Compiled Blank Notes M151

MATH 151 c Whitfield, Kahlig, & Foran 2020 1
J.1 Introduction to Vectors and Vector Functions
Definition. Vectors -
• A vector represents a quantity with magnitude and and direction.
• Equal vectors have the same length, magnitude and direction.
• A position vector has its initial point at the origin.
Given the points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ), the position vector a (with rep-
−→
resentation AB) is →
−
a (or a) =hx2 − x1 , y2 − y1 i.
Example 1. Find the vector represented by the directed line segment with
initial point A(2, −3) and terminal point B(−2, 1).
Finding the magnitude (length) of a vector (kvk or |v|)

p
• The length of a = ha1 , a2 i is kak = (a1 )2 + (a2 )2 .
−→
• The length of AB from A(x1 , y1 ) to B(x2 , y2 ) is
−→ p
AB = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .
Example 2. Find the magnitude (or length) of the following:

a) a = h−1, 3i.
−→
b) AB if A(−3, 4) and B(1, 2).
Operations on Vectors: Given a = ha1 , a1 i, b = hb1 , b2 i and let c be

any scalar, then
• a + b = ha1 + b1 , a2 + b2 i.
• a − b = ha1 − b1 , a2 − b2 i.
• ca = hc · a1 , c · a2 i.
Example 3. Given a = h−1, 2i and b = h4, 3i, find and graph
a) a + b.
b) 2a.
c) a − b.
Properties of Vectors: If a, b, and c are vectors and m and n are

scalars, then
1. a + b = b + a 5. m(a + b) = ma + mb
2. a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c 6. (m + n)a = ma + na
3. a + 0 = a 7. (mn)a = m(na)
4. a + (−a) = 0 8. 1a = a
Definition. The vector that corresponds to the x-axis is i = h1, 0i, and the
vector that corresponds to the y-axis is j = h0, 1i. These together are called
standard basis vectors.
Example 4. Express a = h4, 3i in terms of i and j.
Example 5. If a = i + 2j and b = 4i + 7j, express the vector 2a + 3b in

terms of i and j.
A unit vector is a vector whose length (magnitude) is one.

• Formula for finding a unit vector in the direction of a:
1 a
u= a=
kak kak
Example 6. Find a unit vector that has the same direction as the vector
2i − 4j.
Example 7. a) A pilot is flying N60◦ W at 250km/hr. Find the velocity

vector.
b) If there is a wind blowing in the direction of N45◦ E at 30km/hr, find the

true course and ground speed of the plane
Example 8. A 100-lb weight hangs from two wires as shown below. Find
the tensions, T1 and T2 , in both wires and their magnitudes.
J.2 The Dot Product
What is the dot product? An operation on two vectors that yields a real
number.
Dot Product:
1. The dot product of two nonzero vectors a and b is the number
a • b = |a||b| cos θ
where θ is the angle between a and b, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π. If either a or b is
0, we define a • b = 0
2. The dot product of a = ha1 , a2 i and b = hb1 , b2 i is a • b = a1 b1 + a2 b2
Example 1. If a and b have lengths 4 and 6, and the angle between them
is π3 , find a • b.
Example 2. If a = h2, 4i and b = h3, −1i find a • b.
Example 3. If c = i + 2j and d = 3i − j find c • d.
Example 4. Find the angle between a = h2, 2i and b = h5, −3i.

Conclusions about two vectors regarding their dot product

• Two vectors a, b are orthogonal (perpendicular) if and only if a • b =
.
• Two vectors a, b are parallel if and only if a • b = .
• Two vectors a, b point in exact opposite directions if and only if a • b =
.
• If a • b > 0 then the angle (θ) between the two vectors is .
• If a • b < 0 then the angle (θ) between the two vectors is .
Example 5. Show that 2i + 3j is perpendicular to 3i − 2j.
WORK
When a force acts to move an object, it does work and expends energy. The
simplest case occurs when the force F moves the object from A to B along a
straight path. If AB is denoted by D then the work done by F is:
Work=|F||D|
If, however, the force does not move along a straight line then a displace-
ment vector is formed and the work done by the force is
Work=|F||D| cos θ
Example 6. A crate is hauled 8 m up a ramp under a constant force of 20
N applied at an angle of 25◦ to the ramp. Find the work done.
Example 7. A force is given by vector F = 3i + 4j and moves a particle from

the point P(2,1) to the point Q(4,6). Find the work done.
−→
The vector that is formed by dropping a perpendicular from b = P R onto
−→
a = P Q is called the vector projection (denoted proja b).
−→
The magnitude of the vector projection (P S) is called a scalar projection
(denoted
compa b). If compa b is negative then π/2 < θ < π.
R
R
P
S Q
S P Q
a•b
Scalar projection of b onto a: compa b =
|a|
a•b a (a • b)
Vector projection of b onto a: proja b = = ·a
|a| |a| |a|2
Example 8. Find the scalar projection and vector projection of a = h5, 1i

onto b = h7, 9i.
Given the nonzero vector a = ha1 , a2 i, the orthogonal complement of

a is the vector a⊥ = h−a2 , a1 i.
Example 9. Find a vector orthogonal to the line x + y = 1.
Example 10. Find the distance from the point (5,3) to the line 3y + 2x = 6.
J.3 Vector Functions
Definition. A curve of the type x(t), y(t) where t is the parameter is called
a parametric curve.
An NFL punter at the 15-yard line kicks a football with an initial velocity of
54 feet per second at an angle of elevation of 60 degrees. Let t be the elapsed
time since the football is kicked. The parametric equations that model this
situation are given by x(t) = 54t cos(60◦ ), y(t) = 54t sin(60◦ ) − 16t2 . Use
these equations to fill in the table below and then graph the points on a
coordinate grid.
t (in seconds) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

x(t) (in feet)
y(t) (in feet)
When did the football hit the ground? On which yard line did the football
land? What was the maximum height of the ball? How long was the ball in
the air (i.e. what was the hangtime)?
Example 1. Sketch the curve represented by the equations below. Describe

the path of an object that follows the parametric equations.
a) x(t) = 2t − 1, y(t) = 2 + 3t
b) x(θ) = sin θ, y(θ) = cos θ

Vector Functions are those whose range is a set of vectors. Given two
parametric equations x(t) and y(t), the vector function which comprises these
equations is r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j.
Example 2. Sketch the curve defined by the vector function

r(t) = (t2 − 2t)i + (t + 1)j
Vector Equation of a Line
The parametric equations of the line that passes through the point
P0 (x0 , y0 ) and is parallel to the vector ha, bi are given by:
x(t) = x0 + at and y(t) = y0 + bt
Example 3. Find parametric equations of the line that passes through the
points (3,-2) and (5,7).
Converting between Cartesian Equations and Parametrized Equa-

tions
Example 4. Eliminate the parameter to find the Cartesian equation of the
curve represented by the parametric equations given by
a) x = 3 + 2t and y = −2 + 9t
√
b) x = 500t and y = 500t 3 − 16t2
c) x = t2 − 2t and y = t + 1
d) x = sin t and y = cos2 t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π

1.5 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Definition. A function f : A → B is a rule that assigns to each element in

set A exactly one element in set B. Set A is called the domain. The range
of f is the set of all possible values of f (x) where x is in the domain, i.e.
range = {f (x) | x ∈ A}.
x
Example 1. Find the domain of f (x) = 2 .
x − 25
Definition. A function is said to be one-to-one if it takes each function

value exactly once. (i.e. if x1 6= x2 then f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ).
Definition. Let f be a one-to-one function with domain A and range B.

Then its inverse function f −1 has domain and range . The
inverse function is defined for any y in B by:
f −1 (y) = x ⇐⇒ f (x) = y
Inverse Trigonometric Functions

• y = arcsin(x) = sin−1 (x)
• y = arccos(x) = cos−1 (x)
• y = arctan(x) = tan−1 (x)
Example 2. Find the exact value of the following expressions.

√ !
3
a) sin−1
2

−1 1
b) sin −
2

−1 1
c) cos −
2

5π
d) arcsin sin
4

5π
e) arccos cos
6
√ !!
3
f) tan arccos
2
√ !!
2
g) sin arccos −
2

1
h) csc arctan −
3
i) sec (arcsin (x))
j) sin (arccos (x))

2.2 The Limit of a Function
Look at the graph of f (x) = x2 − x + 2 and its corresponding table of values.

Investigate the behavior of the graph around x = 2.
x f (x) x f (x) y
6
1.86 3.5996 2.14 4.4396
1.88 3.6544 2.12 4.3744
4
1.9 3.71 2.1 4.31
1.92 3.7664 2.08 4.2464
1.94 3.8236 2.06 4.1836 2
1.96 3.8816 2.04 4.1216

1.98 3.9404 2.02 4.0604 −2 2
x
• In the graphs below, describe the behavior around x = 3.

y y
4 4
2 2
x x
−4 −2 2 4 −4 −2 2 4
• In the graphs below, describe the behavior around x = −3 and x = −1.

y
4
y
4
2
2
x
−4 −2 2 4
x
−2 −4 −2 2 4
Summary of Limits
1. The lim f (x) = L if and only if lim+ f (x) = L and lim− f (x) = L.
x→a x→a x→a
2. lim f (x) = ∞ means that near “a”, f (x) can be made arbitrarily
x→a
large.
3. lim f (x) = −∞ means that near “a”, f (x) can be made arbitrarily
x→a
large negative.
Example 1. For the function g(x) whose graph is given, state the value of
the given quantity, if it exists:
lim g(x) = lim g(x) = lim g(x) =

x→−2− x→2− x→4+

x→−2+ x→2+ x→4−

x→−2 x→2 x→4
g(−2) = g(2) = lim g(x) =

x→0
y
4
g (x)
x
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6
−2
Example 2. Find the limit of the following, or state that it does not exist.
x−1
a) lim 2
x→1 x − 1
x f (x) x f (x)
0.9 0.52632 1.06 0.48544
0.95 0.51282 1.05 0.4878
0.96 0.5102 1.04 0.4902
0.97 0.50761 1.03 0.49261
0.98 0.50505 1.02 0.49505
0.99 0.50251 1.01 0.49751
√
x2 + 9 − 3
b) lim
x→0 x2
x f(x) x f(x)
1 0.16227767 -1 0.16227767
0.5 0.16552506 -0.5 0.16552506
0.3 0.16625207 -0.3 0.16625207
0.1 0.16662039 -0.1 0.16662039
0.05 0.16665509 -0.05 0.16665509
0.01 0.16666620 -0.01 0.16666620
1
c) lim
x→0 x2
x f (x) x f (x)
-0.004 62500 0.004 62500
-0.003 111,111 0.003 111,111
-0.002 250,000 0.002 250,000
-0.001 1,000,000 0.001 1,000,000
sin x
d) lim
x→0 x
x f(x) x f(x)
1 0.84147098 -1 0.84147098
0.5 0.95885108 -0.5 0.95885108
0.3 0.98506736 -0.3 0.98506736
0.1 0.99833417 -0.1 0.99833417
0.05 0.99958339 -0.05 0.99958339
0.01 0.99998333 -0.01 0.99998333
π
e) lim sin
x→0 x
x f (x) x f (x)
1 0 -1 0
0.5 0 -0.5 0
0.25 0 -0.25 0
0.1 0 -0.1 0
0.01 0 -0.01 0
The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if

at least one of the following statements is true:
• lim− f (x) = −∞ • lim− f (x) = ∞
x→a x→a
• lim+ f (x) = −∞ • lim+ f (x) = ∞
x→a x→a
2.3 Limits Using Limit Laws
Limit Laws
Suppose that c is a constant, n is a positive integer, and the limits lim f (x)
x→a
and lim g(x) exist. Then
x→a
1) lim x = a
x→a
2) lim xn = an
x→a
3) lim c = c
x→a
√ √
4) lim n x = n a.
x→a
(If n is even we assume that a > 0)
5) lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = lim f (x) ± lim g(x).
x→a x→a x→a
6) lim [f (x) • g(x)] = lim f (x) • lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a
7) lim [cf (x)] = c lim f (x).

x→a x→a
lim f (x)
f (x) x→a
8) lim = if lim g(x) 6= 0.
x→a g(x) lim g(x) x→a
x→a
h in
n
9) lim [f (x)] = lim f (x)
x→a x→a
p q
10) lim n f (x) = n lim f (x)
x→a x→a
(If n is even we assume that lim f (x) > 0)
x→a
11) If ~r(t) = hf
D (t), g(t)i then E
lim ~r(t) = lim f (t), lim g(t)
t→a t→a t→a
Example 1. Find lim 2x2 − 3x + 4 and justify each step.

x→5
If f is a polynomial or a rational function and a is in the domain of f ,

then
lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a
hp i
5 2 3 9
Example 2. Find lim x − x + (x + x) .
x→1

x + 1 if x 6= 1
Example 3. Find lim g(x) where g(x) =
x→1 π if x = 1.
x−1 − 0.25
Example 4. Find lim .
x→4 x−4

t−1 2
Example 5. Find lim →
−
r (t) if →
−
r (t) = ,t + 1 .
t→1 t2 − 1
(3 + h)2 − 9
Example 6. Evaluate lim .
h→0 h
√
t2 + 9 − 3
t→0 t2
|x|
x→0 x
√
x − 4 if x > 4
Example 9. Find lim f (x) where f (x) =
x→4 8 − 2x if x < 4.
Theorem: If f (x) ≤ g(x) for all x in an open interval that contains a

(except possibly at a) and the limits of f and g both exist as x approaches
a, then lim f (x) ≤ lim g(x).
x→a x→a
The Squeeze Theorem: If f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) for all x in an open

interval that contains a (except possibly at a) and lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L
x→a x→a
then lim g(x) = L.
x→a

1
Example 10. Show that lim x sin = 0.
x→0 x
2.5 Continuity
Definition of Continuity
A function, f , is said to be continuous at the point x = a if all the following
are true.
1. f (a) is defined.
2. lim f (x) exists.
x→a
3. lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a
In common terms, a continuous function has no holes, gaps, or breaks in

its graph.
Example 1. Is f (x) = x3 + 2x − 3 continuous at x = 2?
Example 2. Find all points of discontinuity in the graph of g(x) below. If

g(x) is not continuous at a point, state which of the three conditions given
in the definition of continuity is violated.
-3 3
g (x)
-3
Definition. A function f (x) is continuous

• from the right at a number a if lim+ f (x) = f (a)
x→a
• from the left at a if lim− f (x) = f (a)

x→a
• on an interval if it is continuous at every number in the interval.

(At an endpoint of the interval we understand continuous to mean
continuous from the right or continuous from the left.)
Theorems:
1. If f (x) and g(x) are continuous at a and c is a constant, then the
following functions are also continuous at a:
f (x)
i. f (x) ± g(x) ii. cf (x) iii. f (x)g(x) iv. if g(a) 6= 0
g(x)
2. Polynomial functions are continuous on (−∞, ∞)
3. All rational and radical functions are continuous on their domains.
√
Example 3. Discuss the continuity of f (x) = 1 − 1 − x2 .
Example 4. Find the intervals where the following functions are continuous.
If it is discontinuous, determine whether f is continuous from the right, from
the left, or neither.
x2 − x − 2
(a) f (x) =
x−2
x2 −x−2

x−2 if x 6= 2
(b) f (x) =
1 if x = 2
√ x+1 x+1
(c) f (x) = x+ − 2
x−1 x +1
 2
 x − 4x + 1 if x < 0
(d) f (x) = 1−x if 0 < x < 3
(x + 1)2 if x ≥ 3

Example 5. Find the values where f (x) is not continuous. Classify the
discontinuities as vertical asymptotes or removable discontinuities.
x2 + 5x
f (x) = 4
x + 7x3 + 10x2
Example 6. Find the constant c that makes each function continuous on

(−∞, ∞).
 2
 2x + x − 3
if x 6= 2
1. f (x) = 2x + 3
c if x = 2
x2 − c2 if x < 4

2. g(x) =
cx + 20 if x ≥ 4
The Intermediate Value Theorem: Suppose that f is continuous on

the closed interval [a, b] and let N be any number strictly between f (a)
and f (b). Then there exits a number c in (a, b) such that f (c) = N .
Example 7. Show that there is a root of the equation 4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2 = 0

on [1,2].
2.6 Limits at Infinity; Horizontal Asymptotes
f (x)
15 f (x)
5
-15
Definition The line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote of the

curve y = f (x) if either:
1. lim f (x) = L or
x→∞
2. lim f (x) = L
x→−∞
1
x→±∞ x2
Theorem 1. If r > 0 is a rational number such that xr is defined for all

x, then:
1
lim r = 0
x→±∞ x
3x2 − x − 2
Example 2. a) Evaluate lim and justify each step.
x→∞ 4x + 1 + 5x2
5x3 − x2 − 2
b) Evaluate lim .
x→∞ 4x2 + 7x4 + 5x
5x4 − x2 − 2
c) Evaluate lim .
x→∞ 7x3 + 5x
√
Example 3. Compute lim x2 + 1 − x .
x→∞
√
Example 4. Compute lim x2 + 1 − x .
x→−∞
Example √ 5. Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes for the function
2x2 + 1
f (x) = .
3x − 5
POLYNOMIALS
Example 6. Compute each of the following limits.
a) lim x3 b) lim x3
x→∞ x→−∞
c) lim (x2 − x) d) lim (x2 − x)

x→∞ x→−∞
e) lim (3x2 − x5 ) f) lim (3x2 − x5 )

x→∞ x→−∞
NON-POLYNOMIALS
Example 7. Evaluate the following limits.
a) lim arctan(x)
x→∞
b) lim arctan(x)
x→−∞
π x
c) lim 23 − 12
x→∞ 6
π x
d) lim 23 − 12
x→−∞ 6
100
e) lim
x→∞ 6 − 3e−0.243x
100
f) lim
x→−∞ 6 − 3e−0.243x
e4x + 5e−x
g) lim
x→−∞ 4e5x − 3e−x
h) lim [ln(2x + 1) − ln(1 + 3x)]

x→∞
i) lim [ln(2x + 1) − ln(1 + 3x2 )]

x→∞
2.7 Tangents, Velocities, and Other Rates of Change
Definition. The average rate of change of a function, f , from a to b

is given by
f (b) − f (a)
Avg. rate of change =
b−a
The instantaneous rate of change of a function, f , at a is equal to the
slope of the line tangent to the graph of f at a and is given by
f (a + h) − f (a)
mtan = lim
h→0 h
OR
f (x) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim
x→a x−a
provided that the limit exists. The units of measurement are units of f
per unit of x.
Example 1. Suppose that a ball is dropped from the upper observation deck
of a tower which stands 450 m above the ground. Let s = f (t) = 5t2 represent
the distance the ball has fallen t seconds after it was dropped.
(a) Find the average velocity of the ball from 3 to 5 seconds after it was
dropped.
From 7 to 10 seconds?
(b) Use the graph to estimate the velocity of the ball at 5 seconds. How fast
was the ball traveling?
meters fallen
200
100
1 3 5 7
time (in seconds)
(c) Find the equation of the tangent line at t=5.
Example 2. Identify portions of the graph below where the function has an
instantaneous rate of change of 0.
Example 3. Find the equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = x2 at

the point P (1, 1).
3
Example 4. Find the equation of the tangent line to the hyperbola y =
x
at the point (3,1).
Example√ 5. Find the slopes of 1the tangent √lines to the graph of the function
f (x) = 2x + 3 at the points ( 2 , 2) and (5, 13).
Example 6. The limit represents the derivative of some function f at some

number a. State such an f and a.
(4 + h)2 − 16
lim
h→0 h
Example 7. Suppose y − 15 = 7(x + 2) is the equation of the tangent line

to f (x) at x = −2. What are f (−2) and f 0 (−2)?
2.8 The Derivative
Recall the formula lim f (a+h)−f

h
(a)
from section 2.7. We used this formula to:
h→0
1. find the slope of a tangent line to a curve at P (a, f (a))

2. find the instantaneous velocity of an object at a specific point (limit of
the average rate of change over smaller and smaller intervals)
If we replace a by x in the formula above we obtain
Definition of the DERIVATIVE OF f

f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
Note: The following notations may also be used for the derivative (assuming
x is the independent variable and y is the dependent variable):
dy df
f 0 (x) = y 0 = dx = dx = d
dx f (x) = Df (x) = Dx f (x)
You can redo the derivative process with these new functions andcompute
d2 y d2 f d 2
the second derivative (notation: f 00 (x) = y 00 = dx 2 = dx2 = dx f (x) =
2 2
D f (x) = Dx f (x)
Example 1. (a) Find the derivative of the function f (x) = x2 − 8x + 9 at

the numbers a, -1, 0, and 3.
Example 2. The position of a particle is given by the equation of motion

s(t) = t2 − 8t + 9, where t is measured in seconds and s in meters. Find the
velocity and the speed after 2 seconds.
Graphs of Derivatives
Definition. A function is said to be differentiable at x = a provided

that f 0 (a) exists. f is differentiable on an interval (a, b) if it is differentiable
at every point in the interval.
A function is not differentiable at x = c if the graph of the function
• has a sharp turn or corner (cusp) at x = c.
• has a vertical tangent at x = c (f’(c) is undefined).
• is not continuous at x = c.
y y y
x x x
a a a
Example 3. Where are the following functions not differentiable?

(a) f (x) = |x|
 3
x −x
if x < 1 (x 6= 0)


 2
(b) f (x) = x + x

 0 if x = 0
 1 − x if x ≥ 1
Example 4. Use the definition of the derivative to find f 0 (x) for f (x) =
3x2 + 4x − 100.
Example
√ 5. Use the definition of the derivative to find g 0 (x) for g(x) =
2x − 1.
3.1 Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions
Differentiation Rules/Formulas: Suppose c is a constant, n is any real

number, and f 0 (x) and g 0 (x) exist, then
• Constant Rule: If y = c, then
y0 = 0
• Constant times a Function: If y = cf (x), then

y 0 = cf 0 (x)
• General Power Rule: If y = xn , then

y 0 = nxn−1
• Sum/Difference Rule: If y = f (x) ± g(x), then

y 0 = f 0 (x) ± g 0 (x)
• Product Rule: If y = f (x)g(x) then,

y 0 = f (x)g 0 (x) + g(x)f 0 (x)
f (x)
• Quotient Rule: If y = then,
g(x)
0 g(x)f 0 (x) − f (x)g 0 (x)

y =
[g(x)]2
Example 6. Find the derivative of the following functions. √

√ e5 π
(a) y = 9 (b) y = 11 (c) y = e3 (d) y = cos 35◦ (e) .
sin e4.19
Example 7. If f (x) = x6 find f 0 (x).
d
Example 8. Find (7r3 ).
dr
d 8
Example 9. Find (x + 12x2 − 4x4 + 10x3 − 6x + 5).
dx
6 df
Example 10. If f (x) = , find .
t3 dt
d√
Example 11. Find x.
dx
1
Example 12. Given y = √
3
find y 0 .
x 2
Example 13. Given F (x) = (6x3 )(7x4 ) find F 0 (x).

x2 + x − 2 0
Example 14. Find y if y = .
x3 + 6
√ df
Example 15. Given f (t) = t(1 − t) find dt .
Example 16. If f (x) = x8 + 12x2 − 4x4 + 10x3 − 6x + 5 find the equation of

the tangent line and the normal line to the graph of f at the point x = 1.
Example 17. At what points on the hyperbola xy = 12 is the tangent line

parallel to the line 3x + y = 0?
√ √
Example 18. Find y 00 if y =
3
x8 + x5 − 4ex .
Example 19. Find f 000 (x) if f (x) = x5 − 4x4 + 7x − 1.

Example 20. Find the equation of the line(s) thru the point (−1, −3) that
are tangent to y = x2 + 7x + 12.

 1 − 2x if x < −1
0
Example 21. Find g (x) where g(x) = x2 if −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 .
x if x > 1

Example 22. Find values of m and b such that f (x) is differentiable every-
where.
4x2 + 2x + 1 if x < 1
f (x) =
mx + b if x ≥ 1
Examine the derivative of f (x) = ax .

0 f (x + h) − f (x) ax+h − ax ax ah − ax ax (ah − 1)
f (x) = lim = lim = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
ah − 1
= ax lim
h→0 h
2h − 1 3h − 1
For a = 2, then lim = 0.69, and for a = 3, then lim = 1.10.
h→0 h h→0 h
By the Intermediate Value Theorem, there is a number between 2 and 3 such
ah − 1
that lim = 1.
h→0 h
That number is e = 2.71828...
WHAT DOES ALL OF THAT MEAN?!?

It means that for f (x) = ex ,
0 ex+h − ex x eh − 1
f (x) = lim = e lim = ex · 1 = ex
h→0 h h→0 h
Example 18. Find f 0 (x) for f (x) = 7ex − xe + 1358

3.2 Product and Quotient Rules
Example 1. Find the derivative of y = (x6 + 7)(x2 + x)
Example 2. Find the f 00 for f (x) = (x6 + 7)ex
Example 3. Use quotient rule to find the derivatives of each of the following
functions.
1 − x2
A) y =
1 + x2
5
B) y =
m6 + 2
x4 00
Example 4. Find y for y =
x+6
x2 ex 0
Example 5. Find y for y = 4
x − 158
Example 6. The functions f and g satisfy the properties as shown in the

table. Find the indicated quantity.
x f (x) f 0 (x) g(x) g 0 (x)
0 1 -3 3 5
1 2 9 7 11
2 -5 0 2 10
3 4 -1 -4 8
A) H 0 (x) if H(x) = (x3 + 2)g(x)
x3

d
B)
dx f (x) x=1
Example 7. Use the graph for the following problems.
A) Find H 0 (−2) if H(x) = f (x)g(x)
x2 + 2
B) Find R0 (1) if R(x) =
f (x)
3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
DERIVATIVES Look at the graph of sin x and graph its derivative.
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

d d
dx (sin x) = cos x dx (csc x) = − csc x cot x
d d
dx (cos x) = − sin x dx (sec x) = sec x tan x
d d
dx (tan x) = sec2 x dx (cot x) = − csc2 x
Example 1. If y = 7 cos x + 4 sec x, find y 0 .

Example 2. If y = x2 sin x, find y 0 .
cos(x)
Example 3. If y = , find y 0 .
1 + sec(x)
d101
Example 4. Compute 101 sin(x).
dx
Example 5. Find where the tangent line of f (x) = 4x−8 cos(x) is horizontal.
3.4 The Chain Rule
The Chain Rule: If f (x) and g(x) are differentiable functions such that
y = f (g(x)), then
y 0 = f 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x)
In other words, differentiate the outside, leaving the inside alone and then
differentiate the inside.
Example 6. Differentiate the following functions.
√
A) F (x) = x2 + 1
B) y = (x3 − 1)100
3
C) g(x) = ex +2x+1
1
D) f (x) = √
3
x2 + x + 1
E) h(x) = sin(x2 )
F) y = sin2 x.
G) y = cos(sin(9x)).
9
t−2
H) g(t) = .
2t + 1
I) y = (2x + 1)5 (x3 − x + 1)4
J) h(x) = e7 sin(5x) .
2
K) h(x) = 3x +1
.
Example 7. The functions f and g satisfy the properties as shown in the

table. Find the indicated quantity.
x f (x) f 0 (x) g(x) g 0 (x)
0 1 -3 3 5
1 2 9 7 11
2 -5 0 2 10
3 4 -1 -4 8
A) Suppose h(x) = f (g(x)). Find h0 (0).
B) Find p0 (1) if p(x) = (7 − 3f (x))4 .

d101
Example 8. Compute 101 sin(x).
dx
Example 9. Compute the 7th derivative of y = xe−x .

3.5 Implicit Differentiation
x2 + y 2 = r 2 x3 + y 3 = 6xy
dy x2 y 2
Example 10. Find both explicitly and implicitly if + = 1. Verify
dx 2 4
that your answers for both methods are the same.
Example 11. Find the equation of the line tangent to the circle x2 + y 2 = 25
at the point (3,4).
Example 12. Find the equation of the line tangent to the folium of Descartes
(x3 + y 3 = 6xy) at (3,3).
Example 13. Find y 0 if y 5 + 3x2 y 2 + 5x4 = 12.
Example 14. Find y 0 if sin(x + y) = y 2 cos x.

dy 2
Example 15. Compute for sin(2y)ex = cos(x3 + y 2 ).
dx
3 − y2 dy
Example 16. If x = , compute .
x−y dx (−1,1)
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

dy
Example 17. Compute for y = arcsin(x)
dx
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
d 1 d −1
sin−1 (x) = √ csc−1 (x) = √
dx 1 − x2 dx x x2 − 1
d −1 d 1
cos−1 (x) = √ sec−1 (x) = √
dx 1 − x2 dx x x2 − 1
d 1 d −1
tan−1 (x) = cot−1 (x) =
dx 1 + x2 dx x(1 + x2 )
Example 18. Find the derivative.

A) y = (sin−1 (2x))2
B) y = cos−1 (4x2 )
C) y = arctan(sin(4x))
D) y = x3 sec−1 (5x + 1)
3.6 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions
Recall the derivative rule for exponential functions with base e.
d f (x)
e = ef (x) · f 0 (x)
dx
d 1
Proof of ln x =
dx x
Derivatives of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
d g(x) d f (x)
e = eg(x) g 0 (x) a = af (x) f 0 (x) ln a
dx dx
d g 0 (x) d f 0 (x)
ln |g(x)| = loga f (x) =
dx g(x) dx f (x) ln a
Example 1. Differentiate the following.

(a) y = ln(x3 + 1)
(b) g(x) = ln(sin x)
√
(c) f (x) = ln x
2
(e) h(x) = log(2 + ex )
(f) y = 5x log(cot(x2 ))
(g) p(x) = log5 [(x + 4)3 (x4 + 1)2 ]


x+1
(i) h(x) = ln √
x−2
Logarithmic Differentiation
Example 2. Find the derivative of the following.
√
x
(a) y = x
2x
(b) f (x) = (x3 + 7)e
(x3 + 6)4 (x5 + 11)8

(c) g(x) =
(6x4 − 7)5
K.1 Derivatives of Vector Functions
If r(t) = hx(t), y(t)i is a vector function, then

r0 (t) = hx0 (t), y 0 (t)i = x0 (t)i + y 0 (t)j
if both x0 (t) and y 0 (t) exist.
Example 3. Find the derivative of the vector function r(t) = ht2 + 2t, t3 − 4ti
Example 4. Find a tangent vector of unit length at t = 1 given r(t) =

ht, 5t − t2 i
Example 5. The vector function ~r(t) = h4 cos t, 3 sin ti represents the posi-
π
tion of a particle at time t. Find the velocity and speed at t = .
3
Example 6. Find the velocity, acceleration, and speed of a particle with the
given position vector: →
−
r (t) = h3t2 , t3 + 1i.
Sketch the path and draw the velocity and acceleration vectors for t = 1.
K.2 Slopes and Tangents to Parametric Curves
Given the vector function →

−
r (t) = hx(t), y(t)i, the slope of the tangent line
→
−
to r (t) is
dy
y 0 (t) dt
mtan = 0 = dx
x (t) dt
dy
Example 7. Find for x(t) = t3 − 3t2 + 5 and y(t) = 2t − 7
dx
Example 8. Find (a) an equation of the line tangent to x = t2 + t, y = t2 − t

at t = 0 and (b) the horizontal and vertical tangents of the function.
4 8 12
Horizontal and Vertical Tangent Lines:

dy
Horizontal tangent lines exist where mtan = 0 =⇒ = 0.
dt
dx
Vertical tangent lines exist where mtan DNE =⇒ = 0.
dt
Example 9. A curve C is defined by the parametric equations x = t2 and

y = t3 − 3t.
(a) Show that C has two tangents at the point (3, 0) and find their equations.
(b) Find the point(s) on C where the tangent is horizontal or vertical.
Example 10. Find the equation of the tangent line at t = 0.

2
x(t) = et +4t
and y(t) = 53t+2
Example 11. Compute the derivatives at the point (0,0).

x(t) = sin(2t) and y(t) = cos(t)
3.7 Rates of Change in the Natural and Social Sciences
Example 1. The position of a particle is given by the equation s = f (t) = t3 − 6t2 + 9t,
where t is measured seconds and s in meters.
(a) Find the velocity at time t.
(b) When is the particle at rest?
(c) When is the particle moving in the positive direction?
(d) Draw a diagram to represent the motion of the particle.

(e) Find the total distance traveled by the particle during the first five seconds.
Example 2. If a ball is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 80 ft/s, then it height
after t seconds is s = 80t − 16t2 . What is the maximum height reached by the ball?
What is the velocity of the ball when it is 96 feet above the ground on its way up?
On its way down?
Example 3. A stone is dropped into a lake, creating a circular ripple that travels outward
at a speed of 3 in/s. Find the rate at which the area within the circle is increasing after 3
seconds.
Example 4. (a) Find the average rate of change of the area of a circle with respect to its
radius r as r changes from 2 to 3.
(b) Find the instantaneous rate of change when r = 2.
(c) Note:
3.8 Exponential Growth and Decay

For exponential growth and decay, the rate of change of a function is proportional to itself.
Example 1. A bacteria culture starts with 1000 critters and 3 hours later it has 3000 critters.
Assuming that the growth of the culture is proportional to its size, how many bacteria are
present after 9 hours?
How long does it take the population to double?

Example 2. Three hours after a cell culture is started it has 278 cells in it. Four hours
later the culture has 432 cells. Assuming that the growth of the population is proportional
to the size, find a formula that would express the size of the culture at time t, where t is the
number of hours since the start of the culture.
Example 3. Strontium-90 has a half-life of about 29 years.

a) Find a function that would give the amount of strontium-90 remaining at time t for a
given sample.
b) How much will be left after 14 years?
c) How long until only 1/8 of the sample remains?
d) How long until 60% of the sample is gone?

Newton’s Law of Cooling Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate of cooling of an
object is proportional to the temperature difference between the object and its surroundings.
Let y=the temperature of the object. A=the temperature of the room, then
y 0 = k(y − A)
Example 4. A potato is taken from the oven when it has reached 190 degrees F and is
placed in a room with a temperature of 70 degrees F. If the temperature of the potato is 160
degrees F after half an hour, what is its temperature after 45min?
3.9 Related Rates
Helpful Hints for Related Rate Problems
1. Make a list of the given information and assign

variables.
Determine ”fixed” values
d
and ”varying quantities”. Key words that imply like rate, how fast, speed, etc.
dt
2. Make a list of the information you need to find.
3. Draw a diagram if possible.
4. Write an equation that relates the various quantities of the problem. If necessary, use
the geometry of the situation to eliminate one of the variables by substitution.
4
• Volume of a sphere: V = πr3
3
1
• Volume of a cone: V = πr2 h
3
h
• Area of a trapezoid: A = (b1 + b2 )
2
5. Use the Chain Rule to differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to t.
6. Substitute the given information into the resulting equation and solve for the unknown
rate.
Example 5. Air is being pumped into a spherical balloon so that its volume increases at a
rate of 100 cm3 /s. How fast is the radius of the balloon increasing when the diameter is 50
cm?
dx dy
Example 6. If 5x3 + 13x2 = −27, find when y = 1 and = 3.
dt dt
Example 7. A ladder 10ft long rests against a vertical wall. If the bottom of the ladder
slides away from the wall at a rate of 1 ft/s, how fast is the top of the ladder sliding down
the wall when the bottom of the ladder is 6 ft from the wall?
Example 8. A water tank has the shape of an inverted circular cone with base radius 2 m
and height 4 m. If water is being pumped into the tank at a rate of 2 m3 /min, find the rate
at with the water level is rising when the water is 3 m deep.
Example 9. Car A is traveling west at 50 mi/h and car B is traveling north at 60 mi/h.
Both are headed for the intersection of the two roads. At what rate are the cars approaching
each other when car A is 0.3 mi and car B is 0.4 mi from the intersection?
Example 10. A man walks along a straight path at a speed of 4 ft/s. A searchlight is
located on the ground 20 ft from the path and is kept focused on the man. At what rate
is the searchlight rotating when the man is 15 ft from the point on the path closest to the
searchlight?
3.10 Differentials; Linear and Quadratic Approximations
Definition. Let y = f (x), where f is a differentiable function. Then the differential

dx is an independent variable; that is dx can be given the value of any real number. The
differential dy is then defined in terms of dx by the equation dy = f 0 (x)dx.
Example 1. (a) Find dy if y = x3 + 2x2 (b) Find the value of dy when x = 2 and dx = 0.1
40 .
30 18 .
20 16 .
10 14 .
1.9 2 2.1 2.2 2.3
−2 1 3 5
−10
Example 2. Compare the values of ∆y and dy if y = f (x) = x3 + x2 − 2x + 1 and x changes

(a) from 2 to 2.05 and (b) from 2 to 2.01.
Example 3. Use differentials to find an approximate value for (1.999)5
√
4
Example 4. Use differentials to find an approximate value for 16.1
Example 5. The radius of a sphere was measured and found to be 21 cm with a possible
error in measurement of at most 0.05 cm. What is the maximum error in using this value of
the radius to compute the volume of the sphere.
Linear Approximation (Tangent Line Approximation) of f at a

f (x) ≈ f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a)
Linearization of f at a
L(x) = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a)
The above formula is one you are already familiar with. The equation of the tangent line
with slope=f 0 (a) that passes through (a, f (a)) is:
√
Example 6. Find the linearization
√ of√the function f (x) = x + 3 at a = 1 and use it to
approximate the numbers 3.98 and 4.05
tangent line
2.25 . .
2 2 .
1 1 1.4 1.8 2.1
−3 −1 1 3
√ 7 x
Example 7. For what values of x is the linear approximation x+3 ≈ 4
+ 4
accurate to
within 0.5? What about accuracy to within 0.1?
Example 8. The edge of a cube is measured to be 20 inches with a maximum error of 0.1
inches. What is the maximum error in the volume? What is the relative error? What is the
percentage error?
Example 9. Use differentials to estimate the amount of paint needed to apply a coat of
paint 0.05 cm thick to the outside of a hemispherical dome with radius of 25 m.
4.1 Maximum and Minimum Values
Absolute and Local Extrema:

• A function f has an absolute maximum at c if f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x
in the domain of f .
• A function f has an absolute minimum at c if f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x
in the domain of f . In this case, we call f (c) the maximum value or
minimum value, respectively.
• A function f has a local maximum at c if f (c) ≥ f (x) when x is near
c. A function f has an local minimum at c if f (c) ≤ f (x) when x is
near c.
Example 1. Find the absolute extrema by graphing the following functions.

1. f (x) = 1 − x2 ,
2. y = x4 − 4x3
3. y = 7 + 3 sin(x + 10)
Definition. We call x = c a critical number of f (x) if x = c is in the

domain of f and either f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) does not exist.
Example 2. Find all critical values for the following functions,

1. f (x) = x3 − 9x2 − 21x + 7
x2 + 1
2. y =
x
3. y = 3x5 − 20x3 + 20
4. f (x) = |4 − x2 |
5. f (x) = x3/4 (x − 2)2

2
−3x
6. g(x) = xex
7. y = x ln x

1 − 2x if x < −1
8. g(x) = .
x2 if x ≥ −1
The Extreme Value Theorem: If f is a continuous on a closed

interval [a, b], then f will have both an absolute max and an absolute
min. They will happen at either critical values in the interval or at the
ends of the interval, x = a or x = b.
Example 3. For the function, find the absolute max and the absolute min
on the indicated interval. f (x) = 12x2 − 2x3 + 1
1. [2, 5]
2. [−3, 5]
3. (−3, 5]
Example 4. Use the extreme value πtheorem to find the absolute extrema for
π

f (x) = sin x − x on the interval − 2 , 2 .
4.2 The Mean Value Theorem
The Mean Value Theorem (MVT) Let f be a function that satisfies

the following hypotheses:
1. f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b].
2. f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b).
Then there is a number c in (a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) =
b−a
or, equivalently,
f (b) − f (a) = f 0 (c)(b − a)
Graphically, this means the tangent line to the graph of f (x) at x = c is

parallel to the secant line joining the points (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)).
Example 1. Show that h(x) satisfies the MVT and find a number c that
satisfies its conclusion on the interval [2, 4]. h(x) = 4x3 − 8x2 + 7x − 2
Example 2. Suppose f (x) is continuous and differentiable on [2, 5] and 1 ≤

f 0 (x) ≤ 4 for all x in the interval. What restrictions do we know about
f (5) − f (2)?
4.3 How Derivatives Affect the Shape of a Graph
What does f 0 (x) say about f (x)?

• If f 0 (x) > 0 on an interval, then f (x) is .
• If f 0 (x) < 0 on an interval, then f (x) is .
The First Derivative Test
Suppose that c is a critical number of a continuous function f .
1. If f 0 changes from positive to negative at c, then f has a
at c.
2. If f 0 changes from negative to positive at c, then f has a
at c.
Example 1. Find all intervals where the function is increasing or decreasing

and classify all critical values.
1. f (x) = x4 + 4x3
2. (x2 − 16)2/3
3. y = xe2x
(x − 4)3 (x + 2)2
4. y 0 = with the domain of y being all real numbers except
x−1
x = 1.
Example 2. The graph of f 0 (x) is shown at right
(a) On what intervals is f (x) increasing?
(b) On what intervals is f (x) decreasing?
(c) At what values of x does f (x) have a local maximum?
(d) At what values of x does f (x) have a local minimum?
(e) If it is known that f (0) = 0, sketch a graph of f .

What does f 00 (x) say about f (x)?

Definition. Concavity
• If the graph of f lies above all of its tangents on an interval (a, b), then
it is called on (a, b).
- If f 00 (x) > 0 on an interval, then f 0 is increasing and f is, therefore,
concave upward on that interval.
• If the graph of f lies below all of its tangents on an interval (a, b), then
it is called on (a, b).
- If f 00 (x) < 0 on an interval, then f is concave downward on that
interval.
Definition. An inflection point is a point on the graph of f (x) where
f (x) changes concavity.
Example 3. The graph of f (x) is given on the

right. On what intervals is the graph concave
up?
Concave down?
Example 4. Given the function y = 4x3 − 7x2 + 2x − 1, find where the

function is concave up, concave down, and has any points of inflection.
Example 5. Suppose f 00 (x) = 4x3 + 8x + 4x. Determine points of inflection

and concavity for f (x).
Example 6. Sketch a possible graph of a function f that satisfies the follow-

ing conditions:
• f 0 (x) > 0 on (−∞, 1) • f 00 (x) > 0 on (−∞, −2) and (2, ∞)
• f 0 (x) < 0 on (1, ∞) • f 00 (x) < 0 on (-2,2)
• lim f (x) = −2, lim f (x) = 0
x→−∞ x→∞
4.4 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hospital’s Rule
Indeterminate Forms:
0 ∞
0•∞ ∞−∞ 00 ∞0 1∞
0 ∞
L’Hospital’s Rule: Suppose f and g are differentiable and g 0 (x) 6= 0

on an open interval (a, b) that contains c (except possible at c). Suppose
that
lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0

x→c x→c
or that
lim f (x) = ±∞ and lim g(x) = ±∞
x→c x→c
then
f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim 0
x→c g(x) x→c g (x)
if the limit on the right side exists (or is ∞ or −∞).
The same rule can be applied for limits to ∞ or −∞.
f (x) 0 ∞
NOTE: If lim = or , the limit is NOT indeterminate. You
x→c g(x) ∞ 0
CANNOT use L’Hospital’s Rule.
Examples: Find the limit of the following functions.

0 ∞
Case 1: or
0 ∞
x
2 −1
1. lim
x→0 x
ex
2. lim 2
x→∞ x
ex + e−x − 2
3. lim
x→0 1 − cos 2x
sin x
4. lim−
x→π 1 + cos x
ln x
5. lim √
x→∞ 3 x
tan x − x
6. lim
x→0 x3
Case 2 (Indeterminate products): 0 • ∞

We deal with indeterminate products by writing the product f · g as a
f g
quotient: f · g = or f · g = . This converts the given limit into
1/g 1/f
∞
an indeterminate form of type 00 or ∞ so that we can use L’Hospital’s
Rule.
7. lim+ x ln x
x→0
8. lim− (2x − π) sec(x)

x→ π2
Case 3 (Indeterminate difference): limx→c (f (x)−g(x)) = ∞−∞

We deal with indeterminate differences by converting f and g into a
single fraction with a common denominator.
9. lim− (sec x − tan x)

x→ π2
1 1
10. lim −
x→1 ln x x−1
Case 4 (Indeterminate power): ∞0 , 1∞ , 00

We deal with indeterminate powers by using a natural logarithm.
11. lim xx
x→0+
x
1
12. lim 1 +
x→∞ x
13. lim+ (1 + sin(4x))cot x

x→0
4.7 Optimization Problems
Steps in solving Applied Maximum and Minimum problems
1. Understand the problem.

2. Draw a diagram.
3. Introduce notation (Let Q be the quantity to be optimized.)
4. Express Q in terms of some other variables from Step 3.
5. Use given information to minimize Q to a single variable. Write the
domain of this function.
6. Find the absolute maximum or minimum value of Q on its domain.
Example 1. A farmer has 2400 ft of fencing and wants to fence off a rect-
angular field that borders a straight river. He needs no fence along the river.
What are the dimensions of the field that has the largest area?
Example 2. Find the point on the line y = 2x + 3 that is closest to the point
(3, 1).
Example 3. A circular cylindrical metal container, open at the top, is to

have a capacity of 192π in3 , and the cost of the material used for the bottom
of the container is 15 cents per in2 , and that of the material used for the side
is 5 cents per in2 . If there is no waste of material, find the dimensions that
will minimize the cost of the material.
Example 4. Find the area of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in
x2 y 2
+ = 1.
4 16
Example 5. A poster is to have an area of 240 in2 with a 2-inch margin at

the bottom and the sides and a 3-inch margin at the top. What dimensions
of the poster will give the largest printed area?
Example 6. A window has the shape of a rectangle surmounted by an equi-

lateral triangle. If the perimeter of the window is 12ft, find the dimensions
of the rectangle that will produce the largest area for the window.
4.9/5.4 Antiderivatives
A function F is called an antiderivative of f on an interval I if F 0 (x) = f (x)

for all x in I. The notation
Z
f (x)dx = F (x)
is traditionally used for an antiderivative of f and is called an indefinite

integral.
General Antiderivative: If F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I,

then the most general antiderivative of f on I is F (x) + C where C is an
arbitrary constant.
Table of Antidifferentiation Formulas
Function General Function General Function General

Antiderivative Antiderivative Antiderivative
cf (x) f (x) + g(x) xn (n 6= −1)
cos x sin x sec2 x
csc x cot x sec x tan x csc2 x
1
ex ax
x
1 −1 1
√ √
1 − x2 1 − x2 1 + x2
Example 1. Find the most general antiderivative for the following functions.
√
4
(a) g(x) = 4 sin x − 3x5 + 6 x3
(b) f (x) = 12 ex + sec(x) tan(x) + 3x
x3 + 2x + 7
(c) h(x) =
x2
(d) f (x) = −2(1 + x2 )−1
Z
7 1 4
Example 2. Find F (x) = + − dx.
x5 4x3 x
√
Z
Example 3. Find f dx if f (x) = x x + 5(1 + x2 )−1 and f (0) = 2.
Example 4. Find f (x) if f 0 (x) = 3x2 + 15 cos(x) + 4 given f (0) = 7.
Example 5. Find f if f 00 (x) = 12x2 + 6x − 4, f (0) = 4 and f 0 (1) = 1.
THE GEOMETRY OF ANTIDERIVATIVES

Given the graph of f 0 (x) below, make a rough sketch of an antiderivative F ,
given that F (0) = 2
y y
x x
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Recall if f (t) gives the position of a particle at time t then f 0 (t) gives the ve-
locity of the particle at time t, and f 00 (t) gives the acceleration of the particle
at time t.
Example 6. A particle moves in a straight line and has acceleration given

by a(t) = 6t + 4. Its initial velocity is v(0) = −6 cm/s and its initial dis-
placement is s(0) = 9 cm. Find its position function s(t).
Example 7. A ball is thrown upward with a speed of 48ft/s from the edge
of a cliff 432 ft above the ground. (Note: For motion close to Earth, we may
assume that the gravitational force, g, is constant at about 9.8 m/s2 or 32
ft/s2 .)
(a) Find its height above the ground t seconds later.
(b) When does is reach its maximum height?

(c) When does it hit the ground?
ANTIDERIVATIVES OF VECTOR FUNCTIONS
The antiderivative of a vector function is the antiderivative of each of its

components.
Example 8. Find the most general antiderivative of r(t) = i + 3tj.
Example 9. A moving particle starts at an initial position r(0)=i with the

initial velocity v(0) = i − j. Its acceleration is a(t) = 4ti + 6tj. Find its
velocity and position at time t.
5.1 Areas and Distances
Example 10. The velocity of a car is recorded certain times and placed in
the following table. Estimate the area under the curve of the velocity function
during the first minute.
time (seconds) 0 8 18 30 42 60
velocity (ft/sec) 20 32 26 40 48 50
(The answer is an estimate of the distance traveled in the first minute.)

Computing area under a curve
Suppose we want to compute the area under f (x) on the interval [a, b]
(where f (x) > 0 on this interval).
We can approximate this area by using a sum of rectangles.

1. Determine the number of rectangles that will be used: n.
2. Partition the given interval into sub-intervals where each sub-interval
will become the base of a rectangle
• If a partition is given, then use that information.
• If we have to create the partition, then we choose to have it equally
spaced which means that base of each rectangle will be equal.
b−a
Base of each rectangle: ∆x =
n
3. Compute the area of the rectangles between these partitions using x∗i
(left endpoints, right endpoints, or midpoints) and f (x∗i ).
Example 11. Assume that f (x) is a positive, continuous function on the

interval [a, b].
A) What condition would the function f (x) have to have so that the sum of
the approximating rectangles will be an underestimate?
B) What condition would the function f(x) have to have so that the sum of
the approximating rectangles will be an overestimate?
Example 12. Approximate the area under the parabola y = x2 using the
partition P = {1, 1.2, 2, 2.5, 4} for the interval [1, 4].
a. Left endpoints:
b. Right endpoints:
c. Midpoints:
Example 13. Approximate the area under the function f (x) = x2 + 5 on

the interval [1, 7] using a partition that has equal sub-intervals.
A) L2 =
B) R3 =
C) M3 =
General form for x∗i on the interval [a, b] with equally spaced
rectangles.
b−a
Base of each rectangle: ∆x = , where n is the number of rectangles
n
used.
• left endpoints: xi = a + (i − 1)∆x
(2i − 1)∆x
• midpoints: xi = a +
2
• right endpoints: xi = a + i∆x
n
X
A≈ [f (x∗1 )∆x1 + f (x∗2 )∆x2 +···+ f (x∗n )∆xn ] = f (x∗i )∆xi
i=1
where n is the number of rectangles. We call this sum a Riemann Sum.
Sigma Notation: For non-negative integers m ≤ n,

n
X
ai = am + am+1 + am+2 + ... + an−1 + an
i=m
.
We call i the index of the sum, m the lower limit, and n the upper limit of
the sum.
Example 14. Set up the Riemann sum that will give the area under the
graph for f (x) on the interval [0, 5] using n equally spaced rectangles on a
right endpoint.
f (x) = x2 + 7x
The approximation for the area under the curve appears to get better and
better as the rectangles become thinner and thinner.
The true area A that lies under the graph of the continuous function f is
the limit of the sum of the areas of approximating rectangles:
n
X
A= [f (x∗1 )∆x1 + f (x∗2 )∆x2 +···+ f (x∗n )∆xn ] = lim f (x∗i )∆xi
n→∞
i=1
This is equivalent to making infinitely small rectangle widths.
Note: When computing the actual area using Riemann sums, we usually
use the right endpoint since this method has the easiest formula.
x
Example 15. Express the actual area under the function f (x) = on
x2 + 3
the interval [3, 9] using a right sum and partition that has equal sub-intervals
as a Riemann Sum.
5.2 The Definite Integral
Definition of a Definite Integral: If f is a function on the interval

[a, b] we partition the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal width
b−a
∆x = . Let x∗i be any value in the ith subinterval. Then the definite
n
integral of f from a to b is
Z b n
X
f (x)dx = lim f (x∗i )∆x
a n→∞
i=1
provided the limit does exist. If the limit does exist, we say f is integrable
on the interval [a, b].
Theorem: If f is continuous on [a, b], or if f has only a finite number

of jump discontinuities, then f is integrable on [a, b]; that is, the definite
Rb
integral a f (x)dx exists.
Z
We are now officially using , called an integral sign, to rewrite the above limit. This symbol was founded
by Leibniz and was appropriately chosen because the elongated S represents a limit of sums.
Example 16. Suppose that R(t) is the rate, in gallons per hour, that water is
pumped into a pool at a water park. Explain the meaning of these integrals.
Z 5
A) R(t)dt
0
Z 4
B) R(t)dt
3
Note 1: If f (x) ≥ 0 on the interval [a, b], then the definite integral is the
area bounded by the function f and the x-axis from x = a to x = b.
f(x)
a b
Note 2: If f (x) is not always greater than or equal to zero on the interval
[a, b], then the definite integral can be interpreted as the net area on the
interval.
f(x)
a b
Z 6
Example 17. Estimate (x2 −4)dx using a Riemann sum with 3 rectangles
0
with equal bases and the midpoint rule.
Example 18. The velocity function, v(t) (in meters per second) is given for
a particle moving along a line.
A) Write the displacement of the object after 4 seconds as an integral of
v(t).
B) Given the following graph of the velocity, write the total distance the
object traveled in the first C seconds as an integral of v(t).
Example 19. Use the graph of f along with the indicated areas to compute
these definite integrals.
Z A
A) f (x)dx
0
Z B
B) f (x)dx
A
Z B
C) f (x)dx
0
Z A
D) f (x)dx
A
Z C
E) f (x)dx
A
Z 0
F) f (x)dx
A
Z A
G) f (x)dx
B
Example 20. Evaluate the following integrals by interpreting each in terms

of areas.
Z 1p Z 3
(a) 1 − x2 dx (b) (x − 1)dx
0 0
Properties of the Integral

Suppose that all of the following integrals exist. If c is any constant, then
Z b Z a
1. f (x)dx = − f (x)dx.
a b
Z a
2. f (x)dx = 0
a
Z b
3. cdx = c(b − a)
a
Z b Z b Z b
4. [f (x) + g(x)]dx = f (x) + g(x)
a a a
Z b Z b
5. cf (x)dx = c f (x)dx
a a
Z b Z b Z b
6. [f (x) − g(x)]dx = f (x) − g(x)
a a a
Z b Z d Z b
7. f (x)dx = f (x) dx + f (x)dx
a a d
Example 21. Use the properties of integrals to re-write

Z 5 Z 0 Z 6
f (x) dx − f (x) dx + f (x) dx
−3 −3 5
as a single integral.
Example 22. Given:
Z 5 Z 10 Z 10
f (x)dx = 6, g(x)dx = 10, and 3f (x) − 4g(x) dx = 35,
1 1 1
Z 10
then compute f (x)dx.
5
The following properties are only true if a ≤ b

Z b
8. If f (x) ≥ 0 for a ≤ x ≤ b then f (x)dx ≥ 0
a
Z b Z b
9. If f (x) ≥ g(x) for a ≤ x ≤ b, then f (x)dx ≥ g(x)dx
a a
Z b
10. If m ≤ f (x) ≤ M for a ≤ x ≤ b then m(b−a) ≤ f (x)dx ≤ M (b−a)
a
Z b Z b
11. f (x)dx ≤ |f (x)|dx
a a
Z 4√
Example 23. Use Property 10 to estimate the value of xdx
1
Z 4p
Example 24. Show that 1 + x2 dx ≥ 7.5
1
5.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part II

If f is continuous on [a, b], then
Z b
f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a)
a
where F is any antiderivative of f , that is F 0 = f .
Example 1. Evaluate the integral

Z 1
A) x3 dx
−2
9
√
2t2 + t2 t − 1
Z
B) dt
1 t2
Z 5
1
C) 2
dx
−2 x
Z π
4
D) (3 sec2 x)dx
0
Z 3
E) |x2 − 4|dx
0
Z 9 2
√ 1
F) x− √ dx
4 x
Z 10
Example 2. If f (3) = 95, f is continuous, and 0
f 0 (x)dx = 124, what is
3
the value of f (10)?
1
Example 3. Sketch and find the area enclosed by y = , y = 0, x = 1, and
x
x = 4.
n 2
1X i
Example 4. Evaluate lim 1+ using the Fundamental Theorem
n→∞ n n
i=1
of Calculus.
Example 5. A particle moves along a line so that its velocity at time t is

v(t) = t2 − t − 6 (measured in m/s)
A) Find the displacement of the particle during the time period 1 ≤ t ≤ 4
B) Find the distance traveled during this time period.

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part I

If f is continuous on [a, b], then the function g defined by
Z x
g(x) = f (t)dt
a
for a ≤ x ≤ b is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b) and

g 0 (x) = f (x).
Example 6. Find g 0 (x).

Z x
A) g(x) = (t2 + 1)dt
a
Z xp
B) g(x) = 1 + t2 dt
0
Z x2
C) g(x) = tan3 (t)dt
4
Z 2
D) g(x) = ln(u)du
x3
Z x4
E) g(x) = sec(t)dt
1
Table of Indefinite Integrals

Z Z
cf (x)dx = c f (x)dx
Z Z Z
[f (x) + g(x)]dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx
xn+1
Z Z
n 1
x dx = + C, (n 6= −1) dx = ln |x| + C
n+1 x
ax
Z Z
x x x
e dx = e + C a dx = +C
ln a
Z Z
sin xdx = − cos x + C cos xdx = sin x + C
Z Z
sec2 xdx = tan x + C csc2 xdx = − cot x + C
Z Z
sec x tan xdx = sec x + C csc x cot xdx = − csc x + C
Z Z
1 1
2
dx = tan−1 x + C √ dx = sin−1 x + C
x +1 1 − x2
5.5 The Substitution Rule

1
Let f (x) = (x3 + 11)8 , find f 0 (x).
4
The Substitution Rule: If u = g(x) is a differentiable function whose

range is an interval I and f is continuous on I, then
Z Z
f 0 (g(x))g 0 (x)dx = f (u)du
Z
Example 1. Find x3 cos(x4 + 2) dx
Z
8x
Example 2. Find dx
1 + 4x2
Z
16
Example 3. Find dx
1 + 4x2
Z
16x
Example 4. Find √ dx
1 − 4x2
√
e2+ x
Z
Example 5. Find √ dx
x
Z
Example 6. Calculate tan(x) dx
Z h p i
5 2
Example 7. Calculate x · 1 + x dx
There are two ways you can evaluate a definite integral when using substitu-
tion.
Z 4√
Example 8. Evaluate 3x + 4dx
0
Z 2
Example 9. Evaluate 12x(2x2 + 1)3 dx.
1
Integrals of Symmetric Functions

Suppose f is continuous on [−a,
Z a], if f is: a Z a
1) even (f (−x) = f (x)), then f (x)dx = 2 f (x)dx
Z−aa 0
2) odd (f (−x) = −f (x)), then f (x)dx = 0

−a
Z 2
Example 10. Find (x6 + 1)dx
−2
Z 1
tan x
Example 11. Find 2 4
dx
−1 1 + x + x

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MATH 151 c Whitfield, Kahlig, & Foran 2020 1

J.1 Introduction to Vectors and Vector Functions

Finding the magnitude (length) of a vector (kvk or |v|)

Example 2. Find the magnitude (or length) of the following:

Operations on Vectors: Given a = ha1 , a1 i, b = hb1 , b2 i and let c be

Example 3. Given a = h−1, 2i and b = h4, 3i, find and graph

Properties of Vectors: If a, b, and c are vectors and m and n are

Example 5. If a = i + 2j and b = 4i + 7j, express the vector 2a + 3b in

A unit vector is a vector whose length (magnitude) is one.

Example 7. a) A pilot is flying N60◦ W at 250km/hr. Find the velocity

b) If there is a wind blowing in the direction of N45◦ E at 30km/hr, find the

J.2 The Dot Product

Example 2. If a = h2, 4i and b = h3, −1i find a • b.

Example 3. If c = i + 2j and d = 3i − j find c • d.

Example 4. Find the angle between a = h2, 2i and b = h5, −3i.

Conclusions about two vectors regarding their dot product

Example 7. A force is given by vector F = 3i + 4j and moves a particle from

Example 8. Find the scalar projection and vector projection of a = h5, 1i

Given the nonzero vector a = ha1 , a2 i, the orthogonal complement of

Example 9. Find a vector orthogonal to the line x + y = 1.

J.3 Vector Functions

t (in seconds) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

y(t) (in feet)

Example 1. Sketch the curve represented by the equations below. Describe

b) x(θ) = sin θ, y(θ) = cos θ

Example 2. Sketch the curve defined by the vector function

Vector Equation of a Line

Converting between Cartesian Equations and Parametrized Equa-

d) x = sin t and y = cos2 t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π

1.5 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Definition. A function f : A → B is a rule that assigns to each element in

Definition. A function is said to be one-to-one if it takes each function

Definition. Let f be a one-to-one function with domain A and range B.

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

• y = arccos(x) = cos−1 (x)

• y = arctan(x) = tan−1 (x)

Example 2. Find the exact value of the following expressions.

i) sec (arcsin (x))

j) sin (arccos (x))

2.2 The Limit of a Function

Look at the graph of f (x) = x2 − x + 2 and its corresponding table of values.

1.96 3.8816 2.04 4.1216

• In the graphs below, describe the behavior around x = 3.

• In the graphs below, describe the behavior around x = −3 and x = −1.

lim g(x) = lim g(x) = lim g(x) =

lim g(x) = lim g(x) = lim g(x) =

lim g(x) = lim g(x) = lim g(x) =

g(−2) = g(2) = lim g(x) =

The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if

2.3 Limits Using Limit Laws

6) lim [f (x) • g(x)] = lim f (x) • lim g(x)

7) lim [cf (x)] = c lim f (x).

Example 1. Find lim 2x2 − 3x + 4 and justify each step.

If f is a polynomial or a rational function and a is in the domain of f ,

Theorem: If f (x) ≤ g(x) for all x in an open interval that contains a

The Squeeze Theorem: If f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) for all x in an open

3. lim f (x) = f (a).

In common terms, a continuous function has no holes, gaps, or breaks in

Example 1. Is f (x) = x3 + 2x − 3 continuous at x = 2?

Example 2. Find all points of discontinuity in the graph of g(x) below. If

Definition. A function f (x) is continuous

• from the left at a if lim− f (x) = f (a)

• on an interval if it is continuous at every number in the interval.

Example 6. Find the constant c that makes each function continuous on