Basics of Nutrition

|Harsh Gahlot
(Former National Boxing Player, GMSA Certified Fitness
Trainer, Body-weight workout expert and Fitness Influencer)

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Contents

1. Nutrients ……………………………………………………….............4
2. Carbohydrate …………………………………………………………….7
3. Protein ……………………………………………………………………..11
4. Fat ……………………………………………………………………………14
5. Vitamin and Minerals ……………………………………………….17
6. Fluid and Hydration ………………………………………………….23
7. Practical considerations ……………………………………………25

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OBJECTIVES
 Understand the functions of the three energy substrates ( carbohydrate,
Protein and Fat) in health and performance.
 Know the role of vitamins and minerals in health and performance.
 Understand the importance of hydration in maintaining health and
performance.
 Know the essential elements of energy balance as related to weight
management, body composition, and performance.
 Understand issue related to nutrient supplementation and strategies for
discerning the circumstances under which specific supplements may be
appropriate.
 Understand practical issues related to eating for performance, including
travel, the pre-competition meal, during-competition nourishment, and
post-competition replenishment.

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Nutrition and athletic performance are closely linked, an improvement in
person conditioning cannot be realized by focusing only on time spent in
training to improve flexibility, endurance, and power. The adjunct nutrit-
ional strategies person should follow before arriving at the pool or gym,
the foods and drinks they consume immediately following exercise and
after they go home, and what they do to ensure an optimal flow of fluid
and energy into their muscles are all critical to improving power and end-
urance, sustaining concentration, and optimizing performance. Failure to
consider nutrition as an integral component of the skills training or condi-
tioning program will increase health risks and result in poor performance-
improvement rates. Well-nourished person do better, recover more quic-
kly from soreness and injuries, and derive more performance-improving
benefits from long and strenuous training sessions.

Failure to consider nutrition as an integral component of the skills

training or conditioning program will increase health risks and res-
ult in poor improvement rates.

ESSENTIAL NUTRITIONAL CONCEPTS

Nutrients give metabolically active tissues, including muscles, organs, and

bones, the energy needed for work, tissue development. Well-nourished
person have better disease resistance and enhanced cardiovascular funct-
ion, are more likely to grow normally and build needed muscle and skelet-
al tissue, and will heal well if they are injured.

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Nutrients
There are six classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins,
minerals, and water. Peoples should not be taught to think of any individ-
ual nutrient as more important than any other nutrients rather, the focus
should be on nutrient balance, which is critical to good health and perfor-
mance. Now you can find the appropriate balance between all the nutrie-
nts, because too much or too little of any single nutrient increase the risk
of poor health or performance problems. For example, too little iron inta-
ke could lead to poor endurance and a lower ability to burn fat, whereas
too much protein might increase urine production and increase the risk of
dehydration. The best strategy for maintaining a nutrient balance is to eat
a wide variety of foods, regularly consume fresh fruits and vegetables, and
avoid a monotonous intake of the same few foods day after day. Consum-
ption of a wide variety of foods will ensure optimal nutrient exposure. No
single food has all the nutrients a person needs to stay healthy, so eating
a wide variety of foods helps people know all the needed nutrients are av-
ailable to them. An added benefit of eating a wide variety of foods is avoi-
dance of potential nutrient toxicities that may result from an excess cons-
umption of potentially toxic food components. Easy available and inexpe-
nsive nutrient supplements dramatically increase the possibility of nutrie-
nt toxicities. The common belief that “if a little bit of a nutrient is good,
and then more must be better” is wrong. Providing more nutrients than
the body can use does not provide a benefit; it forces cells into using valu-
able energy resources to excrete the surplus, with the additional risk of
developing toxicity reactions or nutrient insensitivities.

There are six classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, fat,

vitamins, minerals, and water.

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 NUTRIENTS THAT PROVIDE ENERGY

Energy nutrients provide fuel for cellular work. Carbohydrate, proteins, and
fats are considered energy nutrients because they all provide carbon (fuel),
which can be “burned” for energy production. Energy nutrients allow us to
do muscular work, transfer electrical energy between nerve cells, and help
us maintain body temperature at 98.6⁰ F (37⁰ C). Energy is measured in ca-
lories, which in nutrition, are often referred to as kilocalories (Kcal) because
they represent 1,000 times the calorie unit used in physics. The word “calo-
rie” is used synonymously with kilocalories.

Exercise causes an increase in the rate at which energy is burned. This pr-
ocess is not 100% efficient, so only 20% to 40% of the burned energy is con-
verted to mechanical energy, with at least 60% of the energy lost as heat.
This extra heat causes body temperature to rise, which requires an increase
in the sweat rate as a means of cooling down body temperature

 Recommended Energy (Calorie) Distribution for Athletes

and Physically Active Adults

 6 to 10 g carbohydrate per kilogram of bodyweight (45%-65% of total

Calories)
 1.2 to 1.7g protein per kilogram of bodyweight (10%-35% of total cal-
ories)
 20% to 35% of total calories from fat.

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Eating small but frequent meals has the following benefits:

 Maintenance of metabolic rate

 Lower body fat and lower weight on higher caloric intakes
 Better glucose tolerance and lower insulin response (making it less likely
that fats will be produced from the foods you eat)
 Lower stress hormone production
 Better maintenance of muscle mass
 Improved physical performance

CARBOHYDRATE
The word carbohydrate is often referred to if it is a single compound. In
fact, carbohydrate come in many different forms that have different nutri-
tional outcomes. Some carbohydrate are digestible whereas others are
not, some are considered “complex” whereas others are “simple” and
some carbohydrate contains soluble fiber whereas others contain insolub-
le fiber. The basic form of carbohydrate energy for human is the simple
sugar glucose , and our bodies make a carbohydrate recommendation
range from 6 to 10 grams per kilogram body weight with the amount dep-
endent on the total daily expenditure, sex, activity, and environmental co-
nditions

FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATE

Carbohydrate have a number of functions in the body, including:

 Providing energy – Carbohydrate is the preferred fuel for the body, and
it is a quick energy source.

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 Protein sparing – This is an often-overlooked, yet very important, func-
tion of carbohydrate (glucose) is a preferred fuel, providing enough car-
bohydrate to meet most energy needs preserves (i.e. “spares”) protein
from being broken down and used as a source of energy.
 Oxidation of fat – It has been said that fats burn in carbohydrate flame.
That is, to burn fats efficiently and completely, some carbohydrates are
needed.
 Acting as a part of other compounds – Carbohydrates are essential co-
mponents of other compounds essential in human nutrition.
 Storing energy – Carbohydrate is stored as glycogen, which is an excell-
ent storage form because it can be easily converted back to glucose and
used for energy.

TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATE

Carbohydrates come in a number of forms:

 Simple carbohydrate (sugars) – These are sugars such as glucose, fruct-

ose (typically found in fruits and vegetables), galactose (one of the sug-
ars in milk), sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk sugar), and maltose (gr-
ain sugar).
 Polysaccharides – These are carbohydrates that contain many molecul-
es of connected sugars. Polysaccharides can be digestible (starch, dextr-
in, and glycogen) or indigestible (cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectin, gums
and mucilages). Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate that cannot be digested
but is useful in the diet because it may lower fat and cholesterol absor-
ption, improves blood sugar control, and may reduce the risk of colon
cancer and heart disease.

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 QUICK FACTS ABOUT CARBOHYDRATE
Minimum intake 50-100 g/day (200-400 kcal) needed
To avoid ketosis
Average U.S. intake 200-300 g/day (800-1,200 kcal)

Recommended fiber intake 20-30 g/day or more

Average U.S. fiber intake 10-15 g/day

Recommended intake of carbohydrate 55% of total calories; up to 65% of
As percentage of total caloric intake total calories for athletes
Good source of carbohydrate Grains, legumes, seeds, pasta, fruits,
Vegetables, etc.

EXAMPLES OF GOOD HIGH-CARBOHYDRATE SNACKS

Apple Fruit cup Orange juice

Bagel Fruit smoothie popcorn

Baked corn chips Energy bar Rice

Baked potato Grapes Saltine crackers

Banana Mashed potatoes Spaghetti

Beans Mixed berries Whole-wheat toast

English muffin Oatmeal

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THE GLYCEMIC INDEX

The glycemic index is a measure of how different consumed carbohydra-

te foods affect the blood sugar level. Foods are compared with the inge-
stion of glucose, which has an index value of 100. Foods with a lower gl-
ycemic index help maintain blood sugar, avoid an excessive insulin resp-
onse that can encourage the production of fat, and keep people feeling

HIGH, MEDIUM, AND LOW GLYCEMIC INDEX FOODS

High Glycemic Medium Glycemic Low Glycemic
Index (≥ 85) Index (60-85) Index (≤60)
Glucose All-bran cereal Fructose
Sucrose Banana Apple
Maple syrup Grapes Applesauce
Corn syrup Oatmeal Cherries
Honey Orange juice Kidney beans
Bagel Pasta Navy beans
Candy Rice Chick-peas
Corn flakes Whole grain rye bread Lentils
Carrots Yams Dates
Crackers Corn Figs
Molasses Baked beans Peaches
Potatoes Potato chips Plums
Raisins Ice cream
White bread Milk
Whole wheat bread Yogurt
Sodas (nondiet) Tomato soup
Sports drinks

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better longer. People should be aware that different people have differe-
nt responses to food. For instance, people who exercise regularly are mu-
ch more tolerant of foods with a high glycemic index than are people who
rarely exercise. Young people must meet the combined energy needs of
growth, exercise, and tissue maintenance and so will have a higher requir-
ement for calories per unit of body weight than will adult athletes. Athlet-
es interested in lowering either weight or body fat levels should consid-er
focusing on foods with a medium to low glycemic index.

Foods with a lower glycemic index help maintain blood sugar, avoid
an excessive insulin response that can encourage the production of
fat, and keep people feeling better longer.

PROTEIN
Protein are complex compounds that consist of different connected amino
acids, which uniquely contain nitrogen. Body protein are constantly chang-
ing, with new proteins being made and old ones broken down. Growth ho-
rmone, androgen, insulin, and thyroid hormone are anabolic hormones
(i.e., they cause new protein to be produced). Cortisone, hydrocortisone,
and thyroxin are catabolic (i.e., they influence the breakdown of proteins).
The protein requirement foe physically active people is about double that
for non-athletes. The non-athlete (average) adult’s requirement for prote-
in is 1g per kilogram of body weight, whereas the adult athlete requireme-
nt for protein ranges between 1.3 and 1.8g per kilogram of body weight.

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 QUICK FACTS FOR PROTEIN
Recommended intakes Infants: 2.2g/kg of body weight
Children: 1.0-1.6g/kg of body weight
Adults: 1g/kg of body weight
Adult athletes: 1.3-1.8g/kg of body
weight
Recommended intake of protein: 10%-35% of total calories
Good source of protein Meat, poultry fish, yogurt, eggs, milk,
Combination of legumes (beans and
Dried peas) with cereal grains

FUNCTIONS OF PROTEIN

Protein have a number of functions in the body, including:

 Enzyme and protein synthesis – There are hundreds of unique tissues

and enzymes that are proteins.
 Transportation of nutrients to the right places – proteins make “sma-
rt” carriers, enabling nutrients to go to the right tissues.
 A source of energy – the carbon in protein provides the same amount
of energy per unit of weight as carbohydrates (4kcal/g).
 Hormone production – Hormones control many chemical activities in
the body, and these are made of unique proteins. For instance, testos-
terone (male hormone) is an important tissue-building hormone.
 Fluid balance – protein helps control the fluid balance between the
blood and surrounding tissues. This helps people maintain blood volu-
me and sweat rates during physical activity.
 Acid-base balance – proteins can make an acidic environment less ac-
idic and an alkaline environment less alkaline. High-intensity activity

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 can increase cellular acidity (through lactate buildup), which protein
can make help buffer.
 Growth and tissue maintenance – protein is needed to build and mai-
ntain tissue. This is one reason why the protein requirement for grow-
ing children can be double that of adults and slightly higher for athlet-
es.
 Synthesis of nonprotein, nitrogen-containing compounds – phospho-
creatine is a high-energy, nitrogen containing compound that can qui-
ckly release energy over a short duration for quick-burst activities.

PROTEIN QUALITY

Protein quality is determined by the presence (or absence) of essential

amino acids and their distribution. It is “essential” to take in these in th-
ese amino acids from food because the body is not capable of manufac-
turing them. Examples of foods containing protein with all the essential
amino acids in a desirable ratio include meats, eggs, milk, cheese, and
fish. Nonessential amino acids can be manufactured (synthesized) in
the body, so it is not “essential” to consume foods that contain them.
Most foods contain both nonessential and essential amino acids, but it
is the presence of a comprehensive set of essential amino acids that
makes a high-quality protein.

Most foods contain both nonessential and essential amino acids,

but it is the presence of comprehensive set of essential amino
acids in the right ratio that makes a high-quality protein.

People frequently take protein supplements, but these may contain pr-
oteins with an incomplete set of essential amino acids, making the sup-
plements low in quality and, even if they do deliver a high quality prote-

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in, they tend to be expensive. The best protein supplement would be a
few pieces of steak or fish or an egg. Vegetarians can ensure optimal
protein quality by combining cereal grains (rice, wheat, and oats) with
legumes (dried beans or peas). Vegetarians are clearly at more risk for
inadequate protein intake because the best source of high-quality prot-
ein is foods of animal origin (i.e., meat and fish). However, with some
good dietary planning, vegetarians can consume enough high-quality
protein.
Protein is the focus of many diets, but there is a tendency to consume
too much of it. Studies have found that people do best with protein int-
akes that supply approximately 1.3 and 1.8g of protein per kilogram of
body weight. For a 70-kg (154-lb) person, that amounts to no more than
140 g (600 kcal) of protein per day. Protein isn’t the best fuel for physic-
al activity, it is a fuel that can help satisfy energy needs if other fuels (i.e.
carbohydrate and fat) are inadequate. During an energy restriction, wh-
ere energy availability is limited, protein in excess of the RDA (but below
the safe upper limit) may help to support the maintenance of lean mass
by providing a source of energy. However, under such energy restriction,
it should be understood that the primary use of proteins will be to supp-
ort the need for energy rather than to sustain or increase the lean mass.
There is no question that energy needs must be satisfied before conside-
ring the best way to distribute carbohydrate, protein, and fat.

FAT
Many people misconceive that higher fat intakes can enhance athletic
performance. The generally accepted healthy range of fat intake for phy-
sically active people in between 20% and 35% of total daily calories. For
someone consuming 2,500 kcal per day, this amounts to no more than
875 kcal per day as fat (about 97 g of fat). Although this is considered
the accepted healthy limit, people typically will do better with fat intake

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that are no higher than 25% of daily calories. This level of intake will pro-
vide more room in the diet for needed carbohydrates.

The generally accepted healthy limit for fat intake is no more than
30% of total daily calories.

FATS
Recommended intakes Fat intake should provide between 20% and 30% of
total calories
Essential fatty acid Linoleic acid (and α-linoleic acid) is the essential fatty
Acid and must be provided in consumed foods; this
fatty acid is found in corn, sunflower, peanuts, and
soy oils
Carrier of vitamins Fat is the carrier of the fat-soluble vitamins: vitamins
A, D, E, and K
Calorie-dense nutrient Fat provide more than twice the calories, per equal
weight, of carbohydrate and protein (9 vs. 4 kcal per g)
Cholesterol-fat High fat intakes (in particular saturated fats) are the
relationship main culprit for increasing circulating blood cholester-
ol levels
Food sources Oil, butter, margarine, fatty meats, fried foods, prepar-
ed meats (sausage, bacon, salami), and “whole-milk”
dairy products

FUNCTIONS OF FAT

Fat has a number of important functions in the body:

 Fat is a source of energy – Fat provides 9 kcal/g (compared with 4 kcal

per gram from both carbohydrates and protein).
 Fat provides insulation from extreme temperature.
 Cushion against concussive forces – Fat protects organs against sudden
forces, such as a fall or a solid “hit” in football.

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 Satiety control – Fat, because it says in the stomach longer than other
energy nutrients, makes people feel fuller longer.
 Fat gives food flavor.
 Fat carries essential nutrients – Make sure that you get the necessary
fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and essential fatty acids, which are
found in vegetable and cereal oils.

CLASSIFICATION AND DEFINITIONS OF FAT

 Fats and oils – Fats are solid at room temperature and usually contain a
high proportion of saturated fatty acids; oils are liquid at room temper-
ature and typically (there are notable exceptions) contain a high propo-
rtion of unsaturated fatty acids.
 Triglycerides, diglycerides, and monoglycerides – Triglycerides are the
most common form of dietary fats and oils, whereas diglycerides and
monoglycerides are less prevalent but still commonly present in the
food supply.
 Short-chain, medium-chain, and long-chain fatty acids – The most co-
mmon dietary fatty acids are long-chain, containing 14 or more carbon
atoms. Medium-chain triglycerides (MCT oil), containing 8 to 12 carbon
atoms, have received some attention recently as an effective supplem-
ment for increasing caloric intake in athletes. Although MCT oil may
hold some promise in this area, it has not been adequately tested.
Short-chain fatty acids contain six carbon atoms or less.
 Polyunsaturated fatty acids – These fatty acids have a tendency to low-
er blood cholesterol level. The good thing about these fats is that they
are typically associated with lots of vitamin E (found in vegetable and
cereal oil, such as corn oil), which many people need.

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 Monounsaturated fatty acids – These fatty acids tend to lower blood
cholesterol level while maintaining high-density lipoprotein (good) chol-
esterol (found in olive oil and canola oil).
 Saturated fatty acids – These fatty acids tend to increase serum choles-
terol (found in meats and dairy products).
 Low-density lipoproteins – This is the major carrier of cholesterol and
other lipids in the blood.
 High-density lipoproteins – These lipoproteins carry lipids away from
storage and to the liver for metabolism and/or excretion. Because they
are associated with removal of cholesterol, they are considered “good
cholesterol.”

VITAMINS AND MINERALS

Vitamins are substances that help essential body reactions take place.
The best strategy to make certain that an adequate amount of all the
vitamins is consumed is to eat a wide variety of foods and consume
plenty of fresh fruits and vegetables daily. Some vitamins are water
soluble, whereas others are fat soluble. Remember that nutrient balance
is a key to optimal nutrition, so people should avoid single-nutrient supp-
lementation unless this has been specifically recommended by a physici-
an to treat an existing nutrient deficiency disease. If a nutrient suppleme-
nt is warranted because of an obviously poor-quality food intake, people
should try a multivitamin, multimineral supplement that provides no mo-
re than 100% of the dietary reference intakes (DRI) for each nutrient. The
scientific literature suggests that vitamin and mineral deficiencies are un-
common for most people. When deficiencies exist, they are most likely
for vitamin B₆ and other B-complex vitamins, iron, and calcium, especially
when caloric intake is too low to meet energy demands

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WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
Water-soluble vitamins, which include vitamins B and C, are vitamins for
which the body has limited storage capacity. These vitamins are typically

WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
Vitamin and
Adult Requirem-
Functions Deficiency/toxicity Food sources
Ent
Vitamin C (also  Antioxidant Deficiency: scurvy, Fresh fruits and veg-
called L-ascorb-  Collagen formation bleeding gums, fatig- etables, particularly
ate) ue, muscle pain, high in citrus fruits
75-90mg/day
 Iron absorption easy bruising, depre- and cherries
 Carnitine synthesis ssion, sudden death
 Norepinephrine synth-
esis
Thiamin (also  Oxidation of carbohy- Deficiency: beriberi Seeds, legumes,
called vitamin drates (heart disease, pork, and enriched/
B₁)  Nerve conduction weight loss, fortified grains and
1.1-1.2 mg/day neurological failure) cereals
Riboflavin (also  Oxidation of carbohy- Deficiency: swollen Milk, liver and
called vitamin drates and fats tongue, sensitivity whole and enriche-
B₂)  Normal eye function to light, cracked lips, d grains and cereals
1.1-1.3 mg/day fatigue
 Healthy skin
Niacin  Oxidation of carbohy- Deficiency: pellagra Amino acid trypto-
14-16 mg/day drates and fats (diarrhea, dermatiti- phan (60:1 convers-
 Electron transport s, dementia) ion ratio), and
(energy reactions) enriched grains and
cereals

associated with carbohydrate foods, such as fresh fruits, breads and cere-
als, and vegetables. The B vitamins are needed for the metabolism of
carbohydrates, proteins, and fats and so are critical to the higher energy
requirements of athletes. Luckily, good-quality foods that are high in ca-
rbohydrates are typically also foods that provide B vitamins (eg., enriched

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breads, enriched cereals, and pasta).
Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin that is often the focus of suppleme-
nts taken by most people. Although vitamin C is critical to good health,
people should be reminded that the DRI for vitamin C is only 75 to 90
mg and that level is 2 standard deviations above the average human re-
qirement. Most supplements contain between 250 and 500 mg of vitam-
in C or more, providing a good deal more than is needed. On top of the
vitamin C intake from foods, which is typically well above the DRI for this
vitamin, supplementation makes it easy for people to get too much. Alt-
hough the potential toxicity of vitamin C is relatively low, even an excess
of this relatively nontoxic vitamin can increase the risk of kidney stones.
People should be encouraged to have a balanced exposure to all the vit-
amins, a strategy that will help encourage good health and avoid proble-
ms associated with excess intake and deficiencies.

FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
Fat-soluble vitamins are those vitamins that are delivered with fats and
oils. For instance, milk is fortified with the fat-soluble vitamins A and D,
which are in the fat component (cream) of the milk. Vegetable and cere-
al oils are excellent sources of vitamin E, an important antioxidant that
can help protect cells from becoming damaged through oxidation. This is
important because physical activity increases the amount of oxygen pull-
ed into cells, thereby increasing the risk for oxidative damage.
Supplements of vitamin A and D should be taken only under the advice
of a physician because of their high potential toxicity. Oher vitamins
such as vitamin B₆ have also been shown to produce toxicity if taken in
excess. As a general rule, it is generally better to derive vitamins through
the consumption of a wide variety of foods rather than supplements, as
supplementation may more easily result in toxicity and may also give in-
dividuals the wrong impression that a good quality diet is unnecessary

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because supplements are consumed.

FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
Vitamin and
Adult Requireme-
Nt Functions Deficiency/Toxicity Food Sources
Vitamin A (retinol)  Vision Deficiency: night bli- Fish liver oils, liver,
1,000 retinol equi-  Growth ndness, eye disease butter, vitamin A +
valents 700-900 gowth failure, unh- D – added milk, egg
Mg/day.
 Reproduction ealthy skin, suscep- yolk, green leafy ve-
 Immune function tibility to infections getable, yellow veg-
 Healthy skin Toxicity: headache, etables and fruits.
vomiting, hair loss,
bone abnormalities,
liver damage
Vitamin D  Calcium absorption Deficiency: rickets Fish liver oils, fortif-
Requirement diffi-  Phosphorus absor- in children, osteom- ied (A & D) milk, skin
cult to establish ption alacia in adults, synthesis with expo-
because of variat- poor bone mineral- sure to light, small
ions of sunlight
 Mineralization of
ization amount found in b-
bone
exposure 5mg/d Toxicity: renal dam- utter, liver, egg yolk
age, cardiovascular and canned salmon
damage, high blood and sardines
calcium

Vitamin E (α-toco-  Powerful antioxida- Deficiency: premat- Vegetable oils, gree-

pherol) 15mg/d nt ure breakdown of n leafy vegetables,
 Involved in immune red blood cells, an- nuts, legumes
function emia in infants, ea-
sy peroxidative da-
mage of cells

Vitamin K Involved in blood clo- Deficiency: longer Green leafy vegeta-

90-120 mg/d tting clotting time bles and intestinal
bacterial synthesis

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Minerals
Minerals are inorganic substances that are involved in water balance,
nerve impulse stimulation, acid base balance, and energy reactions. Iron
and zinc are critically important for energy metabolism but are also am-
ong the nutrients of which people may not be consuming enough. This is
particularly true of vegetarians because the best source of these minera-
ls is red meat.
The most common nutrient deficiency is most industrialized countries is
a deficiency in iron. Because of the prevalence of this deficiency, people
(especially females) should periodically have a blood test to determine
iron status. This test should include an assessment of hemoglobin, hem-
atocrit, and ferritin. An assessment of iron status is particularly importa-
nt for vegetarians or people who are on weight loss diets.
Calcium is important for the skeleton maintenance and repair, for musc-
le contraction, and for normal blood clotting. Vitamin D is essential for
calcium absorption, so athletes who do the majority of their training ind-
oors and who are in weight-restricted and/or subjectively scored sports
where appearance is important (e.g., skating, gymnastics, and diving)
where energy intake is often restricted, may be at risk for vitamin D, cal-
cium, and energy intakes. This combination may place female athletes at
risk of developing amenorrhea and higher bone fracture risk.

Iron deficiency is a common nutrient deficiency in industrialized

countries.

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 MINERALS
Minerals and
Adult Requireme-
Functions Deficiency/Toxicity Food Sources
nt
Calcium  Structure of bones Deficiency: reduced Milk and other dairy
1,000 mg/day and teeth bone density, oste- foods, dark green
 Blood coagulation oporosis, stress leafy vegetables,
fractures canned fish (with
 Nerve impulse tra- bones), calcium-
nsmission
fortified orange
 Muscle contraction
juice
 Acid-base control

Phosphorus  Structure of bones Deficiency: (rare) meats, cereals,

700 mg/day and teeth may occur with grains and dairy
 Component of ad- large, long-term products
Enosine triphosph- intakes of mangnes-
ate(ATP) and other ium-containing
energy-yielding co- antacids
mpounds
 Part of many vita-
min B coenzymes
 Part of DNA and
RNA
 Acid-base control
Iron 8 mg/day  Involved in oxygen Deficiency: microcy- Meats, poultry fish,
(with 18 mg/day transfer to cells tic anemia, leading egg yolk, dark-green
for women betw-  In numerous oxida- to weakness, loss of vegetables, legumes,
een 19-50 years tive enzymes energy, easy fatigue peaches, raisins, ap-
of age ricot, prunes
Zinc 8-11 mg/day  Immune system Deficiency: growth Seafood, organ meat
 Wound healing retardation, poor wheat germ, yeast
wound healing, mu- (most plant foods
 More than 70 enz- scle weakness, freq- are not good sources
ymes involved in
uent infections
energy metabolism
Magnesium  energy metabolism Deficiency: muscle Available in many
320-420 mg/day of carbs and fat weakness foods, but highest
 protein synthesis in meats, whole-
grain cereals, seeds,

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Magnesium  Water balance and legumes
320-420 mg/day  Muscle contraction

FLUID AND HYDRATION

Water carries nutrients to cells and carries waste products away from
cells. It serves as a body lubricant and, through sweat, helps maintain
body temperature. Lean tissue (muscle and organs) is more than 70%
water , and about 60% of total body weight is water. A failure to supply
sufficient water is more likely to cause quick death than a failure to sup-
ply any other single nutrient.
Water is lost through breathing (breath is moist), the skin (this happen
even if there is no obvious “sweat”), urine, sweat and feces. It is criticall-
y important to consume sufficient fluid to maintain body water stores,
yet most people rarely stay optimally hydrated. In fact, many people co-
mmonly wait until they become extremely thirsty (indicating a state of
dehydration) before they consume fluids. Weight stability, before and
after exercise, is a good indication that water needs have been met duri-
ng an exercise program. People who experience significant weight (i.e.,
water) loss during practice should learn how to drink more fluid to stabi-
lize weight because a 2% body weight loss is associated with reduced
performance.

MEETING FLUID NEEDS

A key to athletic success is avoidance of a state of under hydration. This
is not as easy as it may seem, because many people rely on “thirst” as
the alarm bell for when to drink. Thirst, however, is a delayed sensation
that does not occur until the person has already lost 1 to 2 L of fluid.
Because of this, people should learn to consume fluids on a fixed time

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interval rather than relying on thirst for when to drink. Staying optimally
hydrated and fueled during exercise has multiple benefits, including

 A less pronounced increase in heart rate

 A less pronounced increase in core body temperature
 Improvement in cardiac stroke volume and cardiac output
 Improvement in skin blood flow (enabling better sweat rates and
improved cooling)
 Maintenance of better blood volume
 A reduction in net muscle glycogen usage (improving endurance)

Fluid intake recommendation are to

 Drink as much as needed to match sweat losses.
 Not rely on thirst as a stimulus to drink (the thirst sensation will occur
only after 1 to 2 L [1% to 2% of body weight] has already been lost).
 Checking urine color can be helpful to detect hydration. Urine should
have a clear, pale yellow color.
 Sweat rates are often 1 to 2 L per hour, and it is difficult to consume
and absorb enough fluid to match these losses.
 Consumption of large volume of fluid increase the risk of gastrointest-
inal distress, thereby affecting performance.
 Ingestion of large volumes of dilute, low (or no) sodium fluids may
increase the risk of hyponatremia.
 If left on their own, athletes will often develop dehydration even
when there are sufficient fluids nearby for them to consume.
 To ensure better athlete compliance, fluids should be cool, should
taste good, and should be readily available.

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 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATION

 One Day before a Competition

Although athletes often focus on the food consumed immediately befo-
re competition, it is actually important to start preparing in advance.
Suggested considerations for the day prior to competition include the
following:

 Avoid high-fat food such as fried food, chips, cake, and chocolate.
 Eat a good breakfast (e.g., toast, oatmeal, cereal, milk, and fruit).
 Have sandwiches, rolls, pasta, or rice for lunch.
 Have rice, pasta, noodles, or potatoes plus vegetables and lean meat,
chicken or fish for dinner and yogurt and fruit for dessert.
 Eat a carbohydrate snack at dinner.
 Drink an extra 16 oz (475 mL) of fluid throughout the day.

 Immediately before Exercise or Competition

The pre-exercise meal should focus on providing carbohydrates and
fluids. Ideally, people should consume a high-carbohydrate, low-fat
meal 3 to 4 hour before exercising or competition. Light-carbohydrate
snacks (e.g., crackers) and carbohydrate-containing beverages can be
consumed after the meal and before exercise, provided that large amo-
unts are not consumed at one time. Carbohydrate intake associated
with performance enhancement ranges from 200 to 300 grams of carb-
ohydrate (800-1,200 kcal) consumed at the pre-exercise meal. There
are several goals for the pre-exercise meal, including:

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 Making certain that athletes obtain sufficient energy to see them
through as much of the exercise bout as possible
 Preventing feelings of hunger (hungry people may be letting blood
sugar get low, which is not a good way to start an exercise bout)
 Consuming enough fluids to begin exercise in a fully hydrated state
 Consuming only familiar foods
 Avoiding foods high in fiber or foods that cause gas (e.g., broccoli,
cauliflower)
 Drinking 5 to 7 mL per kilogram of body weight (2-3 mL / lbs) of
water or sports beverages at least 4 hours before practice or
competition
 Drinking an additional 7 to 10 oz (200-300 mL) of fluid 10 to 20
minutes before practice or competition

 During Exercise or Competition

There is evidence that people involved in stop-and-go sports of relativ-

ely short duration benefits from consumption of carbohydrate contain-
ing drinks (see fluid consumption guidelines). For long-duration activit-
ities that allow for consumption of solid foods (e.g., cycling, skiing,
cross-country), some people prefer to periodically consume bananas,
breads, and other easy-to-digest carbohydrate foods. If solid foods are
consumed, there should still be ample consumption of carbohydrate
containing beverages. Drink 28 to 40 oz of fluid (sports beverages cont-
aining a 6%-8% carbohydrate solution and electrolytes are preferred)
per hour. This corresponds to about 7 to 10 oz (200-300 mL) every 10
to 15 minutes, but this amount may need to be adjusted on the basis
of body size, sweat rate, exercise intensity, and environmental conditi-
ons. The goal is to provide approximately 0.7 g of carbohydrate per

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Kilogram of body weight per hour, or between 30 and 60 g of carbohyd-
rate per hour. This level of intake has been shown to improve time to
fatigue in endurance activities. Two main goals are to avoid dehydration
and to avoid the mental and muscular fatigue that can be caused by
inadequate carbohydrate.

 After Exercise or Competition

When and what is consumed following exercise depends on the time

and intensity of the exercise session. Consuming 1 to 1.5 g carbohydrate
per kilogram at 2-hours interval, beginning within 30 minutes after com-
pletion of exercise, is associated with enhance muscle glycogen recovery
Muscles are receptive to replacing stored glycogen following exercise b-
ecause of a higher level of the enzyme (glycogen synthetase) that can
enhance the conversion of carbohydrate to stored glycogen. This strate-
gy amounts to consuming carbohydrate between 200 and 400 kcal imm-
ediately following activity, and then and additional 200 to 300 kcal with-
in the next several hours. People who have difficulty eating foods imme-
diately following exhaustive exercise should try high-carbohydrate liquid
supplements.
After exercise, people should drink at least 20 oz (600 mL) of fluid per
pound of body weight that was lost during the exercise session. This
should be consumed within 1 hour of finishing the practice or competiti-
on, with the goal of returning body weight to near pre-exercise weight
before the next exercise bout.

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NOTES

[28]
NOTES

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 NOTES

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