631
Hydrogen storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28632
Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28633
Hydrogen utilization in power generation sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28633
Fuel cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28634
Gas turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28635
CHP 2.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28637
Hydrogen utilization in transportation sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28639
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28639
Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles (H2ICEs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28641
Combustion modes of HICEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28641
Conclusion and future research outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28642
Declaration of competing interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28643
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28643
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28643

hydrogenation of crude oil [2,3]. There have been continuous

Introduction
Hydrogen has been utilized as town gas for lighting, heating,
and cooking. The idea of energy systems fueled with hydrogen
was already settled in the aftermath of the oil crises back in
the 1970s [1]. Indeed, hydrogen is a critical chemical resource,
for example, in the synthesis of ammonia and the
interest on hydrogen and it became more popular after suc-
cessful breakthrough of the fuel cell system in the late 1990s
[4]. Hydrogen offers various ways to decarbonize in these
sectors, where it is challenging to achieve a meaningful
reduction of emissions. Since it does not contain any carbon
species in the fuel structure, it has great potential to achieve
low CO2 emissions. Furthermore, pipelines or vessels can
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 2 8 6 2 9 e2 8 6 4 8
transport or store hydrogen over a long distance at a lower
cost using an already-established gaseous fuel logistics sys-
tem. This is a different feature compared to electricity which
can't be stored for a long period. The production of hydrogen is
from not only conventional fossil fuels, but also renewable
sources such as solar, wind, and water, whose availability is
not always well-matched with demand [5]. In this aspect,
storing excess electricity in the form of hydrogen and other
related e-fuels is considered a promising energy-storing
strategy [6].
Hydrogen production
Hydrogen is not found in its pure form in nature, so it must be
produced from compounds containing hydrogen. As of 2021,
approximately 6% of total energy demand is used for hydrogen
production across the industry [7]. Pathways for hydrogen and
hydrogen-based products are presented in Fig. 1. Conventional
fossil fuels are the primary source taking 96% of the total
hydrogen production due to the low production cost [7]. For
instance, production cost ranges from 0.5 to 1.7 USD/kg with
natural gas. However, it increases up to 3e8 USD/kg with
renewable sources [8]. The thermochemical conversion of oil
and coal usually produces hydrogen, steam-methane reform-
ing (SMR) is known as the most prevalent approach. A total of
70 million tons of hydrogen is produced using natural gas and
this accounts approximately 75% of the annual global
hydrogen production [9]. In the SMR process, the reaction be-
tween methane and steam at high temperatures (500 C-900  C)
and high pressure (over 20 bar) releases hydrogen, carbon
monoxide, and carbon dioxide. Then, carbon monoxide reacts
with steam using a catalyst, known as a water-gas shift reac-
tion, to produce additional hydrogen and carbon dioxide. A
pressure swing adsorption technique is used to remove the
leftover impurities and carbon dioxide from hydrogen. Nickel
(Ni) is a typical catalyst utilized for steam reforming thanks to
its ability to break the CeH bond and low [10]. The main chal-
lenge with Ni is catalyst deactivation due to coke formation,
sintering and sulfur poisoning [11,12]. Noble metals such as
Fig. 1 e Production pathways of hydrogen and hydrogen-based products (figure reproduced from Ref. [9]).
28631
Ruthenium (Ru), Rhodium (Rh), Iridium (Ir), Platinum (Pt) and
Palladium (Pd), which shows higher catalytic activity and less
sensitive to impurities can be used as catalyst, however they
are much more expensive than Nickel [13]. Nonetheless, the
addition of these noble and transitional metals to nickel is
being researched to increase catalytic reactivity and improve
resistance to catalyst deactivation [14e16]. A thorough anal-
ysis of the advancements in coke and sulfur resistance of Ni-
based catalyst is provided by Meloni et al. in their paper [17].
The SMR method yields the largest amount of hydrogen, but it
is an endothermic process that requires a large amount of heat
supply. Therefore, researchers are focusing on steam reform-
ing at low temperature (400e550  C), which results in reduced
energy requirements and costs [18e20]. The catalysts that can
activate methane for SMR at low temperatures is essential
components to be explored further.
Partial oxidation is another reforming process that uses a
limited amount of oxygen to oxidize hydrocarbons to release
hydrogen and carbon monoxide. This process is an
exothermic reaction, so heat is produced. Oxygen can also be
substituted with air and in this case, nitrogen is also produced.
Steam reforming and partial oxidation reactions are com-
bined in an autothermal reaction (ATR) therefore, no external
heat supply is required as the heat needed for SMR is supplied
by partial oxidation. In comparison to partial oxidation, the
ATR yields greater amount of hydrogen.
Gasification is a thermochemical process that converts
carbon-based materials such as coal, petroleum coke,
biomass, and hazardous wastes, into a mixture of mainly H2,
CO, CO2, and methane (known as syngas) by partial oxidation
with steam and oxygen at high temperature and pressure
conditions [21]. During the gasification process, ash and tar
formation are major issue and syngas must be cleaned before
further processing. Once the syngas is cleaned, it can be
directly used for electricity generation or hydrogen production
with a water-gas shift reaction where the CO reacts with water
over a catalyst to produce more H2 and CO2 [22]. The second-
largest feedstock is coal, dominated by China, which ac-
counts for 23% of global hydrogen production. A total of 2% of
28632 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 2 8 6 2 9 e2 8 6 4 8
global coal is used for hydrogen production [9]. It is noted that
hydrogen production generates CO2 emissions since conven-
tional fossil fuels were utilized. It is reported that 10 t (ton)
CO2/tH2 from natural gas, 12 tCO2/tH2 from oil products, and
19 tCO2/tH2 from coal [23]. Apart from the utilization of con-
ventional source such as coal, there have been attempts to
produce hydrogen with glycerol, which is a by-product of
transesterification for biodiesel. Even though there are tech-
nical challenges to overcome, for instance, low hydrogen
yield, catalyst deactivation, and high energy requirements,
hydrogen production by glycerol reforming using various ox-
idants such as CO2, O2, and steam has potential to attain
industrial-scale development [24].
Meanwhile, hydrogen production from biomass has the
potential to achieve clean sustainable approach thanks to its
inherent carbon-neutral characteristics. Thermochemical
conversion (gasification and pyrolysis) and bioconversion
(anaerobic digestion) can be used to transform biomass into
gaseous fuels like syngas, whose main component is methane
[25]. Then, hydrogen can be produced by reforming these
biomass-derived fuels. Since large amounts of tars are pro-
duced gasification of biomass feedstocks, catalytic reduction
or gasification at high temperatures are proposed [26,27]. For
the production of hydrogen using biomass gasification to be
financially competitive, cost-effective production of syngas
and improved impurities removal methods must be studied.
New gasification approaches such as plasma gasification and
supercritical water gasification provide several benefits.
Plasma gasification leads to increased reactivity, which mini-
mizes the undesirable pollutants and cost of gas cleanup
[28,29]. Supercritical water gasification, which uses water
under high temperature and pressure (374  C and 220 bar) for
gasification of the feedstocks to produce hydrogen-rich syn-
gas, is an efficient and clean method that does not require
drying process and eliminates nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur
oxides (SOx) emissions [30,31].
Finally, electrolysis of water that separates water into ox-
ygen and hydrogen molecules is a renewable production
method with an assumption of green electricity by solar,
hydro, and wind power [32]. This is called as a “Green
Hydrogen” and a detailed analysis showed green hydrogen
production has even higher energy efficiency than SMR and
using coal, however, renewable hydrogen production takes
only less than 5% of the annual global production due to its
inherent intermittency in available energy from renewable
sources [33e35]. An electrolyte and two electrodes, one con-
nected to the positive (anode) and the other to the negative
(cathode) side of the power supply, form a cell. High-purity
hydrogen is produced at the cathode, and oxygen is pro-
duced at the anode when voltage is applied between the two
electrodes. Based on the different electrolytes employed,
some water electrolysis technologies include alkaline elec-
trolysis, polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis, and solid
oxide electrolysis [36]. The performance of electrolysis de-
pends on the electrolyte's type and concentration, the amount
of voltage and amperage used, and the electrode materials
[37]. The main obstacles to electrolysis technology are low
efficiency and high investment costs.
In recent, some studies have been carried out to secure
renewable hydrogen production through photocatalytic
methods and waste gasification. These technologies are ex-
pected to initiate commercialized production by 2030 [38].
There are several ways to produce of H2, with SMR being the
most economical. However, due to the high CO2 emissions
from utilizing fossil fuels in steam methane reforming and
coal gasification, renewable feedstocks like biomass and
alternative methods, along with their technical advancement,
are imperative to compete with current large-scale reforming
technologies. More research is required to determine their
feasibility and cost-effectiveness, especially for technologies
still in the early stages of development.
Hydrogen storage
The hydrogen storage system is one of the critical technolo-
gies in hydrogen utilization. Hydrogen has the greatest
gravimetric energy density, however, the volumetric energy
density is low. Thus, detailed considerations should be
involved in the hydrogen storage system. Currently, available
hydrogen storage systems are illustrated in Fig. 2. The most
common approach to storing hydrogen is to compress
hydrogen in high-pressure tanks. Generally, high-pressure
hydrogen tanks are capable of storing hydrogen at either
350 bar or 700 bar. For example, currently available Fuel cell
electric vehicles (FCEVs) such as Hyundai Nexo and Toyota
Mirai have 700 bar hydrogen tanks. It is reported that retail
dispensers that are mostly co-located at gas stations can fill up
those tanks in 5 min. Those tanks enable a driving range of
560 km with a full tank. The high-pressure hydrogen storage
system is considered the most practical approach due to its
lower cost and less complexity compared to other technolo-
gies at this moment. However, hydrogen stored in a high-
pressure vessel can cause a critical safety issue. Thus, it is
essential to have reliable and effective hydrogen leak detec-
tion systems to ensure safety [39]. Since hydrogen is odorless
and colorless, hydrogen sensors and their positioning are
crucial to detect leaks allowing prompt action to be taken
before the explosive limit is reached. In addition, proper
ventilation systems should be in place for the safe dispersal of
hydrogen in case of a leak. Tang et al. studied the dispersion of
hydrogen leaking from a vehicle in three different settings, for
example, open area, garage, and tunnel [40]. Based on their
results, the hydrogen alarm at the highest spots in the
enclosed areas (garage and tunnel) would be most effective for
detecting hydrogen leaks, and improved ventilation is neces-
sary for rapid evacuation of hydrogen. It was emphasized that
careful design of the containers and proper maintenance are
essential to mitigate the risks of container failure and to
ensure their integrity over time. Accordingly, technical spec-
ifications, standards for design, manufacturing, and testing
procedures also have to be established [41].
The second approach is to store hydrogen in a liquid phase at
low-temperature ambient. This system has less concerns on
hydrogen leak and degradation of sealant materials, however
initial energy input and heat losses are significantly higher than
the previously introduced approach. Furthermore, a cryogenic
temperature range is required to keep the hydrogen in liquid
form since it has a boiling temperature of 253  C at 1 bar
pressure condition. Therefore, detailed analysis on energy
balance in this type of hydrogen storage system is required.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 2 8 6 2 9 e2 8 6 4 8
Fig. 2 e Approaches to store hydrogen utilizing high pressure, low temperature, and material-based absorption (figure
reproduced from Ref. [23]).
Otherwise, energy losses for keeping the low temperature
deteriorate overall system efficiency. While it is not expected
mature at this stage, hydrogen can also be stored within solids
by absorption or adsorption. In absorption, hydrogen can be
stored in a solid lattice framework in the form of hydrogen
atoms by dissociation. In adsorption, it can be stored in
hydrogen molecules on the material's surface. This approach is
considered efficient in storing hydrogen without energy losses
or safety concerns. However, the actual amount of hydrogen in
the metal is questionable, for instance, 71 g of hydrogen (liquid)
can be stored in 1 L bottle meanwhile, only 100e150 g of
hydrogen (gas) can be stored in 1 L material-based storage [42].
Meanwhile, ammonia is getting attention as a potential
medium for hydrogen storage. It is safer than previously
introduced methods having high auto-ignition temperature
and low condensation pressure. Ammonia can also be pro-
duced from various sources, including conventional fossil fuels
and renewable wastes. Moreover, the infrastructures for storing
and transporting ammonia are well developed. Even though
energy requirement for decomposing ammonia and purifica-
tion of hydrogen is still high compared to previously mentioned
approaches, ammonia can be directly utilized as fuel for fuel
cells and combustion devices so many researches have been
conducted on ammonia hydrogen storage system [43].
Scope
Most previous review studies focused on detailed processes in
hydrogen production, storage, and mobility. However, there
need to be more studies elucidating technical challenges and
outlooks on optimized hydrogen utilization pathways for
power generation and transportation [44e47]. Therefore, this
28633
study extends the literature review from the fundamental
aspect of hydrogen production, storage, and application to a
wide range of real-world projects to investigate technical
achievement and challenges and to provide outlook on opti-
mized hydrogen utilization plan. Section Hydrogen utilization
in power generation sector will focus on various types of fuel
cells and their applications in combined heat and power (CHP)
systems. The direct or hydrogen blend fuel effects on gas tur-
bines will also be introduced. In section Hydrogen utilization in
transportation sector, research and development on
hydrogen-fueled vehicles will be discussed, focusing currently
available fuel-cell vehicles and hydrogen combustion engines.
Finally, prospects to accomplish renewable hydrogen appli-
cations will be suggested.
Hydrogen utilization in power generation sector
The energy crisis has been compounded by a fossil fuel
shortage, Green House Gas (GHG) emissions from traditional
power generation based on fossil fuels and rising energy
consumption. Hence, the energy system is shifting towards
developing greener power generation technologies to meet
the growing global energy demand while lowering GHG
emissions. Hydrogen has been recognized to play a crucial role
in the energy transition to combat climate change and
decarbonize the power generation sector. Hydrogen also can
be employed as an energy storage fuel using excess energy
harvested from intermittent renewable energy sources [48].
Hydrogen possesses the property of being a clean energy
carrier based on how it is produced, in addition to having high
energy density and conversion efficiency when used as fuel
28634 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 2 8 6 2 9 e2 8 6 4 8
Fig. 3 e A schematic diagram of PEMFC (figure reproduced
from Ref. [54]).
[49]. The emergence of a trend toward hydrogen energy entails
the development of fuel cell technologies and gas turbines
using hydrogen as a primary fuel. Details of each component
will be discussed in the following subsections.
Fuel cell
Fuel cells, and electrochemical devices, generate electricity
by directly converting fuel's chemical energy into electrical
energy without the need for combustion. Hydrogen is the
standard fuel that is employed in fuel cells. Typically, fuel
cells are composed of an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte
membrane, as shown in Fig. 3. Hydrogen is passed through
the anode, and oxidizer (air or oxygen) is supplied through
the cathode of a fuel cell. A chemical reaction at the anode
strips hydrogen of its electrons, which are forced through an
external circuit, generating an electric current. A catalyst is
used to accelerate the chemical reactions at the electrodes.
The byproducts of fuel cells are only electricity, water, and
heat. The current produced by a single fuel cell is of low
voltage, so several individual fuel cells are stacked to match
demand power. An inverter is necessary to convert the direct
current (DC) to alternating current (AC) in the fuel cell
system.
Fuel cells can be classified by electrolyte types used in the
system. The electrolyte can be either solid or liquid and helps
to transport only the ions from one electrode to another. The
Table 1 e Comparison of various fuel cells [50].
Type of Fuel Electrolyte Membrane
Cell
PEMFC Polymer poly-perflurosulfonic acid
AFC Aqueous solution of potassium
hydroxide socked in a matrix
PAFC Liquid phosphoric acid socked in a
matrix
MCFC Liquid solution of lithium, sodium,
or potassium carbonated socked in
a matrix
SOFC Yittria-stabilized Zirconia
operating temperature, efficiency, and power output of the
fuel cell vary with the type of electrolyte used. The most
common fuel cells are Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell
(PEMFC), Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC), Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
(PAFC), Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) and Solid Oxide
Fuel Cell (SOFC). Characteristics of each fuel cell are summa-
rized in Table 1.
Fuel cells have numerous advantages, which include fuel
flexibility, lower or zero emissions, high thermodynamic ef-
ficiency, scalability, and silent operation owing to the absence
of moving parts [51]. These attributes of a fuel cell make them
well suited for various stationary power generation and
remote applications. This section presents a comprehensive
overview of the working principles of the two most promising
fuel cells, PEMFC and SOFC, that are being considered for
power generation.
The PEMFCs are the prime candidate for automotive, sta-
tionary, and portable applications. They operate at lower tem-
peratures allowing shorter warm-up time, and using solid
electrolytes eliminates the corrosion and handling issues
making them appropriate for portable applications [52]. PEMFC
is made up of membrane electrode assembly (MEA), which
consists of a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) with a
catalyst layer (CL) and gas diffusion layer (GDL) on each side,
acting as an anode and cathode. The catalyst layer in PEMFC
contains platinum or platinum alloys. GDL facilitates the
transport and uniform distribution of reactants to the catalyst
layer, water, heat removal, and electronic conduction. It con-
sists of two carbon-based porous substrates: a microporous
layer of carbon powder, some hydrophobic agent in contact
with the catalyst layer and a microporous layer of either carbon
paper or carbon cloth [53]. Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a
common hydrophobic agent that prevents water from clogging
the porous gas diffusion layer. The function of the membrane is
proton conduction, electric insulation, and prevention of
reactant gas cross-over. The protons released during the
hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR) at the anode permeate
through the electrolyte membrane, and electrons through the
external circuit arrive at the cathode, where oxygen reduction
reaction (ORR) takes place and produces water, as shown in
Fig. 3.
Chemical reactions at the anode and cathode are presented
in following equations.
Operating Electric Efficiency Applications
Temperature
50e80  C 53e60% (Transportation) Transportation
25e35% (Stationary) Backup Power
Portable power
90e100  C 60% Aerospace
Underwater application
150e200  C >40% Distributed generation
600e700  C 45e47% Stationary power generation
Distributed generation
600-1000  C 35e43% Small to large-scale power generation
Distributed generation
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 2 8 6 2 9 e2 8 6 4 8 28635

Table 2 e Commercially available hydrogen fuel cell and fuel cell-based CHP systems.
Fuel Consumption Fuel pressure Efficiency Output
Electric (e)
Thermal (T)
Overall (O)
SOFC [65] 17.3 kg/h 0.7e1 bar 52% (e) 300 kW
PAFC [66] N/A N/A 50% (e)/35% (T)/85% (O) 440 kW
PEMFC [67] N/A N/A 51% - 59% (e)/90% (O) 8.5e93 kW
PAFC [68] N/A 0.7e0.9 bar 50% (e)/95% (O) 100 kW
1e7 bar
PEMFC [69] N/A 4e7 bar 42%e50% (e) Up to 5 kW
PEMFC [70] N/A 9e13 bar 42%e54% (e) Up to 30 kW
LT-PEMFC [71] 8 kg/h 1.3e5 bar N/A 100 kWe
>80 kWth

materials for SOFCs with lower and intermediate temperature

At anode : H2 / 2Hþ þ 2e (eq-1) [60]. The state-of-the-art materials for SOFCs are yttria-
stabilized zirconia (YSZ) for the electrolyte, Strontium doped
1 lanthanum manganite (LSM-YSZ) for the cathode, and
At cathode : O2 þ 2Hþ þ 2e /H2 O (eq-2) NickeleYSZ composite (NieYSZ) for the anode. The typical
2
anode materials for SOFC can be found in the review by Shaikh
The state-of-the-art solid polymer electrolyte membrane
et al. [61]. They also explored alternative anode materials for
used in PEMFC is poly-perflurosulfonic acid, also known as
SOFC and concluded gadolinium-doped cerium oxide
Nafion. The membrane is resistant to the oxidation and
(CueGDC) as a potential next-generation low and intermediate-
reduction reactions at the electrodes. The high cost of plat-
temperature SOFCs. Currently available fuel cell and fuel cell-
inum and the membrane used in the electrodes are the major
based CHP system in the market is listed in Table 2.
obstacles to PEMFC commercialization, and most R&D efforts
Since the reactants for fuel cells are supplied externally,
have been focused on reducing the quantity of platinum or the
and the constituent materials are not consumed, fuel cells can
use of alternative materials in electrodes [55,56]. Since the
operate indefinitely as long as fuel and oxidant are available
ORR at the cathode is six magnitudes slower than HOR and
[62]. However, the high price, lack of hydrogen infrastructure,
requires a substantial amount of platinum catalyst, the
and technology maturity hinder the commercialization of fuel
development of a platinum group metal-free electrocatalyst
cells [63,64]. Increasing power density, effective use of plat-
for ORR has received much attention [57,58]. PEMFC utilizes
inum or other alternatives in electrodes, and increasing pro-
only pure hydrogen as they are highly sensitive to impurities
duction quantity can all help to reduce fuel cell costs. In
in hydrogen due to the low operating temperature and use of
addition, establishing a cost-effective and convenient
precious metals in electrodes [59]. Other major obstacles
hydrogen supply is necessary for a fuel cell to be competitive
include water and heat management to maintain continuous
or economically feasible. Since most of the hydrogen pro-
operation [50]. The high proton conductivity of the membrane
duced today is originated from hydrocarbon reforming, the
occurs only in the hydrated condition. Excess water floods the
transition to green hydrogen is also necessary for environ-
electrodes and reduces cell performance, whereas dehydra-
mental benefits in tandem with technological development.
tion of the membrane reduces proton conductivity. Therefore,
the operating temperature of PEMFC is limited by the need for
Gas turbine
adequate hydration.
SOFC functions in a slightly different manner than PEMFC.
Another feasible alternative to fuel cell technology for power
The oxygen at the cathode is reduced to oxide ions, and these
generation using hydrogen is a gas turbine. A gas turbine sys-
oxide ions travel to the anode through the electrolyte. Anode
tem generates electricity by combustion energy from com-
oxidizes the hydrogen to produce heat, water, and electricity.
pressed air and fuel at high temperatures. The hot gases
Compared to other fuel cells, SOFCs have several advantages,
expand through the turbine, which spins a shaft connected to a
such as solid ceramic electrolyte that eliminates electrolyte
generator, converting the chemical energy of fuel into me-
losses, handling difficulties, and corrosion issues associated
chanical and then finally electrical energy [72]. Gas turbines are
with liquid electrolytes. Other benefits include higher tolerance
commonly used in combination with a steam turbine, known
to fuel impurities, modularity, does not contain expensive
as a combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT), increasing the overall
(noble) metals. The high operating temperature of SOFCs en-
efficiency by up to 64%. A schematic diagram of the CCGT gas
ables CHP applications which significantly increases overall
turbine is shown in Fig. 4. In CCGT, a heat recovery steam
efficiency. Unfortunately, the higher temperature also means a
generator (HRSG) is used to produce high-pressure steam from
longer warm-up time to reach operating temperatures, limiting
turbine's exhaust then used to generate additional electricity
the utilization of SOFCs in applications requiring rapid tem-
using a steam turbine [73]. Natural gas is the most common
perature changes. The performance and longevity of the fuel
fuel used in gas turbines in the power generation sector. The
cells are determined by selecting suitable materials for elec-
emission levels from natural gas-based gas turbines are lower
trodes and electrolytes. Ahmed et al. investigated the cathode
28636 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 2 8 6 2 9 e2 8 6 4 8

Fig. 4 e A schematic diagram of CCGT gas turbine system (figure reproduced from Ref. [75]).

than in coal-fired power generation systems, particularly in
CCGT. Emission levels must be lowered further to reach the
goal of carbon neutrality, which can be achieved using alter-
native fuels or carbon capture storage (CCS) [74]. Gas turbines
can operate with various fuels such as natural gas, methane,
hydrogen, biogas, syngas, and a mixture of hydrogen with
other fuels. Pure hydrogen has zero carbon emissions when
used in gas turbines. Hence, using hydrogen as a fuel for gas
turbines will be critical to the transition in the power genera-
tion sector with low or zero-carbon emissions technologies.
However, hydrogen gas turbines still need to be completely
established. It requires significant modification to the existing
gas turbines due to the distinct combustion properties of
hydrogen, as shown in Table 3.
The molecular size of hydrogen is much smaller than that
of methane, it needs attention regarding hydrogen slip occurs
through seals in gas turbine component [76]. The issue of
metal burnout is attributed to the high flame speed, wide
ignition limits, high flame temperature, and gaseous form of
hydrogen. Meanwhile, using hydrogen mixture with natural
gas (and other hydrocarbon fuels) in gas turbines has been
adopted as an alternative strategy to minimize fossil fuel
consumption and CO2 emission as the world shift towards
hydrogen economy [77].
The blending ratio of hydrogen in the fuel mixture depends
on the combustion system so not only fuel injection param-
eter but also injector geometry should be optimized in
hydrogen combustion system [78,79]. The diffusion
Table 3 e Properties of methane and hydrogen [76].
Properties Methane Hydrogen
Formula CH4
Molecular Weight [grams/mol] 16
Molecular Size [1012 m] 380
Flame Speed [cm/s] ~30 - 40
Adiabatic Flame Temperature [ C] ~2000
Lower Heating Value [MJ/kg] 50
combustion system supplies air and fuel separately, and the
combustion occurs at stoichiometric conditions resulting in
high flame temperatures. This high temperature during
combustion increases thermal NOx emissions. Since hydrogen
has a higher flame temperature than natural gas and thus
produces even more NOx, dilution with water, steam, or ni-
trogen injection is necessary to lower flame temperature and,
as a result, NOx emissions [80]. Gorgulu et al. reported that the
effect of water injection varied from 0 to 46 kg/s before the
compression on the hydrogen-fueled gas turbine with turbine
inlet pressure varying from 4 bar to 20 bar [81]. The results
showed a maximum of 58.5 MW net power, 22.33% thermal
efficiency, 23.07% exergy efficiency at 20 bar, and a water-air
mass flow ratio of 0.031 for the non-recuperative gas tur-
bine. For the recuperative gas turbine, at 4 bar and water-air
mass flow ratio of 0.057 resulted in the maximum net power
of 131.3 MW, thermal efficiency of 50.16%, and exergy effi-
ciency of 52.70%. Reale and Sannino conducted a CFD simu-
lation on the performance of a 100-kW humidified gas turbine
fueled by hydrogen-enriched methane [82]. The study found
that injecting steam into the combustor with excess fuel flow
can result in safe operation with methane containing up to
30% hydrogen volume. Ditaranto et al. proposed a hydrogen-
based gas turbine with exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) [83].
The wet and dry EGR was also compared with the integrated
gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plant with CO2 capture and
nitrogen dilution. For a similar NOx reduction to the reference
scenario, an EGR rate of 45% in wet EGR and 55% in dry EGR is
necessary. Among all EGR options, they concluded that the dry
EGR is the best option despite the high EGR rate.
The NOx emissions from gas turbines contribute to acid
rain and ozone layer depletion, so lowering NOx emissions is a
crucial step in developing gas turbines which have led to lean-
H2 premixed combustion. The dry low emissions (DLE) and dry
2
low NOx (DLN) adopt a lean premixed combustion system.
289
~200 - 300
Lean premixed combustion achieves lower flame temperature
~2250 by premixing excess air than the stoichiometric ratio into the
120 fuel prior to combustion resulting in lower NOx emissions [84].
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 2 8 6 2 9 e2 8 6 4 8
Unfortunately, the lower flame temperature also reduces the
combustion efficiency and increases CO emissions due to
incomplete combustion. A lean premixed combustion system
is also susceptible to perturbations, causing lean flame
blowout and combustion instabilities [85,86]. Adding
hydrogen alters the fuel composition and combustion char-
acteristics, and these changes impact flame stability, flame
speed, pollutant emissions, combustion efficiency, and
combustor acoustics. Hence, several works of literature can be
found on blending hydrogen with hydrocarbon fuels to attain
wider flammability limits and shift lean flame blowout to
lower equivalence ratios. Using a partially mixed gas turbine,
Nam et al. investigated the influence of CH4/H2 syngas with
varying H2 concentrations on the flame structure [87]. The
results show that a shorter and thicker flame is observed
when hydrogen composition in fuel increases. Schefer studied
the flame stability due to hydrogen addition in methane using
a swirl-stabilized combustor under fuel-lean conditions. He
concluded that the hydrogen concentration up to 41%
extended the lean stability limit, which is due to increased H,
O, and OH concentrations [88]. Emadi et al. presented the
changes in flame stability of methane and hydrogen mixture
in lean premixed combustion at pressures up to 3 bar [89]. The
study showed that adding 40% hydrogen by volume in the
methane widened the blowout limit by 35%. They concluded
that hydrogen enrichment with increased pressure increases
the range of flame stability. Also, combustion instability is
caused due to fluctuation in heat release and pressure in
premixed conditions. Ge et al. used a DLE burner to study the
effect of hydrogen addition from 0% to 26% concentration in
natural gas swirling flame stability at atmospheric pressure
[90]. When the hydrogen content is increased the flame
shrinks, but the flame angle extends quickly once it exceeds
11%. They also concluded that hydrogen addition could cause
combustion instability and thermo-acoustic issues.
Gas turbine combustors operating on hydrogen-rich fuels
in lean premixed conditions have an operational limit. The
high flame speed of hydrogen causes flame propagation up-
stream into unburnt fuel called flashback phenomenon lead-
ing to the destruction of the combustor. The reduced stable
combustion range in lean premixed combustion and the high
reactivity of hydrogen increases the likelihood of flashback
with hydrogen-rich fuels. Hence, improving the combustor to
prevent flashback and achieve stable operation while retro-
fitting the existing gas turbines for hydrogen combustion is
critical. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd. (MHI) developed a
novel DLN combustor with a swirling flow to increase air-fuel
mixing and reduce flashback risks by increasing the flow ve-
locity in the center portion of the flow for hydrogen co-firing
up to 30% volumetric concentration [91]. Autoignition is
another drawback in premixed combustion. Hydrogen is
highly flammable and has a lower ignition point than natural
gas, thus mixed with air under typical gas turbine conditions,
it reacts quickly [84].
Low NOx combustion with hydrogen-rich fuels is a chal-
lenge even under lean conditions. Lean premixed laminar
flame of methane containing up to 30% hydrogen at a pressure
ranging from 1 to 20 bar is examined to investigate the impact
of mixing hydrogen with methane in the generation of NO
[92]. The study concluded that the addition of hydrogen
28637
increases NO but reduces the N2O mechanism. In the study of
NOx formation in lean premixed combustion of alternative
fuels by Fackler et al. they reported the reduction in NOx
emissions as the hydrogen content increased from 0% to 100%
during the combustion of hydrogen and methane blend in
nonadiabatic combustor at a constant temperature of 1500  C
and the constant pressure of 1 bar [93]. Goke et al. studied
natural gas and hydrogen blended fuel in a premixed
combustor with a range of mixture fractions and dilution rates
with steam-to-air mass ratios up to 30% [10]. The premixed
combustor maintained stable flame with up to 30% and 20%
steam-air mass ratios, respectively. Pure hydrogen can be
utilized in premixed combustion up to stoichiometric condi-
tions with 10% steam content. The hydrogen showed lower
NOx emissions and higher flame temperature than natural gas
when the steam-air ratio is more than 20% at an identical
equivalence ratio condition. It showed significant reduction in
NOx emissions under wet conditions. Especially when the
steam content was greater than 20%, ultra-low NOx emissions
achieved 10 ppm with both combustion systems for operation
on natural gas and hydrogen. Meziane and Bentebbiche re-
ported rich/quench/lean combustion micro gas turbine oper-
ation on a mixture of hydrogen with molar fraction up to 90%
and natural gas [94]. The results showed that CO emission
decreased by 60% and NO emission decreased by 40% with
10% hydrogen content. The outlet temperature increased with
hydrogen content at a constant mass flow rate of the mixed
fuel. They also concluded that the dilution zone and fuel in-
jectors must be modified. The combustion characteristics and
flame stability of hydrogen-enriched natural gas are essential
for safe operation in gas turbines. Therefore, more-detailed
investigations are required to understand fully hydrogen-
enriched combustion.
CHP 2.0
As the push for decarbonization intensifies, efforts are being
undertaken to develop and implement resilient and sustain-
able power generation technology, such as CHP systems, to
accelerate the process. CHP system refers to the simultaneous
generation of electricity and heat utilizing a single fuel source.
The essential components of a CHP system include a power
generation unit (prime mover and generator), a heat recovery
unit, and a heating system. The heat produced during elec-
tricity generation is recovered and utilized for heating pur-
poses. In contrast to separate electric and heat production,
CHP systems provide higher efficiency, reduced fuel con-
sumption, and lower GHG emissions. As the energy landscape
shifts towards efficient and sustainable energy generation,
CHP systems that use renewable fuels have become more
prevalent. The CHP units fueled by renewable sources,
renewable natural gas, biogas, and hydrogen are CHP 2.0, as
opposed to CHP 1.0, which uses fossil fuels. Gas turbines,
microturbines, and internal combustion engines are suited as
prime movers for CHP since they generate more heat that can
be recovered to provide useful thermal energy. However,
these prime movers are designed to work with natural gas and
release harmful emissions. Although pure hydrogen has yet to
be employed in combustion engines, efficient utilization of
hydrogen-enriched fuel mixture is a viable option for reducing
28638 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 2 8 6 2 9 e2 8 6 4 8
fossil fuel consumption. Researchers are investigating the
integration of hydrogen into the CHP systems by using mixed
hydrogen and hydrocarbon fuels in combustion engines and
developing durable and cost-effective fuel cells to use
hydrogen as a fuel source.
To increase efficiency and flexibility, researchers are also
exploring hybrid systems that integrate various CHP tech-
nologies, such as coupling gas turbines with fuel cells, using
surplus energy to produce hydrogen as an energy storage so-
lution, and incorporating solar and wind power technologies.
Moharamian et al. reported a 46% reduction in natural gas
consumption and a 27% reduction in CO2 emission when a
hydrogen and natural gas mixture is used in gas turbine [95]. A
biomass gasifier is also integrated into the proposed system,
and the produced syngas is combusted with gas turbine
exhaust to generate steam for the steam turbine. The elec-
tricity from the steam turbine is utilized to power the PEM
electrolyzer and produce hydrogen used in the gas turbine.
Santolli et al. conducted tests on a 60 kW CHP system using
natural gas and hydrogen mixture with hydrogen level of 0%,
5% and 8% [96]. According to the results, adding hydrogen
requires a higher fuel flow rate. In addition, there is a slight
gain in electrical efficiency and a decrease in thermal effi-
ciency when hydrogen content increases. They suggested that
heat recovery from steam could help increase overall
efficiency.
On the other hand, internal gas reforming in high-
temperature fuel cells such as SOFC allows the use of biogas
as a fuel [97e99]. Furthermore, hybrid gas turbine and fuel cell
CHP systems integrated with biomass gasification and on-site
hydrogen production have been modeled and simulated for
several configurations. Teymouri et al. considered a CHP sys-
tem in which solar energy collected by photovoltaic/thermal
(PV/T) is used in a PEM electrolyzer to produce hydrogen and
hot water [100]. Furthermore, the mixture of syngas from
biomass gasification and produced hydrogen is used as fuel
for gas turbines. In addition, the gas turbine exhaust steam is
recovered to be utilized in steam turbine to generate addi-
tional electricity, with a portion of steam being used to supply
hot water and the remaining routed to a thermoelectric
generator. The analysis showed an energy efficiency of 69%,
and an exergy efficiency of 23%. Total of 14.55 MW power and
8068.9 ton/day of hot water is generated. Cao et al. presented a
SOFC based CHP system integrated with biomass gasification,
PEM electrolyzer and PV/T unit [101]. Hydrogen produced with
mixed biogas is used as fuel for SOFC. The optimized system
produced 346.2 kW of electricity, exergy efficiency of 24.9%,
0.257 kg/kWh CO2 emission and levelized cost of electricity
(LCOP) of $0.0911/kWh.
Integrated use of expensive fuel cells in CHP systems is the
most cost-effective application. Using waste heat from fuel
cells for domestic hot water or space heating increases overall
efficiency while maximizing energy utilization. Cinti et al.
conducted a comparative assessment of SOFC-based micro-
CHP systems using natural gas and hydrogen/natural gas
mixture with H2 concentration varying from 0 to 99% by vol-
ume [102]. They concluded that as the hydrogen level in the
fuel mixture increases, the overall efficiency of the CHP sys-
tem increases while electric efficiency decreases slightly.
Furthermore, hydrogen/natural gas mixture eliminates the
need for an external reformer and reduces thermal stress and
cracking issues with the internal reforming of natural gas.
Chen et al. proposed a residential micro combined cooling,
heating, and power (CCHP) system with a 5 kW PEMFC and
single effect absorption chiller where waste heat from PEMFC
is utilized for hot water, space heating or cooling, and input
gas preheating and humidification [103]. They analyzed the
influence of several parameters in the system performance.
They found that the efficiency of the CCHP system reaches the
maximum of 68% at an operating temperature of 90  C during
summer, and the highest system efficiency is achieved at the
inlet gas pressure of 2 bar. On the other hand, increasing inlet
gas temperature showed only minor improvement. The
techno-economic analysis of a CHP system with low-
temperature PEMFC and hydrogen burner for a multifamily
residential unit was done by Herrmann and Krause [104].
Electric efficiency of 50% and overall efficiency of 95% was
reported in the study.
Much emphasis has been placed on integrating renewable
energy sources to reduce dependency on fossil fuels and
mitigate climate change. However, introducing intermittent
renewable sources like solar and wind into energy systems
comes with challenges in managing user demand variations
with fluctuating renewable energy sources that require a
backup system to provide an uninterrupted power supply.
One of the solutions is combining hydrogen production, which
has already been proven as a viable option. Employing
hydrogen as a storage medium by utilizing excess electricity
in electrolyzers to produce hydrogen and integrating with fuel
cell-based CHP system is a possible solution to existing energy
storage and delivery challenges [105e108]. Lacko et al. showed
that 100% renewable energy system for domestic applications
could be achieved with a CHP system that uses excess electric
generation from PV panels and wind turbines in an electro-
lyzer and a thermal storage system to store waste heat from
the fuel cell and electrolyzer [109]. Ozgirgin et al. modeled and
analyzed a CHP system using PV panels, PEMFC, and PEM
electrolyzer for residential application under various seasons
and found it be self-sustaining [110]. Zafar and Dincer used
PV/T to generate heat and electricity with surplus electricity
being used to produce hydrogen and fuel cells to provide
power, heat and water for household uses [111]. The results
showed that utilizing heat from PV/T and waste heat and
water from the fuel cell improves the system's overall effi-
ciency. Akikur et al. designed the CHP system consisting of
solar collector, PV, reversible SOFC, and heat exchanger to
fulfill 100 kW electric demand using three operational modes
depending on the availability of solar radiation [112]. During
the day, the solar-solid oxide steam electrolyzer (SOSE) mode
is used where the power generated by the PV is used to supply
the electric load as well as electricity for the steam electrolysis
with solar collector supplying thermal energy required for
hydrogen generation and storage, which is then used during
the night at SOFC mode to ensure uninterrupted supply of
power. When an additional electric supply is necessary to
meet the electric load that is not fulfilled by PV generation, the
solar-SOFC mode is used. The cost of electricity is calculated
to be $0.068/kWh. Ahmadi et al. simulated a CCHP system
with PV, PEM electrolysis and fuel cell, and single effect ab-
sorption chiller and found the overall energy efficiency to be
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 2 8 6 2 9 e2 8 6 4 8
29% and overall exergy efficiency to be 36% [113]. PEMFC, solar
collector, Organic Rankin Cycle (ORC), and vapor compression
cycle (VCC) based micro-CCHP were modeled and analyzed by
Chang et al. [114]. The CCHP system had 8 kW of electricity
and 14.5 kW of cooling/heating generation capacity under
operating conditions. CCHP efficiency increases with
increasing current density and operating temperature during
summer and winter, while solar radiation less than 550 W/m2
showed constant CCHP efficiency. The average efficiency of
75.4% and 85% are found during summer and winter,
respectively.
Despite the potential benefits of hydrogen and fuel cell-
based, CHP systems, such as reduced fuel consumption,
maximum energy utilization, and lower environmental harm,
numerous technological and other difficulties must be
addressed. One of the challenges in the transition to hydrogen
economy is the infrastructure. When comparing hydrogen
transportation via pipelines to cryogenic and gaseous trucks,
it was found that the pipeline option is the most cost effective
in the long run as well as for long distances [115]. The intro-
duction of hydrogen in existing natural gas infrastructure will
help hasten the transition to a hydrogen economy and reduce
the infrastructure cost. To accommodate 100% hydrogen in
current grids, upgrades and/or replacements of the grid
components are required. Another challenge is the cost of
hydrogen. Herrmann et al. also compared the cost of pro-
ducing hydrogen from natural gas to hydrogen by electrolysis
using wind turbine energy. They found that the “green”
hydrogen is three times more expensive [104]. According to
research by Zoulias and Lymberpoulous, achieving $315/kW
in stationary applications with a combination of the fuel cell,
PV, and hydrogen storage systems is economically desirable,
with a 50% cost reduction in electrolyzers and a 40% cost
reduction in hydrogen tanks [116].
Hydrogen utilization in transportation sector
After electricity and heat generation, the transportation sector
is the second-largest CO2 emission source taking 25% of global
emissions [117]. However, CO2 reduction in the transportation
sector has been challenging not only due to the merits of
conventional fossil fuels regarding ease of transportation,
storage, cost-effectiveness, and high energy density but also
distributed nature. Therefore, emission reduction strategies
have focused on vehicle system improvement through elec-
trification and advanced combustion [118,119]. The former
approach is feasible for smaller vehicles that only need short
mileage and light load. However, since electrification for
heavy-duty applications such as shipping and aviation is
difficult, there has been continuous attention to hydrogen
combustion study [120]. This section will discuss the current
status, including the development and investigation of
hydrogen utilization in fuel-cell electric vehicles and internal
combustion engines.
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs)
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) are run mainly by PEMFC,
which offer high efficiency, reliable cold startability, and high
28639
power [121]. Compared to residential fuel cells that have 1 kW
capacity, typical FCEVs use 60 kW fuel cells [122]. As of 2022,
there are only two available commercial FCEVs in the markets:
the Hyundai Nexo (2018-), and Toyota Mirai (2014-) [91,123].
FCEVs don't have an internal combustion engine but a fuel cell
system and electric motor like battery electric vehicles (BEVs).
However, FCEVs have shorter refueling times and longer driving
ranges than BEVs. They are similar to conventional vehicles in
the aspect of driving range and refueling time of 800 km and
5 min, respectively [121]. While BEVs are affected by fast
charging and local climate condition, FCEVs can have fast filling
and discharging without performance deterioration [124,125].
However, high costs and lack of infrastructure are pointed out
as the main issues for FCEVs. They have approximately doubled
costs compared to BEVs. For example, vehicle cost ranges $60-
75k for Toyota Mirai and Hyundai Nexo but only $25-35k for the
Chevrolet Bolt and Nissan Leaf [8,123,126]. Apparently, the
FCEVs are more expensive than BEVs and internal combustion
engine vehicles (ICEVs) at this moment, however, several
studies overlook cost reductions by 2030 [127]. In fact, there are
limited number of hydrogen fueling stations as well. As of 2019,
there are 100, 60, 42 hydrogen refueling stations in Japan, Ger-
many, and the United States, respectively, however, rest of the
countries are still far behind to develop refueling stations [128].
It is noted that the effectiveness of FCEVs on decarbonization in
transportation sector is mainly depending on hydrogen pro-
duction method. Comparative life-cycle GHG emissions over
10-year lifetime of an average mid-size vehicle by powertrain is
shown in Fig. 5. It is apparent that FCEVs have more CO2 than
plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) that has both internal
combustion engine and motor systems. Large amounts of CO2
are generated during hydrogen production since it is heavily
relying on conventional fossil fuel as introduced in section
Hydrogen production BEVs also show comparable or even larger
amount of CO2 attributed fossil fuel utilization for electricity
generation.
Nonetheless, several attempts have been made to utilize
FCEVs to cover larger transportation systems, including buses,
trucks, and vessels. This heavy-duty application is critical
since it accounts for a quarter of total transport energy usage.
It is known that the application of fuel cells in buses is already
maturely achieving high Technology Readiness Level (TRL)
[130]. In FECVs, hydrogen tank is typically located on the roof
and it can hold approximately 40 kg of hydrogen stored at
350 bar pressure, as shown in the schematic diagram in Fig. 6
[121,131]. As of 2021, there are 150 and 87 operating fuel-cell
buses in the Europe and the United States, respectively
[132,133]. For instance, four fuel cell buses in Cologne (Ger-
many) travel in average 250e300 km a day, and 13 fuel cell
buses in California have passed 52,102 h [134e136]. South
Korea has 15 fuel cell buses in operation in mid-2020, and has
plan to subsidize the purchase of 630 fuel cell buses by the end
of 2025 [137].
Fuel cell applications showed great potential for larger
applications, such as trucks, as they have high energy re-
quirements. It is admitted that BEVs can manage light goods
(short journey). However, long-haul, heavy-duty goods are
most likely to be dealt by FCEVs. Hyundai Motor Company
successfully produced a fuel cell truck called XCIENT [138]. In
Switzerland, XCIENT trucks have exceeded 1 million
28640 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 2 8 6 2 9 e2 8 6 4 8

Fig. 5 e Comparison of CO2 generation by vehicle type (BEV 40 and BEV 80 stands for 40 and 80 kWh battery electric vehicle,
respectively) [129].

Fig. 6 e Schematic diagram of integrated fuel cell system for a bus (HVAC*: heating, ventilation, and air conditioning, figure
reproduced from Ref. [131]).

kilometers within a year of service. Calculation shows that the
fleet has reduced CO2 emissions by 630 tons compared to the
case using conventional diesel trucks. Since they ran in
Switzerland in October 2020, a total of 46 XCIENT trucks have
been in the service of 25 different companies in logistics,
distribution, and supermarket fulfillment [139]. Similar to the
previous example, Nikola is also developing long-distance
heavy goods vehicles (HVG) using liquefied hydrogen in the
US [140]. One interesting strategy is to use a fuel cell for an
auxiliary power unit (APU) to support cabin heating, cooling,
lighting, and electrical devices to avoid engine idling. In gen-
eral, the truck market is reluctant to adopt fuel cells compared
to bus transportation due to high costs and limited subsidies
from the government [141]. However, interest in fuel cell
trucks is expected to grow, especially in a major city where
diesel trucks are banned. For example, AB (Anheuser-Busch)
InBev in Belgium ordered 800 fuel cell trucks in 2020, and they
are in operation now [142].
For fuel cell applications in a more extensive system, there
has been a movement to replace diesel-powered trains with
fuel cell trains, especially in Europe. However, the progress
could be faster compared to other transportation sectors.
Alstom built the first fuel cell-powered passenger trains. A
total of 14 Alstom's fuel cell passenger trains are in operation
as a regional commute line between Buxtehude (Hamburg)
and the beach town of Cuxhaven [143]. The fuel cell applica-
tion is also penetrating marine systems. However, in a marine
application, the transition seems slower than in the automo-
tive sector. Most fuel cell driven vessels are manufactured in
minimal numbers and highly tailored to specific applications.
It is reported that the cryogenic hydrogen system must be
installed to support the high demand for fuel, potentially
2,000 kg of hydrogen for ferries per day. Considering the cost
aspect, a hydrogen price below $7/kg is required to have eco-
nomic benefits [144]. Meanwhile, fuel cells for APU are still
adopted earlier than for propulsion systems. Smaller appli-
cations in port vehicles could also be early adopters,
improving local air quality with a single refueling depot as a
starting point.
Lastly, the aviation sector has been the most challenging to
cover with fuel cell systems only. Typically, planes require a
long-haul operation that needs a large amount of fuel thus, it
is inevitable to install a cryogenic liquid hydrogen system. At
the same time, the lack of power using fuel cells compared to
turbine engines is another challenge. The application of fuel
cell systems for aviation propulsion needs careful consider-
ation in terms of emissions because fuel cell systems will
produce a lot of water vapor (more than double the case of
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 2 8 6 2 9 e2 8 6 4 8
using kerosene) in high altitudes, which can cause an issue of
global warming.
Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles (H2ICEs)
Hydrogen possesses attractive fuel properties such as high
gravimetric heating value, fast flame speed, and wide lean/
rich limits, which have led to its use in combustion engines.
The benefits of H2ICEs compared to the FCEVs include fuel
flexibility (dual-fuel combustion), minimum engine modifi-
cations, reduction of rare material usage, and higher tolerance
to hydrogen impurities. From a thermodynamic perspective,
hydrogen's fast flame speed can improve thermal efficiency by
increasing the portion of constant volume combustion in the
engine. A wide range of lean and rich limits enables sophis-
ticated engine control optimization. This brings synergetic
enhancement to engine performance with a higher
compression ratio enabled by high octane number. In terms of
emissions, hydrogen fuel does not contain any carbon con-
tent, so there will not be carbon-based emissions such as
carbon monoxide (CO), CO2, and particulate matter (PM) after
the combustion. As introduced in the earlier gas turbine sec-
tion, there have been concerns about NOx emissions due to its
high adiabatic flame temperature. However, the lean opera-
tion with excess exhaust gas recirculation is considered a
breakthrough to achieve ultra-low NOx level.
Despite the favorable hydrogen fuel properties for H2ICEs,
several technical challenges must be resolved for commer-
cialization. Hydrogen has approximately three times larger
energy density (by mass) than other fossil fuels, but since it is
gaseous fuel in standard temperature and pressure condition,
a compressed hydrogen system is inevitable to match the
input energy requirement thus, safety management and
design optimization should be carried out with hydrogen
storage system. In terms of engine operation, hydrogen in-
jection and combustion strategy have to be carefully tuned as
hydrogen has distinct fuel properties from conventional fuels.
In Table 4, hydrogen requires an order of magnitude smaller
ignition energy than gasoline. This implies that a small hot
spot or hot residual gas inside the combustion chamber can
initiate abnormal combustion in H2ICEs. The unwanted pre-
ignition (also called knocking) before the scheduled ignition
timing is a well-known efficiency degradation source.
Furthermore, hydrogen's short flame-quenching distance
causes higher temperature gradients near the combustion
Table 4 e Fuel properties of hydrogen compared to other
fuels ((A/F)s*: Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio) [145].
Item Hydrogen Gasoline Diesel
Formula (phase) H2(g) CnH1.87n(l)
Density [kg/m3] 0.09(g) 0.72e0.78
Low heating value [MJ/kg] 120.0 44.0
Octane number (RON) 120 92e98
Cetane number e e
Stoichiometric air-fuel 34.3 14.6
ratio (A/F)s*
Latent heat of vaporization [kJ/kg] e 305 270
Minimum ignition energy [mJ] 0.019 0.8 e This indicates the water injection strategy was effective in
Flame speed [m/s] 1.85 0.37e0.43 e
28641
chamber wall, resulting in significant heat losses. As pointed
out in the gas turbine application, the short flame quenching
distance and higher laminar flame propagation speed also
induce a risk of flashback (also called backfiring in ICE). To
mitigate those issues, several studies have been conducted on
combustion chamber design, fuel injection parameters,
application of water injection and cold spark plugs [146e149].
Following section will discuss details of various combustion
modes of H2ICEs to overcome technical challenges described
above.
Combustion modes of HICEs
In a broader view, injection methods in combustion engine
can be categorized into two systems, port fuel injection (PFI)
and direct injection (DI). Hydrogen PFI engines are necessarily
equipped with a spark plug for ignition, while DI engines
mostly use dual fuel with pilot diesel injection, or homoge-
nous charge compression ignition (HCCI) approaches [150].
Several studies also introduced spark-assisted or hot-surface-
assisted using glow plugs in hydrogen combustion systems
[151,152]. The DI injection mode can be realized in dual-fuel
mode, for example, initiate combustion using small amount
of diesel in air-hydrogen mixture. Modifying a conventional
PFI engine to a hydrogen engine does not require significant
modification compare to the case redesigning the engine with
hydrogen DI system. However, the PFI engines have several
technical difficulties such as limited engine power density,
short quenching distance, backfiring, pre-ignition, and
knocking. They also require a higher amount of work during
the compression stroke compared to the DI approach. Typical
combustion strategies used in H2ICEs are summarized in Fig. 7
and the detailed combustion characteristics and engine per-
formance of different ignition strategies are discussed below.
Spark-ignited PFI hydrogen engines are one of the common
approaches for H2ICEs. Park et al. investigated effects of en-
gine operating condition on engine performance and NOx
emissions in a modified PFI engine [153]. The experimental
results showed that the ultra-low NOx lower than 15 ppm was
achieved with stable lean burn having an excess air ratio
higher than 2.25. However, the engine's maximum torque
output was limited by the backfiring phenomenon in the
intake manifold. The authors tried to utilize lower ignition
energy but could not suppress the backfiring issue. Even
though the cold-type spark plug effectively suppresses the
backfiring, the maximum fuel efficiency was decreased
because of higher combustion temperature and heat losses to
the combustion chamber. Xu et al. investigated water injec-
tion strategy in PFI H2ICE under various excess air and spark
timing conditions [154]. The engine test results showed that
the NOx emissions could be decreased by 55.4% compared to
hydrogen-only conditions due to ~60  C lower in-cylinder
CnH1.8n(l) temperature by evaporation cooling with water injection.
0.84e0.88
Even though the in-cylinder temperature decreased, the in-
42.5
cylinder pressure was maintained thanks to volume expan-
e
52 sion during the phase change of water, so the fuel efficiency
14.5 was slightly increased with water injection. In this study, ex-
periments were successfully carried out in a wide range of
ignition timing and air-fuel ratio without backfiring issues.
mitigating backfiring. However, as addressed earlier, it is
28642 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 2 8 6 2 9 e2 8 6 4 8

Fig. 7 e Categorization of HICEs based on typical injection and ignition strategies (figure reproduced from Ref. [150]).

evident that the abnormal combustion by hydrogen could

only be resolved with additional components such as water
injection cooled EGR loop, and cold spark plug.
An alternative approach using hydrogen DI has shown
promising results in engine performance and mitigation of
technical challenges shown in PFI engines [155e157]. In the DI
approach, the hydrogen injection occurs during compression
stroke when all the valves are completely closed, so there is no
concern of backfiring through the intake manifold. This
approach also can mitigate the pre-ignition thanks to a
shorter exposure time of hydrogen mixture to potential hot
surfaces in combustion chamber. Volumetric efficiency loss is
no longer an issue since hydrogen is injected directly into the
combustion chamber not through intake manifold. On the
other hand, since the injector is installed in the cylinder, it
Fig. 8 e Ideal scenario of vehicle types according to average
requires higher injection pressure, typically above 100 bar, to
mileage per day/trip and vehicle weight.
overcome high compression pressure in the combustion
chamber [158]. The higher injection pressure can inject a
higher amount of fuel than PFI, so it is more suitable to cover shows an unrealistic compression ratio 40:1þ is needed to
wide engine load conditions. The direct injection also creates achieve HCCI with hydrogen at the equivalence ratio of 0.1
additional turbulence in the combustion chamber, contrib- and unheated intake condition [161]. In this situation, com-
uting to better air-fuel mixing. Based on these advantages, bustion control is getting harder. It also has been commonly
several studies were able to demonstrate high-load hydrogen reported that a high rate of heat release and accompanying
engine operation and showed similar brake thermal efficiency engine noise with hydrogen HCCI [162]. A previous study re-
(BTE) compared to conventional diesel engines [156]. Apart ported that the primary combustion occurs within 3 crank
from engine load extension with high-pressure injection, DI angle degrees (CAD) in a passenger car CI engine [163]. Even
approach enables sophisticated injection strategies such as though it showed a high indicated thermal efficiency of ~45%,
multiple injections and variant injection timing thus, it pro- the engine load was limited to low load conditions which is
vides more flexibility to optimize engine performance than 50% of hydrogen PFI engine and 25% of conventional gasoline
the PFI engine. Meanwhile, thanks to hydrogen's high diffu- operation, respectively.
sivity, it has great potential to create homogenous hydrogen- As the literature review indicates, current technology to
air mixture than conventional fuels. The HCCI strategy uti- utilize hydrogen directly in combustion systems needs more
lizes a well-mixed air-fuel mixture to achieve low emissions research and development. Nonetheless, this approach has
while maintaining comparable engine output to conventional great potential to be applied in the heavy-duty transportation
diesel combustion. In addition to the high diffusion coefficient sector, such as trains and planes since the energy density
of hydrogen, its wide lean/rich limit, and fast flame propaga- (energy per mass) of the combustion engine is greater than the
tion speed enable ultra-lean combustion with low level of NOx fuel cell. Fig. 8 summarizes a suggested strategic plan for
and fuel consumption [159]. In the previous study of Gomes hydrogen-driven transportation by various vehicle types.
et al. they found hydrogen HCCI had nearly zero NOx emis-
sions, three orders of magnitude smaller than conventional
diesel combustion cases [160]. However, the realization of Conclusion and future research outlook
HCCI with hydrogen was challenging because of its high auto-
ignition temperature, which causes combustion instability Hydrogen has been essential in supporting deep decarbon-
under a low-temperature combustion regime. Calculation ization in the power generation and transportation sectors. A
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 2 8 6 2 9 e2 8 6 4 8
comprehensive discussion on current approaches for
hydrogen production, storage, and utilization has been made
in this review by introducing worldwide projects.
Various sources, including conventional fossil fuel,
biomass, and water, can produce hydrogen. In addition,
excessive electricity from renewable energy sources can also
be stored as a form of hydrogen to meet on-demand energy
requirements. Meanwhile, the benefits of hydrogen in decar-
bonization are less than expected because current hydrogen
production relies heavily on methane and coal, which produce
significant GHGs. Along with safety issues with hydrogen,
various approaches have been suggested for hydrogen storage
systems. Among the suggested methods, physical-based
(high-pressure or cryogenic) hydrogen storage systems are
considered a more realistic approach than metal-based units
despite safety concerns related to hydrogen leaks and degra-
dation of sealing materials.
In terms of hydrogen utilization, the most noticeable
progress was made by fuel cells. Fuel cells cover a wide range
of power, so they have been used for CHP and vehicle pro-
pulsion. In the power generation sector, a fuel cell can provide
controllable power to satisfy buildings' dynamic power re-
quirements. The analysis showed that FCEVs take many
benefits over BEVs in terms of driving mileage, refueling time,
and power. Thus, fuel cells greatly succeeded in buses, trucks,
and small-scale trains. However, due to the limited power
density of fuel cells, it is challenging to cover heavy-duty ap-
plications such as vessels and planes, so direct utilization of
hydrogen in combustion engines had been considered.
Hydrogen has favorable fuel properties, including carbon-free
structure, high flame speed, and wide flammability, providing
great potential for high-efficiency clean combustion systems.
Attempt to use hydrogen in combustion systems have long
been tried. However, pure hydrogen combustion technology is
less mature as compared to fuel-cell. Therefore, continuous
research and investigation must be made for a safe, complete,
compact combustion system that focuses on fuel delivery
methods.
Future hydrogen research needs to focus on renewable
energy-driven hydrogen production methods and more suc-
cessful commercialization to cover large-scale power gener-
ation and transportation sectors. This will maximize the
effectiveness of hydrogen in decarbonization, considering the
complete life-cycle analysis. Furthermore, hydrogen com-
bustion technologies for gas turbines and combustion engines
should be investigated to resolve technical challenges such as
combustion instability and flashback so they can cover heavy-
duty applications. Finally, a combination with other energy
sources, such as ammonia, should be considered because
ammonia can be directly used as fuel but is also a hydrogen
carrier in the system.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
28643
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by Bioenergy Feedstock Logistics Pro-
gram [grant no. 2020-67019-30772/project accession no.
1022075] from the USDA National Institute of Food and
Agriculture.
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