O&G Industry Trainee Handouts

11/19/2023
ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
Part 2
Oil & Gas Industry
Prepared & Reviewed

This material was prepared and reviewed by a group of experts, including
Dr. Abdussalam Ahmed

Fituri Dr. Gassem Azzain Tarek Alnasser Daw
Professor in Mechanical Associate Prof. MSc.
Engineering – Power Mechanical Engineering Petroleum Engineering
(Thermal and Fluid) (Renewable Energy) Production Operations &
Staff member College of Faculty member Workover Engineer Specialist
Engineering Technology Sebha University Petroleum Training &
& Qualifying Institute (PTQI)
Renewable Energies College - Tajurah
1
11/19/2023
Course Contents
Unit # 1 from slide 1 to 112
1 Introduction to oil & gas industry in Libyan.
2 Crude oil production.
3 Petroleum exploration methods, geology & geophysical study’s.
4 Minerals & rocks composition.
5 Introduction to crude oil, organic & inorganic theory, petroleum system, oil traps.
6 General chemical petroleum composition.
7 Basic reservoir rock and fluid properties.
8 Formation evaluation methods (mud log, coring, well logging, DST), functions and tools.
9 Overview of drilling operations.
10 Conventional rigs, components systems, operation, monitoring system.
11 Rig Basic drilling fluid components, physical properties.
12 Well control system definition, principle, kick and blowout.
1 Casing pipes, types and application.
2 Well cementing, definition, objective and tools.
3 Non-Conventional Rigs, coiled tubing, wireline unit application, operations
4 Well completion, definition, objective & factors affecting.
5 Reservoir & wellbore connection, open hole, cased hole and liner completion.
6 Completion Geometry, single zone & tubing, multiple zone & tubing completion.
Course Contents
7- Tubing flow, casing flow (tubing less), casing & tubing flow.
8- Christmas tree, tubing hanger, production tubing &packer function and components.
9- Well perforation, main objective.
10- Well production operation, subsea production systems.
11- Natural reservoir energy, well flowing naturally, pressure losses in production flow naturally.
12- Basic types of lift system (SR-pump, ESP-pump, Gas lift) overview &objective.
13- Lift system surface & downhole equipment's.
14- Well production tests, definition & objective.
15- Measurement & control devices, objective, (pressure, rate, level & temperature).
1- Formation fluids processing (crude oil ,natural gas, water) path & treatment.
2- The pipelines, definition, dimension.
3- The pumps, classification, uses, characteristics and pump arrangement (series & parallel).
4- The valves, usage, types, pipeline scraper, functions & types.
5- Oil & gas storage tanks, uses and accessories.
6- Oil & gas transportation system, types of petroleum and gas transportation.
7- Marine & land pollution.
8- Petrochemical, processing and refining petroleum.
9- Az Zawiya oil refinery , terminal and labrotary.
10- Well Servicing & Workover, definition & objective.
2
11/19/2023
Course Contents
11- Preventive and corrective Maintenance.

12- Conventional workover program.
13- Well control in workover operations, well killing operations, definition.
14- Hydrostatic and pressure gradient, examples.
15- Types of well killing (killing by circulation & bull heading).
16- Well problem analysis & evaluation (casing leak, sand production, water conning).
17- Wellbore deposit and types.
18- Scale, emulsion and corrosion problems.
19- Well stimulation, definition & objective.
20- Matrix acidizing, objective, types of acids and additives.
21- Hydraulic fracturing, objective, types and fracturing fluid characteristics.
Introduction to Oil & Gas

Industry in Libya
3
‫‪11/19/2023‬‬
‫ى‬
‫‪Oil Fields,‬‬ ‫الحقول االنفطية الصحراوية ف ليبيا ‪Libyan Onshore Oil Fields‬‬
‫العرب للنفط (الرسير – النافورة – الحمادة )‪.‬‬
‫ى‬ ‫رشكة الخليج‬ ‫▪‬
‫رشكة الواحة للنفط ( جالو – الظهرة – السماح ‪ -‬الفارغ)‪.‬‬
‫‪Refineries‬‬ ‫ى‬
‫تيبيست )‪.‬‬ ‫ى‬
‫الغاب –‬ ‫رشكة الهروج للعمليات النفطية ( آمال –‬
‫رشكة شت لتصنيع النفط والغاز ( زلطن – الراقوبة – االستقالل “ التحدى”)‪.‬‬
‫▪‬
‫▪‬
‫▪‬
‫‪and Ports‬‬ ‫رشكة أكاكوس للعمليات النفطية ( ر‬

‫الرسارة ) ‪.‬‬
‫رشكة الزويتينة للنفط ( ‪103‬أ ‪ ،‬زلة ‪ ،‬الصباح )‬
‫▪‬
‫▪‬
‫ى‬
‫‪in Libya‬‬ ‫الحقول النفطية البحرية ف ليبيا ‪Libyan Offshore oil Fields‬‬
‫حقل البورى النفىط‪.‬‬ ‫▪‬
‫صباته‬
‫منصة ى‬ ‫▪‬
‫حقل الجرف‬ ‫▪‬
‫ى‬ ‫ى‬ ‫ى‬
‫الموان والمصاف النفطية ف ليبيا‬
‫طبق)‪.‬‬
‫ميناء ومصفاة الحريقة ( ى‬ ‫▪‬
‫ميناء الزويتينة‪.‬‬ ‫▪‬
‫ميناء ومصفاة رأس األنوف‪.‬‬ ‫▪‬
‫ميناء ومصفاة الزاوية‪.‬‬ ‫▪‬
‫ميناء السدرة‪.‬‬ ‫▪‬
‫‪7‬‬
‫‪Zueitena‬‬
‫‪Essider‬‬ ‫‪Terminal‬‬
‫‪Terminal‬‬
‫‪Raslanuf‬‬ ‫‪Hatiba‬‬
‫‪Refinery‬‬ ‫‪Amal‬‬ ‫‪Nafoora‬‬
‫‪Zelten‬‬
‫‪Ghani‬‬
‫‪Raguba‬‬
‫‪Zella‬‬
‫‪Sabah‬‬
‫‪8‬‬
‫‪4‬‬
‫‪11/19/2023‬‬
‫‪Petroleum Explorations in Libya‬‬
‫معدل األنتاج اليومى‬ ‫تاريخ حفر البئر‬ ‫عقد األمتياز‬ ‫أسم الحقل‬ ‫الشركة المنفذة‬
‫‪ 508‬برميل يوميا‬ ‫‪20/1/1958‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫العطشان‬ ‫اسو استاندارد(شركة سرت)‬

‫‪ 17500‬برميل يوميا‬ ‫‪13/6/1959‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫زلطن‬ ‫اسو استاندارد(شركة سرت)‬
‫‪ 3910‬برميل يوميا‬ ‫‪28/11/1961‬‬ ‫‪65‬‬ ‫السرير‬ ‫شركة النفط البريطانية(شركة‬
‫الخليج العربي)‬
‫‪ 725‬برميل يوميا‬ ‫‪19/2/1963‬‬ ‫‪11‬‬ ‫فاشة‬ ‫موبيل(شركة الهروج)‬
‫‪ 500‬برميل يوميا‬ ‫‪27/7/1958‬‬ ‫‪32‬‬ ‫الباهى‬ ‫اويزس(شركة الواحة)‬
‫‪ 3650‬برميل يوميا‬ ‫‪26/9/1959‬‬ ‫‪47‬‬ ‫البيضاء‬ ‫اموسيز(أم الجوابي)‬
‫‪ 990‬يرميل يوميا‬ ‫‪1/11/1959‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫آمال‬ ‫موبيل(شركة الهروج)‬
‫‪ 226‬برميل يوميا‬ ‫‪27/12/1959‬‬ ‫‪59‬‬ ‫الواحة‬ ‫أويزس(شركة الواحة)‬
‫‪ 650‬برميل يوميا‬ ‫‪4/1/1961‬‬ ‫‪20‬‬ ‫الراقوبة‬ ‫اسو (شركة سرت)‬
‫‪9‬‬
‫‪The First Oil Well Drilled in Zelten Oil Field‬‬

‫‪C 1-6‬‬
‫ى‬
‫تم حفره ف ‪ 13‬يونيو سنة ‪1959‬م‪.‬‬
‫عمق الطبقة المنتجة ‪ 5500‬قدم‪.‬‬
‫القدرة األنتاجية ر‬
‫للبئ ‪ 17500‬برميل يوميا‪.‬‬
‫الكثافة القياسية للنفط المنتج ‪ 37‬درجة‪.‬‬
‫ى‬
‫سبتمئ سنة ‪1961‬م‪.‬‬
‫ر‬ ‫وضع عىل خط األنتاج ف شهر‬
‫‪10‬‬
‫‪5‬‬
11/19/2023
Crude Oil Production
Exploration
A series of surveys, using advanced methods such as seismic, reflective seismic, magnetic
and gravity to locates hydrocarbon on land or under the sea.
Preparing to Drilling
When seismic investigation has been completed, it is time to drill the well, normally
dedicated drilling rigs either on mobile onshore units or offshore floating rigs are used.
Formation Evaluation Tests

The evaluation process analyzes the well for producible hydrocarbons.
Then the decision is made to either produce hydrocarbons or plug the well.
Preparing to Completion
Well completion includes all the steps needed to prepare a newly drilled well for
production ( interface between the reservoir and surface production).
11
Crude Oil Production
Preparing to Production
To design the best production system in order to give best production rate at normal
condition by used low energy.
Oil & Gas Treatment
The oil should be processed as soon as possible after bringing them to the surface. oil
and gas then transported by pipe lines to treatment facilities (pumping station). such as oil
separators are used for the purpose.
Oil & Gas Storage & Transportation
The oil and gas storage in tanks then convert by pipe lines to refined products and
petrochemical every day.
Market
The crude oil and the produced petroleum products transported by using oil tankers
or sub-sea pipe lines to market.
12
6
11/19/2023
Drilling
Exploration
Completion Production
13
Storage
Treatment
Refining Market
14
7
11/19/2023
Where and How are oil and gas accumulations found?
Basin: a volume of sedimentary rocks capable of containing potential elements of a working

“hydrocarbon machine” source, reservoir, trap, seal and proper timing and migration.
Tripolitanian
Ghadamis Basin
Basin
Sirt
Basin
Muruzg
Basin
Al Kufra
Basin
15
How Do We Search
and
Where would you drill an oil well ?
16
8
11/19/2023
Petroleum Exploration Methods
In exploration for petroleum, expert have developed

several scientific method and techniques using
geology, geophysics and other natural sciences for an Vibrator
accumulation of hydrocarbons. Truck
The search studies for hydrocarbons
• Geological Studies.
• Geophysical Studies.
• Geochemical Studies. Vibrator
• Drilling and electrical logging Studies. Ship
• Formation Evaluation Tests.
17
Geology Studies
Geology is the study (history) of the
earth, it is used in exploring for
petroleum in deals with the
composition, arrangement and origins Solution
of the rocks of the earth crust. WellRock
site geologist
deformation
Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun and
the smallest one in the Solar System—it’s only
(Mud logger)
Venus has a beautiful name and is the second
planet from the Sun. It’s terribly hot—even
a bit larger than the Moon. The planet’s name hotter than Mercury—and its atmosphere is
has nothing to do with the liquid metal, since it extremely poisonous. It’s the second-brightest
was named after the Roman messenger god natural object in the night sky after the Moon
18
9
11/19/2023
Geophysical Studies
Sedimentary Rock
Is the study of the physical properties (rock
lithology, density, fluid content, etc…..) of the earth, it
is an exploration science which combines physical
measurement and geological data.
Geophysical Data
• Gravity Method.
• Magnetic Method.
• Electro-Magnetic Methods. Anticlines & Synclines
• Radioactive Methods.
• Seismic Method.
19
Seismic Method
• The most common of finding oil is the seismic

method.
• This is done by sending sound waves into the
earth or in the sea.
• The waves hit the different types of formation and
reflect to the surface.
• The reflections are recorded at the surface.
• They are used to draw a geological map.
• Geophysicists explore in this way until petroleum
reservoirs are found.
• A source of energy (dynamite, vibrator trucks,
air guns).
20
10
11/19/2023
Structural Map
Geology Studies
Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun and

Seismic Survey
the smallest one in the Solar System—it’s only
a bit larger than the Moon. The planet’s name
has nothing to do with the liquid metal, since it
was named after the Roman messenger god
21
Lithology Sonic
Geochemical logs
Interpretation of the
types of rocks and
their fluid contents
from the physical
properties
(radioactivity,
density, resistivity)
registered in the If you want to modify this graph, click on it, follow the link, change the data and replace it
wire line logs.
Gamma Ray Resistivity
22
11
11/19/2023
Rocks Cycle
Igneous
Erosion, transport, lithification

Metamorphic Sedimentary
Temperature and Pressure
23
Minerals and Rocks Composition
According to their origin they are Shale

classified as:
Igneous : formed by cooling of molten
substances.
Sedimentary : formed by processes of

weathering, transport, sedimentation and Sandstone
lithification.
Metamorphic : formed by the transformation

of other rocks in depth due to pressure and
temperature.
Granite
24
12
11/19/2023
Minerals and Composition

• A mineral is a naturally occurring homogeneous subsurface of more or less
definite chemical composition.
• It has a characteristics atomic structure frequently expressed in the crystalline

form or other properties.
• Rock Forming Minerals:

Name Chemical Formula
Rock forming minerals of interest to
the petroleum geologist can be Quartz SiO2
divided into the following families:
Calcite CaCo3
• Silicates.
• Carbonates. Magnetite Fe3O4
• Oxides.
Barite BaSo4
• Sulfates (sulphates).
25
Minerals
Gold
Quartz
(Au)
(SiO2)
Crystalline Granat
26
13
11/19/2023
Rocks Types
Pressure Cementation
Sedimentary Sediments
Rock
Heat Pressure
Erosion
Erosion
Metamorphic Igneous
Rock Rock
Magma
27
Igneous Rock Granite

Quartz
Mica
Feldspar
28
14
11/19/2023
Shale Lime Stone

A sedimentary rock
is a cumulative of minerals , which consist of
( mineral grains, cement, pore space and
pore fluid).
Sedimentary Rocks
Toroweap Sandstone
Clastics
Sandston Carbonates
Conglomerate Limestone
Shale Dolomite
Shaly sand Evaporite
Sedimentary Rock
29
Micritic Fossiliferous
Limestone Limestone
(CaCO3)
Evaporates Sandstone
(Sio2)
30
15
11/19/2023
Metamorphic rock
Quartzite
Sandstone
Shale Schist
31
Introduction to crude oil
Organic theory
• The organic theory says that millions of years ago, the earth
was full of animals and plants that lived in marine (water)
environment before the dinosaurs.
• The continuous build-up of the organic materials formed by
heat and pressure to sedimentary rock and finally led to
the formation of crude oil.
Inorganic theory
The inorganic theory holds that hydrogen and carbon were
brought together under great pressure and temperature deep
in the earth, these materials were converted to oil and gas.
32
16
11/19/2023
Conditions for a Petroleum accumulation
• Source Rock = An organic-rich sedimentary rock that can generate and release enough
hydrocarbons to form an accumulation of oil or gas .
• Reservoir Rock = Permeable and porous rock that yields hydrocarbons.
• Cap Rock = Impermeable rock such as Shale.
Why the Oil and Gas Migrate?

The oil and natural gas tend to migrate due to less density and by the pressure differential.
Generation Migration Accumulation

Source Rock Reservoir Rock
Required: Required: Required:
Adequate organic content, Adequate correct timing, suitable Adequate permeability &
temperature & time path way porosity and seal rock
33
Petroleum System
All the elements necessary for an accumulation of oil or gas.
PROCESSES
ELEMENTS Development Trap
Preservation
Source Rock GAS Accumulation
Reservoir Migration
Seal Expulsion
OIL
Trap Generation
Water
34
17
11/19/2023
Oil Traps Where are the

accumulations and
A configuration of rocks suitable for containing hydrocarbons how are they
and sealed by a relatively impermeable formation through formed?
which hydrocarbons will not migrate.
Types Of Oil Traps

• Structural
Anticline , Fault
• Stratigraphic
Pinch-out , Truncation
• Combination
Salt Dome
35
Structural Anticline (Dome )Trap
36
18
11/19/2023
Fault Trap
Impermeable Rock
Fault
37
Stratigraphic Pinch-out Trap

Tight – increasing content
38
19
11/19/2023
Salt Dome Trap
39
General Chemical Petroleum Composition

What is Petroleum (Crude Oil)?
It is a complex mixture of naturally accruing hydrocarbons, which may exist in
the solid, liquid or gassy states depending upon the conditions of pressure &
temperature ELEMENTS WEIGHT%
Petroleum consists of : Carbon 84 - 87
Hydrogen 11 - 14
Sulphur 0.06 – 2.0
Petroleum Reservoir
Nitrogen 0.1 – 2.0
Contents of :
Oxygen 0.1 – 2.0
Oil:
• A liquid mixture under normal surface condition of pressure & temperature.
• Is lighter than water, so it tends to accumulate above the water layer.
When oil and water move through a pore, a thin coat of either oil or water will be
left in the pore.
40
20
11/19/2023
Natural Gas
Natural gas is always associated with oil in a reservoir.
Given proper conditions of pressure and temperature, the
substance will stay in solution (dissolved) in the oil.
When the temperature and pressure are lowered, the gas comes
out of solution.
Free gas tends to accumulate near the top of the reservoir.
Oil
Water
Connate water: The water originally associated with the
organic material.
Bottom water: The water that occurs at the bottom of the Water
reservoir.
Edge water: The water that collects at the boundary of the
reservoir.
The water associated with petroleum reservoirs
almost always contains some salt. Thus, petroleum
is usually associated with salty
41
Reservoir Fluid APII Viscosity (cp) Colour
Black Oil 15 - 40 2 - 100 Dark often Black
Volatile Oil 45 - 55 0.25 - 3 Brown , Orange or Green Physical and

Chemical
Gas Condensate characteristics
˃ 50 0.25 Light Colored
of crude oil
Wet Gas ˃ 60 0.25 Light Colored
Dray Gas
Fuel Oil No liquid
----------------- 0.02 – 0.05 Light Colored
- --------------------- -------------------------------------
˃ 70
42
21
11/19/2023
Hydrocarbon Molecular Structure

Number of Chemistry of Petroleum
Carbons, n Name Formula
1 Methane CH4
2 Ethane C2H6
3 Propane C3H8 Hydrocarbons
4 Butane C4H10
5 Pentane C5H12 Aliphatic Aromatics
6 Hexane C6H14
7 Heptane C7H16
8 Octane C8H18 Cyclic
9 Nonane C9H20 Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes
Aliphatic
10 Decane C10H22
11 Undecane C11H24
12 Dodecane C12H26
20 Eicosane C20H42
30 Tricontane C30H62
43
Chemical Structure of Alkanes

Alkanes
• Have the general formula of CnH2n+2 .
• These compounds are chemically stable and have either straight or branched chains.
• Compounds of this family are also called Saturated Hydrocarbons.
C6 H6 : benzene
44
22
11/19/2023
Basic Reservoir Rock & Fluid Properties
What is a Reservoir ?
An oil/gas reservoir is a permeable rock formation that contains oil/gas.
There must be some kind of sealing mechanism (impermeable rock) to prevent the
oil from escaping.
Gas
Oil
Water
45
Classification of Oil Reservoirs
Oil reservoirs are classified depending on the location of the point initial reservoir pressure
and temperature on the P- T phase diagram of the reservoir fluid.:
• If the reservoir temperature, is less than the critical temperature (Tc) of the reservoir
fluid, the reservoir is classified as an oil reservoir.
a) Under-Saturated Oil Reservoir (single-phase reservoir).

The initial reservoir pressure is greater than the bubble point pressure of the reservoir fluid.
b) Saturated oil reservoir

The initial reservoir pressure is equal to the bubble point pressure of the reservoir fluid.
c) Gas-cap reservoir
The initial reservoir pressure is below the bubble point pressure of the reservoir fluid.
46
23
11/19/2023
Reservoir Rock Physical Properties
Porosity (Ø)
▪ Porosity is a measure of the opening in rock in which petroleum can exist.
▪ The volume of the sand(Vb) is the sum of the volume of the sand grains(Vg) plus the
volume of space between grains(Vp).
▪ The volume of space between grains is called pore volume (Vp).
• Porosity ϕ is the ratio of total pore volume(Vp) within a rock to the total bulk(Vb).
VP (Vb − Vg ) Vg
Porosity( ) =
PoreVolume
x100 = = = 1−
BulkVolume VB Vb Vb
V p ( pore.volume) = Vb (bulk.volume) − Vg ( grain.volume)
47
Porosity Permeability
Mineral Grain
Solution
Well site geologist
Pores (Mud logger)
Venus has a beautiful name and is the second
planet from the Sun. It’s terribly hot—even
hotter than Mercury—and its atmosphere is
extremely poisonous. It’s the second-brightest
natural object in the night sky after the Moon
Water
48
24
11/19/2023
Porosity (Ø)
Example:
The porosity for a cylindrical shape sample 3.2 cm length
and has diameter of 1.8 cm and grain volume of 4.27 cc ?
Solution :
d 2
Vb = xL
4
 (1.8) 2
x(3.2 ) = 8.14cm3
Vg
Vb =  = 1− x100
4 VB
V p = Vb − Vg = 8.14cm − 4.27cm = 3.87cm3  = 1−

(4.27 ) x100 = 47.5%
(8.14)
Vp
3.87cm 3
= = x100 = 47.5%
Vb 8.14cm 3
49
Permeability (K)
• The relationship between pressure and Flow rate was first studied extensively by the scientist Henry
Darcy (1803-1858).
• He created pressure differentials across a porous media and measured the resulting flow rates that
resulted from those pressures.
• The porous rock must be connected together with permeability rock, so that hydrocarbons (fluid or
gas) can move from one pore to another.
Fluid Properties Permeable Medium
Viscosity Area, Length, Permeability
Generally the permeability is termed as :
• Poor < 1 md P2 P1
• Fair 1.0 - 10 md Direction of Flow
• Moderate 10 - 50 md
KxAxP
• Good 50 250 md q=−
• V. good ˃ 250 md xL
50
25
11/19/2023
Permeability (K)
Example:
A cylindrical core sample was subjected to a laboratory liner flow test by using distilled water as the
flowing fluid.
The following data were obtained:
Diameter of sample = 4.0 cm , μ water = 1.0 cp
Length of sample = 10.0 cm , q = 0.50 cc/sec
P1 = 50 psig = 64.7 psia , P2 = 14.7 psia = 1atm
What is the permeability (K) of this sample?
Solution
∆P = )P1 – P2) = ( 64.7 – 14.7 ) = 50 psia x (1 atm / 14.7 psia)
qxxl 0.5 x1.0 x10

K =− = = 0.117 Darcy = 117md
AxP  50 
4 
 14.7 
51
Darcy's Law for radial flow into a wellbore
Darcy’s Equation for radial flow & One phase fluid (oil or water)
Drawdown Pressure
0.00708ko h( Pr − Pwf ) Pr
qo =  

r  
O B ln  e  − S 
 

O 


 rw  


Where:
q= liquid flow rate, STB/day Pr Q=?
K=Effective permeability, md Pwf
h =Formation thickness ,ft Fluid Flow Fluid Flow
Pr = Average reservoir pressure at re, psi
Pwf = Flowing bottom hole pressure, psi
re= Drainage radius of well, ft
rw= Well bore radius,ft Reservoir outer
Fluid
Flow
BO= Oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB "drainage"

µo= Oil viscosity, cp boundary Pr
S= skin factor
52
26
11/19/2023
900 BPD 0 BPD

Productivity Index Calculation
SFL
 900  DFL
PI bpd  =   = 1.42
 psi 
 
 (810 − 176 ) 
Drawdown
(634 psi)
Static
Pressure
Q( Max ) = 1150 BPD Flowing
Pressure (810 psi)
(176 psi)
Mechanical
AOFP = Represents the flow rate that would or Memory
occur if FBHP could be reduced to zero. Gauge
53
Fluid Saturation (%) •The sum of the pore space occupied by each phase must
equal the total pore space.
•The volume of fluid or gas divided by the volume of pores
in which the fluid or gas resides.
•Total saturation is always 100%.
Pores
Oil Saturation ( So ) = Volume of pores filled with oil( Vpo)
Total pore volume ( Vpt)
Water Saturation ( Sw ) = volume of pores filled with water(Vpw)

Total pore volume (Vpt)
Gas Saturation ( Sg ) = Volume of pores filled with gas(Vpg)

Total pore volume (Vpt)
54
27
11/19/2023
The Properties of Crude Oil

It is very important to know the properties of crude oil in order to provide and
install proper production storage, transportation and refineries facilities.
Physical properties of crude oil

• Density.
• °API gravity.
• Basic sediments& water.
• Flash & Fire point.
• Shrinkage factor.
• Pour point.
• Viscosity.
• Salt content.
Salt content Oil sample
55
Oil Gravity (API) Salt Content
Base Sediments and Water Flash point

(Bs & w)
56
28
11/19/2023
Oil Collection Methods

Gas reservoirs:
If the reservoir temperature is greater than the critical temperature of the hydrocarbon fluid,
the reservoir is considered a gas reservoir.
1. Dray gas reservoirs.
2. Gas-condensate reservoirs.
3. Wet gas reservoirs.
4. Associated gas reservoirs.
Physical properties of Naturel Gas

• Gas Specific Gravity (Sg).
• Gas formation volume factor(Bg).
• Gas Compressibility Factor (Z).
• Gas Density (ρg).
• Gas Viscosity (μg).
• The perfect gas law (PV= nRT).
• Non Perfect gas behavior (PV= ZnRT).
57
Gas Reservoirs may also be classified into the following four categories:
1. Dry Gas Reservoir : The reservoir fluid in this case exists as gas in the reservoir and will remain as gas
when produced in the surface piping. The only liquid associated with the gas from a dry gas reservoir is
water.
2. Wet Gas Reservoir : The fluid initially exists as gas in the reservoir and remains in the gaseous phase
as pressure declines at reservoir temperature. However, in being produced to the surface, the
temperature also drops, causing condensation in the piping system and separator.
3. Condensate Gas Reservoirs : The fluid exists as gas at initial reservoir conditions. As reservoir pressure
declines at reservoir temperature, condensation takes place and liquid is formed in the reservoir and is
hence produced in the well and in the surface piping and separator
4. Associated Gas Reservoir : Where the gas in the reservoir exists as dissolved gas in the oil and is
released in the production process inside the well and in the surface facilities. This gas is called
associated gas. When pressure in the reservoir drops below the bubble point, the gas is released
from the oil in the reservoir itself and will start forming a gas cap. The gas, from the gas cap may be
produced as free gas.
58
29
11/19/2023
Formation Evaluation Tests
Objective:
To get data about the Well and the Reservoir not available by other techniques.
• The evaluation process analyzes the well for producible hydrocarbons.
Then the decision is made to either produce hydrocarbons or plug the well.
• Formation data can be obtained by examining drill cuttings, core samples, and fluid
properties.
• Other information can be measured by instruments in a well logging tool that is lowered
into a wellbore.
Will This Well Produce Oil or Gas or Dry ?

▪ Mud Logging.
▪ Core Sample.
▪ Electrical Well Logging.
▪ Drill Stem Test (DST).
59
Mud Logger Testing
• Drilling mud is a complex mixture of fluids, solids and chemicals.

• Is a viscous, heavy fluid, It is like the lifeline of a well.
• The mud log is obtained during the drilling operation.
• The recording of information resulting from the examination and
analysis of drill cuttings includes the detection of oil and gas.
• The well site geologist (mud logger) usually Adelyncollects
Keller samples of
cuttings every …… ………ft of drill program.
• This work is usually done by a service company which supplies a
portable laboratory onDoe
Mark the rig Mud logger Unit .
Drilling
Fluid
60
30
11/19/2023
Mud Logger Unit Well site geologist

(Mud logger)
Problem Solution
Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun and Venus has a beautiful name and is the second
the smallest one in the Solar System—it’s only planet from the Sun. It’s terribly hot—even
61
Well site geologist responsibilities
The well site geologist is responsible for:
• Finishing of the geologist programed defined in the well prediction.

• Plane efficient operation of the Mud Logging Unit.
• Assembling and advancing good quality information.
The well site geologist has the specialist to:

• Stop drilling operation in order to:
1- Take a core sample.
2- Record logs.
3- Run formation test (DST).
• Recommend to the base that drilling operation be stopped.
• Select on casing depth point in planning with operation geology and drilling.
62
31
11/19/2023
Core Sample Testing

Core Bit
Purpose of coring
• Lithology identification.
• Porosity & permeability measurement. Core
Sample
• Formation rock type.
• Gas content.
• Grain and bulk density.
63
Electrical Well Logging
Logs are continuous recording of physical and chemical rock properties of the penetrated
(drilled) formation during the drilling of exploration , development wells.
Well
Logging
Truck
64
32
11/19/2023
Well Logging Truck
T.N.Daw
65
GRL Potassium
Why do we run logs ?
1) Formation lithology & correlations.

2) Formation rock type.
3) Formation porosity and fluid saturations.
4) Permeability estimations.
5) Depth and thickness of productive zones.
6) Borehole geometry , size.
7) Determine GOC & OWC.
8) Locate casing collar.
66
33
11/19/2023
Gamma Ray log (GRL),API
Definition :
measure the natural gamma-radioactivity of the formation,
(URANIUM, THORLUM ,POTASSIUM ).
User :
• Estimate shale content & volume in reservoir rocks .

• To provide accurate depth control when run w/ccl.
• Identification source rocks formation (sedimentary rock) .
• Can be used during DST ( to know consolidated formation )
@ packer seating depth.
67
Max deflection
90% Shale High gamma-ray
response (shale)
48% Shale
Typical Gamma
Ray Responses
Min deflection
Low gamma-ray
response (Free Shale)
15% Shale
68
34
11/19/2023
Cement Bond log (CBL),mv
▪ The CBL is an acoustic device.

▪ Cement-bond logs are used after setting
casing to determine the quality of the bond
between casing and cement.
▪ If the bond is not sufficient, then remedial
operations are needed before going on with
any completion operations.
▪ The tool includes directional acoustic
transmitter and usually two receivers located
3 and 5 ft respectively, from the transmitter.
69
Free Point
CBL
Casing Collar Image
Free Point
70
35
11/19/2023
Drill Stem Test (DST)
▪ After a well has penetrated the reservoir, it is important to find out if it will
produce gas or oil or water and at what flow rate.
▪ DST run for different conditions of completion, such as open & cased hole.
▪ The measurement and analysis of (DST) pressure behavior affords the
engineer a practical and economical means for estimating important
formation parameters prior to well completion.
Applications :-
Exploratory or developmental wells where real-time subsurface data is
desired to determine whether the well is possible or not.
71
Why do we need DST ?

• To make sure that the penetrated formation in economically to be completed.
• Give us a good indication about the completion method we should use.
• To prove the presence of hydrocarbons.
• To determine type of reservoir fluid, initial pressure & temperature, formation permeability.
• Tell us whether we should use artificial lift system or not.
What can we get from the DST ?
• Drill stem test is a mainly pressure recordings and flow rate measuring.
By using these two elements we can calculate :
• The average effective permeability.
• The well bore damage.
• The pressure drop due to skin.
• Fluid sample for lab testing.
• Static and flowing bottom-hole pressures.
72
36
11/19/2023
Drill Pipe
Typical DST
Adapter Surface
Installation
Bar-drop Sub
Flow Tee
Swivel
Master Valve
Drill Pipe
73
74
37
11/19/2023
Typical DST Drill Pipe
Down Hole
Installation Reverse Circulation Value
Sample Chamber
Pressure Recorder
Safety Joint
Hydraulic Jar
Packer
Perforated Joint
75
Pressure Recorder
Temperature Recorder
Open Hole Test Zone
75
02 11
03
DST device
07
@Bottom
Final SI DST
06 Build-up
First SI Pressure Pressure
POH
Pressure
Build-up
RIH Pressure
10 Chart
Final Flow
09 Period
05 08
04 First Flow
DST device
01 Period 12
@Surface
Base Line Time
76
38
11/19/2023
Typical DST Pressure Chart Record
1. Tools RIH and Initial Hydrostatic Pressure.

2. Tools on Bottom, Set PKR and Safety Meting,….etc.
3. Open Test Valve.
4. Fluid Enter Drill Pipe (First Flow Period).
5. Closed Test Valve.
6. First Shut-in Build-up pressure.
7. Open Test Valve
8. Final Flow Period.
9. Closed Test Valve.
10. Final Shut-in Build-up pressure.
11. Released Hydrostatic Pressure, Un-set PKR & R/D surface Equipment.
12. POH Down Hole Equipment.
77
Overview of Drilling Operations
The proposal for drilling the well is prepared by the geologists and reservoir engineers in
the operating company and provides the information upon which the well will be
designed and the drilling program will be prepared.
The proposal contains the The drilling program is prepared by the

following information: Drilling Engineer and contains the following:
• Objective of the Well • Drilling Rig to be used for the well.
• Depth and Location of Target. • Hole Sizes, Casing Sizes and Depths.
• Geological Cross section. • Drilling Fluid Specification.
• Pore Pressure Profile Prediction. • Well Control Equipment and Procedures.
• Bits and Hydraulics Program.
78
39
11/19/2023
Mobile Offshore On-shore

Drill Ships Drilling Rig
Problem Solution
Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun and Venus has a beautiful name and is the second
the smallest one in the Solar System—it’s only planet from the Sun. It’s terribly hot—even
79
Conventional & Non-Conventional Rigs

In completion & workover operation generally involves killing the well, remove
the production tubing with associated down hole equipment, perforating
operations and cement squeeze,…….etc.
Then placed the well on production, usually required workover rig to do this jobs.
Type of Drilling & Workover Rigs
Conventional Rig Non-Conventional Rig

(Rotary or Top Drive)
On shore Off shore Wireline Coiled Snubbing

Rigs Rigs Unit Tubing Unit
80
40
11/19/2023
Crown Block
Monkey Board Mast
Fuel Tank Rotary Drilling

Traveling Block Rig (On-Shore)
Mud Pumps
Components
Generator
Rig Floor
Pipe Rack
Pipe Ramp
Shale Shakers Reserve Pit
Cat Walk
Choke Manifold
81
Comparing between Top drive and Rotary rig
Top Drive Rig Rotary Rig

• More quickly than rotation rig. • Lower maintenance cost.
• More safety than rotation rig. • less problem than Top drive rig.
• Doesn’t need a lot of workers . • Less equipment than Top drive rig.
• Back reaming with drill string.
82
41
11/19/2023
Flaring
System
Hoisting
Rig
Equipment
Drilling &
Production
Platform
Housing
Facilities Operation
Equipment
83
Rig Components and Operations
The Rigs Consist of Several Primary Component Groups Including:
• The Power Generator System ( Rig engines).

• The Rotary System.
• The Hoisting System.
• The Circulating System.
• The Well Control System (BOP).
Rig Operations:
There are Three main operations in Drilling & Workover Rig:

• The Rotating System.
• The Circulating System.
• The Hoisting System.
84
42
11/19/2023
1. Power Generator System
The electrical power generators are driven by diesel powered internal

combustion engines (prime movers). Electricity is then supplied to electric
motors connected to the draw works , rotary table and mud pumps.
Electric
Generator
85
2. Rotating System
▪ The main part of the rotating system is a very powerful machine, this machine is
called the Rotary Table.
▪ The rotary system includes: power swivels , power tongs, kelly, rotary table , drill
pipe , drill collars and Bit.
Swivel Rotary Table Kelly Bushing
86
43
11/19/2023
Drill Bits
Tooth
The bit is the tool suspended at the bottom of the drill string 3-Cone (buttons)
that actually cuts the well during drilling operations.
Body: The body is made of forged steel with own specification.

Cones: Milling the rocks of formation , made of with bearing
with axial shaft . Leg
Threads: When we want to do connection with the drill collar
with bit sub.
Nozzles: Used as channels for drilling fluid to curry the
cutting from bottom to surface.
3-Jet Nozzles Pin
connection
(Thread)
87
Drill Bits Classifications:

▪ All bits used to soft formations Small teeth
have long teeth in the cones.
Long teeth
▪ Teeth for medium formation
smaller than soft formation .
▪ Teeth for hard and very hard

formation are very small
Tungsten carbide ( balls).
Very Small
teeth
Diamond Bits
(very hard formation)
88
44
11/19/2023
3. Hosting System
Drilling Line
The hosting system consists of the derrick, travelling
Travelling
& crown block, drilling line and draw works.
Block
Travelling block is an arrangement of sheaves that

allows the travelling block assembly to move up and Hook
down within the rig tower.
The drilling line is a heavy duty wire rope made

out of strands of improved plow steel that
connects all components in the hoisting system.
89
Pipe Ramp
(V-Door)
The ramp at the side of

the rig where pipe or
equipment is to be lifted
to the rig floor .
Cat Walk
Is used to bring in pipe and other
equipment onto the drill floor.
90
45
11/19/2023
4. Circulating System
Mud pumps always have used reciprocating positive-displacement pistons.
Both two-cylinder (duplex) and three-cylinder (triplex) pumps are common.
Fluid circulation serves the following functions:-

Mud Pumps
• To prevent the bit from sticking.
• To help carry cutting or sand from the well to the
surface.
• To prevent formation fluids from entering the well.
• To clean the bottom of the well bore.
91
Pressure Choke
Gauge Manifold
Planning of pipes, valves and
chokes which allows drilling or
Fixed choke workover fluids to be
circulated, adjust the flow rate
and regulate the pressure
before turned the well to
station or tank or flair pit.
92
46
11/19/2023
Mixing
Hopper
Mixing Tank
A series of tanks which the
drilling and workover fluids is
cycled and mixed additives in
the pit, and the fluid is
stored there before being
pumped back into the well.
93
Rotary Drilling
Draw Works Rig
Driller
Floor Man
Drill Pipe
Rotary Table Rotary Table

Mouse Hole
94
47
11/19/2023
Rig Monitoring & Control System
The instrumentation system on modern drilling rigs is a

Key Part. It is made-up of:-
• Weight Indicator Gauge.

• Mud Pump Pressure.
• Rotary Torque Measurement.
• Pump Stroke Indicator.
• Tong Torque Indicator.
• Rate of Penetration Recorder.
Weight
Indicator
95
(Wireline Unit)
Wireline Functions Staffing Box

• Running instruments to measurements and recordings bottom
hole (P , T ) surveys, by using mechanical (Amerada) or electrical
memory gauges.
• Running and pulling gas lift valves in gas lift wells. Lubricator
• Locate ( Tagged ) well depth and tubing end.
• Opening and closing sliding side-door (SSD) by using shifting tool.
• Checking and cleaning the flow path ( tubing) from scale, BOP
paraffin and sand accumulations.
• Taken bottom hole sampling from wellbore and fishing
the well tools.
• Installing tubing pack-off (plugged) or similar completion devices
( R & F nipples ).
96
48
11/19/2023
Control Cabin
Wire-line
Drum
97
Wireline Tools
Collar Stop Impression Block Wire-line Spear Pulling Tool
Weight Indicator Running Tool Wire-line Clamp
98
49
11/19/2023
Coiled Tubing Unit
Goose Neck • Inject a killing fluid by

circulating (prior to
(Tubing Guide)
workover operations, etc.).
Control Cabin • Clean out the tubing from

(operators station) (sand, salt, paraffin's,..etc.)
Injector Head CT-Reel
• Sand control by using
BOP chemical control.
Stripper
Rubber • Clean out the bottom of
the well from sand by
Power Skid circulating (sand fill).
• Drilling & Fishing

Operation.
99
Drilling & Completion Fluids
The Drilling fluids is one of the most important items directly affecting the
success of a drilling operation to perform any or all of the various
functions required in all operation.
Function of Drilling Fluids

Drilling Fluid
(Mud)
• Seal the permeable formations.
• Control Subsurface Pressures.
• Transport and remove drilled cuttings.
• Suspend cuttings and weight material.
• Clean, Cool, and Lubricate bit and drill string.
100
50
11/19/2023
Basic Drilling Fluid Components
Solids Liquids Chemical
Weight Material
Barite Calcium Carbonate Hematite
Reactive Solid
Clays Shale Additives
101
Drilling Fluid Circulating System
Mud Pits Mud Surface Stand Mud

(Suction Tank) Pumps Connections Pipe House
Drill Drill Through

Swivel Kelly
Pipe Collars Bit Nozzles
In the Annulus Between Annulus Between

DC & Hole DP & Hole (Casing)
Mud Pits Then the cycle

(through the shale shakers) is repeated
102
51
11/19/2023
The
Basic
Components
of
Mud
Circulating
System
Setting Tank
103
Desander
A centrifugal device for removing sand
Desilter
from drilling fluid to prevent abrasion of
the pumps. It may be operated a centrifugal device, similar to a
mechanically or by a fast -moving stream desander, used to remove very fine
of fluid inside a special cone-shaped particles, from drilling fluid to lower
vessel, in which case it is sometimes the amount of solids in the fluid.
called a hydro cyclone.
Hydro-cyclone
104
52
11/19/2023
Reserve Pit
Collects rock cuttings separated from the mud during drilling

operations or drain the completion & work-over fluids from the
well during start -up production operations.
105
Drilling Fluid Properties

• Density. Graduated
• Rheological. Jug
March Funnel
• Filtration Control or Fluid Loss.

• Solids Content.
• Chemistry.
Monitoring and Testing Drilling Fluids Measuring
Jug
Graduated balance
Level glass arm Adjustable Screw
Mud Balance
Scale
Viscometer
Cup with a lid
106
53
11/19/2023
Scale in
perforation
and wellbore
Plugging
material and
fluid invasion
107
Well Control
Well control is a process used to prevent oil and gas wells from
kick or blowout during drilling and workover operations
Well Control Principle

Maintain constant BHP above formation pressure
(overbalance of 100 to 300 psi) during all times
108
54
11/19/2023
What is a kick?
It is an influx or formation gas or fluid that

causes the well to flow into wellbore due to
loss of primary control.
Causes Of Well Kicks
▪ Gas migration.
▪ Insufficient mud or workover fluid weight. Drill Bit
▪ Swabbing in a kick while tripping out.
▪ Low viscosity of drilling or workover fluid. Gas Gas
▪ Lost circulation.
109
What is a Blow Out
An uncontrolled (Kick) exit of the

formation gas or fluid at the surface booth
primary & secondary control are lost.
Gas Gas
110
55
11/19/2023
Blow-out
Spiral Drill Collars
Spiral Drill Collars
111
Blow-Out Preventer (BOP)

Hydrill
The BOP is used to shut in the well in emergencies.
Blind Ram
If formation pressure exceeds BHP for any reason (
gas bubble, swabbing on trip…..etc.).
Blowout preventer equipment (BOPs) must be used
to close the well and allow the crew to control a ”
Pipe Ram
kick” before it becomes a blowout.
BOP Control System:

1- Accumulators Unit (Koomy).
2- Charging Pump.
3- Choke Manifold.
4- Kill Line.
112
56
11/19/2023
Accumulators Unit (Koomy)
Is a hydraulic pressure unit which keeps liquid under pressure in tanks that,
when activated close the BOP stack prevent, sealing off the wellbore.
The unit can be activated from a panel on the rig floor.
113
Casing Pipes
Definition:
Is define as a heavy steel pipe large-diameter used to coat the hole walls in an
oil, gas and water wells (prevents the hole from collapsing) and allows drilling
mud to circulate.
Casing pipes are placed in a wellbore for the following reasons:

▪ To prevent the unstable formations from caving-in.
▪ Casing prevents collapse of the wellbore.
▪ Prevent contamination of surface fresh water sources.
▪ Providing a return path for mud to surface when drilling operations.
▪ Provide a connection for the wellhead & BOP.
▪ Provide suitable setting for down-hole equipment in producing wells.
114
57
11/19/2023
How many stages do we need to install the casing while

we drill a well ( Types Of Casing Pipes) ?
01 02 03
Conductor Surface Intermediate
Casing Casing Casing
(first stage) (Second stage) (Third stage)
04 05
Production Liner Casing
Casing (Optional stage)
(Fourth stage)
115
Conductor Pipe Conductor Pipe
Standard conditions
• A short string of casing to be run & has largest
diameter.
• Normal setting depth (≥ 300 ft) below the ground level.
• Provide flow path for drilling fluids.
• Seal off unconsolidated formations at shallow depths.
• Is always Cemented to surface.
Typical size : 30” ( 36’’ hole ) - 20” ( 26’’ hole ) Welded.

20” - 16” Threaded. Casing Shoe
116
58
11/19/2023
Surface Casing Surface Casing
Standard conditions
• Normal setting depth (3000 ft or more) below the
ground level.
• Isolates any fresh water & shallow consolidated
formations.
• Seal off lost circulation areas.
• Support the wellhead and BOP equipment.
• Has to be cemented up to surface.
Typical size : 13⅜’’ - 20” hole

Casing Shoe
117
118
59
11/19/2023
Intermediate Casing
Intermediate Casing
Standard conditions
Long section, down to top of reservoir.
Normal setting depth (3000 -10000ft ).
Protects production casing from corrosive fluids.
Isolate troublesome formations between the surface casing setting
depth and the production casing setting depth.
For example:
• Lost Circulation.
• Salt zones.
• Abnormally pressured zones.
• Unstable Shale zones. Typical size : 13⅜ ‘’ ( 17½” hole ) - 9 ⅝” (12¼” hole ) threaded
119
Production Casing Production Casing
Standard conditions
• Isolates the production zones from other formations

and the fluids in them.
• Providing protection for completion equipment.
• It exposed to injection pressures from fracture jobs, gas
lift system or water injection.
• Set above the pay zone (for an open hole completion or
prior to running a liner).
Typical size : 9 ⅝” (12¼” hole) or 7” (10¾” hole)

Casing Shoe
120
60
11/19/2023
Liner Completion
• A liner is a string of pipe which is installed but does not

extend all the way to surface.
• It is a steel pipe that is perforated with slots or holes.
• A liner is attached to the bottom of intermediate casing
with a tool called liner hanger.
• The liner extends downward through the producing Packer
formation.
Liner
Hanger Casing Shoe
Why a liner is used instead of a casing string?
• Casing cost reduction.
• Weight reduction during lowering operations.
• Improved hydraulic performance during circulation Liner Shoe
and cementing operations.
121
Yield Strength
(Psi) Minimum Ultimate
API
Tensile Strength
Grade
Minimum Maximum (Psi) API-
Classification
H-40 40,000 80,000 60,000
Casing
J-55 55,000 80,000 75,000
K-55 55,000 80,000 95,000 Pipes
C-75 75,000 90,000 95,000
L-80 80,000 95,000 95,000
N-80 80,000 110,000 100,000
C-90 90,000 105,000 100,000
C-95 95,000 110,000 105,000
P-110 110,000 140,000 125,000
122
61
11/19/2023
Well Cementing
▪ It is the process where a slurry of cement is injected through the
casing to be set behind it.
▪ Cementing is very important for wells’ life where it supports casing
and protects it from corrosion.
Objective
The main objective of cement squeeze is to secure casing strings and fill all
Channels behind casing (casing leak) or fill all perforations to obtain a seal
between casing and formation.
This injection could be done below or above the fracture pressure of the
zone depending on the type of injection rates realised.
123
Why do we cement wells?
▪ Protect the casing from corrosive effects fluid.

▪ Seal off formation areas (lost circulation zone) .
▪ Supports the casing, so the cement should completely surround the
casing .
▪ Protect the environment by controlling the flow of fluids.
(prevent the contamination of fresh water).
▪ Keep borehole walls from caving in(along with the casing).
124
62
11/19/2023
Casing Scratcher Cement Basket Casing Centralizer

Used for cleaning mud filter cake off Used in two stage cement to Placed on the out side of casing and used to
of the wellbore wall when provide support for the column of center the casing in the hole. keep the
cementing casing in the hole to cement while it cures or harden. casing away from the borehole to Improve
ensure good bonding between the displacement efficiency (place cement all
cement and wellbore wall. the way around the casing.
125
126
63
11/19/2023
Well Completion Operations
What is the Best completion
The best completion is the lowest cost completion, which will meet
the demands placed on it during its producing life.
The main objective of Well Completion:
• Is to take a well that has been drilled and convert it into a safe and efficient
production.
• Maximizes the safe recovery of hydrocarbons from a gas or oil well throughout
its producing life.
127
Well Completion Operations :
▪ Creating an opening between the production casing and the formation

(perforating operations).
▪ Sand Control Method.
▪ Installing the tubing, packers and wellhead, then starting the flow of fluids.
Optimum Completion Requirement:
▪ Reservoir and Fluid Property Data Collection. ▪ Production Tubing Sizing.

▪ P & T Gradient Evaluation. ▪ Artificial Lift Design (if required).
▪ Definition of Completion Configuration
(Single, Dual etc).
128
64
11/19/2023
Factors Affecting On Well Completion Operation
1)Production Rate 5)Reservoir Configuration

What production rate can be expected ? Is the reservoir section long or short ?
Are there single or multi zones?
2)Production Techniques
Is the different fluid and pressure?
Is the well flowing naturally or artificially ? and what
type of artificial lift planned ? 6)Reservoir Stimulation
3)Fluid & Rock Parameters
Do we need well stimulation ?
Is the paraffin expected, is viscous fluid and is rock
consolidated ?
Do we expect any sand production problem?
4)Reservoir Pressure
What is the expected reservoir pressure ? Do we
have abnormal pressure ?
129
Reservoir
Open Hole Completion & well
bore
1- The entire pay zone is open to the well bore. Connections
2- No perforating cost .
3- The well can easily be deepened.
4- Is easily converted to liner or perforated casing,
completion.
Casing Cement
5- Minimize formation damage as no cement or
perforation.
6- Log interpretation is not critical since the entire interval
is open to flow.
7- Maximum well bore diameter is opposite the pay zone Formation
hence gives reduced draw down. Zone
130
130
65
11/19/2023
Perforated Cemented Completions (Cased Hole)

• After the pay zone has been drilled through the target
formation, a casing or liner is run in and cemented opposite
the zone.
• Then it is perforated opposite the zone that is to be produced
in order to restore a connection between the reservoir and
the well.
Casing
Advantages Packer
1- The affect of formation damaged is minimum. Cement

2- The zone can be easily stimulated.
3- It is safer during well completion operations.
Perforations
Dis-Advantages
PBTD
1- The well bore diameter through the pay zone is restricted.
2- Perforating cementing, and rig time experiences additional costs .
131
Perforated (Cemented) Liner Completion
A liner is a string of pipe which is installed but does not extend

all the way to surface.
• The casing is set above the formation zone and the

latter then drilled. A liner is cemented in place and
perforated.
• A liner is attached to the prior casing string with a tool Liner

called liner hanger. Hanger
Cement
• The hanger, from which the liner is suspended, is

lowered into the well-bore ,then cemented and
perforated.
132
66
11/19/2023
Un-Cemented Liner Completion

Slotted Screen Liner Wire wrapped Screen Liner
Hanger Hanger
Casing Shoe Casing Shoe
Slotted
Oil Sand Screen Wire
Formation wrapped
Liner Shoe screen Liner Shoe
133
Gravel Packing Screen

Wire
wrapped
Wire wrapped screen screen
A single wire rolled around a perforated base

pipe with a fixed gap opening.
Slotted Liner
Slot widths depend on the size of the
sand grains in the formation and are
Slotted Liner
typically ( 0.01 – 0.04” ) wide.
134
67
11/19/2023
Single Zone & Tubing

Completion
Completion
Geometry
( Number of Zones) Production
Tubing
Production
Packer
Formation
Perforations
Zone
135
135
A’ A
Double Zone &
Single Tubing
Completion
SSD
Formation
Zone
B B
Formation
Zone 136
A A
136
68
11/19/2023
B’ B
Multiple Zone &
Tubing SSD
Completion
C
PKR
SSD
B
B
PKR
137
A A
137
Main
configuration of
Production
String
138
138
Casing Flow
Tubing Flow Casing & Tubing Flow
(Tubing Less)
138
69
11/19/2023
The Christmas Tree
The main function of Christmas Tree include:

• Control the well flow rate and adjusted by (Choke Bean).
• Monitoring the well statues.
• Placing the well in save conditions and opened or shut-in
by master or wing valve.
• Monitor pressure and temperature during production
operations by run in directly wire-line survey tools.
Note:
During the well which high pressure there is Two master valves .
Leave the lower master valve opened to prevent corrosion.
139
Pressure Gauge
Checking and measurement Wing-Valve
well head (tubing) pressure.
Used for shutting in the well. Also it allow
Swab-Valve the passage of well fluids to the choke.
Used well servicing for such
as wireline (slick line), coiled
tubing.
Master Valve
Surface Fixed Choke
when the flow is to be
stopped, this valve is Control the rate of production. can
closed. be fixed (positive) or an adjustable
Tubing Hanger Spool type valve.
Tubing Head
The device designed to hang the tubing
140
140
70
11/19/2023
Production Tubing
• Most flowing wells are produced through a string of tubing run inside the production casing
string.
• It is the highest part in the completion components.
• Tubing used to create a flow channel inside well bore between reservoir and the well head.
• At the surface, the tubing is supported by the tubing head is used for hanging tubing string
this tubing is landed on the tubing hanger on the production casing head.
141
The main function: Tubing Hanger

• Set in Tubing Head Spool (THS).
• Suspend tubing string with threaded connection.
• Isolate Casing – Tubing Annular.
• Holder for Back Pressure Valve (BPV).
Tubing Hanger
Back Pressure Valve
142
71
11/19/2023
Adjustable Choke
The main function of surface choke:

1- Control the production rate.
2- Prevent back pressure effect from the separators on THP
and on the formation.
3- Control gas production in high GOR reservoirs. Choke Bean
143
Production Packers
• A packer is a device available in a wide range of sizes and types.

• Used to isolate production zones and the casing annulus from
well pressure.
• This seal directs the flow of reservoir fluids from the producing
formation up through the tubing to the surface.
The principle reasons for running a packer are: R-3 Packer
▪ To isolate the casing from formation pressure and corrosive fluids.

▪ Used in some artificial lift methods installations (Gas lift system).
▪ Separate the production zones of differing conditions.
▪ Repair and isolating a casing leak .
▪ Squeeze cementation of a perforated interval .
144
72
11/19/2023
Types of Packers
Permanent (Drillable) Packer
Retrievable Packer
• Can not be retrieved or removed from the well
after setting .
• Can be recovered from the well after
• Can only be removed from the well by milling
setting by pulling it with the tubing.
operations.
• Mechanical or Hydraulic set.
• Usually run and set on mechanical or wire line.
• Hydraulic Packer.
• Hook Wall Packer. • Drillable Bridge Plug (DBP).
• Anchor Packer. • Cement Bridge Plug (CBP).
• Tension Packer. • Cement Retainer (CR).
145
Slips Packer
Components
• Forced out-ward by sitting action.
• Top slips to prevent up-motion and Bottom
for down-motion.
Slips
Packing elements Cone
• Elastomers for (HT/HP). Packing element

• Provide seal between CSG and TBG.
Cone Flow mandrel
• Part of the packer forced the packer to move

outward.
146
73
11/19/2023
Well Perforation
• Once the drilling process reaches its final depth, there is still no way for fluids to enter the well.
• So a perforating gun is lowered into the casing and fired on an electrical conductor cable from the
surface to create a clear channel of communication between the formation zone and well bore.
The objectives that the perforation process must achieve in order to be effective
1- The shot should penetrate the largest possible distance inside the oil zone.
2- Obtaining clean and undistorted perforated holes.
3- Obtaining the highest production rate and the lowest number of shoots.
147
Scalloped Carrier Gun
Carrier
Charge
Detonating Cord
Expendable Guns
90 degrees
148
74
11/19/2023
Well Logging
Truck
Perforation Gun
149
Well Production Operations
Why Study The Production ?

To design the best production system in order to give best production rate at normal
condition by used low energy.
What Does a Production Engineer Do ?

• Monitor daily (oil + gas + water) production.
• Determine if the well is producing @ optimum rate or not.
• Maintain well production decline curves.
• Analysis well test data (build-up, pressure & temperature surveys).
• Prepare well workover programs ( re-perforation, stimulation job,…etc).
A production engineer is to maximize oil & gas

production while minimizing cost-effective
150
75
11/19/2023
Second Stage
Tubing First Stage

Out-flow
Reservoir
In-flow
151
Subsea
Production
Systems
152
76
11/19/2023
153
Natural Reservoir Energy

Basic types of reservoir drive Mechanisms: Water Drive
▪ When a well is brought production, a production program is
established for the well based the natural energy conditions
(reservoir drive) that exist in or near producing formation.
▪ A water drive condition exists when a large amount of water

under pressure (Aquifer) is found in the same formation as the Gas Cap
oil, it is located down dip from the oil and pushes the oil to the
top of the structure.
▪ In a gas cap drive condition, the natural gas contained in the
reservoir is present in sufficient quantities to saturate the oil
zone and form a zone of free gas above the oil zone.
▪ In a solution gas drive condition, the natural gas is dissolved in Dissolved Gas
the oil and in the absence of other pressures, these is usually
insufficient pressure to bring the oil to the surface.
154
77
11/19/2023
How a well flows naturally
• Most oil wells in the early stages of the well, the pressure in the reservoir is high enough to
cause the reservoir fluid to flow through the formation to the bottom of the wellbore to
continue up the tubing or casing to the surface by Natural Energy (pressure & formation gas) ,
the well in this case is said to be Natural Flow.
• Due to the flowing fluids at the bottom of the wellbore, a pressure drop occurs at this point.
• This causes a pressure difference between the reservoir pressure (SBHP) and the flowing
bottom hole pressure (FBHP).
• This difference pressure is called Drawdown.
• This drawdown is necessary to cause reservoir fluids to flow from the reservoir to the
wellbore.
Increase D.D →→ Decrease the pressure drop between the reservoir and
wellbore →→ causing increased fluid flow.
155
Pr
Tubing
Pwf
Surface
S.S.S.V
Completion
Pressure
Reservoir Pressure Losses

Pwh Choke In Complete
Production
IPR VLP System
Psep
Well Bore Well Head

Location
156
78
11/19/2023
Natural Flowing Wells

Any well which has sufficient natural energy (Reservoir pressure & formation gas) in
the reservoir rock to cause the oil or gas to flow to the surface through the
wellbore.
Pressure Losses In Complete Production System (Nodal Analysis )
The main objective of Nodal analysis:

1- Locate the optimum production rate.
2- Locate the optimum production tubing size.
3- Locate is the well producing naturally or not.
4- Chose the optimum time when we used the artificial lift system
157
SSSV SSD
A device mounted to the Sliding Sleeve Door (circulating valve), used
production string approximately to open communication between tubing and
100 – 150 ft below the ground casing to circulate fluid to kill the well or
level used to secure the well in displacement. And allow production from
high pressure or rate situation. another zone to enter the tubing.
R-3 PKR Flow Coupling

Used to isolate production zones Used to absorbs erosion caused by
and the casing annulus from well turbulence and abrasion.
fluid and pressure
F-nipple
R-nipple Used to plug tubing for tested and
Install below “F” nipple, used to mostly used to install with packer and
hanged wireline gauges (pressure or set.
temperature).
Perforated joint
WEG
Provides flow path for formation fluids to
Provides easy re-entry of wireline enter inside the production tubing.
tools into tubing.
158
79
11/19/2023
Basic Types of Lift System

Is a system that adds an outside source energy to the fluid column in a wellbore
with the objective of starting and improving production from the well.
Objectives
The main purpose of installing any artificial lift system is to reduced natural flowing
gradient of the reservoir fluid ( hydrostatic component of the pressure difference
from the bottom to the top of the well) to enable the reservoir fluids to be
produced at suitable Optimum rate.
It is the rate which is not high enough to cause water, gas coning and sand
production. etc…,and it is not low enough to cause killing of the well.
159
Natural Flow Dead Well Artificial Flow

No - Flow
SSD ESP Pump

FBHP & SBHP
are too close
together.
No, ∆P for
well to flow. F-nipple
SBHP= 2200 psi

SBHP= 2400 psi FBHP= 1850 psi
SBHP= 3000 psi FBHP= 2400 psi ∆P= 350 psi
WEG FBHP= 2500 psi ∆P= 0.0 psi
∆P= 500 psi
160
80
11/19/2023
How Do We Lift Artificialy ?
There are two main processes of artificial lift

systems :
Reducing the fluid density by

Mechanical Lifting By
mixing with gas injected
(Pumping)
(Gas Lift)
Continues & Positive & Dynamics

Intermittent Flow Displacement
161
Overview of Sucker Rod Pump
Sucker red pumping is the most widely used artificial lift method. (known as a pump jack,
sucker rod or beam pump.That is, more artificial lift wells are equipped with rod pumps than
any other type of artificial lift method (Over 90% of artificially lifted wells use beam-type
pumps).
• Since many rod-pumped wells produce at very low rates.
• Used mostly in shallow to middle depth oil fields.
• This type of artificial lift uses a positive displacement pump.
• Surface pumping unit is connected with sucker rods string to a down hole
pump and used an electric motor to drive the pump.
162
81
11/19/2023
Beam pumping unit (Surface Equipment)

The surface equipment's transfer energy for pumping the well from prime mover
to the sucker rod string.
In doing this, it must change the rotary motion of the prime mover to reciprocating
motion for the sucker rod, and it must reduce the speed of the prime mover to
suitable pumping speeds.
Functions of surface pumping unit:
• Convert rotary motion into linear reciprocating motion.
• Reduce the input speed of the prime mover to suitable pumping speeds.
• Lift the weights of liquid ,sucker rods and plunger.
1. Prime mover.
2. Gear reducer.
3. Walking beam.
4. Polished rod.
5. Well head assembly and stuffing box.
6. Counter weight or Air balance tank.
7. Horse head & Bridle.
8. Sampson post.
163
Conventional - Walking Beam

Class-I- Lever Equalizer Bearing
( Rotary counter Horse Head
balanced unit )
Pitman Arm Sampson Post
Ladder Bridle (Wire line)
Belt Cover (Gear Box) Carrier Bar
Polished Rod
Counter Weight
Prime Mover
164
82
11/19/2023
Air–Balanced-Class-3- Lever
Center Bearing Equalizer Bearing
Sampson Post
Air Receiver Tank

Carrier Bar
Belt Cover (Gear Box)

Polished Rod
165
The Pumping Cycle

1 2 3 4
Start of Upstroke
Complete of Upstroke
Start of Downstroke
Fluid travels
through the
plunger
Complete of Downstroke
Fluid column
(Hydrostatic
pressure)
Fluid compressed
Pump chamber
& the pressure in the
is filled w/fluid
pump chamber =
Hydrostatic pressure
PIP = BHP
166
166
83
11/19/2023
Polished Rod
SR-Well Head Stuffing Box
Pressure Gauge
Flow Tee
Master Valve
Chemical Injection
Line
167
Electrical Submersible Pump (ESP)
168
84
11/19/2023
Typical ESP Installation ?

Transformer
Power
Cable
Junction Switch Board or Power Source

(Vent) Box (VSD)
• In continuous ESP pumping operations system, The electric energy is

transported to the down hole electric motor through the electric cable.
• The cable is attached to the production tubing and provide the electrical
energy needed to start the down-hole electric motor to drive the pump
and the pump imparts energy to the fluid in the form of hydraulic power,
which lifts the fluid to the surface.
169
ESP - Well (Christmas Tree)
Kill Valve
Production
Loop
Adapter Upper pig tail
(Spool)
Check valve
Tubing Head Casing Valve
170
85
11/19/2023
ESP Surface Components
• The Electric Power Supply (High Line or Generator) • The Junction (Vent) Box
• The Electric Transformer • The Well Head Assembly
• The Control Switchboard or VSD
Vent Box High Line Control Switch Board
171
Pressure
SFL The"standard“ ESP-Unit
Where Set The configuration requires
Pump Suction ? motor to be set above the
DFL perforations, in such a way
that the well fluid moves
Gas
up-ward around the motor
Submergence Depth housing allowing excess
(FOP) heat generated to be
dissipated in the produced
Pump Setting fluid.
Depth
Depth
Pwf Pr
∆P
172
86
11/19/2023
Power Cable Drain valve

ESP - Down
Hole
Check Valve
Pump discharge head Equipment
Centrifugal Pump
Pump Intake
Protector (Seal or (Gas Separator)
Section)
Electric Motor
173
Flat Cable
Construction
Jacket Conductor
Armor Insulation
Round Cable
Construction • Types: Black Steel - Stainless Steel - Monel armor
• Cable is selected based on (well fluid properties & BHT),
• Size of cable depended on ( A, V, HP & space between tubing collar and casing).
174
87
11/19/2023
175
ESP Standard & Optional Installations
• Check Valve. • Motor Shrouded.

• Bleeder Valve. • Centralizer.
• Y-Tool. • Down Hole Desander.
• Down Hole Sensor. • Twin Seal Packer (Hydro ll).
Motor Shroud Check Valve Bleeder Valve Multi Sensor
176
88
11/19/2023
Gas Lift Technology System
177
Gas Lift Mechanisms

Gas Mechanisms :
Gas Lift uses additional high pressure gas to addition formation gas. Produced fluids are lifted
by reducing fluid density in wellbore to lighten the hydrostatic column, or back pressure, load
on formations.
Gas Lift Working Principle (Continuous Flow)

Gas mixes w/oil, it reduces the SP.gr of oil. The gradient has been reduced, the hydrostatic
pressure reduced to a point where the reservoir pressure is greater than the BHP, oil & gas
moves upwards by gas expand.
The injection gas lifts the oil to the surface by one or combination of
the following processes:
1- Injected gas reduces fluid density.
2- Expansion gas bubble (Swelling) as the hydrostatic pressure reduces.
3- Displacement of fluid by injection gas bubbles.
178
89
11/19/2023
Slug Flow
Oil
Bubble
Flow
1 2 3
179
179
PCV Flow Line

Close Close
Conventional Gas
lift operation
Gas Open
SSD
Injection
Slug @ (Intermitted Flow)
Slug Surface
Line
Lifting
Orifice
F-nipple
Slug Build-
up WEG
A B C
180
90
11/19/2023
181
182
91
11/19/2023
183
Parts of Nitrogen Charged Dome Valve

(Single Loading Element)
R 20 , 1½“
Nitrogen
Upper
Ball Dome
Lower Packing Check valve Packing Bellows
Seat Core Valve

Nozzle (Gas Stem
Out-let)
Gas In-let
184
92
11/19/2023
Nitrogen Charged Dome Valve

(Single Loading Element)
R 28 , 1½“
Nitrogen Dome Long Seat Check Housing
Short Stem
Seat Housing
Bellows Housing
Valve Latch
185
Tubing & Casing Flow System (PTL & PAL)
Produce through
Tubing (PTL) (1)
Injection Gas through

Tubing (2)
Produce through
Casing (PAL) (2)
Injection Gas through
Casing (1)
186
93
11/19/2023
Vertical Methanol Tank
This tank is always near the

well and there is a Methanol
inside it using to avoid the
freezing problems especially in
cold winter nights.
Gas Scraper
Chemical
injection
Gas Inlet pump
Gas Out-let
to operate
injection
pump
187
Gas Lift Assembly Before Running
Rob-socket Wire line Stem Knuckle Joint
Kickover Tool Pulling Tool Gas lift Valve Mechanical Jar
188
94
11/19/2023
189
Production Tests
Definition:
• It is series of periodic measurements conducted on wells producing oil & gas to
determine the factors affecting production processes.
• This measurements are recorded in special reports that can be referred to when needed
to their necessity from the technical, economic or political aspect.
Objectives of Well Tests:
• Studying the performance and behavior of the reservoir during production.

• Developing appropriate programs to improve the effectiveness of the reservoir.
• Discovering production malfunctions and developing appropriate solutions for them.
• Ensuring the safety and efficiency of production equipment and developing programs
to maintain or replace it.
• Develop special designs for production, maintenance, treatment and storage.
190
95
11/19/2023
Production Tests
Test Separator
Factors Effecting on Production Operations:
• Surface & down hole pressures .
• Temperature .
• Flow Rate.
• Fluid level in the well.
• Specification of Crude Oil.
Types of Production Tests:

• Oil and Gas Bottom Hole & Surface Sampling.
• Build-up Test by using Memory or Mechanical Gauges & Mobile Test Separator.
• Normal Test by using Test Separator (Fixed or Mobile).
• Fluid Level Test ( static or dynamic).
• Pressure and Temperature Survey ( static or flowing).
191
Measurement & Control Devices
Measuring Devices
They are instruments used to indicate or record the values of the main process variable in the
oil and gas production operation.
Control Device
These are devices that are used to keep the values of any variable constant.
The main variable of the oil and gas industry are:
• Pressure (P)
• Temperature (T)
• Level (L)
• Flow Rate (F)
192
96
11/19/2023
The main objectives
• Monitoring and recording values.

• Raising alarm to warn operator to take action, where actions are not started
automatically.
• The initiation of automatic action as part of a closed loop process control.
• The starting of protection systems as part of instrument protection system when the
measured value reaches undesirable values.
• To take actions on quantities , energy and physical properties like pressure and
temperature to achieve the required results..
• Provide data for the various production operations and economical purposes.
193
Pressure Measurement Devices

• Hydrostatic pressure
Manometer Force
Area
• Elastic Devices
Pressure Gauge
Differential pressure Recorder 1 in
1 in
• Balancing Force
Dead weight tester (D.W.T) Pressure Gauge P=F/A
Atmospheres Bars Pounds per Kilograms Pascal Feet of

Sq. Inch per Sq. Cm. Water
1.0 1.01325 14.69595 1.03323 101325 33.8995
194
97
11/19/2023
Gauge and Absolute Pressure
Process technicians need to know how to move easily

between the two scales . Here are the mathematical
relationships :
PSIA = PSIG + Atmospheric Pressure.

PSIG = PSIA – Atmospheric Pressure.
Example Problems :
PSIA = 20 PSIG + 14.7 PSIA

PSIG = 40 PSIA – 14.7 PSIA
195
Pressure Gauge Inch-water & Inch pressure Manometers
196
98
11/19/2023
Flow Rate Measurement Devices

Flow Rate = Volume \ Time
Volume units
Cubic meter, Cubic centimeter , Cubic feet ,Barrel ,Gallon.
Time units : Second ,minute ,hour , Day
Principles of Flow Meter
• Differential pressure
- Orifice meter
- Venture meter
• Velocity meters
- Turbine meter
• Volumetric meters A.O. Smith meter
- Floco meter.
- A.O.Smith meter
197
Turbine
Floco Ultra Sonic
meter
meter Flow meter
198
99
11/19/2023
Meter Proving
To determine the meter performance or the relationship

between the volume of liquid which actually passes through a
meter and volume indicated by the meter.
Types of Prover
Mechanical Master meter Tank Type Prover

Displacement provers
Straight Pipe U-Shaped pipe Folded pipe

Prover prover prover
199
Level Measurement Devices
Principles of Level Measurement

• hydrostatic pressure. ρ = Fluid density
• Bouncy force.
• Reflection of sound.
• Electrical and magnetic level gauges.
PH = ρ x g x h
200
100
11/19/2023
1- Level depending on hydrostatic pressure - Sight Glasses
Tubular
Type Flat Type
2- Level depending on Bouncy Force
Weight
Indicator Float
201
Temperature Measurement Devices
Temperature is defined as an indication of heat energy available to

flow between bodies of deferent temperatures.
Principles of Temperature Measurement
• Thermal Expansion thermometers.

- Ordinary thermometers.
- Bi metallic thermometers.
Temperature Gauge
• Thermocouple thermometers.
• Radiation pyrometers
• Resistance thermometers.
202
101
11/19/2023
Basic Principle of Temperature Conversion
Centigrade Scale ( C )
 
O
5 0
• Boiling Point of Water = 100 ( O C ) 0
C= x F − 32
• Freezing Point of Water = zero ( O C ) 9
Kelvin Scale ( K )O
Boiling Point of Water = 272 + 100 = 373 ( O K )

•
• Freezing Point of Water = 0 + 273 = 273 ( O K )
0
K = 0C + 273
Fahrenheit Scale ( F ) O
Boiling Point of Water = 212 ( O F ) 9 0

•
• Freezing Point of Water = 32 ( O F )
0
F= x C + 32
5
Rankin Scale ( R ) O
Boiling Point of Water = 460 + 32 = 492 ( O R )

•
• Freezing Point of Water = 492 + 180 = 672 ( O R )
0
R = 0F + 460
203
Geothermal Gradient ( )
o
F
100 f t
GeothermalGrd . 100Fft = ( )
o BHT − TSS
Depth
X 100
where
BHT = Temperature @ perforation depth, F
SST = Static surface temperature, F
Geothermal.GrdxDepth
BHT ( o F ) = SST +
100
(
T@ anyDepth = TSurf + Tgrd (0ftF )xD( ft ) )
204
102
11/19/2023
Oil Collection Methods

Samples of oil are collected while drilling, testing or producing a well:
Removed from drill muds or cuttings.
Down-hole fluid sampler.
Modular formation dynamic tester.
Well head sampling from (drill stem test) or (test separator)
The main objective for oil sampling
• Observing well conditions and parameters.

• Selecting Types of Treating and separation Materials.
• Identifying the efficiency of separation and treating equipment.
• Estimating formation water salinity, Sand and H2S specifications.
• Assisting to plan for Artificial method design.
• Specifying the percentage of salts & PH.
• It used to study the oil crude properties.
• Planning for development and improvement.
205
Fluid Level Determination
• This test is most commonly performed on wells which will

not flow and must be made to produce by pumping system. Sono-Log Device
Large Peak Small Peak
Chart Paper
Amplifier Recorder Battery Charger
Fluid .Level( SFL.or . DFL ) = (N 0.of .collar )x( Avg.tubing.length( ft ) )
206
103
11/19/2023
Eco-meter Device Model- M
Chart Paper
Caliper Gas Gun
CO2 Cylinder Well Analyze
207
208
104
11/19/2023
Normal Production Test
Test Separator
209
210
105
11/19/2023
Pressure & Temperature Bottom hole Surveys
1- Static Pressure Survey:-

• There are many types of pressure surveys that may be run on wireline
when the well is shut-in and BHP stabilized.
• The surveys are designed to gather particular types of data about the
reservoir and flowing conditions of the well.
2- Flowing Pressure Gradient Survey:-

• These pressure run while the well is flowing.
• The flowing pressure gradient used to calculate BHFP @ mid-perforation
this coupled with SBHP and production rate can be used in calculations
of well and reservoir performance.
211
Chart Scanner Amerada Gauge
Memory Gauge
212
106
11/19/2023
Pressure & Temperature Static Gradient Surveys

Data Collected
Well #.... S.G.Survey Tagged Fill @ 10142' DATE: ………..
RECORD Depth Pressure Gradient Temperature Gradient

NO ft GL psia psia/ft Deg. F Deg. F/ft
1 0 45.06 0.0000 75.66 0.0000
2 1000 182.46 0.1374 106.18 0.0305
3 2000 675.76 0.4933 121.34 0.0152
4 3000 1193.9 0.5182 137.64 0.0163
5 4000 1704.1 0.5101 154.66 0.0170
6 5000 2206.8 0.5027 170.58 0.0159
7 6000 2694.3 0.4875 186.47 0.0159
8 7000 3177.4 0.4831 200.04 0.0136
9 8000 3662.4 0.4851 212.17 0.0121
10 9000 4148.2 0.4858 223.03 0.0109
11 9500 4391 0.4855 229.98 0.0139
12 10130 4704.5 0.4977 240.16 0.0162
213
Pressure & Temperature Static Gradient Chart
Temperature
Gradient Line
Pressure
Gradient Line
214
107
11/19/2023
Formation Fluid Processing
Crude Oil Treatment Path
Oil Well Through Oil Through

Flow line Manifold Trunk line
Main Oil & Gas Treatment Oil

Station Separator Process Meters
Storage Boaster Through Refinery or

Tanks Pumps Pipe line Termination
215
Field Processing System
Control Room
216
108
11/19/2023
Power Station
217
Oil Wells Manifold
Flow Lines
• The flow line can be submerged to reduce seasonal temperature and

protect the line from weather.
• The flow line connects the wellhead assembly to the separator.
• Connection between the well and manifold or Pit ( 6 – 12”).
• Reduces the pressure.
218
109
11/19/2023
Oil Separators
The fluids produced from oil wells are normally complex mixtures of different compounds of
gases and hydrocarbon liquids mixed with water vapor, free water, and some times solids. The
oil should be processed as soon as possible after bringing them to the surface. Separators are
used for the purpose.
• A large settling section of sufficient length or height to allow small liquid droplets to settle
out of the gas stream by gravity with adequate surge room for slugs of liquid.
• A centrifugal inlet device where the primary separation of the liquid and gas is made.
• A mist extractor near the gas outlet that will coalesce small particles of liquid that will not
settle out by gravity.
219
Horizontal Separators
Production Separator
Test Separator
220
110
11/19/2023
Safety Valve
2-Phase Test Separator
Gas out-let From

SSV
Liquid in-let
Line
Pressure & Level Oil Meter Sight Glass
Controller
Liquid Control
Valve
Liquid out-let Line
By-pass Valve
Liquid out-let
221
Test Separator
Dehydrator
Multi Stage Treatment

removal of insoluble and emulsified water from oi
222
111
11/19/2023
Heat Exchanger
Oil Line
Oil out let from dehydration unit and back to heat exchanger
& then goes to tank line.
223
Crude Oil Desalting Treatment
Sources of salt in crude oil:
• During Oil Migration through salt dome.

• Formation water with oil produce.
Brine Reduction with fresh water and added water removal or dehydration
• Crude oil dehydration.

• Water Wash Tank.
• Chemicals injection.
224
112
11/19/2023
Electric
Crude Oil Desalter Transformer
Salt Crude Oil
inlet
Clean Oil
out - let
Fresh Water in let
A desalter is a process unit in an oil field and refinery, that removes salt
from the crude oil.
225
Oil Desalter
Safety
Valve
Clean Oil out-

let Level Control
Control
Valve Fresh Water in let
Treat Water out
let
226
113
11/19/2023
Heaters
Salt Crude Oil

inlet
Oil is heated before it enters the desalter in order to decrease

its viscosity , increase density and transferred.
227
Booster Pumps
228
114
11/19/2023
Gas Treatment Path
Dehydration Gas Methanol

Scrubbers
Processes Plant Treatment
Heat Gas
To Flare
Exchanger Compressor
229
Gas Compressor
Suction bottle
Reciprocating
Compressor
Discharge bottle
The Gas compressor station receives gas from separator or any other low
pressure source and change it from mechanical energy to pressure energy.
230
115
11/19/2023
Gas Plant
Treats, dehydrates and compress the gas which comes from separators
(second stage and third stage)and gas boats.
231
Dehydrators
Remove water from the gas by a process of absorption when water

vapors are removed by bubbling the gas through water affinity liquids.
232
116
11/19/2023
Gas Dehydration Unit
Dehydration
Tower
233
Gas Scraper
Gas out-let
Used to separate any hydrates that may found in the gas such as water or
condensate and that to get as much dry gas.
234
117
11/19/2023
Heat Exchanger
The pumping unit used for Glycol suction from

the boiler and send it to heat exchanger
235
Glycol Dehydration Unit
Reboiler
Glycol
Filter
Carbon
Flash
Filter
Tank
The amount of water vapor is reduced and removed by cooling using Glycol to
prevent slug formation before sent the gas injection to distribution system (Skid).
236
118
11/19/2023
The flare is often ignited to burns the extra gas

(unwanted gas) to the atmosphere.
237
Water Treatment Path
FLASH WATER
IGF FILTER TANK
TANK INJECTION
238
119
11/19/2023
Flash Tank
Separates the gas
from water
239
Filters
Remove the suspended solids from water
240
120
11/19/2023
The Pipes
Pipes are a long hollow cylinders is the network unit which

permits transport of a fluid from one equipment to another
and they are made from metal.
Pipe Line
241
Various units related to the piping: Inside Diameter

ID
• The Flanges
Serve to obtain a connection between two piping units.
• The Gaskets
Ensure a tight sealing between two flanges.
• The Blinds Length(L)
Isolate a piping section from the rest of the unit.
It is dangereuse to:
• Use a pipe for support.
• Support on the pipes with small
Diameters.
• Walk on a pipe. OD
Outside Diameter
The protections:
• Cathodic protection. • Thermal insulation • Corrosion-protective covering and an outer paint.
242
121
11/19/2023
The Flanges
Socket welding Ring Joint

(low pressures) ( high pressures)
The
Metallic
Gaskets
The Blind
243
Ring Joint
Flange
Blind Flange
244
122
11/19/2023
The Pumps
Pumps are mechanical devices used to transfer liquids from location to another location. In
particular, they can be used to take a liquid at pressure P1 and raise it to pressure P2
(where P2 > P1).
Usage of Pumps
• Circulation Operations.
• Mixing Operations.
• Shipping Operations.
• Boosting Operations.
245
Classification of
(Pumps)
Positive Dynamic
displacement displacement
Reciprocating Rotary Centrifugal Hydraulic
Progressing Electric
Sucker Rod Cavity Pump Submersible Jet Pump
(PCP) Pump (ESP)
246
123
11/19/2023
Pump Characteristics Inlet Port Diameter
• Pumping Rate
The Pumping rate dependent on : Width

1- Pump Speed (Thickness)
2- Pump Pressure
3- Impeller Dimension
Out Side
Diameter
• Pumping Pressure (Head)
It is the maximum pressure you can achieve the pump.
Head = head is directly related to pressure by specific gravity of fluid.
 Head( ft ) xSP.gr   Pr essure( psi ) x 2.31

Pr essure( psi ) =   Head( ft ) =  
 2.31   SP.gr 
247
Pump Arrangement
(H)= P1= 80 m (H)= P2= 65 m (H)= P3= 40 m
Q1 = 100 m3
Q2 = 100 m3 Q3 = 100 m3
• Pump in Series
This arrangement benefits from increasing the expulsion pressure by stabilizing the
pumping rate in remote locations that require high pressure.
Pt = P1 + P2 + P3 = 185m Qt = Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = 100m 3
248
124
11/19/2023
249
Pump in Parallel
This arrangement benefits from increasing the pumping rate with constant pressure to ensure
flexibility of operation (increase or decrease) for transporting products to the pumping stations.
Q1= 200 m3 Q2= 230 m3 Q3= 275 m3
P2= 90 m P3= 90 m
P1= 90 m
Qt = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = 705m 3 Pt = P1 = P2 = P3 = 90m
250
250
125
11/19/2023
251
Valves used in the oil industry

Usage of valves
• Starting and stopping the flow.
• Regulate and control the flow.
• Preventing the back flow.
• Protecting equipment.
Types of valves
According by Function
a- Check valve b- Safety valve c- Ball valve

d- Control valve e- Butterfly valve f- Needle valve
252
126
11/19/2023
Flow Lines
Well Number
Pressure Gauges
Block Valves
253
In- Direct Control

Valve
Ball Valve
254
127
11/19/2023
Pipelines Scraper
Pigs
255
Scraper (Pig) functions
• Cleaning the pipeline walls from liquid slugs .
• Separation of oil products.
• Pipeline test & inspection.
256
128
11/19/2023
Launcher
Received
257
Scraper Launcher Trap
Launcher Barrel
Sends every day or month from outside manifold to main station

or Refinery to prevent wax settling.
258
129
11/19/2023
Oil & Gas Storage Tanks
Fixed Roof Storage

Store petroleum products, they use different types
Tank
of roofs (Floating & fixed) with different sizes and
capacity's.
• It used to store the oil after separation and
treatment process.
The tanks used to store Crude oil are floating roof
type i.
Diesel & Fuel oil use fixed roof tanks because they
are low volatile hydrocarbons.
259
Vertical Cylinder Storage Tank
Dome Roof Tank
Tank Shell
Ladder
260
130
11/19/2023
Spherical Storage Tank
261
Tank Accessories
Pressure Transmitter
Sight glass
Sample Bottle
Drain Port Hand Dip Tape
262
131
11/19/2023
Flow Lines & Pipe Lines
263
Transportation Systems
Introduction:
The crude oil and natural gas are transmitted over short and long distances
mainly through pipelines. Pumps and compressors are used for providing
pressures required for the transportation.
• Types of Petroleum Transportation • Why the pipeline is best

Methods transportation method:
• Tanker Transportation. a)- Give unlimited transfer rate.

• Barge Transportation.
b)- A fixed transport path.
• Rail Road transportation.
• Truck transportation. c)- Are not affected by weather conditions.
• Pipe line transportation. d)- Is the most safer method.
264
132
11/19/2023
Oil & its Products Transportation Methods
Land Transportation
• Tank Trucks
• Tank Rail
• Pipe Lines Pipe Line
Marine Transportation
• Oil Tankers
• Pipe Lines
Oil Tankers
265
Gas Transportation
Propane Gas
Shipping Unit
In order that it may be transported in economic quantities, petroleum

gas is shipped in either of two liquid forms:
▪ Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) which is predominantly methane.
▪ Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) a generic term for propane, butane
and any mixtures of these two gases.
266
133
11/19/2023
Marine Pollution
The first part contains the water that

comes from the refining process unit , it Drain Pit
filters the water from solid deposits then
the water is being drained into the sea
normally which is wrong.
267
Land Pollution
Drain the completion & workover fluids from the well during start -up
production operations or from separation process system.
268
134
11/19/2023
Petrochemical
Major petrochemical are ( Acetylene, Benzene, Ethane, Ethylene, Methane,
Propane and Hydrogen), from which hundreds of other chemical are derived.
These derivatives are used as ( Elastomers, Fibers, Plasticizers and Solvents).
Therefore, it is used to manufacture many materials, the most important of which is

Polyethylene, as well as Plastic Materials and some types of medicines such as
Penicillin, Cleaning materials, Lubricating oils…….etc.
The major refinery petroleum processes are:
Distillation. 4.Polymerization.
Reforming. 5.Alkylation.
Cracking. 6.Hydrogen Processing
269
Refining Processing
Crude Oil Storage Fractional Refining Storage Tankes
Distillation Processes
Treatment
Petrochemical
Catalytic
Gasoline 1
Crude Oil Gasoline
Naphtha 2
Kerosene 3 Kerosene
Jet Fuel 4
Jet Fuel
Diesel Oil 5
Residual Oil 6
Diesel Oil
Vacuum
Crude Oil
Fuel Oil
270
135
11/19/2023
Processing and Refining Petroleum

Definition:
A petroleum refinery is a complex of integrated processing units designed to
efficiently convert crude oil in to a wide variety of marketable and valuable
products. LBG
The major refinery petroleum products are: Storage Tank
Jet Fuel.
Light & heavy Naphtha.
Kerosine.
Gas oil (Red diesel).
Butane & propane.
Gasoline.
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG).
271
Special Technical Words for Refining Processing
Gasoline
Volatile flammable liquid hydrocarbon mixture used as a fuel, especially for
internal combustion engines.
Kerosine
flammable hydrocarbon oil used as a fuel, especially in oil lamps, space
heaters,…….etc.
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

LPG can be bottled and used as camping gas, in cigarette lighters, for
industrial fuel supplies,…..etc.
Gas Oil
This is the fraction which is generally refined into diesel oil and other heavy
fuels.
272
136
11/19/2023
Condensate Gas Treatment Unit

Condensate
Treatment
Tower
Water
Treatment
Tower
Ethane &
Methane
Treatment
Tower
273
Gas Treatment Unit
Amen treatment
Tower
Absorber Tower
274
137
11/19/2023
Heater
Dehydration
Towers
275
Produced petroleum
products Storage
Tanks
276
138
11/19/2023
Azzawiya Oil Refinery
Az Zawiya Oil Refining Company (ARC) gets 90% of the

crude oil from
the El Sharara oil field (Akakus Company) by a 24”
pipeline connected to the Akakus tank farm .
The rest 10% from the El Hamada oil field (AGOCO) by
an 18” pipeline and its length is 387 km.
Both of those pipes are connected to each other than
stored in crude oil tanks and directed to the refining
units to produce the petroleum products then every
product has its pipeline to be stored in its own tanks.
The product tanks are connected to the pump station
and each product has its own pumps to distribute to
either the tankers or the Brega petroleum marketing
company’s tank farm.
277
Azzawiya Oil Terminal
The ARC export crude oil & the produced petroleum

products.
There are three ports connected to the load out pump
station that the tanks’ manifolds are connected to.
Each port imports & exports a certain product:
The first port exports kerosene & heavy, light naphtha
and imports gas oil (Diesel).
The second port imports gasoline.
the third port export crude oil & fuel oil.
278
139
11/19/2023
ARC- Laboratory
It performs the necessary tests on the crude oil and its products also for asphalt , mineral oils
and water boiler.
The laboratory is divided into four sections for crude oil and petroleum products & asphalt.
Titrator Channel
dosing unit laboratory
kit
Determine the amount of chloride salt Test PH and its electric conductivity for water
found in the boiler water used in the boiler of the refining units.
279
Hydrogen
sulfide
apparatus
Determines the amount of ammonia to prevent Determines the amount of

corrosion & the amount of HCL used in the acid hydrogen sulfide in the gas
wash to clean the water filtration units.
280
140
11/19/2023
What are Well Work-over Operations?

Workover Operations
Maintenance , remedial or treatment operations on a producing oil & gas wells to
try increase well production
Normally using conventional or non- conventional workover rig.
What is a primary objective of Work-over Operations?
• Is the maintenance and remedial of wells in optimum producing condition.

• In addition to solving specific well and reservoir control problems.
(Try to increase production)
281
Well Workover Objective
The objective of performing a workover include the following:-
• Increase in well productivity (well production).

• To control or decrease gas or water production rates.
• Minimize workover costs while optimizing use of physical resources.
• To provide remedial work for formation damage, control sand problems..,etc.
• Minimize lost production.(restore production).
282
141
11/19/2023
Workover Operation Techniques
• Monitoring wells producing oil & gas and the their proper operation are among the
main responsibilities of reservoir & production engineers.
• These responsibilities include accurate knowledge of the problems of these wells and
making the appropriate decision to solve them by as follows
• Determine the main cause of the well problem.

• Planning to take the appropriate solution .
• Estimating the operation and the initial costs of implementing it..
• Using Noodle analyzes to evaluate the production process of wells through:
1- Studying the performance of the wells from the reservoir to well bore.
In-Flow (IPR)
2- Study of well performance from the well bore to the treatment station.
Out-Flow (VLP)
283
Preventive Maintenance
There is a clear difference between the concepts of maintenance and

repair of oil & gas wells, as follows:
The number of preventive maintenance works is many and varied, but they are low cost
and are carried-out according to fixed time programs with the aim of determining the time
of the problems occurrence and taking appropriate repair measures, which include the
following:
• Checking fluid level with sonic devices (pumping wells).
• Running wire-line tools to check for wellbore plugging.
• Take fluid samples ( API, Bs&w, salt content, Formation water salinity).
• Perform production test (mobile or fixed test separator).
• Checking & recorder subsurface pressure and temperature surveys
(Mechanical & Memory Gauges, Eco-meter).
284
142
11/19/2023
Corrective Maintenance
• Repair work does not have any fixed timetable and is carried out only when faults occur.
• These malfunctions can result from negligence in maintenance work, the cost become
high compared to maintenance costs.
• Therefore, the problem is analyzed and the appropriate repair program is developed to
return the well to its appropriate production status.
• Changing the well production method (Re-completion).

• Mechanical failure or damage ( Casing, tubing leak,…….etc).
• Reservoir pressure depletion (Low rock permeability,…..etc).
• Production sand or other debris in well (Fill).
• Excess water or gas production.
• Ineffective artificial lift system.
285
Before Work-over After Work-over
20”, 94 #, J55 @ 121’
SSD @ 2600’
Natural
Flow 13⅜”, 68 #, J55 4070’ ESP
GN 1600
90 Stg
TOL @ 6000’
9⅝”, 47 #, N80, 6150’
WEG@ 7020’ 8575 –286

8585’
8575 – 8585’
8605 – 8615’
8605 – 8615’
PBTD 8942’
PBTD 8942’
BOL @ 8980’ 286
7”, 32 #, J55, 8980’
286
A
143
11/19/2023
Before Work-over After Work-over
GLMs’
20”, 94 #, H40 @ 88’
1850’
1888’
1920’
1950’
13⅜, 54.5 #, J55 @ 2869’
1980’
F-nipple @ 2020’
PKR @ 2035’ ESP
Gas Lift GN 1600
118 Stages
287
8886 – 8901’ 8886 – 8901’
8921 – 8936’ 8921 – 8936’
PBTD 8982’ PBTD 8982’
9019’ 7” 9019’
287
A
Conventional Workover Program
• Move in Rig (MIR) & Rig-up (R/U).

• Killing the well.
• Nipple Down(N/D) X-mass tree & Nipple Up(N/U) BOP & test.
• Pull out of hole (POOH) of Production equipment.
• Tag and clean the well bore & circulation.
• Special jobs sand control, casing leak, recompletions, replacement of A/L equipment….etc.
• Running in hole (RIH) of production equipment.
• Rig down(R/D) BOP & R/U X-Tree, test.
• While rig is on location, perform production test and adjust the choke in order to keep
production in optimum rate.
• Turned the well to station, clean location & release Rig.
288
144
11/19/2023
Well Control in Workover Operations
• Before beginning a workover operation, it is necessary to kill the well in order to

keep it under control and to be able to work safety.
• We must consider the present formation pressure and not the initial pressure.
• A fluid which is heavier than usual does not only cost more but can damage the
formation.
• The killing is done by pumping the fluid through the tubing or casing in order to
reach a well head pressure of zero.
289
Well Killing Operations
▪ For some types of servicing and workover operation, especially when the tubing and
production equipment have to be pulled out (ESP-change out).
▪ It may be necessary to kill the well before hand ( place a control fluid in the well that
exerts a hydrostatic pressure greater than the reservoir pressure).
What is well killing ?
A well kill is the operation of placing a column of heavy kill fluid (Brine) in order to
prevent the flow of reservoir fluids without the need for pressure control
equipment at the surface.
290
145
11/19/2023
Hydrostatic Pressure
HP( psi ) = 0.052 x ppg xTVD

The constant 0.052
psi/ft/ppg used in calculating HP( psi ) = 0.0069 x lb xTVD
hydrostatic pressure is f t3
derived from: HP( psi ) = 0.433xSP.grxTVD
Pressure Gradient Note

The pressure exerted per foot of vertical height of the fluid Hydrostatic pressure is related to true
column. or the change in pressure per unit of well depth. vertical depth only (TVD) and measured
depth (MD) is used to calculate volume.
The gradient increase as specific gravity of the fluid
increase.
Workover Fluid (Brine) 0.5 psi/ft
Formation Water 0.465 psi/ft
Fresh Water 0.433 psi/ft
Oil 0.33 psi/ft
Gas 0.07 psi/ft
291
Problem (2):
SFL = 2000 ft
Well Depth = 5000 ft @ 1350 psi Gas
What is the fluid gradient for this well?
SFL = 2000 ft
Solution
FluidDepth = 5000 − 2000 = 3000 ft
 1350  psi
Grd =   = 0.45
 3000  ft Fluid
================================
=======
If → SBHP = 2800 psi @ 10,000 ft

psi
Where is SFL if the well filled with 0.4 fluid gradient ? 0.45
ft
2800 psi
FluidDepth = = 7000 ft
0.4 psi
ft
PBTD= 5000 ft
SFL = 10000 − 7000 = 3000 ft
292 292
146
11/19/2023
Over-Balance Pressure Balance Pressure Under-Balance Pressure
2600 psi 2400 psi 2300 psi
293
2400 psi 2400 psi 2400 psi
293
A
Types of well killing methods
Killing by Normal Circulation

• This method is the preferred and is the most often used.
• Normal circulating method requires that you pumping kill fluids down the tubing and
back out the annulus casing through production (Treatment) facilities or to the reserve
pit.
Killing by Reverse Circulation
• This method is the preferred and is the most often used when killing pumping wells
or wells with installed packer.
• Reverse circulating method requires that you pumping kill fluids down the casing
annulus and back out the tubing.
Killing by Bull heading ( Squeezing)
Squeezing method is done only after injectivity test of formation zone that to be sure
that injectivity is sufficient, this is because of the same drawback as with direct circulate
(migration of oil/gas in the killing fluid).
294
147
11/19/2023
Problem (1):
What is the overbalance pressure would there be in a well drilling at 7000
ft, if the kill fluid weight is 8.5 ppg and the formation pressure is 2780 psi .
Solution
Over balance pressure = Hydrostatic Pressure – Formation Pressure
= ( 0.052 x 8.5 x 7000 ) – 2780 = 314 psi
@ 7 ppg the overbalance would be = (.052 x 7 x 7000) – 2780 = -232 psi
The well would be underbalanced by 232 psi with the resulting risk of an influx.
Problem (2):
Given Data:
▪ Casing setting depth @ 5000 ft. , Surface pressure = 1100 psi
▪ Fluid weight = 9.8 ppg
Calculate
Formation Fracture pressure = ( 0.052 x 9.8 x 5000 ) + 1100 = 3648 psi
3648 psi 0.73
• Formation fracture gradient = = 0.73 • Max. allowable fluid density = = 14 ppg
5000 ft 0.052
295
In (From Mud Pump)
Killing by Normal Circulation

Out (To Reserve Pit)
Advantages
• No, damage to formation zone by
external fluids . Kill-fluid SSD
PKR- fluid
Dis-advantages
• Large volume pumped (Tubing & Annulus).
• Influx will be below kill fluid.
• Annulus exposed to corrosive reservoir Formation
fluid. fluid
• Tubing burst pressure.
296
148
11/19/2023
Killing by Reverse Circulation Out (To Reserve Pit)

In (From Mud Pump)
Advantages
• Influx will not enter annulus, less chance
for mixing reservoir fluid with kill fluid.
• Clean debris or sand from tubing (high Kill-fluid SSD
velocity). PKR- fluid

• Low surface circulating pressure.
Dis-advantages
• Slower than bull heading method. Formation
• Higher BHP if no plug installed fluid
297
In (From Mud Pump)
Killing by Bull Heading (Squeezing )
Advantages
Kill-fluid
SSD
• No, circulation & no hydrocarbon are
transported to surface.
• Quick and easy methods especially in smaller
PKR- fluid
production tubing.
Dis-advantages PKR
• Formation fracture pressure.

• Formation damage.
(scale in the tubing are pumped into
formation zone) Perforation
Zone
• Reduce formation permeability.
• Tubing burst pressure.
• Gas may slip up the tubing if the pump rate is
not sufficient for large tubing size.
298
149
11/19/2023
Well Workover induces formation damages
• Pore or perforations plugging by kill fluid solids, scale ……..etc.
• Pore or perforations plugging due to bull heading with scale or debris inside
production tubing.
• Exceeding formation fracture pressure.
• Permeability reduction by kill fluid filtrate invasion.
• Permeability reduction due insoluble precipitates formed during acid stimulation .
• Clay swelling from incompatible brine or water contamination.
299
Well Problems
Well Classification Problems

• Problems Related to production Zone.
• Problems related to mechanical failures.
• Problems related to production equipment.
• Problems related to reservoir fluids.
Reasons of low oil producing rate
1- Reservoir Pressure depletion.
2- Mechanical Failures ( tubing plug, casing leak,…… etc.).
3- Formation Damage & Sand Production.
4- Artificial Lift System Problems & improper equipment sizing.
300
150
11/19/2023
Casing Leak
Down hole Leaks:
• Casing leaks: due to corrosion, burst or collapse.
• Tubing leaks: due to corrosion, sand erosion or damaged couplings.
• Mandrel leaks: damaged or eroded.
• Packer leaking: Incorrectly set packer, damaged or partial of casing.
• Valve leaks damaged valve seats, incorrect test-rack pressure.
Reasons for Casing Leak:
• Produced fluid contaminated corrosive gas & oil.
• Bad cement behind casing (channels & fractures ).
• Water - Gas & sand invasion.
Tools & Expectation Methods Used To Predict The Casing Leaks
Casing Leak
1. Testing salinity of formation water.
2. Cement Casing Evaluation Tool (CET) such as (CBL).
3. Pressure testing (build up test analysis).
301
Water production through

Casing Leak & Bad cement
behind casing
Casing Leak
Casing
Corroded
channel a long
bad cement job Water dumps
into the
reservoir
302
151
11/19/2023
Casing Leak Indication
• Sudden (unexpected) rise in water production is one of the most

important sign of developing casing leaks.
Analysing the produced water and measuring the salinity approves the source of
water production Could be developed behind casing due to bad cement.
• Sudden rise in dynamic fluid level especially in pumping wells.
Gives an indication of influx source or pump failure, production testing the

well and testing the tubing ensures the presence of leaks.
• Scale accumulation on down hole well equipment.
Gives an indication of mixing two different water production.
303
Sand Production
What is sand production ?
Production of solids (mainly formation sand, larger than 44 µm) with Oil with Sand
formation fluids.
Why Wells Produced Sand
• Insufficient Bonding Of Sand Grains.
• High Fluid Velocity.
• Water Production.
Purpose of Sand control ?
Prevent unwanted solids – formation sand from being produced into the
wellbore, completion string and surface facilities.
Why ?
Sand production can cause severe production restrictions, erode tubular
goods (including down-hole pumps and surface pipelines and equipment).
304
152
11/19/2023
Cased Hole Gravel Pack Open Hole Gravel Pack
Gravel
Gravel
305
Water Production
Water problems may result from:

Perforation Intervals
• Natural water drives or water flood worse
by fingering or coning.
• Produced water is very salty and contain
some contaminations as H2S,CO2.
• Mechanical failures of wellbore including
casing leaks or poor cementation.
Oil Zone Thickness
• Fracturing or acidizing accidental into
water zones.
Water Coning
306
153
11/19/2023
Formation Damage
Formation Damage is defined as any change of well productivity or

pollution with in the wellbore.
• The primary cause of formation damage is contact of the formation

fluid with the external fluid, this fluid could be drilling mud, workover
fluids or reservoir fluid if its characteristic are changed.
• Damaging the formation can cause several reduction in productivity.
K  r 
Damage is quantified as SKIN. S= − 1 ln  s 
k is the unaltered permeability of the critical  Ks   rw 
matrix and ks is altered permeability. Where: Damage
If ks = k , skin is zero and no damage. S= skin factor Penetration
If ks > k , skin is negative and well is stimulated K= permeability of formation, md Distance
Ks = permeability of invaded zone ,md
If ks < k , skin is positive and critical matrix is rs = Radius of invaded zone, ft
considered damaged. re= Reservoir radius , ft
rw= Well bore radius,ft
307
Wellbore Deposit
Wellbore deposits may occur singly or in combination as a result of:
• Mixing of incompatible fluids ( injection/reservoir fluids).
• Changes in temperature or pressure.
Types of wellbore deposit :

• In-organic scales.
• Wax.
• Asphaltenes.
Scale
• Hydrates.
Nacl
• Emulsions.
Gypsum
308
154
11/19/2023
Why Scale Is Deposited?
1. Change in Temperature
2. Drop in Pressure.
3. Mixing of Water.
Calcium carbonate (Calcite (Ca CO3) is the main
carbonate scale. This forms mainly as a result of
decreasing pressures in the wellbore. The solubility of
calcium carbonate decreases with increasing pH,
increasing temperature, decreasing pressure .
Barium sulphate (Ba SO4).

Results from mixing of seawater with formation water
in the wellbore.
Scale treatments include: Scale
• Removal (scraper).
• Inhibition scale ‘inhibitors’ (chemical).
309
310
155
11/19/2023
Chemical Injection Skid
Corrosion Inhibitor
Tank
311
Emulsion Problem
A stable distribution of two immiscible fluids ( oil and water).

High viscosity fluid can cause problems with:
Chemical Tank
• Inflow ability
• High friction pressure (pressure loss)
• Loading on completion equipment, e.g., ESP equipment.
• Oil & Gas separation methods.
Chemical injection
pump
312
156
11/19/2023
Emulsion
It is a heterogeneous mixture of two incompatible liquids, such as an

emulsion of oil and water.
Oil Oil
Water
Oil Oil
Oil in Water Emulsion Water in Oil Emulsion
313
Corrosion Problem
Several corrosion types in oil and gas

well environments:
• Sour corrosion (Hydrogen Sulphide,H2S)

• Sweet corrosion (Carbon Dioxide,Co2)
• Chloride stress corrosion cracking
• Oxidation
• Galvanic corrosion
314
157
11/19/2023
315
Hydrogen Sulphide(H2S) (Sour Corrosion)
H2S + Fe + H2O →→ FeS + 2H

Hydrogen Iron Water Iron Hydrogen
Sulphide Sulphide
Carbon Dioxide(Co2) (Sweet Corrosion)

CO2 + H 2O →→ H2CO3
Carbon Dioxide Water Carbonic Acid
Fe + H2CO3 →→ FeCO3 + H2
Iron Carbonic Acid Iron Carbonate
(corrosion product)
316
158
11/19/2023
Dissolved Oxygen Corrosion
Oxygen(O2) dissolved in water, as may occur in water injection projects or in process

equipment with operating pressures below one atmosphere, is highly corrosive:
Anode Reaction Fe = Fe++ + 2e-
Cathode Reaction + 2H2O + 4e- = 4OH-
Combining the two 4Fe + 6H2O + 3O2 → 4Fe (OH)3

Iron + Water + Oxygen = Ferric Hydroxide
Oxygen corrosion is more aggressive than CO2 corrosion since it is not uniform it leads to pits in
the metal surface which can rapidly grow to form holes which pierce the metal itself.
317
Cathode Protection
Cathode Protection
318
159
11/19/2023
Well Stimulation
Stimulation is a Chemical or Mechanical methods of increasing flow

capacity to a well. If the reservoir damaged or permeability is low.
Why Stimulate wells?
A well which does not produce at its expected capacity needs stimulation.
And causes that make Reduction in flow are called Damage
1- To increase well productivity by:

• Removing damage
• Increasing permeability
• Decreasing fluid viscosity
2- To create new flow capacity
3- To increase ultimate well recovery reserves.
4- To extend reservoir economical life.
5- Increase well bore stability ( sand ,scale).
319
Matrix Acidizing
Objective
The primary purpose of an acid treatment is to dissolve

the mineral inside reservoir rock, which results in an
increase in formation absolute permeability around the
wellbore.
Why we need acidizing?

• Open new channel to wellbore.
• Clean wellbore from drilling fluid and scales. Matrix
• Reduce formation resistance to wellbore. Acidizing
320
160
11/19/2023
Types Of Acids
The type of acid used depends on the type of formation rock.

1- Hydrochloric Acid ( HCL )
• HCL usually used to dissolve limestone (Calcite ), dolomite, Siderite and
other carbonate.
• Usually used in the field as 15 % by weight.
• The acid concentration between 5 – 35 %
A- Acid + Calcium Carbonate → Calcium Chloride ↓ + Carbon Dioxide ↑+ Water
2 HCl + CaCo 3 → CaCl 2  + Co 2  + H 2 O
B- Acid + Dolomite → Calcium Chloride + Magnesium Chloride + Carbon Dioxide + Water
( )2
4 HCl + CaMg Co3 → CaCl 2  + MgCl 2  +2 Co 2  +2 H 2 O
321
Types Of Acids Additives
1- Surfactant→ Surface active agent

• It is used to reduce surface interfacial tension.
• It is use in all acid jobs
• It is used to prevent formation of emulsion& wettability.
2- Suspending Agents
• It is used to prevent emulsion .
• It is used to prevent precipitation of iron as hydrochloric acid spends.
3- Fresh Water
• It is used to decrease acid concentration .
• It is used to test surface lines.
4- Corrosion Inhibitor
• They are use to slow down the reaction of acid on metal.
5- Pre-flush ( Disel oil, Kerosene )
• mentioned the acid concentration .
• It is used to seal the acid from kill fluid.
322
161
11/19/2023
Hydraulic Fracturing
Hydraulic fracturing is a stimulation process used in order to break down a producing
formation hydraulically in order to increase the average permeability in wells and
where formation damage is present.
• Fracturing does not change the permeability of the formation,but creates a permeable path
for the fluid to the wellbore.
• The primary purpose of hydraulic fracturing is to increase the effective wellbore radius by
creating a fracture of a given length whose conductivity is greater than that of the
formation.
Objective of Hydraulic Fracturing

• Increase oil or gas flow rate from low permeability reservoirs (Improved productivity).
• Increase oil or gas flow rate from wells that have been damaged.
• Decrease the pressure drop around the well to minimize sand production.
323
Orientation of the Fracture
Vertical Fracture Horizontal Fracture
Hydraulic Fracture
324
162
11/19/2023
Max.Principal Stress
Types of Hydraulic Fracturing
There are two principal methods of fracturing:
• Propped fracture.
• Acid fracture.
▪ The fracturing fluids is a critical components of Minimum

the hydraulic fracturing treatment. Principal
Stress
▪ Fracturing fluid pumped during the process is
generally in a turbulent flow in the wellbore and
perforations, and laminar flow in the fracture.
The important fluid characteristics for fracturing fluid include:
1- Ability to carry the propping agent.
2- Low pumping friction loss.
3- Compatible with the natural formation fluid.
4- Minimum damage to the formation permeability.
325
Reference Books
1. Production Engineering Design #2 , A. A. 10. A development course in field operations, Sirte Oil
Urayet, Tripoli University 1986. Company
2. Artificial lift Training & Devolvement 11. Measurement & Control Devices, Abu Aisha Said.
Program, Eric Lovie, Shlumberger . PTQI
3. Well service & workover operations 12. Julian Cudmore, Artificial Lift Center of Excellence
curse, PTQI, Tarek.N.Daw. Inverurie, Scotland.
4. Gabor Takacs, PhD , Gas lift ,SR & ESP 13. Production Design # 2 curse, Tripoli University,
Design & Optimization. Tarek.N.Daw.
5. Mellitah oil & gas Complex. 14. Standard Hand Book of Petroleum Natural Gas
6. Well design : drilling and production, Engineering, William C.Lyons.
Craft, Holden and Graves. 15- Petroleum Production Engineering Fundamental.
7. The technology of Artificial Lift method ,
Brown, K.E. 16- General Safety Instruction, Safety Department,
PTQI
8. Petroleum Production
Systems,Economides-Hill 17- Introduction to Geology, Dr. Carlos Macellari
Director of Geology Repsol Exploration SA
9. Information & picture, Az Zawiya Oil
Refining Company. 18- The principle of drilling for oil, Book one. PTQI
326
163
11/19/2023
Petroleum Technology
End of Unit 2
ً ً
‫حظا موفقا للجميع‬
327
164

O&amp;G Industry Trainee Handouts

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

O&amp;G Industry Trainee Handouts

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

O&amp;G Industry Trainee Handouts

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

11/19/2023

Prepared & Reviewed

Dr. Abdussalam Ahmed

11- Preventive and corrective Maintenance.

Introduction to Oil & Gas

‫‪and Ports‬‬ ‫رشكة أكاكوس للعمليات النفطية ( ر‬

‫‪Petroleum Explorations in Libya‬‬

‫‪ 508‬برميل يوميا‬ ‫‪20/1/1958‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫العطشان‬ ‫اسو استاندارد(شركة سرت)‬

‫‪The First Oil Well Drilled in Zelten Oil Field‬‬

Crude Oil Production

Formation Evaluation Tests

Crude Oil Production

Where and How are oil and gas accumulations found?

Basin: a volume of sedimentary rocks capable of containing potential elements of a working

Petroleum Exploration Methods

In exploration for petroleum, expert have developed

The search studies for hydrocarbons

• The most common of finding oil is the seismic

Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun and

Erosion, transport, lithification

Minerals and Rocks Composition

According to their origin they are Shale

Sedimentary : formed by processes of

Metamorphic : formed by the transformation

Minerals and Composition

• It has a characteristics atomic structure frequently expressed in the crystalline

• Rock Forming Minerals:

Igneous Rock Granite

Shale Lime Stone

Introduction to crude oil

Conditions for a Petroleum accumulation

Why the Oil and Gas Migrate?

Generation Migration Accumulation

All the elements necessary for an accumulation of oil or gas.

Oil Traps Where are the

Types Of Oil Traps

Structural Anticline (Dome )Trap

Stratigraphic Pinch-out Trap

Salt Dome Trap

General Chemical Petroleum Composition

Reservoir Fluid APII Viscosity (cp) Colour

Black Oil 15 - 40 2 - 100 Dark often Black

Volatile Oil 45 - 55 0.25 - 3 Brown , Orange or Green Physical and

Hydrocarbon Molecular Structure

Chemical Structure of Alkanes

Basic Reservoir Rock & Fluid Properties

Classification of Oil Reservoirs

a) Under-Saturated Oil Reservoir (single-phase reservoir).

b) Saturated oil reservoir

Reservoir Rock Physical Properties

V p ( pore.volume) = Vb (bulk.volume) − Vg ( grain.volume)

V p = Vb − Vg = 8.14cm − 4.27cm = 3.87cm3  = 1−

qxxl 0.5 x1.0 x10

Darcy's Law for radial flow into a wellbore

BO= Oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB "drainage"

900 BPD 0 BPD

Water Saturation ( Sw ) = volume of pores filled with water(Vpw)

Gas Saturation ( Sg ) = Volume of pores filled with gas(Vpg)

The Properties of Crude Oil

O&G Industry Trainee Handouts

O&G Industry Trainee Handouts

O&G Industry Trainee Handouts