Gender Role Stereotypes in Fine Art:

A Content Analysis of Art History Books

Charlotte G. O'Kelly
Providence College

ABSTRACT: This paper reports findings from a content analysis of the gender role
images in the works of Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque and Modern art in three major
Western art history textbooks. Males were overrepresented as subjects; males and
females were presented in stereotypic roles and activities; the Madonna and the idle
nude were common female images; males were overrepresented in portraits. Fine art as
presented in major art history books was found to embody the gender role stereotypes of
the wider society.

Gender role stereotyping has been extensively researched in recent

years and gender role stereotypes have been found to pervade our culture
(Weitzman, 1972; Cornillion, 1973; Ferguson, 1973; Mellon, 1973; Haskell,
1974; Stacy, Bereaud and Daniels, 1974; O'Kelly, 1974; O'Kelly and
Bloomquist, 1976; Poe, 1976; Tuchman, Daniels and Benet, 1978; Lakoff,
1975; Jolly and O'Kelly, 1980). While this has been well documented in
other cultural media, relatively little attention has focused on sex roles in
art, except for studies documenting the existence of female artists and
their neglect by the art world (Nochlin, 1971; Hess and Baker, 1973;
Cantor, 1974; Collins, 1975; Tuchman, 1975; Lippard, 1976; Spawn, 1976;
Petersen and Wilson, 1976; Clement, 1977; Water, 1977; Vequard, 1977;
Bachman and Piland, 1978; Fine, 1978; Callen, 1979; Munro, 1979; Collins
and Opitz, 1981; Hedges and Wendt, 1980; Wheeler and Lussier, 1982).
Studies of art content in relation to sex roles are lacking. Specifically, the
comparative portrayal of men and women in fine art as an indicator of a
culture's images of men and women has not been examined. Are male and
female subjects used differently in works of art? Do works of fine art reflect
traditional sex role stereotypes? To answer this question the content of
highly acclaimed works of art selected for reproduction in major art history
textbooks will be discussed.

Method

The data for this study are based on a content analysis of the 971 works
of art found in three major Western art history textbooks by
For reprint requests write: Charlotte G. O'Kelly, Department of Sociology,
Anthropology and Social Work, Providence College, Providence, RI 02918
Qualitative Sociology, 6(2), Summer 1983 136 ©1983 by Human Sciences Press
 Gender Role Stereotypes in Fine Art 137

Canaday (1959), Janson (1969), and de la Choix and Tansey's revision of

Gardner (1975). All the works of art depicting the human figure
reproduced in any one or more of these books were included for analysis.
Most of the works were paintings, some were sculptures, and very few
were tapestries or other forms. The 971 works do not constitute a
representative sample of all Western art or even of all good Western art,
but they do provide a population of works of art which respected art
historians feel reflect an appropriate range of examples of what has been
considered the best of Western art.
Each work of art was coded for (1) the gender of the subjects, (2) the
number of subjects of each gender, (3) whether or not the subjects are
nude, (4) the activities or roles of the subjects, and (5) the period of art
of the work. 1

Findings

In terms of the frequency of use of males and females as subjects in

these works of art throughout all periods, males constituted 70 percent
of the subjects, while females represented only 30 percent. The actual sex
ratios in western societies have never been skewed to this degree. Thus,
women are underrepresented and relatively invisible in fine art works.
Such cultural invisibility may result from artistic standards emphasizing
the male body or male occupations and roles, social standards of
impropriety in painting women, the social perception of women as less
interesting than men, or the fact that almost all the artists whose works
are included in these books are male who perhaps paint the world as a
male sees and experiences it. Whatever the reason, one receives from
these works of art an image of the world as predominantly male.

Gender Specific Role and Activities

The roles and activities of the men and women in these works of art
present an image of a male-dominated world, with males rather than
females being active, serious workers and leaders. Males are
overwhelmingly cast in masculine roles such as soldiers, workers and
rulers, with about one-quarter in neutral activities such as attending the
theatre, and virtually none are in feminine activities or roles. Females are
cast about equally in feminine and neutral activities with a very few
engaged in stereotypically masculine pursuits such as leading soldiers to
victory, farming or bartending.
If we analyze each period of art separately, we see that the cultural
images concerning women's place in society have changed as Western
138 QUALITATIVE SOCIOLOGY

societies have evolved from medieval agricultural societies to modern

industrial societies.
The Gothic Period. During the Gothic period, males were portrayed in a
variety of activities, occupations, and roles. A large number of male
religious figures were found and males were often depicted as worshipping
Christ. In addition, males were soldiers, peasants, nobles, shepherds,
fishermen, criminals, and carpenters.
Very few activities or roles were coded for females in Gothic art: females
were servants and peasants, several were mourning the death of Christ,
and one was reading. The rest were depicted simply as wives of noblemen.
The predominant female image was, however, that of the Madonna; 22.2%
(35) of the female subjects during this period were Madonnas. In
comparison only 4.8% (20) of the male subjects were Christ. The Madonna
image is less important in the Renaissance period, but it still accounts for
10.6% (50) of the female subjects. (See Table I.)

The attention given to the Madonna would primarily be a result of the

religious domination of Western art in these periods. As Frederick Antal
(1948) and Sibylle Harksen (1975) point out, medieval art takes the
perspective of the ruling classes and the Church. For this reason, we
cannot expect it to reflect accurately all of society. The poor or the
powerless (which includes most women) are given little attention. This
skewed view is further exacerbated by the fact that most of the art which
has been preserved from the Middle Ages is sacred art. Wall paintings and
textiles from castles and homes of wealthy families have largely been lost.
Harksen maintains that the subject matter of secular art was probably
markedly different from sacred art. In the church dominated art that
remains from medieval society there are many positive images of males
while women are accorded little importance. Although Christ is of primary
importance in the Christian religion, the image of Christ does not
dominate male images in art. Christ represents less than one-fifth of the
male religious figures, whereas Madonnas constitute almost three-
quarters of the female religious figures. Furthermore, in the pre-modern
periods, males constituted over 80 percent of the religious figures and a
greater variety of male religious figures are depicted. Other than the
Virgin Mary, there are relatively few females of importance to the Church
in these works of art. (See Table I.)

The Church had few positive images of women during this period.
Females were seen as sources of temptation and sin which made the path
toward salvation more difficult for males. Even the wife and mother roles
of women were devalued by the medieval Church, although not necessarily
by the public. The highest ideal for men was to forgo sexual and intimate
contact with women altogether as part of
 Gender Role Stereotypes in Fine Art 139

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140 QUALITATIVE SOCIOLOGY

the celibate brotherhood of priests and monks (Zaretsky, 1976: 40).

This negative perspective on women co-existed with the seemingly
contradictory cult of the Virgin Mary (Power, 1975: 34). Although earthly
women were sources of sin and the cause of man's fall from Grace, the
Madonna rose above the world of fleshly desires as the Virgin mother of
Christ. Such an unattainable ideal dominated the medieval Church's
thinking about women. It is not surprising that the art strongly
influenced by the Church reflected these views: the Madonna is given
extensive attention; females in other roles are given very limited
representation or are ignored altogether.
The Renaissance Period. There were again very few female activities
and roles coded for females relative to males during the Renaissance
period. Several women were clearly sex objects as seductresses,
participants in orgies or victims of rape. Others portrayed stereotypical
traits by fainting or crying. Some women were depicted as caring for
children or the household, as servants, or as water carriers. Several were
singing, dancing and playing. There were two queens and one female
soldier in our sample of art works of this period. Males continued to be
portrayed as nobles, soldiers, peasants, servants, shepherds, beggars,
hunters, musicians, and as political and religious leaders. Christian
worship continued as an activity for both genders.
The Baroque Period. Because more females are represented in the
works of the Baroque period, females are found engaged in more
activities. But rape and "loose women" were important subjects for
females in the works of this period. ,Other women were royalty, peasants,
housewives and servants. Males were soldiers, rapists, kings, other
royalty, peasants, clothmakers, hunters, priests, artists, musicians,
carpenters, water carriers and revelers. Both men and women
worshipped Christ.
The Modern Period. A much wider variety of activities and roles were
coded for the modern period, but definite gender role divisions
predominate. War is a favorite theme and the soldier is the almost
common role for males. Men are pictured in a large number and wide
variety of roles such as kings, gods, nobles, lawgivers, doctors,
philosophers, priests, musicians, explorers, hunters, stonebreakers,
gladiators and peasants. Females are mothers, slaves, servants, peasants,
dancers, prostitutes, harem girls and models. People involved in
leadership roles or serious work are almost invariably male.
Aries' (1962: 339-345) study of Cathedral calendar art found that
unlike the great paintings and sculptures, this art was oriented less to the
nobility and more to the lives of the peasantry. However, his findings
using this more popular genre of art are in accord with the
 Gender Role Stereotypes in Fine Art 141

data from this study. Women were rarely depicted until the late Middle
Ages. Women are first seen in their roles as the mistress of the home and
the lady of courtly love. By the sixteenth century women are more visible
in a greater variety of roles, in particular, peasant women are pictured
working alongside their husbands. By the seventeenth century, Aries
states that the subject matter of calendar art reflects the increasing
importance of the family as a separate unit in society. Aries further
maintains that Western arts in its various forms reflects the gradual
emergence of private family life and modern family roles (including gender
roles) out of the more communal orientation of the medieval manor.

This study has also found that women were largely invisible, except for
the Madonna and other religious images, in Gothic art as well. Even
though the Reformation introduced important new images of women
during the Renaissance, these data indicate that in art, women continue
to be ignored or presented as Madonnas or Eves.
The Reformation and the breakup of medieval society overtly challenged
the Catholic view of women and of sex. The Puritans, for example, exalted
women in their roles as wives and mothers (Zaretsky, 1976). The view of
women was transformed from an emphasis on the evil, seductive
temptations of women to a view of women as the repository of virtue and
the mainstay of the new private family life. Simultaneously, among the
wealthy, women came to be valued for their beauty, as objects for display.
The underside of these views of women as virtuous and beautiful was, that
those women who were not located within the confines of family
domesticity were evil, depraved, and available as sex objects for males.

These images of women are reflected first in Baroque art and continue
to dominate art in the modern period. Women are increasingly visible, but
their "new" feminine roles are limited to mother, idle beauties and sex
objects. Contrary to Lyvia Brown's analysis (1975), Madonnas are not
important in the works of either the Baroque or Modern periods. However,
a secularized version of the Madonna in the form of the good mother figure
with her child is a part of the composition of 7.9% (34) of the modern
paintings and 5.0% (35) of the Baroque works in this sample. The Madonna
image probably continues in this type of sub-theme at least partially
because the legitimate role of women in modern society was largely defined
by her position as a wife and mother. The Church's loss of power resulted
in a decline in the divine representation of the Virgin Mary, and the
importance of marriage and motherhood, with its concomitant artistic
figures, increased with the rise of modern capitalist and industrial society.
142 QUALITATIVE SOCIOLOGY

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Nudes
The frequency of females as nude subjects in art provides further
evidence of cultural imagery. We assume that female nudes represent
traditional sex roles such as that of the sex object and traditional female
behavior such as passivity in contrast with male activity. Although male
nudes outnumber female nudes in almost all the art periods, this is
attributable to the preponderance of more male subjects. Females are, in
fact, more likely to be portrayed in the nude than are males; 24.2% (330)
of the female subjects are nude compared to 11.9% (379) of the male
subjects. (See Table II)
Female nudes are usually presented in overtly sexual poses or in the
process of dressing or bathing. Males dress and bathe, but these do not
provide subjects for artistic endeavors. Males (but not females) are active
even when nude.

Portraiture.
The influence of wealthy and powerful patrons of the arts on the
subject matter of art can be seen in the rise of portrait paintings. Interest
in portraiture was spurred by the decline of the medieval community and
the rise of the urban bourgeoisie. Portraiture indicates an increased
emphasis on individualism. But as Eli Zaretsky (1976) points out,
individualism was accorded to males first as most females did not gain
the right to individual self development until recent decades.

Successful individuals who were almost always male wanted to

proclaim their individual achievements. Their proclamations are male
oriented-the conspicious display of elegant, idle wives or the
commissions of their own, their wives', and sometimes their children's
portraits.2 Males constitute over 60% of the subjects of portraits and
busts (see Table III) and most of the female subjects were painted
because of their husbands' or fathers' importance, not for their own
accomplishments.

Conclusion

The world of art has long been a masculine domain. The artists,
teachers, patrons, gallery owners, art critics and museum curators have
been predominantly and sometimes exclusively male (Baxandall, 1972:
1-27; Munro, 1979: 19-35). When women do occupy these positions, they
often feel constrained to use the same standards as males. Women gallery
owners, for example, have to sell to stay open and if works by women
artists produce fewer profits, galleries have to
144 QUALITATIVE SOCIOLOGY

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 Gender Role Stereotypes in Fine Art 145

focus on male artists (Fine, 1978: vii). Women were also long excluded
from membership in the important art academies and when a few were
finally elected in the late nineteenth century, they could not exercise the
full membership privileges available to the males until several decades
later (Harris and Nochlin, 1976: 45 -58).
The human experiences reflected in the most celebrated works of art,
have been, therefore, male experiences or what men conceive of as
female experiences. The books used in this study each contain only one
female artist. This is not because there have been no great female artists.
Clara E. Clement (1977) has carefully researched and documented the
existence of substantial numbers of gifted female artists from the seventh
century, B.C. to the twentieth century. These women have not been
accorded a high place in art history textbooks. It is not clear whether this
exclusion is because the artists are female or because their work is simply
not as good as the male artists who fill the textbooks.

There is also insufficient research on the images found in female

artists' works. It appears that they do differ from male artists in the use
of female figures, but more systematic research is necessary. Artists such
as Paula Modersohn-Becker, Kathe Kollwitz, Berthe Morisot, and Mary
Cassatt have certainly focused more attention on mothers and children
than have most well known male artists. In the illustrations reprinted in
books on women artists (Harris and Nochlin, 1976; Petersen and Wilson,
1976; Clement, 1977; Fine, 1978; and Hedges and Wendth, 1980), female
subjects predominate, but the basis for selection is unclear. These
particular works may have been included because they do deal with
female subjects, or it may be that this in fact represents what most female
artists have produced. Fine (1978) also notes that although she made
every effort to locate quality reproductions to illustrate great female
artists' work, they were not always available because of inadequate
scholarship. Furthermore, Elaine Hedges and Ingrid Wendt (1980: 167-
236) in their study of women in art argue that women do produce images
that grow out of women's experiences and, therefore, reflect the female
world more adequately than art by males. The question requires more
research. 3
The current increase in the number of female artists, along with
attempts by feminists to force cultural change in the area of gender role
stereotyping, may be leading to changes in artistic representation of men
and women. Judy Chicago's attempt to inject a feminist perspective into
modern art in her massive work "The Dinner Party" and art critic Lucy
Lippard's decision to stop writing almost exclusively about male artists
and to begin reviewing only females' works are cases in point.
146 QUALITATIVE SOCIOLOGY

Moreover, the fact that males predominate in non-artistic positions

of power, prestige and wealth has at least in the past increased the
likelihood that males will be disproportionately depicted in art as
important, serious leaders, and workers. An increase in the social power,
wealth, and prestige of women might also have resulted in an increased
representation of women or women's themes in art.
Further research is needed to document the actual effects of the
gender role images in art. This study has, however, demonstrated the
extent to which gender role stereotypes pervade even the domain of
artistic high culture.

Reference Notes

l The periods analyzed here include Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, and Modern.
Gothic refers to medieval, primarily religious art, created between 1150 and 1550.
This was the Age of the Great Cathedrals and includes such artists as Giotto, Traini,
Lorenzetti, and van Eyck in the "late Gothic period." Renaissance art developed about
1420 and continued through the sixteenth century, thus overlapping with Gothic in
time but also in Christian influence. Renaissance artists include Donatello,
Michelangelo, Raphael, da Vinci, Titian and Durer. Baroque style predominated
between 1600 and 1750, and is a part of the Renaissance. Representative Baroque
artists are van Dyck, Rubens, Rembrandt, Gainsborough and Bernini, who received
patronage from the papacy. Modern Art began about 1750 and continues through the
1930's for the purpose of this study. Schools of Modern Art are Neo-Classicism,
Romanticism, Realism, Impressionism, Post Impressionism, Fauvism, Expressionism,
Cubism, Abstraction, and Reactions against Abstraction; and includes artists such as
David, Goya, Renoir, Van Gogh, Matisse, Picasso and Rivera.

2 Aries' (1962: 347-350) observation that family portraits became especially popular
in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and continued into the nineteenth century
lends further support to this interpretation.
3 Examinations of sex role themes in particular works of art such as various
representations of Sampson and Deliliah (Kahr, 1972) and of Degas' depictions of
females (Broude, 1977) are found in a recent work on feminist art history (Broude
and Garrard, 1982). The field of feminist art history is a new one and the question of
the comparative imagery in male and female artists' works has only begun to be
analyzed.

References

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1978 Women Artists. New York: Scarecrow Press.
 Gender Role Stereotypes in Fine Art 147

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148 QUALITATIVE SOCIOLOGY

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1976 Capitalism, the Family and Personal Life. New York: Harper.