CELL CYCLE

The period from the time a cell is produced until it completes mitosis is called cell cycle. Cell
division occurs during growth and repair processes. Cell cycle is divided into following stages:

G1 (first growth or gap) phase: It is early growth phase of the cell.

S (DNA Synthesis) phase: During this phase, the growth continues. This phase involves DNA
replication.

G2 (second growth or gap) phase: This phase prepares cell for division. It includes replication of
the mitochondria and other organelles, synthesis of microtubules and protein. These microtubules
and proteins will makeup mitotic spindle fibers, and chromosome condensation.

M (Mitotic) phase: Partitioning of chromosomes and daughter cells takes place.

Cell cycle has following basic steps:

Mitosis: It is the division of nucleus.

Cytokinesis: It is division of the cytoplasm.

Interphase: The cell grows and carries out its various metabolic activities during it. It occupies
90% of the total cell cycle. It includes G1, S and G2 phases. During S phase sister chromatids are
attached by centromere. The centromere is a specific DNA sequence of about 220 nucleotides. A
disk of protein called a kinetochore is attached to the centromere. It forms an attachment site for
the mitotic spindle. In G2 phase, the cell begins to assemble different structures.

VARIATION AND GENETICS

Genetics: The transfer of hereditary characters (genes) from parents to offspring is called
genetics.

Gene: The fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes are part of DNA
containing its base sequences. The position of gene on the chromosome is called its Locus.

Function of Gene:

1. Gene govern the activities of cells through the proteins they encode.
2. In multicellular organisms, they control the development of the individual from the
fertilized egg.
3. Their protein products give mechanical support to the cell structure. These proteins are
involved in the transportation and manufacture of other molecules and the regulation of
other protein activities.

Alleles: An alternative form of a gene is known as an allele. These are found at the same place
on a chromosome. Each allele of a gene pair occupies the same gene locus on its respective
homologue. Both alleles on one locus may be identical or different from each other. Alleles
represent variations of a gene that is responsible for a particular trait.

Gene pool: All the genes/alleles found in a breeding population at a given time are
collectively called the gene pool.

SEX DETERMINATION IN ANIMALS

The chromosomes which determine sex in the different organisms are called sex chromosomes.
After the discovery of Mendel’s work in 1900, the discovery of sex chromosomes revealed the
genetic basis of sex determination.
There are different mechanisms of sex determination.
XO MECHANISM
The sex determining mechanism in which sex is determined by X chromosome only is called
XO mechanism. It is found in grasshopper.
XY MECHANISM
This pattern of sex determination is found in Drosophila and man.
Sex chromosomes in Drosophila
It has eight chromosomes. These are present in the form of four homologous pairs. T.H.
Morgan in 1911 found difference in the chromosomes of male and female Drosophila. The
chromosomes of the three homologous pairs were similar in both of the sexes. But the fourth
was heteromorphic pair and it had different structures. The female has two similar rod shaped
X chromosomes in the fourth pair. But male has one rod shaped X chromosome but the other
a morphologically different, J-shaped Y chromosome in the fourth pair.
ZW MECHANISM
This type is common in birds and butterflies. Female is heterogametic XY. Female produces
two kinds of eggs X and Y in equal proportions. The male is homogametic XX.

SEX DETERMINATION IN PLANTS

Plants show a variety of sexual situations. Some species like Ginkgo are dioecious having plants
of separate sexes. Male plants produce flowers with only stamens and female plants produce
flowers with only carpels. Correns (1907) discovered that pollens of certain plants were sex-
determining. All eggs are of one type. Pollens of the two types are produced in equal number.
One kind of pollen after fertilizing the egg produces male plant while the other kind of pollen
after fertilization produces female plant.

Many species of eukaryotic micro-organisms like yeast do not have sex chromosomes. These
depend on genic system for determination of sex. In this system, the sexes are specified by
simple allelic differences at a small number of gene loci.