American Petroleum Institute Programs In Learning Operating Techniques Combustion Gas Turbine 1083WB,Program developed for API by: Author: Editor: Ant Director: Artist: Program Supervisor: ‘Supervisor of Validation: Content Specialist for API: Coordinator of API Content Specialists: Chairman, API Training Committee: Validation provided through the cooperation of: Howell Training Company 13831 Northwest Freeway, Suite 520 Houston, Texas 77040-5215 John Eric Victor Donald Lloyd, Ph.O. Dell Carson Danie! Brown Lyn Sandow H. C. Gallap John Weir, El Paso Natural Gas Products Company L. W. MeAllister, American Oil Company Eugene Gambrit, American Oil Company Phillips Petroleum Company ‘American Oil Company This text has been validated by the Committee on Training, Division of Refining, American Petroleum Institute, 1968. PLOT Dp Reprinted May 1985 © Program Press 1965 ‘Duplication or modification of this copyrighted material, or any part thereof, is 1B Wiolation of Federal Law. Violation of this copyright law may resutt in severe: ‘Gil penalties and criminal conviction. The Federal Bureau of Investigation Investigates all alegations of criminal copyright infringement.COMBUSTION GAS TURBINES Section 1 An Introduction to Combustion Gas TurbinesAlthough the combustion gas turbine is a relatively new type of engine, it has rapidly gained acceptance as a driver and as a source of hot gas for process. In Section 1 of Combustion Gas Turbines you will learn the principles of operation of the compressor, the combustion chamber, and the turbine section. In Section 2 you will learn about the construction of the com- pressor, combustion chamber, and turbine section ; the blading arrangement; and the use of the turbine as a driver and hot- gas generator. In Section 3 you will learn about such turbine auxiliary equip- ment as starting devices, governors, and overspeed mecha- nisms, and their functions. You will learn about the functions of casing seals, bearings, and lubrication. Section 4 covers control and operation of combustion gas turbines. You will learn startup, operating, and shutdown Procedures, and the control of vibration, critical speed, and turbine imbalance. You will learn temperature control, the use of turning gears, and turbine control using the automated control panel Through this understanding of turbine principles, construc- tion, and control, you will be better able to secure efficient and safe turbine operation.INSTRUCTIONS ‘This is a programed learning course. Programed learning gives information in a series of steps called frames. Each frame gives some information and asks you to make use of it. Here is how it works. First, cover the response column at the right with a mask, Read this frame and use the information it gives to fill in the blank. A micrometer is an instrument designed to measure in thousandths of an inch. A micrometer is a good tool for measuring very differences in size. ‘Move the mask down to uncover the word at the right of the frame. If you have filled the blank with that word or a word ‘that means the same, you are ready to go ahead to the next frame. ‘The drawing of a micrometer provides information that will help you fill in the next blanks. OBJECT TO BE MEASURED THIMBLE SPINDLE RATCHET Seven major parts are shown in the drawing, but only the and the. contact the object to be measured. small anvil; spindle‘The next frame calls for a choice. Circle or underline the ap- propriate word. Of the two parts that contact the object, only the (anvil/ spindle) moves. A program is a series of frames that work like the ones you have just done: Read the frame. ‘Use the information to fill in the blanks or make a choice. ‘Move the mask down and check the response column. Go on to the next frame. Remember to cover the response column with a mask before you begin each page. spindleAN INTRODUCTION TO COMBUSTION GAS TURBINES Now pull the exhibits out of the center of the book. 1. A combustion gas turbine burns fuel to provide power. This power is used to ‘@ generator, 2 drive, or power pump, or 2 compressor, 2. Drivers other than combustion gas turbines may need supplies of electricity or high-pressure steam. ‘Many drivers need large amounts of water for cooling. A combustion gas turbine needs only 2 dependable sup- ply of fuel, and very little for cooling. water 8. A combustion gas turbine is often the best type of driver in locations where is scarce. water 4. In many locations, natural gas is cheap and plentiful. In locations where it is available, combustion gas tur- bines use as a fuel. natural gas 5. Other types of fuel may be used. A combustion gas turbine produces power from the from the burning fuel. heat 6. The combustion gas turbine produces a large volume of hot air in addition to power. This air is heated by the fuel. burning 7. A combustion gas turbine may be used to supply power, or or both. hot air 8. Part of the energy from the burning fuel is__ lost, or wasted if the hot exhaust from the turbine is not used. 9. The power produced from the burning fuel turns the drive shaft of the turbine. ‘When the turbine is used to drive other equipment, the of the turbine is coupled to the shaft of shaft the driven equipment. 10. A large piston engine runs at 400 rpm (revolutions per minute). The drive shaft of a combustion gas turbine rotates at 500 to 50,000 rpm, making the turbine a good driver for (high/low) -speed equipment. high 11, Large turbines run at slower speeds than small tur- bines, but a large turbine runs_________ than a faster large internal combustion engine. 212. Combustion gas turbines are often coupled directly to the shafts of high-speed centrifugal pumps and com- pressors. When the turbine is coupled to the driven equipment through a speed-reducing gear, it may also be used to drive ____-speed equipment. low 18. Combustion gas turbines are compact. A combustion gas turbine takes up space than many other types of drivers, floor less 14. Combustion gas turbines are lightweight. ‘The foundation for a combustion gas turbine does not have to be very strong, or heavy THE ENERGY OF AIR 15. A steam turbine uses power from high-pressure steam to turn a shaft. ‘The energy to run a steam turbine comes from the exerted by steam. pressure 16. Steam or another gas at pressure can high be used to run a turbine. U7. Air is a gas which is easy to use. ‘The most common kind of gas turbine uses the pressure of large amounts of. 7 air 18. Energy is added to the air by increasing the pressure and increasing the volume of the air. ‘The pressure and volume of the air provide __ energy to run the turbine. Pressure 19. Pressure is defined as force per unit area, which can be represented as: pressure = 20708. area This block exerts a force of _________ pounds on 10 the surface on which it is resting. 20. Area equals length times width (length x width). ‘The block shown above has an area of —__ 1axn ‘square inch.21. The pressure that this block exerts on the surface is pounds per square inch. 10, or =~ 22. This block also exerts 10 pounds of force. It has an area of ______square inches. 2 0r(2 x 1) 28. The pressure exerted by the block shown is__ Bigete: ‘pounds per square inch. 2 24. Blocks A and B weigh the same amount. ‘They exert different pressures because they are acting on areas of ______ size. different 25. Block C exerts the same total amount of force as block Aor block B. Since block C rests on the smallest area, it exerts (more/less) pressure than block A or B. more 426. All substances have weight. All substances exert force. ‘The amount of force concentrated on a specific area is called. 27, Air also exerts pressure. But, unlike the pressure from a solid block, air pressure is exerted in (one direction/all directions). 28. Air is compressible. After air has been compressed, it takes up (more/less) space. 29. The air in the drawing is pushed or compressed into a smaller space. ‘This means that the force of the air is concentrated on a—_____area, 80. The space taken up by the air is called its volume. Compressing air squeezes it into a (larger/smaller) ‘volume. 81. Compressing air _____its pressure. 32, Energy may be added to air by increasing its pressure. ‘This may be done by. its volume. pressure all directions less. smaller smaller increases decreasingVolume 33. Compressing air forces a larger amount of air into a smaller space. A large volume of air at high pressure has stored more usable energy than a smaller volume at the same pressure. 45 PSI 10 CUBIC FEET Ten cubic feet of air at 45 PSI (pounds per square inch) can do (more/less) work than one cubic foot of air at the same pressure. 34, Increasing the volume of air without decreasing its pressure (increases/decreases) its energy. 85. Energy can be added to air by: increasing air ‘by compressing it; increasing air___ while keeping pres- sure constant. 36. Heating also adds energy to the air. Heating air in a closed container causes it to exert (more/less) pressure. more increases pressure volume more37. If this air is allowed to expand, pressure stays the same. But, the volume of air 88. This larger volume means that the air has stored (more/less) usable energy. 89. Heating air is one way to increase its pressure. How- ever, most of the air pressure created in the gas turbine is not produced in this way. A gas turbine compresses the air to increase air 40. Then, the volume of this compressed air is increased by the air. HOW THE TURBINE USES ENERGY 41, Pressure is stored energy. Increasing the pressure of the air is the same as storing in the air. 42, Increasing the volume of compressed air without de- creasing the pressure means that (more/less) pressure energy is available to do work. 48. Increasing the volume of compressed air at constant pressure stores more in the air. increases pressure heating energy energy44, Moving air can do work. Foreing air to move at high velocity is making the air do 45. Stored energy (pressure) can be changed to working energy (velocity). ‘The pressure of air can be used to make air move at high . 46. Pressure energy can be changed into energy. 41, The pressure decreases when the velocity of air in- creases. Pressure is “used up” to___ the velocity. ‘THE COMBUSTION GAS TURBINE The Turbine Section 48. A turbine operates like a pinwheel. Air moving against a pinwheel makes the pinwheel work velocity, or speed velocity, or working increase turn, or rotate49. The moving pinwheel takes velocity energy out of the moving —___. air 50. The movement of the turbine, like the movement of the pinwheel, is mechanical energy. ‘The energy of the air has been changed into the energy of a turbine. mechanical 51. Look at the drawing. Air builds up on one side of the turbine pressure rotor. 52. This pressure pushes air against the curved __ blades mounted on the rotor. 58. To move the blades, the air must be moving. Pressure energy is converted to the__ velocity energy of moving air. 54, The turbine rotor turns. The velocity energy of the air has become the energy of turbine rotation. mechanical 55. Part of the pressure of the air is used up to turn the rotor. ‘Thus the pressure of the air leaving the rotor is (more/ less) than the pressure of the air entering the rotor. less 56. The greater the amount of energy transferred from the air to the turbine rotor and shaft, the (higher/lower) lower the air exhaust pressure becomes. 57. The difference between the inlet pressure and the ex- haust pressure indicates the amount of transferred to the turbine rotor and shaft. power, or energy 958. The drawing shows two turbines with the same exhaust pressure. TURBINE A TURBINE B | ‘More power is produced by (turbine A/turbine B). turbine A 59. The amount of power transferred to the turbine shaft is indicated by the between the inlet difference pressure and the exhaust pressure. 60. If two turbines have the same exhaust pressure, the one with the (higher/lower) inlet pressure is more power- higher ful. 61. If two turbines have the same inlet pressure, the one with the (higher/lower) exhaust pressure is more lower powerful. 62. The turbine usually exhausts into the atmosphere (14.7 PSI). ‘The (exhaust/inlet) pressure for most combustion gas exhaust turbines is around 14.7 PSI. 68. The turbine inlet pressure must be greater than PSI. 14.7 The Compressor Section 64. A compressor is used to compress air. A compressor forces high-pressure ______ into air the turbine. 1065. The typical compressor works like a fan. VELOCITY AIRT o A fan____ the energy of the air. increases 66. A very simple gas turbine consists of a compressor and a turbine. The compressor supplies high-pressure air to the turbine 67. Look at the drawing. ‘The fan supplies _______ to the pinwheel. energy, or pressure, or : velocity 168. The drawing shows an axial compressor used in com- bustion gas turbines. COMPRESSOR A set of rotating__________mounted on dises pushes air toward the turbine. 69. As the air piles up between the compressor and the tur- bine, its pressure (increases/decreases) until it is able ‘to move the turbine rotor and then escape. 70. Once the rotor starts to move and the air escapes, the air pressure levels off. ‘The pressure at the inlet to the turbine section depends on how fast the compressor pushes air into the turbine, and how fast the lets it out. 1. The compressor uses mechanical energy to turn its shaft. In this arrangement, the shaft of the compressor is directly coupled to the shaft. 2 blades increases turbine, or rotor turbine2. 73. 14. %. 6. 11. 7B. 79. 80. 81. ‘The turbine rotor turns the shaft, and supplies the needed to run the compressor. ‘The ______ builds up the air pressure. ‘The turbine gets its power from the air pressure built up by the compressor. ‘However, the compressor can’t supply more power than it gets from the Part of the power from the turbine is wasted by friction between moving parts. ‘The turbine can’t get enough power from the compres- sor to run the compressor and also make up for the power wasted by : Additional energy must be supplied to the turbine if it is to drive the compressor, overcome friction, and have enough power left over to other equip- ment. Additional energy can be added to the air by (increas- ing/decreasing) the volume of the air. Increasing the volume of the air leaving the compressor would add more ________to the air. Heating air increases its __________ without de- creasing its pressure. ‘The air leaving the compressor must be __ before it can produce enough energy to operate the turbine. Energy is supplied to the turbine by increasing the and the of the air. 13 Power, or energy compressor turbine, or rotor friction operate, or drive increasing energy volume heated pressure, volumeThe Combustion Chamber 82. In the combustion gas turbine, this extra energy is sup- plied by burning fuel. COMBUSTION CHAMBER cose The burning fuel heats the air coming from the 88. Air (expands/contracts) when it is heated. 84. When air is heated in a closed container, its pressure (increases /decreases) . 85. But the combustion chamber is not closed. Air can’t flow back into the compressor against the stream of air coming in, but air can leave the combus- tion chamber by flowing out into the _____ 86. The heated air does not build up much extra pressure in the combustion chamber, because it can escape to the 87. Pressure in the combustion chamber depends on three things: how fast air enters the combustion chamber from the: how much the air expands as it absorbs from the burning fuel, and how fast the exhaust stream can flow out past the 88. The expansion of the air in the combustion chamber forces a larger volume of air through the turbine. Since a larger volume of high-pressure air goes through ‘the turbine, the turbine produces (more/less) power than it needs to drive the compressor. 14 compressor expands increases turbine turbine compressor heat turbine, or rotor more89. The additional volume of the air produces enough power in the turbine to drive the compressor, overcome , and drive another piece of equipment. AIR FLOW THROUGH A TYPICAL COMBUSTION GAS TURBINE For frames 90 through 95 look at Exhibit 1, which shows air flow through a gas turbine. 90. A combustion gas turbine consists of a compressor, a combustion chamber, and the turbine itself. Cool air enters the compressor through the air 91. The compressor rotor is made up of rows of mounted on dises, similar to the blades on the turbine rotor. 92. The pressure of the air leaving the compressor is (higher/lower) than the pressure of the air entering ‘the compressor. 93. The compressor compresses the air to force more air into the combustion chamber. A pound of air leaving the compressor takes up (more/ less) space than a pound of air entering the compressor. 94, In passing through the compressor, the pressure of the air ______and its volume : 95. Friction, and the energy needed to compress the air, generate heat. ‘The air gets (warmer/cooler) as it passes through the compressor. 96. The warm compressed air enters the combustion cham- ber. FUEL a AIR FROM. COMPRESSOR In the combustion chamber a small amount of is mixed with the compressed air. 15 friction inlet blades higher Jess increases, decreases warmer AIR TO TURBINE. fuel, or gas98, 100. 101. 102. 108. ‘The fuel burns in the air. The heat from the burning fuel (increases/decreases) the temperature of the air. Heating the air (increases/decreases) its volume, but since the air can escape through the turbine, the pres- sure does not increase. Heat from the burning fuel increases the temperature and the ___of the air; the air. stays the same. Warm air enters the combustion chamber at high pres- sure. Air leaves the combustion chamber at the same high pressure and with its volume ‘This large volume of high-pressure air enters the tur- bine section. SHAFT TO COMPRESSOR SHAFT TO LOAD As the air passes through the turbine rotor, it gives up part of its energy, and the air pressure (increases/ decreases) . ‘This pressure decrease through the turbine section is nearly the same as the pressure in the compressor section. ‘The turbine supplies more power to the compressor than the compressor needs, because a larger —____ of air goes through the turbine than through the com- pressor. : 16 increases increases volume, pressure increased decreases increase volumeREVIEW AND SUMMARY 104. Name the combustion gas turbine parts. bo ol 105. Pressure increases in the _______section. Pressure decreases in the section. Pressure is constant in the 106. To do work in the turbine, air at high pressure must be converted to air at high 107. The high velocity air makes the ________ rotor rotate. 108. This rotating rotor produces energy. Ww 1. air inlet 2. compressor 3. 4. turbine combustion chamber ‘compressor turbine combustion chamber velocity, or speed turbine mechanicalCOMBUSTION GAS TURBINES Section 2 Construction of Combustion Gas TurbinesCONSTRUCTION OF COMBUSTION GAS TURBINES Compressor 1. Turbines run most efficiently at high speeds. ‘Since the compressor and the turbine are on the same shaft, the compressor must also be designed to operate at _____speeds. high 2. The drawing shows two types of high-speed compres- sors. AXIAL COMPRESSOR CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR Air enters and leaves parallel to the shaft, in the (axial/eentrifugal) compressor. axial 8. Air enters parallel to the shaft, but leaves at right angles to the shaft in the _______ compressor. centrifugal 4. The drawing shows the parts of a centrifugal com- pressor. EYE (Suction) Air flows through the air inlet and into the —_ eye of the impeller. 195. The impeller supports a set of. 6. The air is whirled around the shaft by the 7. Centrifugal force acting on the whirling air moves it 10. 1. 12. toward the outer edge of the impeller. Air strikes the casing; velocity (increases/decreases) . As air strikes the casing, velocity decreases. Pressure As centrifugal force throws air away from the eye of the impeller, the pressure at the eye and more gas enters the eye. In the centrifugal compressor, air is moved by centrifu- gal force, from a -pressure area at the eye to the pressure area in the combus- tion chamber. Axial compressors are smaller and more efficient than centrifugal compressors with the same capacity. ROTOR BLADES CASING ROTOR DISCS STATOR STATOR BLADES ‘This compressor has a rotor which a stator which does not move. yand The rotor discs hold several sets of blades, which rotate as part of the rotor. The stator also holds several sets of blades, which (do/do not) move. 20 blades blades decreases increases decreases low high rotates, or turns do not18. Each set of rotor blades acts like the blades of a fan. ws SS P Pn AN Ca ae \ INC As the rotor rotates, the blades on each rotor dise force air into the spaces between the next set of —_____ stator blades. 14. Air piles up in these stator blades until it can be picked up by the ___on the next rotor dise. blades 15. As the rotor compresses more air into the stator blades, the air pressure (increases/decreases), and the air increases takes up (more/less) space. less 16. The pressure in each set of stator blades is___ higher than the pressure in the previous set. 17. Each rotor dise accounts for only a small increase in pressure, but an axial compressor may have 20 or more such ____on its rotor. dises 18. Since air expands as it warms up, any temperature increase makes the compressor do (more/less) work more to compress the gas. 19. A pound of cool air takes up less space than a pound of warm air at the same pressure. For any given compressor design, more (cool/warm) cool air can be taken into the compressor. 20. A gas turbine compressor can handle a larger flow of air if the inlet air is cool 21 | smerny enemnesionn21. The compressor takes mechanical energy from the turbine. This mechanical energy is actually transferred to the rotation of the compressor rotor 22. Velocity energy is then (removed from/added to) the added to air by the compressor. 23, In the compressor: the rotor blades add energy to the air by first its velocity ; increasing the stator blades change this velocity energy to energy. pressure The Combustion Chamber 24. In the combustion chamber, a small amount of fuel is | mixed with the air from the compressor. AIR FROM. ‘COMPRESSOR ‘The fuel____in the air to produce heat. burns 25. Primary air enters the basket through openings near the —_ burner 26. A small part of the air from the compressor flows directly past the burner. This “primary” air is sufficient to burn the _ fuel as it comes from the burner. 27, Rapid air currents across the burner can put out the flame. The burner is protected from these air currents by sur- rounding it with 2 basket 28. The main part of the air stream enters the basket through holes or slots along its length. This “secondary” air is heated by the burning of the fuel in the: air stream. primary 2229. To give an even distribution of heat, the secondary air must be thoroughly with the burning air-fuel mixture. 80. Incomplete mixing in the combustion chamber can cause formation of high-temperature gas pockets. The combustion chamber walls and the metal blades can be damaged by such ‘temperatures. 81. In some combustion chambers, whirl vanes aid mixing. BURNER SECONDARY AIR PRIMARY AIR ‘These vanes whirl the __________air into the burning primary air-fuel mixture. 82. The combustion chamber is insulated to reduce loss and to help prevent uneven heating. 83. The burner must remain lighted as long as fuel is entering the air stream. ‘The presence of large amounts of unburned fuel in the air may lead to an_____ when the burner is relighted. 84, As long as the fuel supply is steady, the flame keeps 35. When the turbine is being started, a spark plug is used to_____the flame. 36. The spark plug is needed only while the unit is being 87. Once the flame is the spark plug may be pulled away from the burning fuel to protect and lengthen the life of the spark plug. 88. It is unsafe to leave the fuel turned on when the is out. 28 high secondary heat explosion burning light, or ignite started, or ignited lighted flame, or burner89. Many turbines have sight glasses so that the operator can check the flame. Automatic devices are supposed to turn off the fuel sup- ply if the flame goes out, but the should check to make sure that automatic devices are working. 40. When more than one burner is used, a cross-fre pilot light insures that all of the burners are. 41. A combination gas turbine may burn gas, liquid, or solid fuel, but gas requires the least complicated equipment. ‘Most combustion gas turbines use natural for fuel. 42, Natural gas can usually be supplied from a pipeline, under pressure, to the combustion chamber. Pumps are needed to forcee__________fuels into ‘the combustion chamber. 48. Liquid fuel systems require a liquid storage tank near the turbine, and a. to force the liquid into the combustion chamber. 44. Other than the burner itself, the combustion chamber of a gas-fired turbine needs only whirl vanes or other devices to make sure the gas is well with the air stream, 45. Liquid fuel must be broken into very fine particles to make it burn rapidly. PRIMARY AIR An atomizer is also needed in turbines, to spray the fuel into the combustion cham- ber as a mist. -fueled 24 BURNER ATOMIZER operator lighted liquid pump mixed liquid46. 41. 48, 49, 50. 51. 55. A worn or poorly-adjusted atomizer may permit large drops of oil to enter the combustion chamber. A large drop may burn slowly enough to allow it to reach the blades of the while it is still burning. Burning liquid can easily pit or wear down a turbine blade. The turbine may be seriously damaged if the is not working correctly. Some types of gases are stored in tanks in liquid form, and vaporized as they are used. If some of the fuel does not vaporize to form gas be- fore it is burned, drops of liquid may damage the ‘When turbines use gas stored in liquid form, liquid “knock-out” drums in the fuel line remove all ——____— from the vaporized fuel before it enters the combustion chamber. Gas or liquid may contain dirt, rust, or other solid particles. Solid particles may clog the nozzles in the gas or the liquid-fuel ‘ Filters in the fuel lines remove before they reach the burner or atomizer. Pulverized solid fuels can be used in combustion gas turbines, but they require (more/less) complicated equipment than gas or liquid fuels. Solid fuels produce ash, which is heated to very high temperatures in the flame. ‘The turbine blades may easily be pitted or worn away by these hot particles. Because of the ash problem, solid fuels are seldom used in combustion gas turbines. ‘The most commonly used fuel for combustion gas tur- dines is 3 some turbines use fuels, but fuels are seldom used. Some fuels contain sulfur and other chemicals which may corrode metal. Salt air from seacoast locations may also metal parts. 25 turbine atomizer turbine, or blades liquid burner, atomizer solids more gas, liquid solid corrode56. Filters cannot remove corrosive chemicals from the fuel and air supply. ‘To limit corrosion, the fuel and air supply should be as, in corrosive chemicals as possible. low Turbine 57. Air leaving the combustion chamber flows through a transition piece to the turbine. TRANSITION PIECE —r FROM ae COMBUSTION CHAMBER Sac \ TO TURBINE ‘The transition piece is a duct or passage, Jong enough to make sure that the hot air is thoroughly So that there are no “hot pockets.” mixed 58. The turbine rotor, like the compressor rotor, contains a series of discs. STATOR BLADES SHAFT. ROTOR BLADES. Disc: Each dise supports a set of. blades 59. In this turbine, the rotor discs are fastened to a single shaft, and with it. turn, or rotate 2660. Between each set of rotor blades, the air passes through a set of, blades. stator 61. Air enters the turbine section at high pressure. In order to turn the rotor, the air must be __. moving 62. Air pressure must therefore be changed into air velocity, or movement 63. Air exerts pressure in all directions. HIGH PRESSURE HIGH VELOCITY Air moving at high velocity exerts most of its force in (one direction/all directions) . one direction 64. When pressure is converted to velocity, most of its force is exerted in one direction, and the force of air in other directions is (increased/decreased). decreased 65. As air velocity increases, air pressure 7 decreases 66. A nozzle is used to increase the velocity of air. GH Low PRESSURE PRESSURE NOZZLE The nozzle allows air to escape in (one direction/all directions). one direction 67. Air escapes through the nozzle at high (velocity/ pressure). velocity 2768. Pressure energy is used up to (increase/decrease) the increase velocity of the air. 69. There are two ways to use air velocity to move the rotor blades. IMPULSE REACTION NOZZLE = Nozze In the impulse effect, the nozzle is (moving/stationary). stationary 70. The air shoots out and strikes an object in its path. The object moves in a direction (the same as/opposite from) the direction the air jet is moving. the same as ‘TL The reaction effect works like a rocket. The nozzle moves in the (opposite direction from/same direction as) the air movement. opposite direction from 72. The blades of most turbines are designed to take ad- vantage of these two different effects of a moving air stream. Both the impulse effect and the reaction effect are used to the blades. move Impulse Turbine 78. This turbine uses the impulse principle to turn the rotor. HIGH ROTOR PRESSURE AIR Low PRESSURE AIR STATOR +} ‘The stator supports one large nozzle 2874. Pressure is greatest on the (inlet/outlet) side of the nozzle. 75. ‘The purpose of the nozzle is to increase the of the air. 76. A high-velocity jet of air from the nozzle the rotor blade in its path. 77. The blade moves, mechanical energy is produced, and the shaft : 78. Air strikes the rotor blade with an impelling force or impulse. ‘Thus, the name turbine, is used for this kind of 79. Instead of one large nozzle, the stator may hold a series of smaller. 80. Look at this drawing showing the shape of a set of stator blades. STATOR BLADES ‘The nozzle openings are the the stator blades. between 81. The air leaves the stator blades through (wider/nar- rower) openings than the openings it enters through. 29 inlet velocity strikes, or hits rotates impulse nozzles spaces narrower82. Squeezing the air through the narrowing spaces forms 4 series of jets. STATOR ROTOR The air jets strike the rotor blades, and push them in a direction (the same as/opposite from) the direction the same as the air is flowing. Pure impulse turbines are used where pressure differ- ences are great. ‘This means that in an impulse turbine the turbine inlet Pressure must be very (high/low). high 84. Most gas turbine compressors do not supply very high Pressure to the turbine. The impulse principle is (rarely/often) used in com- rarely bustion gas turbines, Reaction Turbine 85. The lawn sprinkler moves by the principle of reaction. ROTOR NOZZLE \ ‘The rotor moves in (an opposite direction from/the same direction as) the water jet. an opposite direction from 3086. This is a pure reaction turbine. High-pressure air ex- pands through the rotor blades. HIGH VELOCITY As the air expands, velocity increases and pressure 87. As the air comes through the other side of the blade, velocity increases. The rotor turns in the the air jet. direction from 88. Most reaction turbines use a combination of the prin- ciples of reaction and impulse. STATOR ROTOR ‘The stator blades are the same in reaction and impulse turbines, but the blades are different. 89. The stator blade directs a high-velocity jet of air at a blade. 90. These jets strike the rotor blades and start the rotor 91. The air then expands again through the blade and applies the force of reaction. The rotor further. 31 decreases opposite rotor rotor turning turns, or moves| | 92. Pressure (increases/decreases) again, decreases 98. Look at the drawing. STATOR ROTOR 4 ROTOR IMPULSE JET REACTION JET The initial movement of the rotor is caused by an im- pulse of air striking the blade. rotor 94. But the velocity of the air increases as it travels up the blade, and (reaction/impulse) keeps the process going. reaction 95. In most reaction turbines, the design of the rotor and stator blades uses both the and effect to move the rotor. impulse, reaction 96. The turbine usually has more than one set of rotor and stator blades. SHAFT ROTOR BLADES As air leaves the first set of rotor blades, it enters a set of blades. stator 97. The pressure in the second set of stator blades is (higher/lower) than the pressure in the first set. lower 3298. The turbine designs so far described have been named by the way they work. The name impulse turbine indicates that the turbine works on the principle, The Compressor Turbine and Load Turbine 99. Turbines can also be named by what they drive. The 100. A load turbine drives the turbine that drives the turbine compressor is called the turbine. 101. Most combustion gas turbines have two drive shafts. TO COMPRESSOR 102, 108, 104, One shaft drives the load. LOAD TURBINE, COMPRESSOR TURBINE ‘The other shaft drives the which forces high-pressure air into the combustion chamber. ‘The compressor uses twice as much power as the load. ‘The compressor turbine has a (greater/lesser) number of rotor discs than the load turbine. ‘The hot air from the combustion chamber gives up energy to the compressor turbine before it reaches the ‘turbine. The pressure of the air entering the load turbine is than the pressure of the air entering the compressor turbine. 38 impulse compressor compressor greater Toad lower| 105. As air pressure increases in the compressor, the volume of the air decreases, As air pressure decreases in the turbine, the volume of the air 106. To handle the larger volume of air, the size of the rotor blades in the load turbine is than the size of the rotor blades in the compressor turbine. 107. Look at the drawing of two sets of rotor blades. be COMPRESSOR TURBINE LOAD TURBINE It is easier to break off the (longer/shorter) blade of the load turbine, 108. The longer blades on the turbine must be stronger and attached to the dise more firmly than the shorter blades on the turbine, 109, To reduce the strain on the blades of the load turbine, ‘the load shaft often rotates (slower/faster) than the compressor shaft. 110. As air is compressed in the compressor section, it warms up. As air expands through the turbine section, its tem- erature 111. The temperature of the air entering the compressor turbine is than the temperature of the air entering the load turbine. 112. The (compressor/load) turbine must be designed to withstand higher temperatures. 34 increases longer load compressor slower decreases higher compressorThe Hot-Gas Generator 118. If the load turbine is removed, the exhaust from the compressor turbine contains large amounts of usable energy. ‘The temperature and pressure of this exhaust air are both still very (high/low). high 114. Sometimes gas turbines are used just to produce heat for drying, steam generation, or process demands. ‘These gas turbines (need/do not need) a load-turbine. do not need 115. If the load turbine is removed completely, the gas tur- bine can produce exhaust air at high ‘temperature 116. The load turbine uses the pressure of air as its energy source. Without the load turbine, large amounts of ____ pressure energy are still available to do work. 117. The jet engine uses the gas turbine design. COMPRESSOR — COMBUSTION CHAMBER ‘The jet engine has an air compressor, a combustion chamber, and a compressor. - turbine 118. High pressure is changed to velocity as air leaves the compressor turbine. This high-velocity air moves the jet engine rather than another set of turbine blades 119. When a turbine is used to produce hot gas, it is called a hot-gas generator. If @ gas turbine is used to run a pumping unit, it (is/is not) a hot-gas generator. is not 35REVIEW AND SUMMARY 120. Name these gas turbine parts. 1. rotor blades 2. stator blades 3. load turbine 4. compressor turbine 5. transition piece 6. basket 7. burner 121. The compressor in the drawing is (an axial/a centrifu- gal) compressor. an axial 122. In the compressor section : the rotor blades (inerease/decrease) air velocity, increase the stator blades slow this air down and increase air_______ and Pressure mechanical energy is (added to/taken from) the added to air. 123. In the turbine section: the stator blades increase air velocity the Blades absorb this velocity and rotor (inerease/decrease) air pressure, and decrease mechanical energy is (added to/taken from) the taken from air, 86124. Both the principles of. and of, reaction, impulse are used to move rotor blades in the turbine section. 125. The____turbine drives the turbine com- ‘compressor Pressor. 126. A gas turbine used to produce hot air only is a FF hot gas generator 37COMBUSTION GAS TURBINES Section 3 Auxiliaries of the Combustion Gas TurbineAUXILIARIES OF THE COMBUSTION GAS TURBINE The Starter 1. The turbine needs a supply of high-pressure air. This high-pressure air is supplied by the 2. While the unit is running, the power to run the com- Pressor is supplied by the shaft of the (compressor/ load) turbine. 8. Before the unit can be started, the compressor must be started so that it can begin supplying high-pressure air to the 4. A small steam turbine, diesel engine, or electric motor is used to the compressor. 5. Look at this drawing. 35 | STARTER AT yf ‘The starter is coupled to the of the compressor. 39 ‘compressor compressor turbine start shaft6. Once the unit is started, the starter can be uncoupled. The compressor now gets its power from the ‘turbine. 7. No steam or electricity is needed for the combustion gas turbine itself, and it uses very little water. Steam, electricity, or water is needed only for the Governors 8 The gas turbine is most efficient near its “design speed.” For most efficient operation, the speed must be held as near as possible to the speed. 9. If air is pushed through the turbine at a faster rate, the speed of the turbine (increases/decreases) . 10. The speed of the turbine may be adjusted by the volume of air that passes through it per minute. 11. Increasing the temperature in the combustion chamber makes the air expand further. ‘The volume of air going through the turbine in a min- ute can be inereased by. ‘the tempera- ture in the combustion chamber. 12, To increase the air temperature, (more/less) fuel is burned in the combustion chamber. 18. The speed of the turbine, then, is regulated by adjust- ing the supply to give the correct tem- perature in the combustion chamber. 14. Increasing the load on a turbine decreases its speed. To drive a heavier load, the air must be (hotter/ colder). 15. When the load is increased, the fuel supply to the com- bustion chamber must be (increased /decreased) 16. Changes in speed caused by changes in the load are corrected by changing the supply. 40 compressor starter design increases changing increasing more fuel hotter increased fuel——— ee 17. Look at the drawing. FUEL IN J a7 GOVERNOR VALVE | TO. COMBUSTION CHAMBER ‘The governor regulates the amount of fuel entering the combustion chamber. 18. The speed of the turbine is ernor valve. by the gov- 19. If the turbine starts to speed up or slow down, speed must be returned to normal. ‘Moving the governor valve corrects for in speed. 20. When the load on the gas turbine is increased, the gov- ernor valve must be (opened/closed) to allow more fuel into the burner. 21. If the turbine is operating a pumping unit and the unit is suddenly unloaded, the governor valve has to be (opened/closed). 22. The governor valve is rather large in most gas turbines and must overcome forces of weight and friction. The force needed to move a turbine governor valve is (great/small). 23. A hydraulic oil system can supply the needed to move the governor valve. For frames 24 through 40, look at Exhibit 2, which shows a hydraulic oil system for a governor valve. 24. Hydraulic oil pressure moves the governor valve. The governor valve connects to a servo. 41 valve controlled changes opened great force piston25. Oil operates the servo-piston, 26. The piston does not move until oil pressure changes. ‘When ofl pressure increases in one port, the piston moves and forces oil out of the cylinder through the other port and into the 27. For oil pressure to increase in the right port, enough oil must be added from the hydraulic supply to increase the oil pressure in the (Ieft/right) port. 28. The pilot valve must be moved to the (right/left) to increase pressure in the right port. 29. Increasing oil pressure in the right port moves the servo-piston (left/right). 30. When the servo-piston moves to the left, the governor closes. 81. For the servo-piston to move, oil pressure must be lower in one port than in the other. The servo-piston moves away from the port with the (higher/lower) pressure, 32. When pressure increases in the the governor valve opens. port, 88. Oil in the port with the lower pressure is forced out of the system into a 84. This oil system receives information from 2 speed- sensing device on the turbine shaft. When the turbine operates too slowly, the governor valve must be (opened/closed). 85. To open the governor valve, the must be opened to the high-pressure oil supply. port 86. When turbine speed rises too high, the governor valve must. ‘i 87. Oil forced out of the cylinder is returned to an oil to be used again. 88. The hydraulic oil system cannot act until it receives information about the turbine speed. It is only a relay of information of turbine speed. The system itself (can/cannot) detect how fast the turbine is going. 42 Pressure reservoir right right left valve higher left reservoir opened left, close reservoir cannot89. Some other device must indicate the turbine speed to the relay. This device operates the hydraulic oil system to open and close the. governor valve j 40. The speed-sensing device which indicates turbine speed and makes corrections is called the governor. The operates the hydraulic oil system. governor 41. The drawing shows a typical flyball governor. GOVERNOR ROD | | | TURBINE SHAFT FLYBALL SPRING ‘STARTUP OVER SPEED ‘The fiyballs turn as the turbine turns. shaft 42, The fiyballs are held together by a spring. The force of the spring keeps the fiyballs together at (high/low) speeds. low 48. As the governor starts to turn, the fiyballs move apart, ‘The faster the governor turns, the. apart farther the fiyballs move. 48 Now turn the book over45. 46. 41. 49. 51. 52, 58. ‘The governor rod moves to the right as the fiyballs move apart. Increasing the speed of the flyball governor moves the governor rod to the (left/right). Decreasing the speed moves the rod to the For frames 46 through 54, look at Exhibit 3, which shows how the flyball governor operates the hydraulic oil system. ‘The fiyballs are connected to the (governor/pilot) valve. At startup, the turbine shaft is not turning. ‘The fiyballs are held (far apart/close together) by the spring. At startup, oil pressure is highest at the left port, and ‘the governor valve is fully (open/closed) ‘As the shaft starts to turn, the force of the spring pre- vents the flyballs from moving apart. ‘As the shaft approaches operating speed, the spring tension is overcome, and the fiyballs now move (towards/away from) each other. ‘As the flyballs separate, the pilot valve opens the right port to high-pressure oil. ‘The servo-piston begins to (open/close) the governor valve. Imereasing the load on the turbine slows the turbine down, and the flyballs are pulled towards each other. ‘The governor valve is and the turbine speeds up. At normal speeds the pilot valve allows an equal amount of oil into both ports. At normal speeds oil pressure is (greater/less/the same) in both ports. But when the governor valve must be opened or closed, the fiyballs reduce the pressure in one port and the pressure in the other. 44 right left pilot close together open away from close opened the same increase54, The (pilot/governor) valve changes the pressure set- ting of the ports. Changing the ______ of the oil moves the gov- ernor valve. ‘Moving the governor valve controls turbine ___. 55. In the drawing below, the governor valve and hydraulic oil system are controlled by an electric governor. maa An electric generator is run by the turbine 56. When the turbine shaft________, the generator produces electric current. 45 pilot pressure speed shaft turns, or rotates57. This current energizes a coil in a solenoid. NO POWER SOFT IRON CORE MEDIUM POWER Power —} qst ‘As long as the amount of electric current is low, the iron core is pushed out of the coil by the —_____. spring 58, Electric current flowing in the coil makes it act like a magnet. ‘As the electric current increases, the magnetic coil at- tracts the soft______core. fron 59, The iron core moves into the coil, compressing the spring. When the amount of electric current in the coil in- creases, the iron core moves farther (into/out of) the into coil. 4660. As the current in the coil increases, the core pulls the valve to the right. pilot ni 61. The iron core moves the pilot valve back and forth in response to changes in the turbine speed. ‘The pilot valve’s action opens and closes the left and right ports to produce changes in the oil pressure 62. The changes in oil pressure in the ports of the hydraulic system move the servo-piston back and forth to open and close the governor valve 68. The governor valve regulates the supply of —_____ fuel to the combustion chamber. Overspeed Trip Mechanism 64. Under normal conditions, the governor regulates the speed of the turbine. If the load is suddenly removed from a fully loaded turbine, the turbine may (overspeed/stop). overspeed 65. Sometimes the governor reacts too slowly, or doesn’t react at all. Ig the governor does not cut off the fuel supply, the turbine may overspeed until it flies apart. an66. In an emergency, a trip pin shuts off the flow of to the combustion chamber to protect fuel against overspeeding. 67. The trip pin is a weight in the governor shaft. UNBALANCED WEIGHT. (TRIP PIN) At normal speeds, the trip pin remains inside the gov- ernor shaft 68. As the shaft rotates, centrifugal force tends to make the trip pin fly out of the shaft, but a - spring holds it in place. 69. If the engine overspeeds, spring tension is overcome and the moves out of trip pin the shaft. For frames 70 through 78, look at Exhibit 4, which shows a trip-valve system. 70. At normal speeds, oil pressure compresses spring A to hold the trip valve (open/closed). open 71. When the engine overspeeds, the trip pin opens the trip lateh. With the latch open, spring (A/B) opens the dump B valve to release oil. 72. Releasing oil from the system (increases/decreases) decreases the oil pressure. 73. When the trip pin is thrown out, and the dump valve decreases the oil pressure, spring A forces the trip valve to (open/close). close 74. When the trip valve is closed, fuel cannot get into the and the turbine stops. combustion chamber 4875. The overspeed trip, in cutting off the flow of to the combustion chamber, acts like @ fuel governor. 76. Unlike the governor, which resets itself, the over- speed trip mechanism must be by hand. reset ‘TT. Overspeed trip pins are set to go off at speeds 10-15% over the recommended safe speed. ‘The trip valve shuts the turbine down before it ‘by more than 10% or 15%. overspeeds 78, If the turbine operates at 8% over the designed maxi- mum speed, the trip valve (shuts down/does not shut down) the turbine. does not shut down Casing Seals 79. The compressor shaft and the turbine shaft extend through the stator. ‘There must be a clearance between the shaft and the stator so that the rotating shaft does not —________ rub against the stator. 80. If this clearance space between the shaft and stator is too large, high-pressure air escapes. ESCAPING AIR As air escapes, energy is lost and turbine efficiency is reduced 81. If the shaft rubs on the stator, friction generates a tremendous amount of heat. ‘This heat can cause the shaft or stator to ____ warp, or bow out of shape. 4982. A packing box is inserted between the shaft and stator of this small, low-speed steam turbine. CASING acting GLAND NUT PACKING RINGS ‘The packing box ______ the space between the seals casing and the shaft. 83. The packing box contains rings of soft material which do not ________ the shaft when they rub against damage it. 84, Combustion gas turbines operate at high speeds which quickly wear out any kind of soft packing material. Thus, soft packing (can/cannot) seal a gas turbine cannot effectively. 85. The labyrinth seal is made of a soft metal which does not wear out as soft packing does. ‘The labyrinth seal is used in high-speed gas turbines. 86. A labyrinth seal consists of teeth which fit closely to the shaft. LABYRINTH TEETH SHAFT STATOR ‘The teeth are made of soft metal, so that if they acci- dentally the turning shaft, they do not touch cause excessive damage. 5087. The labyrinth seal minimizes air leakage along the 88. Compartments are formed between the teeth of the labyrinth and the shaft. As compressed air or hot exhaust air enters the seal, it forms whirlpools in each compartment 89. A labyrinth seal allows some air leakage, since clear- ance is needed to prevent the shaft from on the seal. rubbing 90. The thin sharp teeth of the labyrinth seal are easily worn off if bearing wear or warpage cuts down the between the teeth and the shaft. clearance, or space Bearings 91, The compressor and turbine rotors must be kept in position while they turn. ‘The shaft must be free to rotate, but it (must/must not) must not be free to move in other directions. 92. Three types of shaft movement are shown in the drawing below. ROTATION AXIAL_ MOVEMENT RADIAL MOVEMENT (Turning) (Thrust) Besides rotating, the shaft can tend to move in other ways. two BL98. 94. 95. 96. 98. 100. 101. As hot air strikes the turbine blades, it may force the turbine shaft to move away from the stator blades. ‘This end-to-end movement is (axial/radial) movement. ‘The shaft may also tend to move off-center. This is (axial/radial) movement. Bearings support the shaft and allow it to rotate with minimum friction. Bearings also control radial and ______ move- ment of the shaft. ‘The lubricant to the bearing provides a fluid film be- tween the rotating shaft and the stationary parts supporting and centering the shaft. ‘This fluid film prevents the shaft and its stationary supports from ______ against each other. ‘The radial or journal bearing on which the shaft rests controls ____ movements. ‘The thrust bearing limits end-to-end movement of the shaft. ‘The thrust bearing limits the amount of. movement. ‘Small gas turbines use ball bearings to control radial and thrust movement. RADIAL BALL BEARING SHAFT THRUST BALL BEARING The shaft of this turbine is supported by both thrust and radial bearings. Ball bearings are lubricated so that there is almost no between the ball and any of the other parts it touches. ‘The ball bearings ______freely as the shaft rotates. 82. axial radial axial rubbing radial axial, or thrust ball ‘wear, or friction turn102. 108. 104. 105. 106. ‘A ball bearing can be used as a radial bearing or a thrust bearing only where axial and radial loads are not great. Ball bearings are used on (large/small) turbines. Large turbines and compressors use heavy-duty sleeve bearings. A sleeve bearing can support a very shaft. ‘Look at the drawing of a sleeve bearing. BEARING CONTAI Lay }EARING CONTAINER ES 4 OIL UNDER PRESSURE SHAFT eat BABBITT BEARING ZA searing BRACKET ‘The bearing is made of low-friction metal Coaboite) and is lubricated by a film of ‘The oil is supplied to the bearing under pressure through grooves on the bearing surface. ‘The high pressure of the oil insures that the shaft (can/eannot) squeeze the film of oil from the bearing under heavy load. Some sleeve bearings are made in several sections which can tilt. PINS OIL WEDGE. > SLEEVE SP Hic ‘The sections tilt as the shaft turns, forming oil wedges between the shaft and the 58 small heavy, or large oil cannot sleeve, or bearing107. These oil_________keep the oil from being wedges squeezed out of the bearing. 108. This is a typical thrust bearing design found on most large gas turbines. THRUST SHOE RETAINER BABBITT-FACED THRUST SHOES BEARING RACKET THRUST COLLAR ‘A thrust bearing consists of a stationary thrust shoe and a moving thrust. collar 109. The thrust shoes are attached to the stator and are stationary. ‘The thrust collar is attached to the and shaft, or rotor rotates with it. 110. Oil is supplied under pressure to the thrust bearing. ‘When the shaft moves in either direction along its axis, the thrust shoe and the collar are forced together. ‘The ____ between the surfaces prevents the oil surfaces from rubbing together in direct contact. 111. In another thrust bearing design often used in gas turbines, a stationary collar is fitted with thrust shoes which tilt when the moving thrust collar turns. THRUST SHOE SHAFT OIL WEDGES STATIONAR' THRUST COLLAR THRUST SURFACE ‘The tilting shoes form _______ wedges between oil the collars. 54112. The oil wedges keep oil from being squeezed out of the space between the thrust surfaces and the collar when the ___ rotates. shaft 113. This is a typical bearing arrangement. qHe 23 Rel ! a I, SLEEVE THRUST. SLEEVE © THRUST BEARING BEARING BEARING BEARING The sleeve bearings support the compressor rotor and also the compressor and load______rotors. turbine 114. The sleeve bearings restrict the (axial/radial) move- radial ments of the shaft. 115. The compressor, the compressor turbine, and the load turbine have one____ bearing each. thrust 116. Thrust bearings restrict the (axial/radial) movements axial of the shaft. The Oil-Circulation System 117. Inthe lubrication system, oil is supplied under pressure to the bearings 118. If oil pressure is lost, the bearings (are/are not) Iubri- are not cated. 119. The turbine speed control and temperature control systems often use oil pressure to operate hydraulic relays. ‘The governor system needs a supply of high-pressure to move the governor valve. oil 120. The lubrication system keeps a supply of clean —_______ flowing to the hydraulic relays and oil also to the bearings. 5B121, The drawing represents a typical oil-circulation system. COMPRESSOR COMPRESSOR SLEEVE TURBINE SLEEVE SLEEVE AND THRUST AND THRUST BEARING BEARING BEARING Lo AUXILIARY PUMP Oil is stored in a large oil 122. Oil is forced to flow from the reservoir to the bearings and to the control system by means of a main oil 128. Oil may decompose if it becomes too hot. il cannot maintain a protective tween metal parts if it becomes too hot. 124, The oil must be cool in order to cool the bearings. ‘The oil first passes through an oil 125. Oil that is too cold, however, may get too viscous (thick) . Viscous oil may not flow around bearings well enough to them properly. 126, After passing through the cooler, the oil passes through an oj] _______ to be cleaned of impurities. 56 MISCELLANEOUS reservoir pump film cooler lubricate filter127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 182. 188. 134. 185. 136. 137. 138. If the oil system fails to deliver oil to the bearings, severe damage from heat and friction may result. ‘The bearings may ‘Thus, a flow of must always be main- tained while the turbine is in operation. If a filter or cooler becomes blocked, or if the oil pump breaks down, the oil flow is interrupted and the turbine may have to be shut down. An auxiliary filter, cooler, and pump may be used to maintain the flow of _________in an emergency. ‘Since the system must stop if the pumping equipment fails, most gas turbines are served by (one/two) oil pumps. ‘The main oil pump is used during normal operations and the auxiliary pump in case of ‘The main oil pump is driven by the turbine shaft. ‘At startup, since the turbine shaft is not rotating, the main oil pump (does/does not) operate. ‘The auxiliary pump is run by a separate driver, so that it operates independently of the turbine. At startup, the auxiliary pump lubricates the bearings until the turbine is up to operating. At shutdown, the main pump is again put out of opera~ tion as the shaft slows down. ‘The pump again keeps oil circulating through the bearings. ‘There are also two oil filters and two oil in the circulation system. ‘When the lubricating oil pressure becomes too low, some turbines may be stopped by a hydraulic trip. An automatic dump valve releases oi] from 2 trip cylin- der to shut off the fuel supply when the oil pressure becomes too (high/low). Some units are equipped with oil-pressure alarms. ‘When the lubricating oil pressure begins to fall, an alarm the operator. ‘There may also be an alarm to warn the operator when the temperature becomes too high. Alarms warn the operator when the oil becomes too low or the oi] _______ becomes too high. BT melt, or burn, or fuse oil oil emergencies does not speed auxiliary coolers low warns, or alerts pressure temperatureCOMBUSTION GAS TURBINES Section 4 Control of OperationCONTROL OF OPERATION L ‘The automation of turbine operation has created very complex instrument control panels. The control give the operator informa- tion on how the turbine is functioning. Most of the machine's functions are handled auto- matically by controls on the instrument panel and on the turbine itself. For example, the turbine’s speed is controlled by @ Tf the turbine overspeeds, an shuts down the turbine. Startup, normal operation, and shutdown are mostly automatic processes. ‘The (instrument panel/operator) actually performs these steps. ‘This is a typical instrument control panel. ‘The operator himself (does/does not) actually run the machine. However, the instrument control panel cannot reason or think out the information it is receiving. Reasoning and interpretation can only be done by the 59 instruments governor overspeed trip instrument panel does not operator7. The operator is an observer who maintains a constant check on turbine operation. In an emergency, the ________ must take over the control of the turbine. 8, If the turbine is making excessive noise and vibration, it would usually be the who shuts the unit down. 9. Lights flash and alarms sound on the —______ ______ to warn the operator of malfunctions. 10. Safe operation is the responsibility of the (operator/ instrument control panel). ‘TEMPERATURE CONTROL Thermal Efficiency 11. All of the energy used in the turbine comes from burning fuel. ‘The large volume of air produced in the combus- tion chamber and the high pressure produced in the ‘come from the heat energy of burning fuel. 12. However, a lot of energy is lost in running the gas turbine unit. The compressor section uses a (large/small) amount of the power produced by the turbine. 18. Temperature control is vital in turbine operation. ‘The air inlet temperature must be kept (high/low) to reduce the amount of power needed by the compressor. 14. The compressor uses twice as much power as the driven equipment uses. If a turbine puts out 5000 HP (horsepower) to drive a pump, the compressor feeding the turbine uses HP. 15. To have 5000 HP available to drive a pump, the turbine must generate a total of _______ HP. 16. Only one-______of the power from the turbine can be used to drive a piece of process equipment. 60 operator operator instrument panel operator ‘compressor large low 10,000 115,000 third17. A turbine is driving a pump. If the pump needs 3000 HP, the turbine must produce an extra________HP for its compressor, or HP altogether. 18. A large amount of heat passes out of the turbine in the air. 19. Since it is often possible to utilize the hot exhaust for another process, the exhaust from the load turbine may be used again as a source of : 20. Even when idling, some turbines use large amounts of fuel. Operating a gas turbine at part or no load means that the turbine is operating (efficiently/inefficiently) . 21. Thermal efficiency may be increased by increasing the temperature in the combustion chamber. Higher temperatures expand (more/less) air. 22. Increasing the temperature in the combustion chamber (inereases/decreases) the speed of the turbine. 28. A higher temperature in the combustion chamber gives (inereased/decreased) thermal efficiency. 24. But, increased temperatures may deform metals. ‘The efficiency of the gas turbine is limited by the tem- perature which the _________ parts can withstand without damage. 25. Turbine temperatures must be measured and Regenerators 26. Most industrial gas turbines take in air from the atmos- phere and discharge exhaust back into the atmosphere. ‘The air leaves the turbine at a temperature (higher/ lower) than the air entering the compressor. 21. Unless the exhaust is uted for heating purposes, part of the energy from the burning fuel is 28. The turbine uses less than 25% of the available energy in the burning fuel. More than 75% of the energy may be in the exhaust stream. 61 exhaust heat inefficiently more increases increased metal controlled higher lost, or wasted wasted30. 31. 33. INI EXHAUST A Increasing the temperature in the combustion chamber can increase the thermal efficiency of the turbine, if the exhaust temperature is kept as low as possible. But high temperatures the metal rotor blades. ‘The thermal efficiency of the turbine is limited by the ability of the metal parts to stand _ tem- peratures. ‘A more practical way to improve the thermal efficiency of a turbine is to make the best possible use of the in the exhaust. When there is no process use for the hot air stream leaving the turbine, it can be used to the air entering the combustion chamber. Heat from the exhaust stream is used in the regenera- tor. COMBUSTION CHAMBER hy TURBINE damage heat heat HH Ale ag err NN COMPRESSOR. | {Ep ecenenaton ‘The exhaust air from the turbine fows through the before it is discharged to the atmos- phere. 62 regenerator34, 35. 36. 37. 38. 40. aL. 42, In the regenerator, the exhaust air stream flows around tubes carrying air from the compressor to the ‘The exhaust air is not mixed with the air from the compressor because the exhaust pressure is (higher/ lower) than the pressure of the compressed air. ‘The regenerator transfers heat (from/to) the com- pressed air stream. Preheating the air fed to the combustion chamber per- mits use of less ___________in the combustion chamber, and (increases/decreases) the thermal effi ciency of the turbine. Even when a gas turbine is idling, it uses large amounts of fuel. When a gas turbine is operated at part load or no load, its thermal efficiency is (higher/lower) than at full load. Practically all industrial gas turbines discharge their exhaust gases into the atmosphere. But some gas turbines, such as those powered by atomic reactors, use poisonous or expensive gases in- stead of air. Poisonous or expensive gases can't be discharged into the. When a gas turbine takes in air from the atmosphere and discharges its exhaust into the atmosphere, it is using an open cycle. ‘When a gas turbine re-uses its exhaust gases with- out letting them leave the equipment, it is using a cycle. ‘The compressor of a gas turbine operates best with a cool inlet gas stream. ‘The hot exhaust gases in a closed-cycle turbine must be_______ before they are sent back to the compressor. In a closed-eycle turbine, the gas stream cannot be heated by burning fuel directly in the gas. ‘The amount of burned fuel in the gas stream would in- crease as the same gas went through the again and again. 63 combustion chamber lower to fuel increases lower atmosphere closed cooled combustion chamber48. Closed-cycle operation requires (more/less) compli- more cated equipment than open-cycle operation. 44. Look at the drawing of a closed-cycle gas turbine. AIR HEATER COMPRESSOR AIR COOLER Heat must be added to the gas stream in the air heater, and heat must be removed from the gas stream in ig seen eee air cooler 45. Because of the extra equipment required, __- closed cycle gas turbines are used only if some factor is more important than cost. 46, Practically all industrial combustion gas turbines are -eyele turbines. open 64Temperature Measurement and Control at. 48. 49. 50. BL. Look at the drawing. ‘The highest temperature in the entire unit is found at the point where heated air leaves the ‘The turbine blades must not be exposed to excessively high temperatures. ‘The highest temperature in the turbine section is found at the (inlet/exhaust) of the section, and this tempera- ture must be controlled. Air cools as it expands through the turbine. The temperature of the air leaving the turbine is (higher/lower) than the temperature of the air enter- ing the turbine from the combustion chamber. Since it is easier to measure low temperatures than high ones, it is easier to measure temperatures at the (inlet/exhaust) of the turbine section. ‘The temperature drop through the turbine can be cal- culated. If the exhaust temperature is known, the temperature can be calculated. Air is better mixed at the turbine exhaust than at the turbine inlet. ‘Temperature is more uniform at the turbine ‘Measuring temperature at the exhaust prevents the temperature controlling devices from being affected by large, rapid changes in . 65 ‘combustion chamber inlet lower exhaust inlet exhaust temperature54. In most turbines, the control system is based on the ‘temperature at the turbine ____. exhaust 55. A thermocouple is an electrical heat-sensing device. ‘Most turbines have two or more thermocouples or other heat-sensing devices in the (inlet/exhaust) sys- exhaust tem. 56. The thermocouples can set off an alarm if the exhaust temperature goes 100° F (above/below) the maximum above design temperature. 57. At 200°F above the maximum temperature, drastic action is called for. ‘The thermocouple sets off a trip device that auto matically turns off the________ supply. fuel 58. A trip shuts off fuel at ______* F above maxi- 200 mum design temperature. 59. As a check on the control system, the temperature at the turbine ___ may be recorded by an in- exhaust strument on the control panel. Extreme Heating Effects 60. Burning drops of liquid fuel, or hot ash from solid fuel entering the turbine section from the combustion cham- ber, may pit the blades. a ‘The hot material may cause small areas of the blades to get hot enough to___ the metal, leaving melt pits. 61. Even though the metal blades do not get hot enough to melt, they weaken at______ temperatures. high 66@2. 66. 67. 68. 70. a. 72. Metals tend to weaken when they are heated. The ________the metal gets, the greater its tendency to weaken. As the rotor discs spin, centrifugal force stretches the blades slightly. At low temperatures, the blades are not changed much by centrifugal force. But, at high temperatures, the blades may as the rotor spins. ‘Metal parts expand when they are heated, even if they are not moving, but they contract again when they cool. Metal parts that have been pulled out of shape whi they are hot do not back to their ori nal size when they cool. “Creep” is the stretching and weakening of metal parts under stress. Normally, expanded metals contract again when cooled, but changes resulting from are perma- nent. Turbine blades creep continually while they are hot and spinning. The blades of the rotor may ventually creep to the point where they The blades creep rapidly when they are new (“primary creep”). The primary creep stage is followed by a secondary which is not as rapid. In secondary creep, the stretching may weaken the blade almost enough to completely _____it off from the disc. Turbine blades must not be allowed to reach the point (“tertiary creep”). ‘The rotor must be_________before the blades have operated beyond a safe creep-rupture point. ‘The creep rate increases as the temperature Because of the differences in temperature, creep is more of a problem in the (compressor/load) turbine. 67 hotter weaken, or stretch contract creep break creep break breaking replaced increases compressor78. With alloys such as Inconel 100 and Nominic 155, creep can be kept low at temperatures up to 1400° F. ‘These alloys extend the life of the rotor by. the rate of creep. 74, In some turbines, a stream of cool air is directed at the roots of the turbine blades. ‘Since the main strain on the blades occurs at the roots, blades last longer if their root temperature is kept as as possible. 75. Air to be blown over the turbine blade roots may be drawn from the turbine compressor. The air is bled off from the center part of the compres- sor, before its temperature gets too 76. To keep metal creep within tolerable limits, the inlet temperature in the turbine section must not get too 77. If the temperature exceeds the allowable limit, the metal components may ___at an excessive rate. Uneven Heating Effects 78. Metal turbine parts should heat or cool evenly. Uneven heating or cooling causes stress and distortion of ____parts. 79. Air flowing from the combustion chamber enters the turbine blading at relatively high temperatures. At startup the turbine is (hot/cool). 68 decreasing cool, or low high high creep metal cool80. 81. 82. 83. 85. 86. 87. 88. ‘The metal components of the turbine expand as they are heated. ‘The parts that first contact the hot air rapidly. If all parts do not heat evenly, the rapidly expanding areas may bend under the strain of unequal expansion and distortion. The turbine inlet temperature must not increase faster than 25°F per minute of startup time, so as not to strain parts from unequal expansion. A very __________ increase in temperature (such as a rise of 50° F per minute) may shorten the life of the turbine blades. ‘The turbine controls on the control panel are set by a timer so that the steps in the Startup process are not run through too. ‘Metal components shrink or contract rapidly when cooled. During shutdown the rotor shaft cools and (expands/ contracts). Look at the drawing. BOWED SHAFT CooL, At shutdown the hot air inside the turbine casing starts to ‘The cooler, heavier air eventually (rises to the top/falls to the bottom) of the casing. ‘The turbine shaft then cools (faster/slower) at the bottom. The shaft may bow because of the __ rate of cooling. 69 expand metal rapid, or fast rapidly contracts cool falls to the bottom faster uneven, or rapid89. The rest of the shaft slowly cools until the whole shaft is at one temperature. The bow is greatest a short time after shutdown when there is a (large/small) temperature difference in the turbine. 90. Because the discs fit so tightly to the shaft, the shaft is still bowed after cooling is completed. ‘The shaft is still __________at startup. 91. Unless some means of preventing excessive bowing is provided, the bowed shaft may vibrate so much that the usual automatic startup procedures (can/cannot) take place. 92. In order to prevent uneven heating or uneven cooling during shutdown, larger units are equipped with a turning gear. ‘The turning gear rotates the shaft after the tur- bine has stopped so that all sides of the shaft cool 98. A turning gear keeps the rotor turning during shut- down, to prevent uneven cooling. TURBINE SHAFT: Asmall (1 to 2 HP) motor turns a____gear. 94, The worm gear acts through a group of gears. 95. The turning gear is connected to the turbine manually by the operator after the turbine has__. 96. The (operator/control panel) determines when the turning gear should be engaged. 0 bowed evenly worm spur stopped operatorVIBRATION 97. Turbine parts vibrate during operation. To reduce the amount of wear on parts, this must be kept as low as possible. vibration 98. Vibration has two separate characteristics: frequency and amplitude. Frequency tells how often the vibration occurs, and amplitude tells how far the part ____ moves, or vibrates 99. One complete vibration is a cycle. If a shaft completes 100 vibrations in a minute, it is vibrating at the (frequency/amplitude) of 100 cycles frequency per minute. 100. Frequency tells how often the shaft vibrates, and am- plitude tells how____ the shaft: vibrates. far 101. The frequency is not related directly to the amplitude. Increasing the frequency (does/does not) necessarily does not increase the amount of shaft or bearing movement. 102. Both shafts are vibrating at the same frequency. at _— QS —— ea —— == A B (Shaft A/Shaft B) has the greater amplitude of vibra- Shaft A tion. 103. Amplitude is measured as the distance moved in mils (1 mil equals 1/1000 of an inch). A shaft vibrating at 10 mils (1/100 of an inch) moves (more/less) than a shaft vibrating at 4 mils (1/250 of more an inch). | 104, 10 mils is a (higher/lower) amplitude than 4 mils. higher a105. Amplitude is measured in three directions: one axial direction and two different radial directions. In shaft A, the direction of movement is : In shaft B, vibration is being measured radially along the In shaft C, vibration is being measured along the horizontal. 106. Under normal operating conditions the amplitude of vibration is low. Increased amplitude indicates an abnormal condition which must be 107. Amplitude may increase if the shaft is out of balance. MORE WEIGHT As the shaft becomes bowed, its center of balance 108. As the bowed shaft turns, the force of spinning in- creases the _________of the vibration. 2 VERTICAL, RADIAL vertical radially changes amplitude109. The couplings connecting a turbine shaft to a pump shaft may be misaligned. ALIGNED A B The misaligned coupling is off-balance; the amplitude of vibration is (higher/lower) than normal. higher 110. The greater the amount of misalignment the higher the of vibration. amplitude 111. A turbine with a broken blade also causes excessive vibration 112. To correct this vibration, the turbine must be stopped jand tiie! blade se eee replaced 118. Excessive vibration causes excessive _ wear of the affected part. 114. Bearings restrict axial and radial movement and thus | reduce the amount of _____. vibration 115. A worn bearing which allows excessive vibration must pe seeeenneS replaced 116. If the end of a thin strip of spring steel is pulled back and released, it vibrates at one natural frequency. ‘The natural frequency of the strip (is/is not) depend- is not ent on the amplitude of vibration. 117. When you strike a suspended bar, you always get the same rate of vibration because the bar always vibrates at that one frequency 118. Like a metal strip or bar, a turbine shaft has a tend- ency to vibrate at its own natural : frequency 3