Environmental Challenges 4 (2021) 100187

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Environmental Challenges
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envc

Monitoring the effects of vegetation cover losses on land surface

temperature dynamics using geospatial approach in Rajshahi City,
Bangladesh
Abdulla - Al Kafy a,b, Abdullah Al Rakib a, Kaniz Shaleha Akter a, Zullyadini A Rahaman c,∗,
Abdullah-Al- Faisal a,d, Saumik Mallik e, N M Refat Nasher f,g, Md. Iquebal Hossain h,i,
Md. Yeamin Ali j
a Department of Urban & Regional Planning, Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology (RUET), Rajshahi 6204, Bangladesh
b ICLEI South Asia, Rajshahi City Corporation, Rajshahi 6203, Bangladesh
c
Department of Geography & Environment, Faculty of Human Sciences, Sultan Idris Education University, Tanjung Malim 35900, Malaysia
d
GIS Centre, Operational Centre Amsterdam (OCA), Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF), Cox’s Bazar 4750, Bangladesh
e
Department of Civil Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology (BUET), Dhaka, Bangladesh
f
Life and Earth Sciences, Jagannath University, Bangladesh
g
Graduate School of Human Development and Environment, Kobe University, Japan
h
Department of Civil Engineering, Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology, Rajshahi, Bangladesh
i
Barind Multipurpose Development Authority, Rajshahi, Bangladesh
j
DanChurchAid, Cox’s Bazar 4700, Bangladesh

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: Urban green space is one of the most essential components in contributing to ecological balance and environ-
Vegetation cover mental sustainability. Due to rapid urbanization in the last few decades, massive reduction of urban vegetation
Urban area cover (VC) has increased the land surface temperature (LST) and hampered the environmental sustainability. This
Land surface temperature
study aims to identify the VC cover loss on LST increase in Rajshahi City Corporation (RCC) area using geospa-
Remote sensing
tial techniques. The study established the relationship between VC loss and LST increase using transformation
analysis and micro-level directional mapping in ArcGIS 10.6 software. Multi-temporal Landsat TM/OLI satellite
images were used for the years 1990, 2000, 2010 and 2020, to classify land use/land cover (LULC) classes, the
transition between VC and urban area (UA), directional distribution of UA and VC, and variation of ward wise
LST distribution due to VC loss in the study area. The maximum likelihood supervised classification algorithm
was used to classify the LULC maps. All the classified LULC maps demonstrated an overall accuracy of more than
85%. The spectral radiance model was used to extract LST information from satellite images. The analysis of LULC
estimation suggests a significant net increase in UAs (+18%) and a reduction in VC (-17%) from 1990 to 2020.
The maximum temperature of the city was increased to 37.75 °C in 2020 from 23.46 °C in 1990. The assessed LST
showed that the lower recorded temperature zones in 1990 were converted into a higher temperature zone in
2020. The mean LST distribution showed a growing trends in UA, and reduction in VC, which converted the study
region from a moderate temperature zone to a high-temperature zone. The study demonstrates that a rise in the
non-evaporated surfaces, i.e., UA and a reduction in the green cover, were the most significant influential factors
to increase the LST effect. Remote sensing techniques have been proved a very useful tool for urban planners
and policymakers in taking appropriate measures to ensure sustainable development, conservation of the city’s
natural resources and minimize the influence of urbanization on LST.

1. Introduction tion in the urban population. In 2009, the number of city population
surpassed the amount of rural population, marking a crucial turning
Cities are the propellers of progress. Since the turn of the century, point in human history (Siu and Hart, 2013). While urbanization is
urbanization has accelerated with economic expansion and prolifera- an indication of economic growth and success, it also has both short

∗
Corresponding author: Zullyadini A Rahaman, Department of Geography & Environment, Faculty of Human Sciences, Sultan Idris Education University, 35900
Tanjung Malim, Malaysia. Email : zully@fsk.upsi.edu.my. ORCID : https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2529-6525
E-mail addresses: abdulla-al.kafy@localpathways.org (A.-.A. Kafy), abdullahalrakib310@gmail.com (A. Al Rakib), kanizkeya294@gmail.com (K.S. Akter),
zully@fsk.upsi.edu.my (Z.A. Rahaman), abdullah-al-faisal@localpathways.org (A.-A.-. Faisal).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2021.100187
Received 28 March 2021; Received in revised form 14 June 2021; Accepted 17 June 2021
2667-0100/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
A.-.A. Kafy, A. Al Rakib, K.S. Akter et al.
and long-term negative implications in cities’ development (Al Rakib
et al., 2020b; Celik et al., 2019; Maimaitiyiming et al., 2014). Several
studies have found that land use/land cover (LULC) has a considerable
consequence on land surface temperature (LST) and that the relative
rise in LST is a long-term consequence of LULC change, particularly
in urban areas (UAs) (Faisal et al., 2021; Maimaitiyiming et al., 2014;
Mallick et al., 2008; Pal and Ziaul, 2017). The conversion of marsh,
vegetative, and agricultural lands into built-up areas is hastened by ur-
banization and the subsequent catalysts for LULC change, which inad-
vertently drives up the cities’ LST (Halmy et al., 2015; Lilly Rose De-
vadas, 2009; Mishra and Rai, 2016; Pal and Ziaul, 2017; Tran et al.,
2017; Zhou et al., 2011). Urbanization has changed the surface energy
budgets by transforming cool natural LULC into impervious artificial
surfaces, altering the hydrological cycle, and affecting other physical
surface properties that may have an impact on local, regional, and global
climate (Arnfield, 2003; Chakroborty et al., 2020; Changnon, 1999,
1992; Du et al., 2007; Goodin et al., 2002; Kalnay and Cai, 2003;
2
Environmental Challenges 4 (2021) 100187
Fig. 1. (a) Rajshahi City Corporation (RCC)
in Bangladesh (b) RCC in Rajshahi District (c)
Ward Boundary and Elevation (in m, estimated
from SRTM DEM) of RCC.
Kaufmann et al., 2007). Many variables like smart urban growth con-
sisting of both vertical and horizontal expansion, construction materi-
als, the distance between buildings, locations of public spaces, roads,
bus stops, major and minor industrial hubs, and so on, have a direct
impact on temperature concentration (Ahmed et al., 2013; Chen et al.,
2006; Durand et al., 2011; He et al., 2007; Li and Zhao, 2003; Pal and Zi-
aul, 2017). According to Lai and Cheng (Lai and Cheng, 2010), UAs often
experience 2–4 ° C more LST than rural regions. As a result, in the context
of both the world and Bangladesh, it is essential to understand the func-
tion of urban land use and its relation with the increase and decrease in
the pattern of the UA, vegetation cover (VC), and influence on VC loss in
urban LST.
The integrated approach of Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic
Information System (GIS) technology to measure LULC and LST vari-
ations in urbanized environments have been exploded over the years
(Ahmed, 2011; Balogun and Ishola, 2017; Lilly Rose Devadas, 2009).
Ecosystem change, biodiversity, and global climate change are all ex-
A.-.A. Kafy, A. Al Rakib, K.S. Akter et al.
Fig. 2. Illustration of combined tool process in ArcGIS 10.6.
Fig. 3. Illustration process of Tabulate Area tool in ArcGIS 10.6.
plored using GIS and RS applications (Al-Hathloul and Rahman, 2003;
Celik et al., 2019; Li and Zhao, 2003; Streutker, 2003). LULC change
identification, and spatial distribution measurement of LST by direct
field visits are time-consuming, labour-intensive, and vulnerable to er-
rors (Hart and Sailor, 2009; Lilly Rose Devadas, 2009). Combining RS
and GIS technology makes it easier to analyze, monitor, and simulate
LULC and LST variations (Fu and Weng, 2018; Niyogi, 2019; Thapa and
Murayama, 2009). Furthermore, due to the scientific progress of sta-
tistical algorithms, which are applied in remotely sensed data, spa-
tiotemporal evaluation of LULC and LST dynamics have provided sig-
nificant smart solutions of the temperature increasing problems due to
haphazard land cover change (Ahmed et al., 2013; Celik et al., 2019;
Fu and Weng, 2018; Gaur et al., 2018; Rahman, 2016; Tewolde and
Cabral, 2011). Thermal remote sensing technology to measure the ur-
ban heat island (UHI) is considered as an effective approach to evaluate
the inauspicious impacts of human activities on local climate over the
last couple of decades. As RS approach is constantly improving, high
spatial resolution satellite thermal data recorded during the daytime
have been frequently employed to detect surface UHIs on broad scales
(Kafy et al., 2020c; Naim and Kafy, 2021; Roth et al., 1989). Researchers
used available thermal infrared sensors at varying spatial resolutions to
study LST features for different LULC categories in diverse urban situa-
tions (Ahmed, 2011; Celik et al., 2019; Rahman et al., 2017).
Like other developing countries, Bangladesh is experiencing the
rapid urbanization because of a massive rural-to-urban migratory flow.
Rapid LULC converts natural features into man-made places, posing a
threat to the environment’s long-term sustainability. Several studies in
Bangladesh, especially in the capital of Dhaka, focused on the effects of
rapid urbanization on LULC, citing population growth and human ac-
tivities as driving factors in the transformation of different LULCs such
as vegetation and water bodies to urban settlements (Ahmed, 2018;
Byomkesh et al., 2012; Corner et al., 2014; Dewan et al., 2012;
Dewan and Yamaguchi, 2009; Faisal et al., 2019; Kafy et al., 2021a;
Nilufar, 2010; Ummai et al., 2011). LULC variations in other Bangladesh
regions are also directly affected when population growth accelerates
and has a direct impact on the environment and ecosytems, substan-
tially raising LST and hastening climate change dangers (Al Rakib et al.,
2020a; Kafy et al., 2021c, 2020a, 2020c).
Although a substantial body of research has examined the affect of
LULC on LST dynamics in urban settings, studies quantifying the rela-
tionship and effects of LULC and LST on the UA and VC are remained
scarce. According to the analysis of relevant literature, no such studies
3
Environmental Challenges 4 (2021) 100187
were conducted in Rajshahi City Corporation (RCC), Bangladesh that
investigated the relationship between LULC, the increase and decrease
pattern of UA, VC, and the effect of VC loss in LST. The novelty of this
work is that it used multi-temporal Landsat TM/OLI satellite images
from 2000, 2010, and 2020 to categorize LULC classes and explored
the transition from VC to UA, the directional distribution of UA and
VC, and the variation of LST in the study area. Remote sensing tech-
niques have been proven to be an increasingly effective tool for urban
planners and policymakers. This study will aid in the development and
maintenance of the city’s natural resources and minimise the impact of
urbanization on LST. That is, the relationship explored in this research
will be relevant to a wide range of fields, including government poli-
cymaking, urban planning, climate change, and expert environmental
temporal monitoring.
2. Materials and method
2.1. Study area profile
The city of Rajshahi is the social, economic and administrative hub of
northern Bangladesh, situated on the northern bank of the Padma River
(Al Rakib et al., 2020c; BBS, 2013; Kafy et al., 2019b, 2020b), which is
geographically placed between 24° 12′ to 24° 42′′ N latitude and 88° 15′
to 88° 50′ E longitude in northwest Bangladesh (Fig. 1). The location is
nearly flat, with a surface elevation between 15 and 19 m. The city is
situated in the dry-wet tropical monsoonal area with a maximum tem-
perature ranging from 30 to 35 °C and receiving an average of 1448 mm
rainfall (Ferdous and Baten, 2011; Kafy et al., 2020b). In the last few
decades, the city is facing haphazard urbanization due to job opportuni-
ties, urban migration and small-scale industrialization (Al Rakib et al.,
2020c). Haphazard and rapid urban expansion have drastically changed
the seasonal timespan duration in the last few years, which has detri-
mental effects on the cities climate, livelihood, and green cover develop-
ment (Dey et al., 2021; Ferdous and Baten, 2011; Kafy et al., 2019a). The
expansion of Rajshahi city is also haphazard, often unplanned. The land
cover change history of RCC showed over 19% decrease of the green
cover area and an increment by 9 °C in maximum LST in the last 20
years due to rapid urbanization (Kafy et al., 2020a; RDA, 2008, 2003).
2.2. Description of data sets
For this research, the previous three decades (1990, 2000, 2010, and
2020) were selected. In these three decades, four Landsat Multi-spectral
satellite data were acquired from the United States Geological Survey
(USGS) domain to estimate the changes in VC and LST dynamics in the
study area.
All of these images were downloaded (Table 1) for the month of
April to prevent the influences of seasonal variations (Al Rakib et al.,
2020a; Faisal et al., 2021; Kafy et al., 2020c). In the image downloading
process, maximum cloud coverage was set to less than 10% for ensuring
a realistic estimation of LULC and LST. However, across the study re-
gion, it was near to zero percent. No additional geo-correction or image
processing required for the preprocessing of images since there were no
radiometric and geometric distortions in Landsat Satellite data. Images
details were gathered from the USGS repository.
2.3. Landcover classification
The satellite images obtained from Landsat sensors were enhanced
by 3 × 3 majority filtering techniques for better visibility in Erdas Imag-
ine V.15 software (Kafy et al., 2020b). Using the correct band combina-
tions for all the images, True color Composite (TCC) was generated to
choose training samples of various LULC classes (Trolle et al., 2019). The
collected Landsat images were classified into four LULC classes UA, VC,
Water bodies, and Bare land for 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2020 (Table 2).
Maximum Likelihood Supervised Classification (MLSC) technique was
A.-.A. Kafy, A. Al Rakib, K.S. Akter et al. Environmental Challenges 4 (2021) 100187

Table 1.
Description of the images acquired from Landsat satellite sensors (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov).

Satellite Date of Sensor Path/Row Band No. Spectral range Spatial

data acquisition (Wavelength 𝜇m) resolution, m

Landsat 4–5 April 20, TM 138/43 1 0.45–0.52 30

1990; 2 0.52–0.60 30
April 15, 3 0.63–0.69 30
2000; 4 0.76–0.90 30
April 11, 5 1.551.75 30
2010 6 10.4012.50 120 resample to
30
7 2.082.35 30
Landsat 8 April 6, OLI. 138/43 1 0.43–0.45 30
2020 2 0.45–0.51 30
3 0.64–0.67 30
4 0.53–0.59 30
5 0.85–0.88 30
6 1.57–1.65 30
7 2.11–2.29 30
8 1.36–1.38 15
9 0.50–0.68 30
10 (TRIS1) 10.60–11.19 100 resample to
30
11 (TRIS 1) 11.50–12.51 100 resample to
30

Table 2.
Descriptions of LULC groups.

LULC Classes Description

UA Residential, commercial and industrial services, transportation network.

VC Trees, grassland, cropland, and fallow land.
Water Bodies River, wetlands, lakes, ponds, and reservoirs.
Bare Land Vacant land, open space, sand, bare soils, and landfill sites.

used to estimate the LULC classification. In the process of creating LULC

maps, about 25 training samples were taken for each LULC class. 𝑇𝐵
𝐿𝑆𝑇 = ( ) − 273.15 (3)
𝑇𝐵
The accuracy of the classified maps was measured from available 1+ 𝜆× 𝜌
× ln(𝜀)
field data and Google Earth images through 150 ground truths points.
Kappa statistics and Confusion Matrix are considered one of the best Where, ML (0.0003342) is a multiplicative rescaling factor (band-
indicators for image classification accuracy and were used in the study specific),and AL (0.1) is an additive scaling factor (band-specific). The
for accuracy assessment of the classified LULC maps (Congalton and values for Landsat TM, Lmax, and Lmin were collected from the satel-
Green, 2008; Foody, 2002; Pontius Jr and Millones, 2011; Story and lite metadata file. The wavelength of emitted radiance 𝜆 is 11.5 μm
Congalton, 1986). (Aboelnour and Engel, 2018; Kafy et al., 2020b; Kumar et al., 2012;
Rahman et al., 2017; Ullah et al., 2019b).
2.4. Land use/Land cover transformation ℎ ×𝑐
𝜌= = 1.438 × 10 − 2 mK (4)
𝜎
The conversion of one LULC other LULC is important to evaluate the Where, h indicates Plank’s constant, which is equal to 6.626 × 10−34 Js,
most dominated LULC class in the study area. As the study aimed to iden- c indicates the velocity of light, which is equal to 2.998 × 108 ms−2 and
tify the changes of VC influence by urban development, The "combined" 𝜎is the Boltzmann constant (5.67 × 10–8 Wm2 k−4 = 1.38 × 10–23JK−1 );
technique under "spatial analyst toolset" in ArcGIS 10.6 was software 𝜀 is the land surface emissivity which ranges in between 0.97 and 0.99
used to examine the conversion rate of VC pixel to the UA from 1990 to (Guha et al., 2018; Mallick et al., 2008; Pal and Ziaul, 2017).
2000, 2000 to 2010, 2010 to 2020 and 1990 to 2020, respectively. The
𝐾2
combined tool chained the multiple rasters so that unique output value 𝑇𝐵 = ( ) (5)
𝐾1
was assigned to each unique combination of input values (Fig. 2). ln 𝐿𝜆
+1

Where 𝑇𝐵 is the satellite brightness temperature, and the constants K1

2.5. Estimation of LST
and K2 values for (1) Landsat-5: K1 is 607.7, and K2 is 1260.6 and (2)
Landsat8: K1 is 774.9 and K2 is 321.07, respectively (Anbazhagan and
Using the digital numbers (DN) of the thermal bands (Band 6 in Land-
Paramasivam, 2016; Roy et al., 2020; Ullah et al., 2019a).
sat 5 TM and Band 10 and 11 in Landsat 8 TIRS), the LST was estimated.
The spectral radiances (𝜆) of the Landsat 5 TM and Landsat 8 TIRS bands
2.6. Temperature variations over the UA and VC
were computed at the preliminary phase by using the Eq. (1) and Eq. (2),
respectively. L𝜆 was used to derive the LST in Degree Celsius using the
To evaluate the relationship between LULC and LST, the temperature
Eq. (3).
variation in different land use is important. The "tabulate area" tech-
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 nique of zonal toolset in ArcGIS 10.6 was used to estimate the LST vari-
𝐿𝜆 (𝐿𝐴𝑁𝐷𝑆𝐴𝑇 5 𝑇 𝑀 ) = 𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 + × 𝐷𝑁 (1)
𝑄𝑐 𝑎𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑄𝑐 𝑎𝑙𝑚𝑖𝑛 ation over different LULC classes. The tool identifies the cross-tabulated
pixels between two raster datasets and outputs a table. Ward wise zone
𝐿𝜆 (𝐿𝐴𝑁𝐷𝑆𝐴𝑇 8 𝑂𝐿𝐼 ) = 𝑀𝐿 × 𝐷𝑁 + 𝐴𝐿 (2) data is defined as all areas in the input that have the same value. The

4
A.-.A. Kafy, A. Al Rakib, K.S. Akter et al.
areas do not have to be contiguous. Both raster and feature can be used
for the zone input. The VC and UA data were used as class raster in the
tabulate area process (Fig. 3).
2.7. Directional mapping of LULC and LST
Directional mapping (DM) is a detailed microscale approach to ex-
amine the spatiotemporal LULC change dynamics and LST change pat-
terns (Cao et al., 2019; Kafy et al., 2021d). Several concentrated rings
from the city center or any other landmark at a specific interval was
drawn first, where the last ring covered the full study region. Secondly,
considering 250 m interval, 16 directions were drawn by expanding rays
from the study center. Those concentrated rings were intersected with
the rings creating a series of segment zones. Finally, whole segment
zones evaluated the percentage of the UA, VC and specific range of LST
in a particular segment.
3. Result and discussion
3.1. Changes in LULC classes
To examine the LULCC patterns during last three decades, the MLSC
algorithm was applied. User accuracy, producer accuracy, kappa coeffi-
cient and overall accuracy were estimated to examine the classification
accuracy. The classification accuracy demonstrated an excellent result
with more than 85% accuracy in all parameters for different years.
Two significant changing patterns are identified in the classification
result during the study period. One is a gradual increase in the UA,
and a significant decrease in the VC. As illustrated graphically (Fig.
4) and statistically (Table 3), over the last two decades + 15.55% of
the UA and + 6.45% of bare land were increased, resulting in 19.42%
and - 5.59% decrease in VC and water bodies, respectively in the
study area. Various phenomenons like haphazard urban growth, urban-
migraton pull factors, better education and being the divisional eco-
nomic hub, which accelerate such LULCC all over the study area (Anand
and Oinam, 2020; Fernando, 2018; Kafy et al., 2021c, 2021a, 2020b;
Rahman, 2016; Regmi et al., 2014; Silva et al., 2018).
5
Environmental Challenges 4 (2021) 100187
Fig. 4. Land use/Land cover distribution in
study area.
3.2. Urban expansion and VC loss
To delineate the direction of change in UA and VC, 16 concentrated
rings were drawn at 5-kilometre intervals starting from the city center
and ended up at the study area border. The directional analysis is a
standard tool for evaluating the phenomenon of spatial-temporal urban
expansion and the pattern of VC loss (Cao et al., 2019; Dey et al., 2021;
Kafy et al., 2021d). The directional analysis reveals that rapid urbaniza-
tion changes have occurred in the northwest, northeast, and southeast
directions (Fig. 5). These directions had a considerable reduction in VC
as a result of fast urban expansion. From 2000 to 2020, the estimated
urban expansion and VC loss in the northwest direction and along the
Dhaka-Rajshahi highways were 15–25% and 16–23%, respectively (Fig.
6). However, In the previous 20 years, the northeast and southeast di-
rections, along the Rajshahi-Naogaong and Rajshahi-Chapai highways,
were considerably less urban growth and VC loss ranging from 5 to 12%
and 3 to 4%, respectively. As residential and commercial interests were
more readily available, growth in the northwest direction was substan-
tial. A variety of development initiatives, such as new road construction
and the emergence of new commercial buildings within 5 km2 s of rail
and bus station, have accelerated northwest urban expansion and con-
tributed to the displacement of VC in the study area.
3.3. Transformation of VC into UA
Rajshahi is Bangladesh’s most prolific district according to agricul-
tural productivity, owing to the recent establishment of a vast num-
ber of agricultural fields. On the other hand, industrialization gained a
stronghold in the northwest area with the 1998 construction of the Ja-
muna Bridge (Hossain, 2017; Wadud, 2018). This region has begun to
recognize rapid and haphazard urbanization as a response to increased
work prospects, mostly as a consequence of unplanned rural-urban mi-
gration. Between 1997 and 2010, this region lost approximately 14%
of its agricultural property yet saw a 19.4% increase in infrastructural
development (Islam and Hassan, 2012). Unplanned conversion of LULC
categories has had a detrimental effect on this area’s ecological sustain-
ability, since it diminishes green cover and raises LST. The directional
analysis of VC change reveals a loss of green space in all directions of
A.-.A. Kafy, A. Al Rakib, K.S. Akter et al. Environmental Challenges 4 (2021) 100187

Fig. 5. Directional changes of UA in the study area from 1990 to 2020.

Fig. 6. Directional changes of VC in the study area from 1990 to 2020.

6
A.-.A. Kafy, A. Al Rakib, K.S. Akter et al. Environmental Challenges 4 (2021) 100187

Table 3
Area (Km2 ) and net change (%) variations of Land use/Land Cover in the study area.

LULC Area (in km2 ) Net change (in%)

1990 2000 2010 2020 1990–2000 2000–2010 2010–2020 1990–2010 2000–2020 1990–2020

Water Body 3.79 4.27 3.11 2.31 1.00 −2.42 −1.67 −1.42 −4.08 −3.08
UA 7.38 10.06 13.43 15.90 5.57 7.02 5.14 12.59 12.16 17.73
VC 27.16 25.28 24.98 18.77 −3.91 −0.61 −12.92 −4.52 −13.53 −17.44
Bare Land 9.73 8.45 6.53 11.07 −2.66 −3.99 9.44 −6.65 5.46 2.80

Fig. 7. Transition scenario between VC and UA for (a) 1990–2000 (b) 2000–2010 (c) 2010–2020 (d) 1990–2020.

the municipality. However, a significant reduction was observed in the
northeast (NE) to northwest (NW) region between 1990 and 2010; while
the disappearance of green cover in the NE to southeast (SE) direction
was apparent during the last decade of 2010 to 2020, as the city began
expanding in that direction due to a higher prospectous un-urbanized
area (Fig. 7). Since 1990, with each passing decade until 2020, it was
anticipated that 10%, 28%, and 26% of VC, respectively, were turned
into UA. The conversion rate of VC to UA was more than doubled over
the previous two decades in the study area, illustrating the staggering
domination of urban development over the last two decades.
3.4. Validation of estimated LST
ased understanding of the LST distribution in any region. Maximum and
minimum temperature data were collected from the weather stations
of the Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD) for 1990, 2000,
2010, and 2020 in the study region for validation of the estimated LST
and a deviation were calculated (Table 4). Negative Deviation (ND) in
LST designates the estimated values more than the BMD documented
temperature, where Positive Deviation (PD) denotes less estimated LST.
The highest PD and ND were established in maximum LST (+1.37) for
2000 and LST (−1.53) for 2020. The highest average PD (+0.58) and
ND (−0.47) were found for 2010 and 2020 respectively. The deviations
showed a good result between the estimated and the recorded LST and
assumed to be accepted for further analysis in the study region despite
all RS-derived LST data limitations.

Though accurate and well-established methodology was used to ex-

tract the spatiotemporal distribution of LST, it is still consisted of minor
limitations. To get a fully accurate LST of the study area, it requires
clean weather and fully cloud-free images of the study area. Even if the
cloud cover was < 10%, it was not exactly zero for which it was not the
exact same as the acquired data from field (Chen et al., 2006; Dar et al.,
2019; Kafy et al., 2021b; Neteler, 2010). Such problem may lead to a bi-
3.5. Variations of land surface temperature
The spatial distribution and ward-wise aerial distribution of LST in
the study area are represented in Tables 4 and 5, respectively. The direc-
tional distribution of LST is illustrated in Fig. 8 where red and yellowish

7
A.-.A. Kafy, A. Al Rakib, K.S. Akter et al. Environmental Challenges 4 (2021) 100187

Table 4.
LST validation using BMD weather station data.

1990 2000 2010 2020

Year
Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum

LST estimated from thermal bands ( °C) 26.54 18.54 28.93 19.87 34.72 21.33 38.97 24.74
BMD recorded LST ( °C) 27.6 18.6 30.3 18.9 35.4 21.8 39.56 23.21
Deviation ( °C) +1.06 +0.06 +1.37 −0.97 +0.68 +0.47 +0.59 −1.53
Average Deviation +0.56 +0.2 +0.58 −0.47

Table 5
Areal distribution of surface temperature in different ranges.

Area km2 Net change (in%)

LST (in °C)
1990 2000 2010 2020 1990 - 2000 2000 - 2010 2010 - 2020 1990 - 2010 2000 - 2020 1990 - 2020

< 21 22.75 7.16 0.00 0.00 −32.44 −14.90 – −47.34 −14.90 −47.34
21 - < 24 17.48 14.24 8.68 0.00 −6.73 −11.59 −18.05 −18.32 −29.64 −36.37
24 - < 27 7.83 17.42 20.07 4.23 19.96 5.51 −32.97 25.47 −27.45 −7.50
27 - < 30 0.00 9.23 11.02 16.31 19.21 3.72 11.02 22.93 14.73 33.95
30 - < 33 0.00 0.00 5.25 10.06 – 10.93 10.01 10.93 20.94 20.94
33 - < 36 0.00 0.00 3.04 13.76 – 6.32 22.31 6.32 28.63 28.63
≥ 36 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.70 – – 7.69 – 7.69 7.69

Fig. 8. Spatial distribution of LST in the study area (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure, the reader is referred to the web version of this
article.).

hue represent higher temperature and green to light green zones indi-
cate medium to lower temperature areas. The directional analysis of LST
distribution revealed a significant increase of temperature in north-east
to south-west directions due to reduction in VC and massive increase in
UAs from 1990 to 2020 (Fig. 9).
In 1990, 47.34%, 36.37%, and 16.29% of the study area was in
the temperature range of < 21 °C, 21 - < 24 °C, and 24 - < 27 °C,
respectively where in 2020, more than 80% of the study area were
in 27 - < 30 °C (33.95%), 30 - < 33 °C (20.94%), and 33 - < 36 °C
(28.63%) temperature range. The temperature in the study area was
increased gradually in 1990 - 2000 period, 19.96% and 19.21% in-
crease were noticed in the area of 24 - < 27 °C and 27 - < 30 °C
temperature range and a massive 32.44% decrease was seen in the
area of < 21 °C temperature range. In 2000–2010 period, a decrease
of 14.90% and 11.59% were seen in the area of < 21 °C and 21 -
< 24 °C range and moderate increase was seen in higher temperature

8
A.-.A. Kafy, A. Al Rakib, K.S. Akter et al. Environmental Challenges 4 (2021) 100187

Fig. 9. Directional changes of LST in the study area from 1990 to 2020.

Fig. 10. Ward wise population density map-

ping in RCC area for (a) 1991 (b) 2001 and (c)
2011.

9
A.-.A. Kafy, A. Al Rakib, K.S. Akter et al. Environmental Challenges 4 (2021) 100187

Table 6
Temperature variations influenced by UA and VC in the study area.

Ward VC (%) UA (%) Mean LST (in °C)

No
1990 2000 2010 2020 1990 2000 2010 2020 1990 2000 2010 2020

1 1.47 1.37 1.21 0.91 0.69 0.79 1.00 1.08 21.23 25.72 28.43 34.14
2 4.20 3.94 4.38 3.49 0.72 1.21 1.83 2.03 24.65 22.82 25.67 29.92
3 1.05 0.98 0.53 0.46 0.40 0.61 1.05 1.05 19.24 28.76 31.68 34.56
4 1.04 0.90 0.69 0.67 0.46 0.61 1.61 0.96 19.54 20.98 23.78 26.79
5 0.57 0.55 0.38 0.35 0.64 0.73 0.95 0.84 18.62 27.11 32.34 34.17
6 0.44 0.46 0.38 0.37 0.34 0.52 0.63 0.63 20.77 26.78 28.69 33.77
7 2.28 2.18 1.90 1.70 0.66 0.90 1.08 1.15 20.41 24.49 25.37 31.28
8 0.32 0.25 0.19 0.23 0.55 0.67 0.74 0.62 21.56 24.77 28.71 34.78
9 0.29 0.20 0.14 0.14 0.51 0.54 0.57 0.58 22.38 29.49 32.49 35.53
10 0.58 0.56 0.44 0.41 0.59 0.64 0.81 0.79 21.11 28.33 30.54 34.95
11 0.09 0.09 0.04 0.07 0.41 0.43 0.44 0.41 22.78 28.71 33.78 37.13
12 0.08 0.10 0.05 0.09 0.67 0.76 0.73 0.66 21.48 27.94 34.89 35.55
13 0.30 0.25 0.21 0.17 0.48 0.58 0.62 0.62 19.37 24.72 34.84 36.49
14 2.48 2.73 2.30 0.53 0.86 0.97 1.50 1.98 20.76 25.64 28.37 37.63
15 0.45 0.43 0.33 0.40 0.61 0.79 0.91 0.80 22.47 24.33 31.72 35.72
16 1.81 1.71 1.20 0.95 0.63 0.98 1.23 1.52 20.22 25.41 28.64 34.78
17 9.11 8.42 10.06 7.65 1.11 1.29 2.17 3.52 22.74 22.64 25.91 29.3
18 1.75 1.44 1.50 1.19 0.32 0.39 0.82 0.97 23.78 25.89 25.41 35.42
19 2.75 2.67 2.30 1.94 0.51 0.70 1.10 1.34 21.47 25.77 26.67 36.33
20 0.30 0.23 0.18 0.13 0.44 0.50 0.58 0.53 20.79 27.64 33.49 35.78
21 0.48 0.37 0.26 0.26 0.20 0.31 0.38 0.35 18.69 25.37 27.67 34.45
22 0.14 0.16 0.08 0.12 0.38 0.46 0.52 0.39 19.43 27.41 31.15 34.48
23 0.36 0.35 0.10 0.16 0.26 0.47 0.58 0.48 19.97 27.64 29.07 33.72
24 0.23 0.20 0.08 0.13 0.28 0.37 0.45 0.36 19.74 28.49 31.61 35.34
25 0.64 0.49 0.34 0.30 0.32 0.59 0.60 0.59 22.49 27.66 28.11 34.83
26 5.58 5.81 6.65 4.32 0.61 0.84 1.12 2.37 19.4 23.37 25.74 29.64
27 4.01 3.49 2.95 2.26 0.50 0.80 1.42 1.69 18.81 25.19 25.96 28.57
28 2.62 2.33 2.03 1.46 0.13 0.51 0.66 0.99 19.34 25.51 25.48 31.18
29 2.27 2.10 2.07 1.28 0.14 0.29 0.42 0.86 20.44 26.39 25.55 32.49
30 8.83 7.85 9.02 6.94 0.92 1.67 1.42 2.96 21.89 22.37 24.82 35.64
Total 56.51 52.60 51.99 39.07 15.36 20.93 27.95 33.09

Fig. 11. LST variations over different LULC classes from 1990 to 2020.

ranges. Similar scenario was noticed during 2010–2020, where the only
major decrease was seen in 24 - < 27 °C range (32.97%) and a ma-
jor increase was seen in 33 - < 36 °C range (22.31%). Whole past two
decade scenario (1990–2020) showed a significant decrease in < 21 °C
(47.34%), 21 - < 24 °C (36.37%), and 24 - < 27 °C (7.5%) and a im-
pactful increase in 27 - < 30 °C (33.95%), 30 - < 33 °C (20.94%),
33 - < 36 °C (28.63%), and ≥ 36 °C (7.69%) temperature ranges
(Table 5).
A major increase in temperature and decreases in VC were seen in
RCC wards 9, 11–15, 19, and 30. Wards 9, 11–15 mainly consist of Cen-
tral Business District (CBD) areas which are primarily occupied with
commercial activities and a significant number of infrastructures. Ward
19 is also adjacent to the CBD and attracting people due to its suitable
location for living. These wards contribute massively to urban infras-
tructural development by reducing open spaces and green covers, which
finally contributes to higher LST and UHI effects. A significant increase

10
A.-.A. Kafy, A. Al Rakib, K.S. Akter et al.
in impervious surfaces of UAs replacing cool land covers like vegeta-
tion plays a significant role in the temperature increase of those wards.
The detailed scenario of ward-wise urban expansion and VC cover loss
influence on LST is shown in Table 6.
The influence of the increase in UA and decrease in VC on LST in
thirty wards of RCC area is demonstrated in Table 4, which describes
the variation of average LST in UA and VC for the year 2000, 2010, and
2020, respectively. From Table 6, it is clearly observed that the percent-
age of VC and UA in each ward significantly influences the average LST
increase. For example, in ward 14, the percentage of UA was increased
from 0.86% to 1.98%, where VC was reducedby 2.48% to 0.53%, respec-
tively, which significantly increased the LST from 20 °C to 37 °C in the
last two decades. Also, the same scenario can be found for the ward 30
(Table 6). This scenario is also noticed in all the wards of the RCC. Due
to less quantity of vegetation, the mean LST was comparatively higher
in the UA. Ignoring the ecosystem dynamics, the rapid urbanization and
increase in commercial activities in the study area significantly have
reduced the vegetation and increased the UHI effect.
3.6. Impact of population growth on VC loss and LST increase
From the LULC analysis, as mentioned in Sections 3.1 and 3.2, rapid
urban expansion significantly reduces the city’s green cover. This out-
come can also be verified from the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS)
data. Based on the ward wise population census data for the year 1991,
2001, and 2011, wards such as 9, 11–15, 19, and 30 are facing signifi-
cant population growth (Fig. 10), which massively impacted the VC loss
and LST increase in the respective wards of RCC (Table 6).
3.7. LST variations over different LULC classes
The spatiotemporal change in LST over the study period is the result
of an unplanned massive urban consumption of cool LC that significantly
increases urbanization by the allowance of continuous urban-migration
influx from different regions around the study area. Cool land covers
like VC and water bodies have been lessened daily that was used for the
horizontal urban expansion. Fig. 11 demonstrates the maximum and
minimum LST variation in different LULC classes from 1990 to 2020.
For all the years, maximum LST was recorded in UAs where minimum
LST was found in water bodies. The VC also demonstrated lower tem-
perature comparing with UAs and bare land classes. From the analysis,
it was clarly identified that, rapid unplanned infrastructural develop-
ment by reducting VC and water bodies areas significantly increased
the LST. Besides those factors, climate change and global warming may
also cause a temperature increase in the study region (Alamgir et al.,
2020; The World Bank, 2016; IPCC, 2014). This increment in LST will
massively affect water and crop yield availability that will increase the
city’s resilience of extreme weather events. Traditional climatic condi-
tions are being affected, i.e., winter season is getting shorter and warmer
due to climate change and global warming. This phenomenon is also af-
fecting the earth’s ecosystem by eliminating many plants and animals,
dealing a crushing blow in the agricultural system through disruption of
seasonal timespan, a constant decrease of groundwater level, and short-
age in livestock.
4. Conclusion
The present study identified the cause of the increasing LST trend,
and the reduction of VC due to rapid urban expansion in the RCC area.
The expansion in UA replaces the city’s green cover, which significantly
increases the LST of the study area. This increased temperature signifi-
cantly impacts the habitat, ecosystem, and urban environment. The max-
imum positive net change was evident for the UA (+17.73%), with the
maximum negative change in the VC (−17.44%) in the last 30 years.
The maximum temperature of the city was increased to 38 °C in 2020
11
Environmental Challenges 4 (2021) 100187
from 24 °C in 1990. The assessed LST showed that lower recorded tem-
perature zones in 2000 were converted into a higher temperature zone
in 2020. The significant increase in LST would be resposible for the
UHI phenomenon in the RCC area. It is assertive that the impact of the
present climate change scenario and the nearby vast dry Barind region
also aggravated the trend of LST. To mitigate these negative implica-
tions, a sustainable land use management plan based on satellite im-
agery is recommended for RCC by setting constraints on the conversion
of natural resources to impervious layers (buildings and roads). It is
necessary to track and anticipate the change of LULC and the city’s LST
pattern in order to minimize the impact of UHI as a consequence of the
uncontrolled growth of UA. Laws and policies should be implemented to
minimize unplanned city expansion and protect the city’s current veg-
etation. Likewise, effort should be taken to increase the town’s green-
ery by planting trees and replacing non-evaporating and non-transpiring
building materials with environmentally friendly ones. The methodolo-
gies and findings of this study will benefit the concerned authorities
(RCC and RDA), government officials, policymakers, and urban planners
who can use the findings for comprehensive area planning and strategic
decision making to make the city habitable through tree planting, water
conservation, and planned urban infrastructural development. Addition-
ally, city authorities may adopt rules, laws, and regulations to reduce
LST in the city, ensuring that RCC is planned, inclusive, and environ-
mentally sustainable.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declared that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that might seem to have influenced
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to express gratitude to the Rajshahi Devel-
opment Authority, Rajshahi City Corporation, and the US Geological
Survey for assisting this research with datasets. The authors also like
to thank DIGON research and consultancy firm experts for proofreading
the entire manuscript and doing language editing.
Funding information
The research does not receive any funding.
References
Aboelnour, M., Engel, B.A., 2018. Application of remote sensing techniques and geo-
graphic information systems to analyze land surface temperature in response to land
use/land cover change in greater Cairo region, Egypt. J. Geogr. Inf. Syst. 10, 57.
Ahmed, 2018. Assessment of urban heat islands and impact of climate change on socioe-
conomic over Suez governorate using remote sensing and GIS techniques. Egypt. J.
Remote Sens. Sp. Sci. 21, 15–25.
Ahmed, B., 2011. Urban land cover change detection analysis and modeling spatio-
temporal Growth dynamics using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques: a case study
of Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Ahmed, B., Kamruzzaman, M., Zhu, X., Rahman, M., Choi, K., 2013. Simulating land cover
changes and their impacts on land surface temperature in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Remote
Sens. 5, 5969–5998.
Al-Hathloul, S., Rahman, M.A., 2003. Dynamism of metropolitan areas: the case of
metropolitan Dammam, Saudi Arabia. Gulf Arab. Penins. Stud 29, 11–43.
Al Rakib, A., Akter, K.S., Rahman, M.N., Arpi, S., Kafy, A.A., 2020a. Analyzing the pattern
of land use land cover change and its impact on land surface temperature: a remote
sensing approach in Mymensingh, Bangladesh. In: Proceedings of the 1st International
Student Research Conference.
Al Rakib, A., Ayan, S.M., Orthy, T.T., Sarker, O., Intisar, L., Arnob, M.A., 2020b. In depth–
analysis of urban resident-satisfaction level of Mirpur, Dhaka, Bangladesh: a Participa-
tory approach. In: Proceedings of the 1st International Student Research Conference.
Al Rakib, A., Rahman, M.N., Arpi, S., Ratu, J.F., Afroz, F., Hossain, N., Zubayer, M.S.,
2020c. An assessment on the housing satisfaction of padma residential area, Rajshahi.
In: Proceedings of the 1st International Student Research Conference.
Alamgir, M., Khan, N., Shahid, S., Yaseen, Z.M., Dewan, A., Hassan, Q., Rasheed, B., 2020.
Evaluating severity–area–frequency (SAF) of seasonal droughts in Bangladesh under
climate change scenarios. Stoch. Environ. Res. Risk Assess. 1–18.
A.-.A. Kafy, A. Al Rakib, K.S. Akter et al.
Anand, V., Oinam, B., 2020. Future land use land cover prediction with special emphasis
on urbanization and wetlands. Remote Sens. Lett. 11, 225–234.
Anbazhagan, S., Paramasivam, C.R., 2016. Statistical correlation between land surface
temperature (LST) and vegetation index (NDVI) using multi-temporal landsat TM
data. Int. J. Adv. Earth Sci. Eng. 5, 333–346.
Arnfield, A.J., 2003. Two decades of urban climate research: a review of turbulence, ex-
changes of energy and water, and the urban heat island. Int. J. Climatol. 23, 1–26 a
J. R. Meteorol. Soc..
Balogun, I.A., Ishola, K.A., 2017. Projection of future changes in landuse/landcover using
cellular automata/markov model over Akure city, Nigeria. J. Remote Sens. Technol.
5, 22–31.
The World Bank, 2016. Climate Change & Sustainable Report- Bangladesh. The World
Bank.
BBS, 2013. District Statistics 2011, Rajshahi. Ministry of Planning, Government of The
People’s Republic of Bangladesh.
Byomkesh, T., Nakagoshi, N., Dewan, A.M., 2012. Urbanization and green space dynamics
in Greater Dhaka, Bangladesh. Landsc. Ecol. Eng. 8, 45–58.
Cao, H., Liu, J., Chen, J., Gao, J., Wang, G., Zhang, W., 2019. Spatiotemporal patterns
of urban land use change in typical cities in the greater Mekong subregion (GMS).
Remote Sens. 11, 801.
Celik, B., Kaya, S., Alganci, U., Seker, D.Z., 2019. Assessment of the relationship between
land use/cover changes and land surface temperatures: a case study of thermal remote
sensing. FEB. Fresenius Environ. Bull. 3, 541.
Chakroborty, S., Al Rakib, A., Kafy, A.Al, 2020. Monitoring water quality based on com-
munity perception in the northwest region of bangladesh. In: Proceedings of the 1st
International Student Research Conference. Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Changnon, S.A., 1999. A rare long record of deep soil temperatures defines temporal tem-
perature changes and an urban heat island. Clim. Change 42, 531–538.
Changnon, S.A., 1992. Inadvertent weather modification in UAs: lessons for global climate
change. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 73, 619–627.
Chen, X.L., Zhao, H.M., Li, P.X., Yin, Z.Y., 2006. Remote sensing image-based analysis of
the relationship between urban heat island and land use/cover changes. Remote Sens.
Environ. 104, 133–146.
Congalton, R.G., Green, K., 2008. Assessing the Accuracy of Remotely Sensed Data: Prin-
ciples and Practices. CRC press.
Corner, R.J., Dewan, A.M., Chakma, S., 2014. Monitoring and prediction of land-use and
land-cover (LULC) change. In: Dhaka Megacity. Springer, pp. 75–97.
Dar, I., Qadir, J., Shukla, A., 2019. Estimation of LST from multi-sensor thermal remote
sensing data and evaluating the influence of sensor characteristics. Ann. GIS 1–19.
doi:10.1080/19475683.2019.1623318, In this issue.
Dewan, A.M., Kabir, M.H., Nahar, K., Rahman, M.Z., 2012. Urbanisation and environmen-
tal degradation in Dhaka Metropolitan Area of Bangladesh. Int. J. Environ. Sustain.
Dev. 11, 118–147.
Dewan, A.M., Yamaguchi, Y., 2009. Land use and land cover change in Greater Dhaka,
Bangladesh: using remote sensing to promote sustainable urbanization. Appl. Geogr.
29, 390–401.
Dey, N.N., Al Rakib, A., Kafy, A.A., Raikwar, V., 2021. Geospatial modelling of changes in
land use/land cover dynamics using multi-layer perception Markov chain model in Ra-
jshahi City, Bangladesh. Environ. Chall. 4, 100148. doi:10.1016/j.envc.2021.100148.
Du, Y., Xie, Z., Zeng, Y., Shi, Y., Wu, J., 2007. Impact of urban expansion on regional
temperature change in the Yangtze River Delta. J. Geogr. Sci. 17, 387–398.
Durand, C.P., Andalib, M., Dunton, G.F., Wolch, J., Pentz, M.A., 2011. A systematic review
of built environment factors related to physical activity and obesity risk: implications
for smart growth urban planning. Obes. Rev. 12, e173–e182.
Faisal, A.A., Hossain, M., Haque, S., Shaunak, M., Kafy, A.A., 2019. Remote sensing ap-
proach in wetland and land degradation assessment: a scenario of Modhumoti Model
Town, Savar, Bangladesh. In: Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Ur-
ban and Regional Planning. Bangladesh.
Faisal, A.A., Kafy, A.- Al, Al Rakib, A., Akter, K.S., Raikwar, V., Jahir, D.M.A., Ferdousi, J.,
Kona, M.A., 2021. Assessment and prediction of seasonal land surface temperature
change using multi-temporal Landsat images and their impacts on agricultural yields
in Rajshahi, Bangladesh. Environ. Chall. 4, 100147. doi:10.1016/j.envc.2021.100147.
Ferdous, M.G., Baten, M.A., 2011. Climatic variables of 50 years and their trends over
Rajshahi and Rangpur Division. J. Environ. Sci. Nat. Resour. 4, 147–150.
Fernando, G., 2018. Identification of urban heat islands & its relationship with VC: a case
study of colombo & Gampaha Districts in Sri Lanka. J. Trop. For. Environ. 8.
Foody, G.M., 2002. Status of land cover classification accuracy assessment. Remote Sens.
Environ. 80, 185–201.
Fu, P., Weng, Q., 2018. Responses of urban heat island in Atlanta to different land-use
scenarios. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 133, 123–135.
Gaur, A., Eichenbaum, M.K., Simonovic, S.P., 2018. Analysis and modelling of surface
Urban Heat Island in 20 Canadian cities under climate and land-cover change. J.
Environ. Manag. 206, 145–157.
Goodin, D.G., Harrington, J.A., Rundquist, B.C., 2002. Land cover change and associated
trends in surface reflectivity and vegetation index in southwest kansas: 1972-1992.
Geocarto Int. 17, 45–52.
Guha, S., Govil, H., Dey, A., Gill, N., 2018. Analytical study of land surface temperature
with NDVI and NDBI using Landsat 8 OLI and TIRS data in Florence and Naples city,
Italy. Eur. J. Remote Sens. 51, 667–678.
Halmy, M.W.A., Gessler, P.E., Hicke, J.A., Salem, B.B., 2015. Land use/land cover
change detection and prediction in the north-western coastal desert of Egypt using
Markov-CA. Appl. Geogr. 63, 101–112.
Hart, M.A., Sailor, D.J., 2009. Quantifying the influence of land-use and surface char-
acteristics on spatial variability in the urban heat island. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 95,
397–406.
He, J.F., Liu, J.Y., Zhuang, D.F., Zhang, W., Liu, M.L., 2007. Assessing the effect of land
12
Environmental Challenges 4 (2021) 100187
use/land cover change on the change of urban heat island intensity. Theor. Appl.
Climatol. 90, 217–226.
Hossain, A.M., 2017. Financing small scale industries of Bangladesh with special refrence
to selected small industries in Rajshahi district.
IPCC, 2014. Mitigation of Climate Change, 1454. Energy Procedia Contrib. Work. Gr. III
to Fifth Assess. Rep. Intergov. Panel Clim. Chang..
Islam, M., Hassan, M., 2012. Land use changing pattern and challenges for agricultural
land: a study on Rajshahi District. J. Life Earth Sci. 6. doi:10.3329/jles.v6i0.9724.
Kafy, A.A., Faisal, A.A., Raikwar, V., Al Rakib, A., Kona, M.A., Ferdousi, J., 2021a. Geospa-
tial approach for developing an integrated water resource management plan in Ra-
jshahi, Bangladesh. Environ. Chall. 4, 100139. doi:10.1016/j.envc.2021.100139.
Kafy, A.A., Faisal, A.A., Sikdar, S., Hasan, M., Rahman, M., Khan, M.H., Islam, R., 2020a.
Impact of LULC changes on LST in Rajshahi district of Bangladesh: a remote sensing
approach. J. Geogr. Stud. 3, 11–23. doi:10.21523/gcj5.19030102.
Kafy, A.A., Islam, M., Ferdous, L., Khan, A.R., Hossain, M.M., 2019a. Identifying most
influential land use parameters contributing reduction of surface water bodies in Ra-
jshahi city, Bangladesh: a remote sensing approach. Remote Sensing of Land 2, 87–95.
doi:10.21523/gcj1.18020202, http://dx.doi.org/.
Kafy, A.A., Islam, M., Sikdar, M.S., Ashrafi, T.J., Faisal, A.Al, Islam, M.A., Al Rakib, A.,
Khan, M.H.H., Sarker, M.H.S., Ali, M.Y., 2021b. Remote sensing-based approach to
identify the influence of land use/land cover change on the urban thermal environ-
ment: a case study in Chattogram City, Bangladesh. In: Singh, R. (Ed.), Re-Envisioning
Remote Sensing Applications: Perspective from Developing Countries. Taylor & Fran-
cis, pp. 216–237. doi:10.1201/9781003049210-16.
Kafy, A.A., Naim, M.N.H., Khan, M.H.H., Islam, M.A., Al Rakib, A., Faisal, A.A.,
Sarker, M.H.S., 2021c. Prediction of urban expansion and identifying its impacts on
the degradation of agricultural land: a machine learning-based remote-sensing ap-
proach in Rajshahi, Bangladesh. In: Singh, R. (Ed.), Re-Envisioning Remote Sensing
Applications: Perspective from Developing Countries. Taylor & Francis, pp. 85–106.
doi:10.1201/9781003049210-6.
Kafy, A.A., Naim, M.N.H., Subramanyam, G., Faisal, A.A., Ahmed, N.U., Al Rakib, A.,
Kona, M.A., Sattar, G.S., 2021d. Cellular automata approach in dynamic modeling
of land cover changes using rapideye images in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Environ. Chall.,
100084.
Kafy, A.A., Rahman, M.N., Al Rakib, A., Arpi, S., Faisal, A.A., 2019b. Assessing satisfaction
level of urban residential area: a comparative study based on resident’s perception
in Rajshahi City, Bangladesh. In: Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on
Urban and Regional Planning, Bangladesh. Bangladesh Institute of Planners, Dhaka,
Bangladesh, pp. 225–235.
Kafy, A.A., Rahman, M.S., Faisal, A.Al, Hasan, M.M., Islam, M., 2020b. Mod-
elling future land use land cover changes and their impacts on land sur-
face temperatures in Rajshahi, Bangladesh. Remote Sens. Appl. Soc. Environ.
doi:10.1016/j.rsase.2020.100314.
Kafy, A.A., Rahman, M.S., Islam, M., Al Rakib, A., Islam, M.A., Khan, M.H.H., Sikdar, M.S.,
Sarker, M.H.S., Mawa, J., Sattar, G.S., 2020c. Prediction of seasonal urban thermal
field variance index using machine learning algorithms in Cumilla, Bangladesh. Sus-
tain. Cities Soc. 64, 102542. doi:10.1016/j.scs.2020.102542.
Kalnay, E., Cai, M., 2003. Impact of urbanization and land-use change on climate. Nature
423, 528.
Kaufmann, R.K., Seto, K.C., Schneider, A., Liu, Z., Zhou, L., Wang, W., 2007. Climate
response to rapid urban growth: evidence of a human-induced precipitation deficit.
J. Clim. 20, 2299–2306.
Kumar, K.S., Bhaskar, P.U., Padmakumari, K., 2012. Estimation of land surface tempera-
ture to study urban heat island effect using LANDSAT ETM+ image. Int. J. Eng. Sci.
Technol. 4, 771–778.
Lai, L.W., Cheng, W.L., 2010. Urban heat island and air pollution—an emerging role for
hospital respiratory admissions in an UA. J. Environ. Health 72, 32–36.
Li, J., Zhao, H.M., 2003. Detecting urban land-use and land-cover changes in Mississauga
using Landsat TM images. J. Environ. Inform. 2, 38–47.
Lilly Rose Devadas, A., 2009. Analysis of land surface temperature and land use/land cover
types using remote sensing imagery - a case in Chennai city, India. In: Proceedings of
the Seventh International Conference on Urban.
Maimaitiyiming, M., Ghulam, A., Tiyip, T., Pla, F., Latorre-Carmona, P., Halik, Ü.,
Sawut, M., Caetano, M., 2014. Effects of green space spatial pattern on land surface
temperature: implications for sustainable urban planning and climate change adapta-
tion. J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 89, 59–66.
Mallick, J., Kant, Y., Bharath, B.D., 2008. Estimation of land surface temperature over
Delhi using Landsat-7 ETM+. J. Ind. Geophys. Union 12, 131–140.
Mishra, V.N., Rai, P.K., 2016. A remote sensing aided multi-layer perceptron-Markov chain
analysis for land use and land cover change prediction in Patna district (Bihar), India.
Arab. J. Geosci. 9, 249.
Naim, M.N.H., Kafy, A.A., 2021. Assessment of urban thermal field variance index
and defining the relationship between land cover and surface temperature in Chat-
togram city: a remote sensing and statistical approach. Environ. Chall. 100107.
doi:10.1016/j.envc.2021.100107.
Neteler, M., 2010. Estimating daily land surface temperatures in mountainous environ-
ments by reconstructed MODIS LST data. Remote Sens. 2, 333–351.
Nilufar, F., 2010. Urban morphology of Dhaka city: spatial dynamics of growing city and
the urban core.. In: Proceedings of the International Seminar on The History, Heritage
and Urban Issues of Capital Dhaka on the Occasion of the Celebration Of 400 years of
the Capital Dhaka, Bangladesh. Asiatic Society on the Celebration of 400 years of the
Capital Dhaka, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, 2010 on the Occasion of the Celebration
Of.
Niyogi, D., 2019. Land Surface Processes, in: Current Trends in the Representation of
Physical Processes in Weather and Climate Models. Springer, pp. 349–370.
A.-.A. Kafy, A. Al Rakib, K.S. Akter et al.
Pal, S., Ziaul, S., 2017. Detection of land use and land cover change and land surface tem-
perature in English Bazar urban centre. Egypt. J. Remote Sens. Sp. Sci. 20, 125–145.
Pontius, R.G., Millones, M., 2011. Death to Kappa: birth of quantity disagreement and
allocation disagreement for accuracy assessment. Int. J. Remote Sens. 32, 4407–4429.
Rahman, M., 2016. Detection of land use/land cover changes and urban sprawl in Al-Kho-
bar, Saudi Arabia: an analysis of multi-temporal remote sensing data. ISPRS Int. J.
Geoinf. 5, 15.
Rahman, M.T., Aldosary, A.S., Mortoja, M., 2017. Modeling future land cover changes and
their effects on the land surface temperatures in the Saudi Arabian eastern coastal city
of Dammam. Land 6, 36 (Basel).
RDA, 2008. Working Paper On Existning Landuse, Demographic and Transport (Revised).
Government of The People’s Republic Of Bangladesh Ministry of Housing and Public
Works.
RDA, 2003. Preparation of Structure Plan, Master Plan and Detailed Area Plan For Rajshahi
Metropolitan City. Government of the people’s republic of Bangladesh Ministry of
Housing and Public works.
Regmi, R., Saha, S., Balla, M., 2014. Geospatial analysis of land use land cover change
predictive modeling at Phewa Lake Watershed of Nepal. Int. J. Curr. Eng. Tech 4,
2617–2627.
Roth, M., Oke, T.R., Emery, W.J., 1989. Satellite-derived urban heat islands from three
coastal cities and the utilization of such data in urban climatology. Int. J. Remote
Sens. 10, 1699–1720.
Roy, S., Pandit, S., Eva, E.A., Bagmar, M.S.H., Papia, M., Banik, L., Dube, T., Rahman, F.,
Razi, M.A., 2020. Examining the nexus between land surface temperature and urban
growth in Chattogram Metropolitan Area of Bangladesh using long term Landsat series
data. Urban Clim. 32, 100593.
Silva, J.S., da Silva, R.M., Santos, C.A.G., 2018. Spatiotemporal impact of land use/land
cover changes on urban heat islands: a case study of Paço do Lumiar, Brazil. Build.
Environ. 136, 279–292.
Siu, L.W., Hart, M.A., 2013. Quantifying urban heat island intensity in Hong Kong SAR,
China. Environ. Monit. Assess. 185, 4383–4398.
13
Environmental Challenges 4 (2021) 100187
Story, M., Congalton, R.G., 1986. Accuracy assessment: a user’s perspective. Photogramm.
Eng. Remote Sens. 52, 397–399.
Streutker, D.R., 2003. Satellite-measured growth of the urban heat island of Houston,
Texas. Remote Sens. Environ. 85, 282–289.
Tewolde, M.G., Cabral, P., 2011. Urban sprawl analysis and modeling in Asmara, Eritrea.
Remote Sens. 3, 2148–2165.
Thapa, R., Murayama, Y., 2009. Examining spatiotemporal urbanization patterns in Kath-
mandu Valley, Nepal: remote sensing and spatial metrics approaches. Remote Sens.
1, 534–556.
Tran, D.X., Pla, F., Latorre-Carmona, P., Myint, S.W., Caetano, M., Kieu, H.V., 2017. Char-
acterizing the relationship between land use land cover change and land surface tem-
perature. ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 124, 119–132.
Trolle, D., Nielsen, A., Andersen, H.E., Thodsen, H., Olesen, J.E., Børgesen, C.D., Ref-
sgaard, J.C., Sonnenborg, T.O., Karlsson, I.B., Christensen, J.P., 2019. Effects of
changes in land use and climate on aquatic ecosystems: coupling of models and de-
composition of uncertainties. Sci. Total Environ. 657, 627–633.
Ullah, S., Ahmad, K., Sajjad, R.U., Abbasi, A.M., Nazeer, A., Tahir, A.A., 2019a. Analysis
and simulation of land cover changes and their impacts on land surface temperature
in a lower Himalayan region. J. Environ. Manag. 245, 348–357.
Ullah, S., Tahir, A.A., Akbar, T.A., Hassan, Q.K., Dewan, A., Khan, A.J., Khan, M., 2019b.
Remote sensing-based quantification of the relationships between land use land cover
changes and surface temperature over the lower Himalayan region. Sustainability 11,
5492.
Ummai, H., Fouzia, H., Asif, I., Mahmud, M.S., Arif, M., 2011. Remote sensing & GIS
based spatio-temporal change analysis of wetland in Dhaka city, Bangladesh. J. Water
Resour. Prot. 3, 781–787.
Wadud, M.A., 2018. Industrialization in Northwest Bangladesh Ph. D. Thesis. University
of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, Bangladesh.
Zhou, W., Huang, G., Cadenasso, M.L., 2011. Does spatial configuration matter? Under-
standing the effects of land cover pattern on land surface temperature in urban land-
scapes. Landsc. Urban Plan. 102, 54–63.