adminstration theory book

Faculty of Nursing Helwan University
Master of nursing administration 2022/2023
Administration theories in
nursing
Under Supervision
Prof /Gehan Mohamed

Professor of Nursing Administration
Head of Nursing Administration
Department
Faculty of Nursing
Helwan University
1
The content:
NO Title Prepared by Page No

1 Organization Management ‫ سمر محمد‬3 - 19
Theories
2 Learning Theories ‫عبد هللا كامل‬- 20-43
‫ فاطمة عبدالتواب‬-
3 Educational ‫عبدالرحمن يحي‬ 44-59
Administrational Theories
4 Leadership Theories ‫ صفاء محمد‬60-84
5 Motivation Theories ‫ داليا جاسر‬- 85-97
‫ شيماء مرعي‬-
6 Change Theories ‫صابرين‬- 98-116
‫نجات السيد‬-
‫رضا عبد الظاهر‬-
7 Negotiation Theories ‫ هبة محمد‬- 117-131
‫سمر عماد‬-
‫هالة محمد‬-
Collected by Abdelrahman yahia
2
(1)
Organization And Management Theories
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Goal
To achieve integrated acquisition of knowledge, skills, positive attitude
toward management theories.
Objectives
At the end of the lecture the participants will be able to:

1. Define the key terms
2. List the important of management theories.
3. Discuss the categories of organizational theories
4. Differentiate between X theory and Y theory.
5. Distinguish principles of Contingency theory and system theory
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Out Lines:
- Definitions
- The Importance of Management Theories
- Major theories of organization and management:
a- Classical theory
1. Scientific Management.
2. Bureaucratic theory.
3. Administrative Management.
4. Behavioral theory of management
b- Neo-classical theory
1. Humanistic model
2. Theory X and Theory Y.
3. Herzeberg motivation hygiene theory
4. Likert theory
c- Modern theories classified into:
1. Systems approach
2. Contingency approach
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Introduction
Without proper management the resources of production cannot be
converted into production. Management is a must to accomplish desired
goals through group action. It is essential to convert the disorganized
resources of Men, Material, Machines and Methods into a useful and
effective enterprise. Thus management is a vital function concerned
with all aspects of the working of an organization
Definition of theory
A theory is a rational type of abstract thinking about a phenomenon, or
the results of such thinking. The process of contemplative and rational
thinking is often associated with such processes as observational study
or research.
Definition of management
Management is a universal phenomenon. It is a very popular and widely
used term. All organizations - business, political, cultural or social are
involved in management because it is the management which helps and
directs the various efforts towards a definite purpose.
Harlod Koontz, Management is the art of getting things done through
and with the people in formally organized groups.
FW.Taylor, Management is the art of knowing what you want to do
and then seeing that is done in the best and cheapest way.
Organization
- A social group with collective goal.
- Is defined as the structure or network of relationship among
individuals and positions in a work setting and the process by
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which the structure is created, maintained and used." - Dalton E.

Mcfarland:
Organizational Management
The process of organizing, planning, leading and controlling resources
within an entity with the overall aim of achieving its objectives.
Organizational theories
- Is not a single theory.
- Develop and explain the concept of how organization is effectively
Designed, functioned and administered
Organizational theories are:
 Classical Organizational Theories
 Scientific management approach
 Weber’s Bureaucratic approach
 Administrative theories
 Behavioral theory of management
 Neoclassical theories
 Humanistic model
 Theory X and Theory Y.
 Herzeberg motivation hygiene theory
 Likert theory
 Modern organization theory
 Systems approach
 Contingency approach
1-Classical Management Theory:
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There are 4 general management theories:

1- Frederick Taylor: 1856-1915 theory of scientific management
2- Henri faylo1841-1925: administrative management theory
3- Max weber1864-1920: bureaucratic theory of management
4- Elton mayo 1880-1948: behavioral theory of management
1-Frederick Taylor’s theory of scientific management 1856-1915

Taylor theory is a theory management that analysis work flow it’s aimed
at improving economic efficiency, especially labor productivity
Principles of scientific management theory:
1-time and motion
2-teach, train and develop the work man with improved methods of
doing work
3- Interest of employer &employees
Advantages of scientific management theory:
1-enhance team work cooperation between manager and worker
2-better planning and decision making
3-improve economic and work
4-reduce waste
Disadvantage of scientific management theory:
1-influencies feeling of pressure among workers
2-mangerial decision may involves strictness and stress for mangers due
to need for a complete control over the work place
3-may de motivate workers
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2-Henri Fayol s administrative management theory 1841-1925:

Known as the father of management Henry Fayol was born in 1841 Ad
and developed his life to developing general theory of business
administration that has 14 principles
Principles of administrative management theory:
1-Division of work or specialization
2-Authority and responsibility
3-Discipline member of the organization should honor the objective of
the organization
4-Unity of command
5-Unity of direction members of organization
6-Subordination of individual interest to general interest
7-Remuneration of personnel
8-Centralization management
9-Scalar chain: managers in hierarchies are part of chain like authority
scale
10-Order the organization has a place for everything and everyone who
ought to be so engaged
11-Equity fairness, justice and equity should prevail in the organization
12-Stability to tenure of personnel job security improves performance
13-Intiative this should be encouraged and stimulated
14-Esprit de corps pride, allegiance and a sense of belonging are
essential for good performance.
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Advantage of administrative management theory

1-It’s the most comprehensive administrative management theory
Henry Fayol’s theory is an extremely comprehensive as a way to deal
with management techniques: -
2-Role of manager defined –clear direction
3-Increased efficiency of organization structure
4-Increased effectiveness of administration
Disadvantage of administrative management theory:
1-It is still based on human application the weakness to the theory is
that it is still based on humans.
2-Depend on experience
3-Un tested assumption
4-Unintended consequences administrative management
3-Max weber bureaucratic theory of management 1864-1920

Weber made a distinction between authority and power. Believed that
power educes. obedience through force or the threat of force which
induces individual to adhere to regulations.
Principle of bureaucratic theory:
1-division of labor
2-formal hierarchical
3-selection based on technical expertise
4-management by rules
5-written documents
6-only legal power is important
7-formal and impersonal relations
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Advantage of bureaucratic theory of management:

1-specialization
2-democratic
3-rationality
Disadvantage of bureaucratic theory of management:
1-rigidity
2-impersonality
3-red tap
4-compartment of activities
4-Elton mayo’s behavioral theory of management 1880-1948
-Elton mayo” experiment’s showed an increase in worker productivity

was produce by the psychological stimulus of being singled out
involved and made to feel important.
Advantage of Elton mayo’s behavioral theory of management:
1-the methods allow clear identification of the concern of the workers
2-it solves productivity issues in a long-term basis
3-it brings forth consistency in the assessment of the work situation
Disadvantage of the Elton mayo’s behavioral theory management:

1-difficult to identify the critical working environment
2-critical working and model need to up to date
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2- Neo-classical or Humanistic Theory:

A) Humanistic model (Elton Mayo: 1924-1932):
b) Theory of X and Y (Douglas McGregor 1950s)
C) motivation hygiene theory ( Herzberg 1923- 2000):
D) Likert theory (Rensis likert 1961):
 Less formal, less control.

 More participation in decision making with decision authority at
the point of service.
 Results in a flat structure developed along horizontal lines with
fewer levels of management.
 Communication is enhanced
 According g to this theory non-economic rewards play a vital role
in motivation
Principles of the Neo-Classica approach
Based on Hawthorne experiment, productivity can be increased through
social and human relations at:
- Individual
- Work Group
- Participative Management
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A) Humanistic model (Elton Mayo: 1924-1932):

Hawthorne research result in production can no longer be viewed as
only dependent on formal job and organizational design but also
employee.
 Assumptions about relationship between employer and employee.
Desire humanizes the classical theory
Advantages:
A) Individuals cannot be treated in isolation, but function with group
Members
B) That individual motivation did not primarily lie in monetary or
physical Condition, but in need and status in a group
C) Provide basis for motivational theories.
Disadvantages:
 Personal conflicts.
 Formal authority does not work as classical (no consideration for
Organizational environment)
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b) Theory of X and Y (Douglas McGregor 1950s)

 Independence
 Responsibility
 Motivation
 Nature of work
 Drive themselves
McGregor X - Y Theories
Theory X Theory Y
People need close People want independence in
supervision work
Will avoid work when People seek responsibility
possible People are motivated by self-
Will avoid responsibility fulfillment
That they desire only money People naturally want to
work
People must be pushed to People will drive themselves

problem to perform
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C) Herzeberg motivation hygiene theory ( 1923- 2000):

Concerned with satisfactory and unsatisfactory feeling related to work.
Herzeberg show 2 categories of finding:
1. Motivators:
Factors giving rise to satisfaction
-Achievement
-Responsibility
-Recognition
-Advancement
-Work itself
2. Hygiene factors: factors giving rise to dissatisfaction
-Company policy and recognition
- Supervision
- the technical aspects
- Salary
- Interpersonal relations
- Working conditions
Advantages:
Herzberg's work led to a practical way to improve motivation and aims
at designing work and work structure to contain the optimum number
of motivators.
Disadvantages:
Argue about the validity of his definition of job satisfaction
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D) Likert theory ( Rensis 1961):

Depend on the behavior of the manager:
1. Exploitative:
Authoritative where power and direction come from the top
downwards, where threats and punishment are employed, where
communication is poor and teamwork nonexistent.
2. Benevolent:
Authoritative is similar to the above but allows some upward
opportunities for consultation and some delegation.
3. Consultative
Where goals are set or orders issued after discussion with subordinates,
where communication is upwards and downwards and where teamwork
is encouraged.
4. Participative
Group the keynote is participation, leading to commitment to the
organization's goals in a fully co-operative way.
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3- Modern theories
1. Bernard (1938) gave the first modern and comprehensive view
of management
2. Von Bertalanffy (1951) made a significant contribution by
suggesting a component of general systems theory which is
accepted as a basic premise of modem theory
3. Based on the concept of systematic arrangement for objectives
(Hicks and Gullet 1975)
Modern understanding of the theories includes:

A- The system approach
B-Contingency or situational approach
A-Systems theory
An organization as a system composed from four elements:
1- Input:
Which include resources such as information, raw materials, people,
money and technology
2- Process :
Where they are planned, organized, directed and controlled to meet the
organizational goals
3- Output :
Are the products or services designed to enhance the quality of life of
customer or clients.
4- Feedback
Includes the comments from the customer or client using the services
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Types of system
1- Closed system
2- Open system
1- Closed system
Is an organization that interacts a little with its external environment
(outside environment) therefore receives little feedback from its
(All system input and output is internal)
2- Open system
Is an organization that dynamically interacts with its environment
continually. Therefore it’s well informed about the changes within its
surroundings
The term "open systems"- open for change to the externalities
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b-Contingency Theory
- It suggests that the managers must do what the situation warrants or
manager action must be contingent upon the organization situation
or environment
- According to this approach the task of the manager is to identify
which techniques will, in particular situation, under particular
circumstances and particular time best contribute to the organization
goals.
Assumptions of contingency theory
1- Each organization is unique
2- External environment of each organization is different and unique
3- Sub-system of the organization are interrelated
4- Best approach to management is situational
5- Managers success based on the ability to perceive and analyze
every situation
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(2)
Learning theory
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Goal
To provide the participant with knowledge, skill and positive attitude
toward learning theories
Objectives:
At the end of this lecture the participant will be able to:
1- Identify the concepts of: Learning and learning Theory.

2- Discuss the different learning theories
3- Apply learning theory in the classroom
4- Gain positive attitude toward learning theory
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Outlines:
1. Introduction.
2. Concepts: learning, learning Theory.
3. Learning Theory include: (Behaviorism& Cognitivism & Social
learning theory & Social Constructivism & Multiple learning theory
(MI) & Brain-Based Learning)
4. Application.
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Introduction:
Learning theories focus on how people learn, and identifying the
methods that will provide learner the best conditions that most
facilitate learning outcomes. Theories include sets of concepts of
psychological variable that are presented as allows or principles about
learning.
Definition of Learning
The process of acquisition knowledge, skills, believes by studying.
Resulting in some motivation relatively permanent, in the way of
thinking, feeling and doing of the Learner.
Definition of learning theory:
Set of ideas,beliefs,thoughts and assumptions about how learning takes
aplace.
Types of learning theories
 Behaviorism
 Cognitive (Cognitivism) learning theory (1980–1896)
 Social Constructivism learning theory
 Social learning theory (1961_1977)
 Multiple learning theory (MI)
 Brain-Based Learning
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1-Behaviorism learning theory:

 Behaviorism
a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired
through conditioning, and conditioning occurs through interaction
with the environment.
Behaviorism
Classical Conditioning Behavioral or operant

conditioning
(Pavlov)
(Skinner)
1-Classical Conditioning (Pavlov1849-1936)
Occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus, the most Example
is Pavlov observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even see food
-Pavlov presented dogs with a ringing bell, followed by food, the food
elicit salivation and After repeated bell _ food pairing the bell also cause
dogs to salivate in this experiment the Unconditioned stimulus
(naturally trigger a response):is the dog foods as it produces the
Unconditioned response (unlearned response occurs naturally): saliva,
the conditioned Stimulus (previously neutral stimulus that after
becoming associated with the unconditioned Stimulus eventually come
trigger a conditioned response) is ringing bell and it produce Conditioned
response of the dogs producing saliva.
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2-Behavioral or operant conditioning (Skinner1904-1990)

Operant conditioning: Occurs when a response to a stimulus is
reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system:
if a reward or reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus then the
response will become more probable in the future.
How operant conditioning works
-The famous skinner box demonstrates operant conditioning by placing
a rat in a box which the pressing of a small bar produced foods. Skinner
showed that the rat eventually learned to press the bar regularly to
obtain food. Reinforcement and punishment are the 2 main concepts in
the operating condition.
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Advantage of Behaviorism
1- Scientifically credible.
2- Set in Lab Settings. Focuses on measurements of observable
behavior in Labs
3- Real-Life Application. Classical Conditioning is used for treating
Phobias.
4- Process mediates from response and Stimuli. Shows we may have
a bigger role in our learning.
5- Encourage good behavior
6- Use positive reinforcement (motivation) to reward those students
who follow instructions
7- High structured situations
8- Skills training in which steps and sequences can be clearly
delineated
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Disadvantage of Behaviorism
1- Ethical and Practical Issues of Animal Experiments.
The Learning Theory may apply less to humans and more to animal
behavior
2- Ignore learning activities
3- Advocates for passive student learning in teacher-centric
environment.
4- Instruction is mechanistic.
5- Minimizes student involvement in learning.
6- Inappropriate for complex mental processes, problem-solving, and
critical thinking
2-Cognitive learning theory (Cognitivism)

(Piaget’s theory) 1980–1896
 Cognitivism is a learning theory that focusses on how information
is received, organized, stored and retrieved by the mind.
 The learner processes the received information seeking way to
understand it related to already known information within his
memory.
 It uses the mind as an information processer, like a computer.
Therefore, cognitivism looks beyond observable behavior, viewing
learning as internal mental processes.
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 In this view, learners are actively involved in the way they process
information. Knowledge, memory, thinking, and problem solving
are areas for development.
 Components of Cognitive Learning
1- Comprehension:
For cognitive learning to be efficient and benefit you, understand the
reason why you are learning a specific subject in the first place.
2-Memory:
Cognitive learning discourages cramming of information, which is
very ineffective in education. Having a deep understanding of a subject
improves your ability to relate new knowledge with previous
experiences or information.
3-Application:
Cognitive learning strategies help you apply new information or skills
in life situations. They encourage you as you continue to develop
problem-solving skills.
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 Cognitive Learning Strategies

1-Learner-centered strategy
Jean Piaget termed learning as relating information to already
existing knowledge. And each learner starts with their own
knowledge and experience.
According to his theories, learning begins with the accumulation of
some basic knowledge and advancing deeper into the field with time
2-Meaningful Experiences strategy
David Ausubel made a clear distinction between meaningful

learning and rote learning.
According to him, material that was closely related to what the

learner knew was meaningful and always turned out to be effective.
Learners with relevant background knowledge find it easier to add

new information.
3-Learning Through Discovery strategy
Jerome Bruner is a psychologist who built his theory on top of

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development that was focusing on
learning through discovery.
His theory identified three stages of cognitive representation which

are enactive, iconic, and symbolic. Enactive defining the
representation of knowledge through actions, iconic being the
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visual summarization of images, and symbolic which is the use of

words and symbols to describe experiences.
4-Personalized learning strategy

All of these strategies can be combined into one personalized
learning approach. Each learner is unique and has their own
experience, knowledge, and perception. Which can greatly
influence the way they interpret and consume new information.
Creating learning experiences that fit each individual based on their
own knowledge that is meaningful for their role which encourages
them to discover new solutions can drive great results and improve
their overall performance.
 Advantage cognitive learning theory:
1- Use of intellectual development gives teacher ↑ professional &

personal satisfaction.
2- ↑Satisfaction in relationship with learner.
3- ↑use of a variety of instructional strategies → teacher creativity.
4- Increase Learner satisfaction as move into improved cognitive
ability & look forward to more challenging/ stimulating life.
5- ↑Critical thinking in learner
 Disadvantage cognitive learning theory

1- ↑ time & energy by teacher to become knowledgeable about
different viewpoints
2- Students stressed if looking for certainty or absolute answers
3- Limited to teacher only. It is a teacher based learning
4- Neglected individual differences in cognitive development.
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3-social constructivism learning theory
 This theory is the belief that knowledge is not a copy of an objective

reality but is rather the result the mind selecting and making sense
of and recreating experiences. This means that knowledge is the
result of interactions between both subjective and environmental
factors
 Believed that community plays a central role in cognition.
 Social constructivism is the view that learning occurs through social
interaction and the help of others, often in a group. Social
constructivism posits that the understanding an individual develops
is shaped through social interaction.
Social Constructivism is based on assumptions made on the
following three elements:
1-Reality: Experts of Social Constructivism believe that reality is
based on human activities. They believe it is impossible to
discover reality as it is nonexistence.
2-Knowledge: Social Constructivists also believe that knowledge
is an output of humans. It is constructed both socially and
culturally. Human interaction with one another and their
environment leads to the creation of meaningful lives.
3-Learning: Learning is viewed as a social process. It happens
when individuals interact socially.
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 Advantage of constructivism
1. Promotes learning through collaboration.
2. Helps learner to build, organize and construct their own
knowledge based on what they have learnt.
3. Promotes knowledge sharing between the teacher and learner.
4. Facilitates cognitive growth.
5. Promotes social and communication skills.
 Disadvantage of constructivism
1. It’s Time Consuming
2. It doesn’t fit with Standardized Tests.
3. It requires differentiation, which is resource intensive.
4. Can be difficult to apply in a new environment.
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4-Social learning theory

Albert Bandura (1961_1977)
 Emphasizes the importance of observing, modelling, and imitating
the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Social
learning theory considers how both environmental and cognitive
factors interact to influence human learning and behavior.
 Basic social learning theory concepts
1-observation learning: people can learn through observation.
2-Intrinsic reinforcement: mental states are important for learning.
3- The modeling process: learning doesn't lead to a change in behavior.
Principle of Social learning theory:
• 1-People can learn by observing the behavior of others & the
outcomes of those behaviors.
• 2-Learning can occur without a change in behavior.
• 3-Cognition play a role in learning.
Advantages of Social learning theory
1-Natural Way to Learn: Uses it naturally every day, consciously and
unconsciously. You don't have to plan or set aside time for it because
it happens automatically over time.
2-Better skills: By encouraging sharing thoughts, ideas, experiences,
and best practices, you strengthen your learner's productivity and
skills.
3-Higher Learning Retention: we only remember 10% from formal
learning sources, while the remaining 90% from informal sources and
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social learning .Because we remember things like voice pitch, images,

memories, or even a joke during learning that we associate with
learning content.
4-Lower costs: Sharing a specific topic for learners together is less cost
than attending a seminar on the same topic.
5-Collaboration problem Solving in Real Time: By sharing solutions
with others.
 Disadvantages of Social Learning Theory

1-Loss of innovation: Personal thought processes, opinions and views
are often neglected ,
2-Unexpected obstacles: Very few people know their limits, strengths
and weaknesses really well
3-Inner conflicts: If the new behaviors are contrary to your own views.
4-Requirements: Attention, retention, replicability and motivation
must be present in each participant for it to work.
5-Doesn’t explain behavioral differences
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5-Multiple Intelligences Theory

 Gardner defines intelligence as a “ biopsychological potential to
process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to
solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture”
(Gardner, 2000, p.28)
Types of Multiple Intelligences
1-Linguistic Intelligence
Deals with sensitivity to the spoken and written language, ability to
learn languages, and capacity to use language to accomplish certain
goals.
-People with linguistic intelligence, such as William Shakespeare and
Oprah Winfrey, have an ability to analyze information and create
products involving oral and written language such as speeches, books,
and memos.
2-Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
-Logical-mathematical intelligence refers to the capacity to analyze
problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate
issues scientifically.
-People with logical-mathematical intelligence, such as Albert Einstein
and Bill Gates, have an ability to develop equations and proofs, make
calculations, and solve abstract problems.
3-Spatial Intelligence
Spatial intelligence features the potential to recognize and manipulate
the patterns of wide space (those used, for instance, by navigators and
pilots) as well as the patterns of more confined areas, such as those of
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importance to sculptors, surgeons, chess players, graphic artists, or

architects.
People with spatial intelligence, such as Frank Lloyd Wright and
Amelia Earhart, have an ability to recognize and manipulate large-scale
and fine-grained spatial images.
4-Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
Is the potential of using one’s whole body or parts of the body (like the
hand or the mouth) to solve problems or to fashion products.
People with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, such as Michael Jordan and
Simone Biles, have an ability to use one’s own body to create products,
perform skills, or solve problems through mind–body union.
5-Musical Intelligence
Musical intelligence refers to the skill in the performance, composition,
and appreciation of musical patterns.
People with musical intelligence, such as Beethoven and Ed Sheeran,
have an ability to recognize and create musical pitch, rhythm, timbre,
and tone
6-Interpersonal Intelligence
Interpersonal intelligence is the capacity to understand the intentions,
motivations, and desires of other people and consequently to work
effectively with others.
People with interpersonal intelligence, such as Mahatma Gandhi and
Mother Teresa, have an ability to recognize and understand other
people’s moods, desires, motivations, and intentions.
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7-Intrapersonal Intelligence
Intrapersonal intelligence is the capacity to understand oneself, to have
an effective working model of oneself-including own’s desires, fears,
and capacities—and to use such information effectively in regulating
one’s own life.
People with intrapersonal intelligence, such as Aristotle and Maya
Angelou, have an ability to recognize and understand his or her own
moods, desires, motivations, and intentions.
This type of intelligence can help a person to understand which life
goals are important and how to achieve them.
8-Naturalist intelligence
Naturalistic intelligence involves expertise in the recognition and
classification of the numerous species—the flora and fauna—of his or
her environment.
People with naturalistic intelligence, such as Charles Darwin and Jane
Goddall, have an ability to identify and distinguish among different
types of plants, animals, and weather formations that are found in the
natural world.
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Advantages
• Educators can understand the needs to different types of learners.
• Efforts can be made to strengthen all forms of intelligence in
every learner.
• Learners will be able to show and share their strengths.
• The learners develop positive educational experiences and
abilities for generating solutions to every problem in life when are
taught as per their understanding.
Disadvantages
• Gardner's Multiple Intelligences are cognitively based.
• Excludes students with particular performances in only one
intelligence area.
• It doesn't explain why some people are more intelligent than
others.
• These 'intelligences' are not all essential for successful adaption.
• Ultimately there is not really much HARD scientific evidence.
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6-Brain based learning theory

- Brain Based learning: Refer to teaching methods, lesson designs, and
school programs that are based on the latest scientific researches about
how the brain learns including such factors as: Cognitive
development .How student learn differently as they age, grow, and
mature socially, emotionally and cognitively
Principles of Brain Based Learning:
In 1991, Geoffrey Caine and Renate Nummela Caine identified the
basic patterns of how human beings learn and receive stimulus through
their brain .
They have introduced 12 brain learning principles
1-The Brain is a Parallel Processor, meaning it can perform several
activities at once, like tasting and smelling.
2-The brain understand and remember best when facts and Skills are
embedded in natural spatial memory.
3-Every brain is uniquely organized
4-Every brain simultaneously perceives and creates parts and Wholes
5-The search for meaning occurs through "patterning
6-The search for meaning is innate
7-Emotions are critical to patterning
8-Learning involves both focused attention and peripheral perception
9-Learning always involves conscious and unconscious process
10-Learning engages the entire physiology
11-Learning is enhanced by challenges and inhibited by threats.
12-We have at least two types of memory a spatial memory System
and a set of system for rote learning
 Advantages of Brain Based Learning
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1) Engages Whole Body and Mind of Child: Students are often treated
as an active learner instead of a passive learning
2) Uses Demonstrations and Assessment to Analyze Progress: These
forms of assessment are more progressive and most times a more
effective way of analyzing progress in comparison to test based
assessment.
3) Uses “New” Teaching Styles
4) Promotes Creativity of Students and Teachers
 Disadvantages
1-Research conducted by neuroscientists, not teachers &
educational researchers
2-Lack of understanding of the brain itself makes brain-based
Learning questionable.
3-Individual principles have been scientifically questioned
 Integrating Brain-Based Learning in the Classroom

1-Pre-Exposure and Priming
Make sure that learners are pre-exposed to the content and context of
the new topic at least one week in advance of starting it. This helps
establish some background and relevance in the subject and expedites
future learning.
2-Sufficient Time for Learning
Provide sufficient time for learning to begin with. Make sure you plan
time for review and reflection as well.
3-Low or No Threat
Be sure to activate prior learning so that learners draw connections
between new subjects and past learning.
4-High Engagement
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Engage learners physically and socially in planning activities

5-Celebrate the Learning
Learners need to feel acknowledged for their efforts
6-Moderate Stress
Stress levels influence learner states. Monitor the tension in your class,
and manage it accordingly
Application:
• How can teacher use social cognitive theory in class room:
Ateacher can incorporate this theory in teaching children how to
appropriately have aconversation
Often children do not understand that conversation is two way street
.they need to learn that you must be patient listen to others every now
and then .
Ateacher can show achild this by telling children that there is no
talking when the teacher is talking,or that you must raise your hand
when you have something to say.
 Through classroom interaction with the teacher and other students
child will learn:
o To stay on topic
o Make appropriate comments during the conversation
o Understand how to initiate ,maintain and end aconversation.
42
o There can be many forms of non verbal communication in the

classroom .
o Students can learn from their teachers and peers that certain symbols
mean certain things.for example: thumbs up means “good job”and
holding two fingers up in the air may be the teachers symbol for
“quiet”.
o Students learn that stress,intonation,body movement,personal space
issues,and eye contact are all part of non verbal communication
43
(3)
Education AdministrationTheories
44
Goal::
To achieve integrated acquisition of knowledge, skills, positive attitude
toward education administration theories.
Objectives:
At the end of education theories the student will be able to:
identify the concept of education administration.
Demonstrate Functions of Educational Administration
Discuss educational administration theories.
Apply educational Administration theories educators.
Have positive attitude toward educational administration theories.
45
Outline:
 Introduction
 Identify key terms
 Functions of Educational Administration.
 Educational administration theories.
 Halpin's theory.
 Tridimential concept.
 Getzel’s theory.
 Talcott Parsons Theory.
 Sears theory
 Application
46
Introduction:-
Educational Administration means to achieve the goals of Education
through effective and efficient manipulation of available inputs.
It is concerned with the utilization of adequate resources available in
the environment, to foster the attainment of the goals of teaching and
learning.
Definition of Education
Is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge,
skills, values, morals, beliefs, habits and personal development.
Definition of educational administration theory
Is defined as the process of finding right student receives right
education from the right teacher in a right condition which the teacher
and student to provide the best by their learning.
Functions of Educational Administration

1-Planning
It involves systematic, organized and an articulated scheme of
working. So, planning can be thought of at the beginning of the session
2-Organisation
The effective and efficient work of the school depends upon the good
organization. The essential element of the organization is people: what
they do and how they work together.
47
3-Direction
Direction involves getting the work done through instructions and
orders. There should be proper supervision, motivation and
communication on the part of the administrator for getting the work
done.
4-Controlling
Controlling involves measuring and monitoring performance,
comparing results with plans and taking corrective action when
required. It indicates how far the goals have been achieved and to what
extent there is deviation from the plans. The basis of control is
measurement. Control deals with the difference between planned and
actual performance.
Educational administration theories:

Halpin's theory. (1954-1966):
Tridimential concept. (Malcolm S. Knowles:1984):
Getzel’s theory. 1957:
Talcott Parsons Theory. (1927 to1973)
Sears theory (1951)
48
Halpin's theory (1954-1966):

Administration according to Halpins is a form of human activity that
involves a minimum of four components:
 Task,
 Formal organization
 the work group
 The leader
Advantages Disadvantages
1.Task :is the purpose of the 1. It’s not important for
Organization him the salary given.
2.Formal organization: is 2. The human is suitable to
defined as to their responsibility the work careless age.
for accomplishing, the group’s
task. Helpin recognizes the
existence of both a formal and an
informal organization
3.The work group: is comprised of
individuals chosen to fill positions
specified by the formal organization.
4.The leader is one of member of the
organization’s accomplishment
49
2-The Tridimensional Concept (Malcolm S. Knowles:1984):

This conception or frame of reference for the educational
administrator was developed as an interdisciplinary project in the
work of the cooperative program in educational Middle Atlantic
Region. It encompasses the essential elements of educational
administration in theses dimensions:
1)The job.
2) The man.
3) The social setting
1.The job:
Job, this theory goes that there are three factors that determine the
job, namely:
A- Content.
B- the process.
C-The time sequence.
2. The management man, and the aspects of this dimension lie in
three elements, namely:
A - The physical, mental and emotional energy of a man of
management.
B - His behavior in terms of studying the problem and the related
data collection, forecasting, implementation and review.
C-The time sequence.
3. The social atmosphere, which refers to the social factors and
pressures that determine the job and influence the thinking and
behavior of the management man
50
3-social system Theory: Getzel’s 1957:

Formulated by Jacob W. Getzels A psychologist at the
University of Chicago. He views administration structurally as
the hierarchy of subordinate relationships within a Social
system and functionally this hierarchy of relationships is for
allocating and integrating roles and facilities in order to
achieve the goal of the social system.
Getzels - Guba model says the following:

a) Behavior is a function of Need-disposition and
Expectation, which are functions of each other;
b) Expectation is a function of Role which is a function
of Institution which is a function of Social System;
c)Need-Disposition is a function of Personality which is a
function of Individual which is a function of Social System;
c)Personality and Role are functions of each other;
d)Individual and Institution are functions of each other.
51
4-Functionalism Theory: Talcott Parsons

(1927 to1973):
Functionalism
In the twentieth century, functionalist theories of almost everything
proliferated. The general idea behind functionalism is that the parts of
any greater whole are shaped by the functions they serve to support the
whole. In other words, the structure serves a function.
(Parsons) produced a general theoretical system for the analysis of

society based on a structural-functional approach, in which every
group or society tends to fulfill four functional imperatives:
The formal organization should fulfil the following four items:
1-Adaptation. (Technical)
2-Goal achievement.
3-Integration. (Managerial)
4-Latency. (Institution)
Strengths:
-It points to links between and within social institutions in society.
-It emphasizes the importance of socialization within schools.
-It is a macro sociological theory that is based on the

characteristics of social patterns , structures, social systems and
institutions such as family, education, religion, leisure , the
economy ,media ,politics and sport. .
-Functionalists show how each of the parts of society are
interrelated, each contributing to the well-being of society.
52
Weakness:
-There is little supporting evidence.
-People do not all share norms and values
-It ignores structural in equalities such as racism, sexism and
social class.
-Doesn't take in the negative effects of education.
53
5-Social Learning Theory (Sears1951):

Sears is considered one of the first to study educational
administration extensively, and he published his book known as the
Nature of the Administration Process in 1950, in which he analyzed
the administrative process into several main elements:
planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, controlling,
When analyzing these jobs, it is possible to reveal the nature of

the administrative work in the various fields, as the jobs
themselves are what the administrator performs.
-In the planning process, the administrator needs to study the
circumstances in preparation for making successful and
practical decisions, which take into account the nature of the
objectives and the possibilities available to achieve them, the
obstacles that impede progress towards the objectives and the
attitude of the employees towards them.
-In the process of organizing, he needs to put laws,

regulations, and instructions in the form of arrangements in
human and material resources, in a way that facilitates the
implementation of the objectives envisioned for the
organization.
-In the process of guidance, the administrator activates the

implementation procedures by reconciling the authority that he
is qualified for through the powers of his position and the
authority derived from his intelligence, information and
54
experience represented by his comprehensive awareness of the

objectives of the organization, the nature of the work entrusted
to it, its material and human capabilities, and the forces and
social conditions affecting it.
-In the coordination process, the administrator needs to make

all elements of the organization and its operations proceed in an
integrated manner, without duplication or contradiction, so that
efforts are directed rationally towards the goals set within the
scope of the available capabilities, and within the limits
permitted by the social, economic, political and cultural forces
in the organization's environment.
-As for oversight, it is a direct or indirect follow-up of the

institution to evaluate its work system and its feasibility in light
of the objectives expected from it
Strength:
 Easily handles in consistencies in behavior.
 Accurate picture explaining how behavior is learned.
 Offers a way to integrate social and cognitive theories.
 Allows and accounts for cognitive processes.
 Explains a large number of behaviors.
 Accurate and easy to understand.
55
Weakness:
 Doesn't take into account physical and mental changes.
 Doesn’t explain all behavior.
 Doesn’t take in account that what one person views as
punishment, another person may view as a reward.
Application
The Tridimensional Concept (three dimensions) at A.H :
A.H needs to hire a clinical instructor. IN order to submit
to the job you must know the about the hospital and job
description of clinical instructor .
A.H has 140 beds with more than 100 doctors ,25medical
departments and six center so excellence. The hospital operates
24hoursa day through out the year. A.H offers diagnosis and
treatment services through 25 outpatient clinics with all medical
specialties . A.H is committed to providing high quality health
care in a safe, caring and confidential environment that meets
international standards and expectations of Arab and Egyptian
communities.
Vision :
We strive to become the pioneers of health care providers in
the Middle East and to
Have specialized health care of the third level before2020,
affordable prices and a global service .
56
Goals :
Efficiency to raise the level of service and reduce the waste in
time, effort and money and come up with an economic equation
that makes the service available to the largest possible number of
patients.
Mission :
Commitment to provide care elements for the tertiary level
• Special skilled doctors.
• Nursing instructor committed to care systems .
• Technicians who are able to deal with and
benefit from modern technology .
• Support services and management of modern systems .
• Information Systems (Medical-Clinical-Financial-
Administrative Operational) .
• Total Quality Systems.
Job description of Clinical Instructor:
The social setting:

Title :Clinical Instructor.
Employee Name: Employee Number:
Department :Nursing Education Department.
Reporting to :director of nursing, Senior Educator
,Nursing Education Manager.
Supervisor to :Head Nurse, Staff Nurse ,Nursing aid.
57
Credentials:
A Bachelor's degree in Nursing MSN Degree is preferred. ."
• Receiving ongoing in-service education
• attend infection control-related educational sessions.
Experience:
• Three years of applied clinical experience as a Clinical Instructor.
Training:
• ACLS certified,
• Required current American Heart Association CPR.
• Presentation skills, effective communication, Adaptability
&Teamwork.
• Basic Computer Skills
As Instructor - :
• Take part in performance appraisal with the Head Nurse
• Follow up on clinical performance in units and floors.
• Conducts needs assessments using a variety of strategic tools.
• Coordinate orientation of new staff to the hospital.
• Develop/coordinate education plans
• Develop evidence-based educational materials.
• Evaluate the effectiveness of educational programming.
• Prepare short and long term planning
58
As Researcher :
Support the integration of research in to nursing daily practice.
Incorporatecurrenteducationalevidenceintoindividualpracticeasastaffd
evelopment expert.
Interpret, communicate and incorporate research findings into
educational program planning .
Identify and recruits nursing staff for educational activities.
Facilitate team building and leadership development.
As Leadership:
• Attend meetings as a nursing team representative.
• Maintain required educational and clinical competencies.
• Seek opportunities to develop staff in various roles.
. Serve as a role model to promote excellence, safety,
education and professional nursing practice.
• Integrate ethical principles in all aspects of practice.
• Support the vision and mission statement of the nursing department.
59
(4)
Leadership theories
60
• Goal:
•To Provide The Students With Knowledge, Skills, And Positive
Attitude Toward Leadership Theories.
• Objectives:
1. Identify The Concepts Leadership, Leadership Theories, And
Management.
2. Distinguish Between Leader& manager.
3. Lists Characteristics Of Good Leader.
4. Discuss The Different Leadership Theories.
5. Apply Leadership Theories In Workplaces.
6. Gain Positive Attitude Toward Leadership Styles.
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Out line
1. Introduction.
2. Concepts.
3. Difference between leader and manager.
4. Characteristics of good leader.
5. Leadership styles.
6. Leadership theories:
a. Trait theory.
b. Behavioral theory
c. Contingency theory.
d. Managerial Grid theory.
e. Transactional leadership theory.
f. Transformational leadership theory.
7. Difference between transformational and transactional theory.
8. Applications
62
Introduction:
> Leadership is vital because some people determine, coordinate,
influence and oversee the work of others. Some lead, others follow. It
is demanding, unrelenting job with enormous pressures and grave
responsibilities.
> They say that leaders are born not made. While it is true that
some people are born leaders, some leaders are born in the midst of
adversity.
> Good leaders are made not born. If you have the desire and
willpower, you can become an effective leader.
> To inspire your workers into higher levels of team work, there
are certain things you must be known and do. These do not come
naturally, but are required through continual work and study, to
improve the leadership skills.
Definition
•Theory:
Systematic set of interrelated concepts, definitions, and deductions
that describe, explain or predict interrelationships.
•Leader:
is an individual who works with others toward a clear vision of the
preferred future and to make that vision happen.
• Leader:
is person who influence and guides direction, opinion, and course of
action; often requires taking risks, and challenging the status quo.
63
•Leadership:
The ability to influence the behavior of others in order to accomplish
the task of a group or to achieve the goal of a group, while at the same
time, maintaining the integrity and moral of the group.
Factors affecting on leadership
❖ Leader
You must have an honest understanding of who you are, what you
know, and what you can do. Also, note that it is the followers, not the
leader or someone else who Determine if the leader is successful. If
they do not trust or lack confidence in their leader, then they will be
uninspired. To be successful you have to convince your followers, not
yourself or your superiors, that you are worthy of being followed
❖ Followers
Different people require different styles of leadership. For example, a
new hire requires more supervision than an experienced employee
does. A person who lacks motivation requires a different approach than
one with a high degree of motivation.
You must know your people! The fundamental starting point is having
a good understanding of human nature, such as needs, emotions, and
motivation.
Communication
You lead through two-way communication. Much of it is nonverbal.
For instance, when you “set the example,” that communicates to your
people that you would not ask them to perform anything that you
would not be willing to do. What and how you communicate either
builds or harms the relationship between you and your employees.
64
❖ Situation
All situations are different. What you do in one situation will
not always work in another. You must use your judgment to
decide the best course of action and the leadership style needed
for each situation.
> The differences between management and leadership

Basis Manager Leader
A person becomes a A person becomes a leader
Origin manager by virtue of his on basis of his personal
position. qualities.
Manager has got formal
Formal rights in an Rights are not available to a
Rights organization because of leader.
his status.
The group of employees
The subordinates are whom
Powers the followers of
managers. the leaders leads are his
followers.
A manager performs all Leader influences people to
Functions five functions of work willingly for group
management. objectives.
Mutual Relation All managers are All leaders are not
ship leaders. managers.
65
Accountability Manager is accountable

for self and Leaders have no well-
subordinates behavior defined accountability.
and performance.
A leader’s concern is group
Concern A manager’s concern is goals and member’s
organizational goals. satisfaction.
People follow manager
Followers by virtue of job People follow them on
description. voluntary basis.
Types of leadership
Formal leadership: -
That is exercised by an individual with legitimate authority conferred
by position within the organization. mainly goes to management)
✓ Informal leadership: -
That is exercised by an individual who does not have a specified
management role.
Characterization of leader
1) Flexible 11) Open to change
2) Compassion 12)Interested in feedback
3) Good communicator 13) Evaluative
4) Respectful 14) Organized
66
5) Quite confidence 15) Consistent

6) Enthusiastic 16) Delegator
7) Open minded 17) Initiative
8) Resourceful 18) Vision
9) Well educated 19) Wise
10) Rewarding 20) Passionate
Leadership Styles:
1-Autocratic leadership:
The leader exerts strong control over the group and makes the
decisions.
The leader determines policies and gives orders and decisions to the
members.
He is characterized by the following behaviors:
• When quick decisions are needed. Autocratic leadership works best
in situations where quick decisions are needed, such as turning around
a failing organization.
• When close supervision is required. Autocratic leadership can work
well when existing management is too lenient and workers are not
pulling their weight. The autocrat will issue directives to be followed
and the activities performed as a result of these directives will be
closely followed.
• When workflows need to be streamlined quickly. Autocratic
leadership works well when things just need to get done, and this style
67
enables subordinates to get things done without worrying about the

bigger picture. This explains why autocratic leadership is very
common in the military.
2-Democratic leaders:
The leader participate as a facilitator, encouraging group discussion
and decision making. This style based on the following principles:
- Every group member should participate in decision making
- Each person is responsible for himself and herself and for the welfare
of the group.
- There should be concern and consider for each member as a unique
individual.
He is characterized by the following behaviors:
• When subordinates are experts. Democratic leadership styles work
well when working with subject domain experts, for example,
technology experts or pharmaceutical experts.
• When subordinates are professionals. For an experienced and
professional team, a democratic leadership style can bring out the best
in them, by building on their existing strengths and talents rather than
just expecting them to perform.
• When it’s necessary to create ownership. By involving the team in
decision making and planning, you implicitly create buy-in to both the
decision and the plan. This makes team members much more
committed to the plan, and much more likely to overcome or
workaround barriers to execution as they arise.
68
3- The laissez-faire leader:

Also known as the "hands-off' style.
The leader minimize participate & often only on the request of the
members. Employees need to be left alone to make decisions about
how to complete the work. But is not useful in highly structured
organizations (e.g. health care institution).
• He is characterized by the following behaviors:
• Permissiveness, with little or no control.
• Motivation by support when requested by the group or individuals.
• Provision of little or no direction.
• Communication upward and downward flow among members of the
group.
• Decision making dispersed throughout the group.
• Emphasis on the group.
• Criticism withheld.
• Bureaucracy takes time to develop, so the bureaucratic leader is most
often found in a large established institution in which top down
• Decision-making has become the norm.
• Leaders are chosen because of their ability to follow organizational
rules exactly, so they, in turn, expect others to do the same.
• When you’re working with creative experts. Use with creative
professionals who have solid skills and lots of experience in their jobs.
69
Leadership theories:
A. Trait theory.(1900-1940).
B. Behavioral theory.(1940-1980).
C. Contingency theory.(1950-1980).
D. Transactional leadership theory. (1970-present).
E. Transformational leadership theory.
A. Trait Theories:.(1900-1940):
Early research attempted to identify specific traits differentiating
leaders from followers. Personality, social, physical, and intellectual
traits were found to differentiate leaders from others.
The emergence of the concept of trait leadership can be traced back to
Thomas Carlyle's "great man" theory, the great man theory and trait
theories were the basis for most leadership research until the mid-
1940s.
Gordon All port, an American psychologist,"...identified almost
18,000 English personality- relevant terms"
The great man theory, from Aristotelian philosophy, asserts that some
people are born to lead, whereas others are born to be led. Trait theories
assume that some people have certain characteristics or personality
traits that make them better leaders than others.
To determine the traits that distinguish great leaders, researchers
studied the lives of prominent people throughout history.The table
below lists the main leadership traits and skills identified by Stogdill
in 1974
70
Traits Skills
- Adaptable to situations - Clever(intelligent)
- Alert to social environment - Conceptually skilled
- Ambitious and - Creative
achievement- orientated - Diplomatic and tactful
- Assertive - Fluent in speaking
- Cooperative - Knowledgeable about
- Decisive group task
- Dependable - Organized (administrative
- Dominant (desire to ability
influence others) - Persuasive
- Energetic (high activity - Socially skilled
level)
- Persistent
- Self-confident
- Tolerant of stress
- Willing to assume
responsibility
71
Strength:
• It builds on the premise that leaders are distinctive.
• Unlike all other leadership theories, Trait Theory boasts a
century of research to confirm the approach.
• Trait Theory provides benchmarks for identifying leaders.
• It supports the general image in the society that leaders are a
special kind of people who can do extraordinary things. People have a
need to see their leaders as gifted people, and the trait approach fulfills
this need.
Criticisms:
-No universal traitspredict leadership inall
-situations
-Unclear evidence of the cause andeffectof relationship of leadership
and traits.
-Provides little guidance concerning what advice or training to give
current or soon-to- be leaders
Better predictor of the appearance of leadership than distinguishing
effective and ineffective leaders
72
B-Behavioral theory.(1940-1980).
In response to the early criticisms of the trait approach, theorists began
to research leadership as a set of behaviors. They evaluated what
successful leaders did and identified broad patterns that indicated
different leadership styles.
Skinner's theory of behavior modification, which takes into account
the effect of reward and punishment on changing behavior.
•These theory concern four approaches:
1) Concern for task:
Here leaders emphasize the achievement of concrete objectives. They
look for high levels of productivity, and ways to organize people and
activities in order to meet those objectives.
2) Concern for people:
In this style, leaders look upon their followers as people - their needs,
interests, problems, development and so on. They are not simply units
of production or means to an end.
3) Directiveleadership:
This style is characterized by leaders taking decisions for others - and
expecting followers or subordinates to follow instructions.
4) Participativeleadership:
Here leaders try to share decision-making with others.
✓ Advantages:
• Behavioral theory promotes the value of leadership styles.
• It emphasis on concern for people .
• It promotes participative decision making and team development
73
by supporting individual needs and aligning individual and group

objectives.
• It helps managers evaluate and understand how their behavioral style
as a manager affects their relationship with the team and promotes
commitment and contribution towards organizational goals.
• This theory helps managers find the right balance between
different styles of leadership, and helps them decide how to behave as
a leader, depending on concerns for people and for productivity.
X Criticism:
• As there were inherent limitations with the Trait approach to
leadership, when early researchers ran out of steam in their search for
traits, they turned to what leaders did, how they behaved and came with
behavioral theory of leadership. This became the dominant way of
approaching leadership within organizations in the 1950s and early
1960s but this theory too had its own limitations.
• Behavioral Theory of Leadership proposes leadership styles but
a specific leadership style may not be best in all circumstances. When
researchers really got to work on this it didn’t seem to validate their
assumptions. While behavioral theories may help managers develop
particular leadership behaviors but they provide little guidance as to
what constitutes effective leadership in different situations.
74
C-Contingency Leadership Theory:(1950-1980)

This model contains the relationship between leadership style and the
favorableness of the situation.
Situational favorableness was described by Fiedler in terms of three
empirically derived dimensions:
• The leader-member relationship, which is the most important
variable in determining the situation's favorableness.
• The degree of task structure, which is the second most important
input in to the favorableness of the situation
• The leader's position power obtained through formal authority,
which is the third most important dimension of the situation.
Situations are favorable to the leader if all three of these dimensions
are high. That is, if the leader is generally accepted and respected by
followers (first dimension), if the task is very structured (second
dimension), and if a great deal of authority and power are formally
attributed to the leader's position (third dimension), then the situation
is favorable.
75
Strengths:
• Practical: easy to understand and apply.
• Prescriptive: tells what to do or what not to do in various
situations.
• Leader’s flexibility: employees and leading styles differ from
situation to situation.
Criticisms:
• Leader’s styles and employee’s development level do not always
match, there exist other factors too.
76
D-Transactional theory: (1970-present).

The transactional style of leadership was first described by Max Weber
in 1947 and then by Bernard Bass in 1981.
Transactional theories (also known as “Management theories”) focus
on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance.
Transactional leader: who concerned with day to day operation
Assumptions:
•The subordinates aren't self-motivated, have to be monitored &
controlled to perform. People are motivated by reward and
punishment.
Social systems work best with a clear chain of command.
When people have agreed to do a job, a part of the deal is that they
cede all authority to their manager.
The prime purpose of a subordinate is to do what their manager tells
them to do. Characteristics of Transactional leader
Contingent Reward: Contracts exchange or a reward for effort,
promises rewards for good performance, recognizes accomplishment.
Management by exception (active): Watches and searches for
deviations from rules and standards, takes corrective action.
Management by exception (passive): Intervenes only if standards are
not met.
Advantages:
• Rewards and Incentives:
• Structure is clear:
• Short Term Goal:.
77
• Control Rewards Disadvantages:

• 1- Reduces employee creativity .
• 2- transactional leadership only focuses on short term result
• 3- this type of leadership is motivates people only on the base level
. punishment and reward dose not motivate on higher level of peoples
thought and development .
78
E- Transformational Theory:
Leadership expert James McGregor Bums introduced the concept of
transformational leadership in his 1978 book (Leadership).
Transformational theories (also known as “Relationship theories”)
focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers.
These leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members
see the importance and higher good of the task.
Transformational leaders are focused on the performance of group
members, but also want each person to fulfill his or her potential. These
leaders often have high ethical and moral standards.
Assumptions:
• People will follow a person who inspires them.
• A person with vision and passion can achieve great things.
• The way to get things done is by injecting enthusiasm and
energy.
• Characteristics of transformational leader: -
• Charisma: Provides vision and sense of mission, instills pride,
gains respect trust.
• Inspiration: Communicates high expectations, uses symbols to
focus efforts ,and expresses important purposes in simple ways.
• Intellectual Stimulations: Promotes intelligence, rationality, and
careful problem solving.
• Individualized Consideration: Gives personal attention, treats
each employee individually, coaches, and advises.
79
Advantages:
• 1-Achieving The Organizational Objectives Easily Through
Increasing Motivation of Employee.
• 2-Helping to Create Plans for Developing the Employee Career.
• 3- Growth The Company and Ongoing Development of Employee
Disadvantages:
1- Not Suitable for People Who Had Lack of Charisma Inspiration and
Communication Skills.
2- time Consuming
80
Transactional
Transformational Leadership
Leadership
Leaders are aware of the link between Leaders arouse emotions in their followers which
the effort and reward motivates them to act beyond the framework of
what may be described as exchange relations
Leadership is responsive and its basic Leadership is proactive and form new expectations
orientation is dealing with present in followers
issues
Leaders rely on standard forms of Leaders are distinguished by thei capacity to
inducement, reward, punishment and inspire and provide individualized consideration,
sanction to control followers intellectual stimulation and idealized influence to
their followers
Leaders create learning opportunities for their
followers motivate and stimulate followers to solve
Leaders motivate followers by setting
problems
goals and promising rewards for
desired performance
Leaders possess good visioning, rhetorical and
management skills, to develop strong emotional
Leadership depends on the leader’s bonds with followers
power to reinforce subordinates for
their successful completion of the
bargain
Leaders often use technical knowledge Leaders search for adaptive solutions to engage
to determine the change process hearts and minds in the change process
81
Application of trait theory:

The trait theory is naturally pleasing theory and gives constructive
information about leadership. Behavioral theory promotes the value of
leadership styles with an emphasis on concern for people and
collaboration. It promotes participative decision making and team
development by supporting individual needs and aligning individual
and group objectives. It helps educational leader/administrator to
evaluate and understand how their behavioral style as a leader affects
their relationship with the team and promotes commitment and
contribution towards organizational goals.
Given below is the list of some practical applications of the trait theory
of leadership:
• Use assessment to identify and compare the traits that an
individual possess and use trait measures to assess your own
characteristics.
• Compare the traits leaders’ exhibit and use assessments to see
who has the setraits.
• Organizations can use personality assessment instruments to
identify how individuals will fit within their organizations. This helps
them select the right candidate and in turn helps increasing
organizational effectiveness.
• Trait information can suggest areas in which employees personal
characteristics are beneficial to the organization.
• The trait approach can be used for personal awareness and
development by analyzing strengths and weaknesses to gain a better
understanding of their traits.
• Use personality tests and other similar questionnaires to gain
82
insight into your current capabilities with regard to certain traits that
are deemed important for leadership.
• Use assessment tests to understand your strengths and
weaknesses with regard to leadership.
• Use assessment to determine careers or development needs that
fit your personality and therefore offers you a greater chance of
success.
•Use the assessment results to understand the traits that are good to
have if one aspires for a leader ship position.
•Use the results to develop a deeper understanding of how your
personality based on traits affect others in the organization.
• Identify the areas in which you may want to get more training to
enhance your levels.
•COMPETENCIES ASSESSMENT TOOL:
The self-assessment is designed to help you identify areas of strength
and areas you may wish to include in your personal development plan.
You may choose to have your immediate supervisor use the tool to
assess you and then compare results from your self-assessment with
perceptions from your supervisor typically performed by members of
the American College of Healthcare Executives.
The competencies are categorized into five critical domains:
Communication and Relationship Management, Leadership,
Professionalism, Knowledge of the Healthcare Environment, and
Business Skills and Knowledge.
The competencies are derived from job analysis surveys of healthcare
executives across the healthcare continuum so that they are aligned
with the challenges and work experienced by leaders today. They
83
represent knowledge needed to successfully perform as a healthcare

manager regardless of the setting. ACHE updates the assessment
annually.
The self-assessment is designed to help you identify areas of strength
and areas you may wish to include in your personal development plan.
The competency self-assessment can be a powerful tool in facilitating
feedback about gaps in skills necessary for optimizing performance.
Another way to use this assessment is to share the results with your
mentor and work toward addressing identified professional growth
areas.
The competency tool provides a common framework and lexicon for a
variety of healthcare managers in a range of roles and settings; they
serve to define the field. They can be used for individual as well as
team self-assessment and improvement.
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(5)
Motivation theories
85
Goal :
To achieve integrated acquisition of knowledge, skills, positive
attitude toward motivation theories.
Objectives:
At the end of the motivation theories be able to:
1. Identify the concept of motivation and reward.
2. Distinguish types of motivation.
3. Discuss types of motivation theories.
4. Apply motivation theories indifferent situation.
5.Have positive attitude toward motivation
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Outlines:
 Introduction.
 Definition of motivation.
 Types of motivation theories
Content Theories:
 Hierarchy of needs theory
 ERG theory
 Two-factor theory
 Acquired needs theory
Process theories
 Equity theory.
 Expectancy theory.
 Goal-setting theory.
 Reinforcement theory.
Application of Maslow Hierarchy of Needs theory
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Introduction:
Motivation theories are useful because they help explain why people
act the way they do and how a manager can relate to individuals as
people and workers. When you are interested in creating change,
influencing others, and managing patient care outcomes, it is helpful
to understand the motivations that are reflected in a person’s behavior.
Motivation is a critical part of leadership because we need to
understand each other in order to lead effectively
Motivation:
It is the force within the individual that influences strength or direction
of behavior.
OR, it is the force within the individual that account for the level,
direction, and persistence of effort expended at work.
Types of motivation:-
❖ Internal (intrinsic):-
- is that which arises from within an individual and is aimed at these
of personal accomplishment.
❖ External (extrinsic):-
- is that which comes from outside an individual , where something or
somebody becomes an incentives. External motivation is related to the
application of rewards or punishment.
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Types of motivation theories:
A. Content theories:
- Human needs and how people with different work situations.
B-Process theories: -
How people give meaning to rewards and make decisions on various
work related behaviors.
Types of content theories (Needs theories):

1- Hierarchy of needs theory (Maslowin1943-1950)
2- ERG theory (Clayton Alderfer1969).
3- Two-factor theory (Frederick Herzberg 1959).
4- Acquired needs theory (David McClelland 1961)
1- Hierarchy of needs theory

Developed by Abraham Maslowin1943-1950
Abraham Maslow postulated that a person will be motivated when his
needs are fulfilled. The need starts from the lowest level basic needs
and keeps moving up as a lower level need is fulfilled.
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Below is the hierarchy of needs:
Physiological: Physical survival necessities such as food, water, and

shelter.
• Safety: Protection from threats, deprivation, and other dangers.
• Social (belongingness and love): The need for association, affiliation,
friendship, and so on.
• Self-esteem: The need for respect and recognition.
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• Self-actualization: The opportunity for personal development,

learning, and fun/creative/challenging work.
Self-actualization is the highest level need to which a human being can
aspire. individual differences.
2- ERG theory:
Developed by Clayton Alderfer(1969).
Three need levels:
1. Existence needs: desires for physiological and material well-being.
2. Relatedness needs: desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships.
3. Growth needs : desires for continued psychological growth and
development.
3- Herzberg's two-factor theory:
Developed by Frederick Herzberg (1959).

It proposes that there are two different categories of needs that are
independent and affect behavior hygiene and motivators.
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Herzberg’s model can be used to identify broad issues that need to be

addressed or mitigated in general.
For example, in an environment where employees are unsure of their
job security, managers can try to mitigate the demotivating effect by
reassuring employees about the situation.
4- Acquired needs Theory:

Developed by David McClelland 1961.
People acquire needs through their life experiences. Needs that are
acquired:
1. Need for Achievement: Desire to do something better or more
efficiently to solve problems or complex tasks.
2. Need for Power: Desire to control other persons, to influence their
behavior or other people.
 Need for Affiliation: Desire to establish and maintain friendly and

warm relations with other persons Process theories of motivation:
Choices are based on:
1. Individual preferences.
2. Available rewards.
3. Possible workout comes
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Types of process theories:

1. Equity theory. (Jane .Adams,1963).
2. Expectancy theory. Victor Vroom (1964).
3. Goal-setting theory. Edwin Locke (1960)
4- Reinforcement theorySkinner(1957)
1- Equity theory:
It is developed by ( Jane .Adams,1963).
Equity Theory is based on the idea that individuals are motivated by
fairness. Equity theory states that if an individual identifies an inequity
between themselves and a peer, they will adjust the work they do to
make the situation fair in their eyes.
As an example of equity theory, if an employee learns that a peer doing
exactly the same job as them is earning more money, then they may
choose to do less work.
2.Expectancy theory:
It is developed by Victor Vroom (1964).
Key expectancy theory variables:
•Expectancy: belief that working hard will result in desired level of
performance.
•Instrumentality: belief that successful performance will be followed
by rewards.
•Valence: value a person assigns to rewards and other work related
outcomes .creating fairness in their eyes.
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3- Goal-setting theory
It is developed in 1960 by Edwin Locke.
Motivational effects of task goals:
• Provide direction to people in their work.
• Clarify performance expectations.
• Establish a frame of reference for feedback.
• Provide a foundation for behavioral self-management.
Key principles in the goal-setting process:
• Set specific goals.
• Set challenging goals.
• Build goal acceptance and commitment.
• Clarify goal priorities.
• Provide feedback on goal accomplishment.
• Reward goal accomplishment.
4. Reinforcement theory:
It is developedin 1957 by B.F. Skinner.
The reinforcement may be positive or negative.
Positive reinforcement: Issued for express purpose of increasing a
desired behavior
Negative reinforcement: Is used for inhibit an undesirable behavior.
Punishment is a common technique to eliminate the negative
enforcement.
Guidelines for using positive reinforcement:
• Clearly identify desired work behaviors.
• Inform every one about what must be done to get rewards.
• Recognize individual differences when allocating rewards.
• Follow the laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement.
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Guidelines for using punishment:

• Tell the person what is being done wrong.
• Tell the person what is being done right.
• Match the punishment to the behavior.
• Administer punishment in private.
• Ethical issues in reinforcement:
• Ignores individuality.
• Restricts freedom of choice.
Key concern is whether it is ethical to not control behavior well
enough to serve both individual and organizational goals.
95
Application of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory at A.H:
Physiological Needs:
•Eat: staff nurse will provide meal who spend more than 8 hours in
hospital.
•Drink: There is cafeteria for drinking hot and cold fluids for staff
nurse during shift
•Sleep: hospital provides spaces and rooms for staff nurse spending
24hours in hospital.
• Housing and living: Provide a good monthly salary sufficient for
good life.
2. Security needs:
I. Economic:
• Wages and salaries: hospital provide good salary scale for nursing
staff.
• Fringe benefits: that every hour spending in work after shift end will
calculate as overtime in salary. Provide bonuses money for working in
vocation days and additional day
• Medical benefits :hospital provide medical treatment free for nursing
staff
• Childcare: provide 4 months Paid Payroll for labor and Child Care.
II. Psychological
• Before changing a transferor in hospital system, meeting will occur
with staff nurse.
• Solve staff nurse's problems: employee problems will resolve
actually by his\her supervisor, director, human resources and managing
director.
III. Physical:
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• Working conditions: hospital provides good working condition free

from hazards.
• Heating and ventilation: there are central air-conditioning and good
system for ventilation and elimination of heating.
3. Belonging Needs: Encourage social interaction through:
• Scheduled weekly project team meeting. .

•Create team spirit by meeting with supervisor of unite.
• Facilitate outside social activities by arranging travels and trips for
half of price for nursing staff
• Allow participation indeed potent plan and provide her suggestions.
4. Self-Esteem Needs: Design challenging jobs through: Use praise
and awards as monthly ideal staff and for good things.
• Give training and accredited course through education team for ideal
staff.
5. Self-Actualization Needs:
• Providing opportunity for Continuing education for development
post graduate to get another courses •Encourage creativity as
encourage him to participate in problem solving of unite
• Give opportunity to grow and self-development.
• Reward with educational opportunity
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(5)
Change theories
98
Goal:
To provide participants with knowledge, skills and positive attitude
toward Change Theories
Objectives:
At the end of this presentation the student will able to:
1. Identify the key terms.
2-Identify change agents' roles, responsibilities and characteristics.
2. Distinguish between types of change theories.
3. Apply of change theory in work place.
4. Have positive attitude toward change theories.
99
Out lines:
• Definition of key terms.
• Change agents' roles and responsibilities:
• Change agent characteristics
• Types of Change theories:
- Lewin’s Change Theory
- Lippitt’s Change Theory.
- Cognitive social theory
- Prochaska and Diclemente’s Change Theory
• Application of Kurt Lewin’s Change Theory:
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Definition of Theory:
-Set of beliefs or assumptions that underlie action”.
Definition of Change:
- It’s a dynamic process to alter or replace existing knowledge, skills,
attitude, and styles of individuals and groups.
Change agent:
A person from inside or outside the organization who helps an
Organization transforms itself by focusing on such matters as
Organizational effectiveness, improvement, and development
Change agents' roles and responsibilities:

1- Explaining why change is taking place and who will be affected.
2- Advocating for the change initiative.
3- Disseminating information.
4- Highlighting potential benefits and drawbacks of proposed
initiatives.
5- Anticipating and evaluating areas of potential disruption.
6- Developing strategies to counteract those potential areas of
disruption.
7- Obtaining feedback to share with leadership and conveying
responses
Back.
8- Serving as a point person who is available to hear others' concerns,
ideas and questions.
9-Advising stakeholders, as well as the impacted individuals.
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Change agent characteristics:
Those characteristics include:
- Experience in the work.

-Flexibility, creativity and credibility
-Courage.
- openness to new ideas.

-An understanding of the business culture
-Ability to build relations.
-The ability to prioritize.
-Strong communication skills.
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Theory of Change:
• The idea of theory of change the approach seems to have

popularized in the United States in the 1990s, in the context of
improving evaluation theory and practice in the field of
community initiatives.
• Theories of change represent beliefs about what is needed
by the target population and what strategies will enable them
to meet those needs.
• A theory of change looks at cause and effect relationships
and identifies specific interventions to achieve the desired result
Types of Change theories:
A. Lewin’s Change Theory (1951)
B. Lippett’s Change Theory (1958)
C. Social Cognitive Theory (1960)
D. Prochaska and DiClemente’s Change Theory (1983)
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A. Lewin’s Change Theory (1951)

1. Lewin’s Three-Step Change Theory
2. Kurt Lewin’s Change Theory
1. Lewin’s Three-Step Change Theory:

Kurt Lewin (1951) introduced the three-step change model.
This social scientist views behavior as a dynamic balance of forces
working in opposing directions.
A. Driving Forces
Driving Forces are forces that push in a direction that causes change
to occur.
They cause a shift in the equilibrium towards change.
B. Restraining Forces
Restraining forces are forces that counter driving forces. They oppose
Change.
Restraining forces cause a shift in the equilibrium which opposes
Change.
C. Equilibrium
Equilibrium is a state of being where driving forces equal restraining
Forces and no change occur.
Strengths and weakness of Lewin’s Three-Step Change Theory:
Strengths Weakness
-Provides a visual summary. -No personal factors
General guidelines -Approach is too simplistic
Basic heading. -No integration of radical changes
-Simplified way of -May ignore the role of power and
communicating the changes politic in organization
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2. Kurt Lewin’s Change Theory:
Many other modern change models are actually based on the 3-stage
Lewin model:
A-Unfreezing (when change is needed).
B- Moving to a new level or Changing (when change is initiated).
C-Refreezing (when equilibrium is established).
A- Unfreezing(when change is needed).

the first step in the process of changing behavior is to unfreeze the
existing situation or status quo.
Unfreezing can be achieved by
the use of three methods:
First, increase the driving forces that direct behavior away from the
existing situation or status quo.
Second, decrease the restraining forces that negatively affect the
movement from the existing equilibrium.
Third, find a combination of the two methods listed above.
b- Moving to a new level or Changing: (when change is initiated).

Involves a process of change in thoughts, feeling, behavior, or all
three, that is more productive.
Three actions that can assist in the movement step include:

-Persuading employees to agree that the status quo is not beneficial to
them
- encouraging them to view the problem from a fresh perspective.
-inform him the benefits of change to him.
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c- Refreezing : (when equilibrium is established).

Is establishing the change as a new habit, so that it now becomes
the “standard operating procedure.” Without this stage of refreezing,
it is easy to backslide into the old ways .This step needs to take place
after the change has been implemented.
Strengths and Weakness of Kurt Lewin’s Change Theory:
the 3-stage Lewin model:
Strengths Weakness
-It ignores, power
The process is an easy step- and politics in an
by-step model. organization.
-It is seen as a top
Clear steps which can give down management
guidance for the change. driven approach and
ignores situations
It's beneficial to the -regarding bottom
organization up change,
Use available recourses -It doesn’t take into
account personal
factors that can
affect change.
-The process
takes a great deal
of time.
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B. Lippitt’s Phases of Change Theory: (1958)
Lippitt Watson and Westley created a seven-step theory that focuses

more on the role and responsibility of the change agent than on the
evolution of the change itself.
The seven steps are:
1-Diagnose the problem.

2-Assess the motivation and capacity for change.
Possible solutions are determined, cost of each consider.
During this phase change agent
coordinate activities among a number of small group.
3-Assess the resources and motivation of the change agent.
4-Choose progressive change objectives.
In this step, action plans are developed and strategies are established
5-Select the role of the change agents
He will facilitate the change and deal with conflict
6-Maintain the change.
Communication, feedback, and group coordination are essential
elements in this step of the change process.
7-Gradually terminate from the helping relationship.
The change agent should gradually withdraw from his role over time.
107
Strength and weakness of Lippitt’s Phases of Change Theory:
Strengths Weakness
1- Information is continuously 1- Focuses more on the role

exchanged throughout the and responsibility of the
process. change agent than on the
evolution of the chang
2- Lippitt, Watson, and Westley itself.
point out those changes are more
likely to be stable if they spread 2- Require good
to communication and more
neighboring systems or to experience of the change agent.
subparts of the system
immediately affected.
108
C. Social Cognitive Theory: (1960)

-Started as the Social Learning Theory in the 1960s by Albert
Bandura.
-Individuals can learn by direct experiences, human dialogue and
interaction, and observation.
-Social learning theory, later renamed social cognitive theory
- proposes that behavior change is affected by environmental
influences, personal factors, and attributes of the behavior itself.
- behavior is a result of consequences.
Self-efficacy is believed to be the most important characteristic that

determines a person’s behavioral change because these expected
outcomes are filtered through a person' s expectations or perceptions
of being able to perform the behavior in the first place.
Three methods to increase self-efficacy include:
- Provide clear instructions.
-Provide the opportunity for skill development or training.
-Reinforcement processes can be used as some times individual

changes behavior due to Rewards and positive incentives.
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Strength and weakness of Social Cognitive Theory:

Strengths Weakness:
1- It is a scientific theory 1-Neglects culture context and
variations of cultures meaning
2- helps us predict how to keep
that the social exchange theory
and sustain relationship.
is based off a rewards concept,
but all cultures are different
3- It is a humanistic theory
and in some cultures they may
because it has intuitive
not
credibility.
seek a reward for a
relationship.
4- is relative to actual
2- The theory is based on costs
communication practice.
and rewards.
110
D-Prochaska and DiClemente’s Change Theory: (1983)
Prochaska and Diclemente found that people pass through

a series of six stages when change occurs.
The stages are:
1. Pre contemplation
2. Contemplation
3. Preparation
4. Action
5. Maintenance Progression
6. Termination
1. Pre contemplation:
-Exists when an individual is unaware or fails to acknowledge the

problems without engaging in any change process activities.
-Individuals in this stage do not want to change their behavior and may
insist that their behavior is normal.
2. Contemplation:
-Exists when the individual raises consciousness of the issue.

-Individuals in this stage are thinking about changing their behavior,
but they are not ready to commit to the change process yet.
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3. Preparation (determination):
Preparation occurs when the individual has made decision

make change, he is ready to change their behavior and begins planning
course of action to initiate the change in his life. These individuals will
need
counseling, social
support, and assistance with problem solving during this stage of
change.
4. Action :
It’s the stage in which individuals modify their behavior , experience

or environment to overcome their problems , It is s characterized by an
increase in coping with behavioral change and the individual begins to
engage in change activities ,and this require time and energy.
5. Maintenance :
In this stage change has been achieved, actions to reinforce the change
are taken coupled with establishing the new behavioral change to the
individual’s lifestyle and norms.
Counseling to avoid relapses is necessary to ensure a successful long-
term change. If relapse occur the individual will relapse to pre
contemplation and contemplation stage.
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6. Termination stage :
It is the last stage of Prochaska and DiClemente’s change theory. In

this stage people have no desire to return to their unhealthy behavior
and are sure they will not relapse.
Strengths and Weakness of Prochaska and DiClemente’s Change

Theory:
Strengths Weakness
1- The model help people how to 1- Success depends on the

modify a problem behavior or effectiveness of the
acquire a positive behavior. intervention of the previous
2- This model focuses on the stage.
decision making of the 2- Need more of persistence for
individual. change.
3-This model has been widely 3- Need more of motivational
applied in behavior modification power to begin change.
techniques. 4-Need more of persistence to
avoid relapse.
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Application
Application of Kurt Lewin’s Change Theory:

Implementing a bar-code scanning system of medication delivery at
A.H using Lewin’s Change Management theory:
A. Unfreezing Stage:
The first step of Lewin’s Analysis involves identifying the change

focus; specifically, implementing a bar-code scanning system of
medication delivery at A.H.
In this facility some
restraining forces might be; staff resistance to using computerized

devices, lack of computer experience, lack of trust in the organization,
and aversion to using a new system.
Driving forces would be the forces that will help move the project to
completion such as; adequate financial invest and better time
management , support from upper level management, potential for ease
of use
The important point here is that this exercise actively engages all
parties to work towards accentuating the positive driving forces and
diminishing the restraining forces so that BCMA is successfully
adopted without the use of dangerous workarounds with full nursing
investment in the outcome.
-communicating with all stakeholders including frontline nurses
114
managers and administration. It was important that lines of

communication remain open and honest, which creates a sense of
security and trust in all those involved with the proposed change.
Making processes promotes a feeling of empowerment that helps to
overcome their resistance to the change and enables them to
understand the importance of the project and how it will beneficially
affect client care.
- During the unfreezing stage, round table discussions with the purpose
of teasing out the driving and restraining forces will help identify
barriers that may need to be overcome.
B. Moving Stage:
The moving stage represents the period of actual change including the
planning and implementation stages of the project.
Implementing bar coding across the facility will require sustained
effort from various teams, some of which include; information
technology (IT), pharmacy, clinical information services (CIS),
nursing, program managers, clinical nurse educators and
administrators. A project of this magnitude will affect all of these
departments in different ways, so planning an effective roll out with
the assistance and inclusion of all stakeholders is imperative. Actively
involving nursing staff, to create a feeling of ownership of the success
of the project
and monitor a project of this magnitude through all phases. Challenges
in this stage may include discovering the use of workarounds that can
be resolved through further education.
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C. Refreezing Stage:
In this final stage of Lewin’s theory, the process of freezing or

refreezing the changed practice occurs and leads to a time of “stability
and evaluation. Ongoing support of the nurses on the frontline and
technology support
to all stakeholders should continue until the change is deemed
complete and all users are comfortable with the technology
Once completed and fully operational, an evaluation and summary of
problems encountered, successes realized, and challenges encountered
throughout the project should be done for future reference.
116
(7)
NegotiationTheories
117
Goal:
To empower students with knowledge, Skills and positive attitude
towards negotiation Theories.
Objectives:
At the end of negotiation theories the students will be able to:
Identify conflict and negotiation.
List the Importance of Successful negotiations.
Enumerate the Principles of negotiation.
Discuss types of negotiation theories.
Apply the Negotiation process.
Have positive attitude toward negotiation theory.
118
Outlines:
Introduction.
Definition.
Importance of successful negotiation.
Effective Negotiation Skills.
Principles of negotiation.
Negation Models
Negotiation process
Negotiation Theories.
Application.
119
Introduction:
Negotiation is one of the most effective ways to solve conflicts and
tensions.
When individuals don't agree with each other, they sit together discuss
issues on an open forum, negotiate with each other and come to an
alternative Solutions which satisfies all. Is the art of reaching an
agreement by resolving differences through creativity.
Definition:
Conflict:
It is a form of interaction among parties that differ in interest,
perceptions, and preferences.
Negotiation:
It is the art of reaching an agreement by resolving differences through
creativity.
A negotiation is a strategic discussion that resolves an issue in a way
that both parties find acceptable. In a negotiation, each party tries to
persuade the other to agree with his or her point of view.
Importance of successful negotiation:
Successful agreements Positive outcomes.
Achieving objectives.
Create a constructive interaction.
Parties satisfied and ready to do business with each other. Business
experience and success
Increase self-confidence Decrease stress.
120
Build respect.
Resolve conflicts.
Top effective negotiation skills:
Communication.
Active listening.
Emotional intelligence.
Patience
Adaptability
Persuasion.
Planning.
Integrity.
Problem-solving.
Decision making.
Principles of negotiation:
 Identifying interests.
 People. (Minimum two parties involved in the negotiation)
 Alternatives.
 Identifying options.
 Criteria/Legitimacy.
 Commitments.
 Communication.
Models of negotiation:
121
Win-Win model:
Both parties achieve their goals and are satisfied with the outcome.
Win-Lose model:
One party achieves the goal at the expense of the other party.
Lose-Lose model:
Both parties are dissatisfied with the terms of the negotiated contract
Negotiation Process:
1. Preparation. (Before the Negotiation)
2. Exchanging Information. (During the Negotiation)
3. Bargaining (During the Negotiation)
4. Closing and Commitment. (After the Negotiation)
1-Preparation:
 Prepare You + your team
 Know the other party
 Know the Picture
 Identify the objectives
 Prioritize the objectives
 Create options
 Select fair standards
 Examine Alternatives
 Select your strategy, and tactics.
 Develop a solid & approved team Negotiation plan.
2-Exchanging Information:
122
The information you provide must always be well researched and

must be communicated effectively.
3-Bargaining:
This is where most of the work is done by both parties. This is where
the actual deal will begin to take shape.
4-Closing and Commitment:
The final stage would be where the last few adjustments to the deal
are made by the parties involved, before closing the deal and placing
their trust in each other for each to fulfill their role.
Negotiation theories:
In 1965, looking at labor negotiations, Richard Walton and Robert
McKersie published a theoretical framework for understanding the
negotiation process, which they also applied to exchanges in
international relations and to disputes over civil rights.
 Structural.
 Strategic.
 Behavioral.
 Processual.
 Integrative.
1) Structural Approach:
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In structural approaches or analysis to negotiation theory, analysts

tend to define negotiations as conflict scenarios between opponents
who maintain incompatible goals.
The structural approach focuses on the role of means (such as
power) in negotiations. That power is the central determining
factor in negotiations.
The relative power of each party affects their ability to secure
their individual goals through negotiations.
Limitations:
It predicts that the strongest will always win. This, however, does not
always hold true.
Emphasize on taking positions.
2) Strategic Approach:
Strategic approaches to negotiation have roots in mathematics,
decision making theory and rational choice theory.
Negotiators are viewed as rational decision makers with known
alternatives who make choices guided by their calculation of which
option will maximize their ends or “gains”, frequently described as
‘payoffs’.
Strategic models tend to be normative in nature. Because they are
grounded in the belief that there is one best solution to every
negotiation problem.
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Limitations:
The parties have contradicting incentives to cooperate or defect. If
one party cooperates or makes a concession and the other does not,
the defecting party might relatively gain more.
3)Behavioral Approach:
Emphasize the role negotiators’ personalities or individual
characteristics play in determining the course and outcome of
negotiated agreements.
The behavioral approach highlights human tendencies, emotions and
skills.
Limitations:
Influence the emotional response an individual has to statement of fact
of a problem.
Influence the “motivational orientations” on the behavior of
individuals in negotiations.
4)Processual approach:
The processual approach looks at negotiation “as a learning process
in which parties react to each other’s concession behavior”.
From the perspective negotiations consist of a series of concessions.
The concessions mark stages in negotiations.
They are used by parties to both signal their own intentions and to
encourage movement in their opponent’s position.
125
Limitations:
The participants engaged in concession-trading may miss
opportunities to find new, mutually beneficial solutions to their shared
dilemma and end-up instead in a purely regressive process which
leaves both sides with fewer gains than they could have had if they
had pursued a more creative approach.
5)Integrative Approach:
The integrative approach to negotiations has roots in international
relations, political theory, research on labor disputes and social
decision making.
They described integrative bargaining as bargaining in which
negotiators employ problem solving behavior.
Integrative approaches use objective criteria, look to create
conditions of mutual gain, and emphasize the importance of
exchanging information between parties and group problem
solving.
Integrative analysis divides the process into successive stages,
(Diagnostic phase, a Formula phase and a Details Phase)
a) The diagnostic phase:
In this phase parties evaluate an issue area, as certain the
appropriateness of negotiations, attempt to signal their willingness to
negotiate with the other party, and test the other party’s willingness
to engage in, and sincerity of commitment to possible negotiations.
b) the formula phase:
126
Parties knowingly or unknowingly search for a framework or set of

mutually agreed upon principles on which to base a potential
agreement.
The chance of finding a successful formula increase if parties share
information openly, consider the perspective of the other side and
strive to build upon commonly shared principles or values.
c) In the details phase:
Parties move from broad principles to working out the details
of an agreement.
Limitations:
-Parties should still recognize and be prepared for encounters
with non-Integrative bargainers.
-Time consuming.
127
128
Application:
Negotiation about salary in organization

Negotiation team:
Employee and manager.
Place:
company.
Scenario: Negotiating a salary for a new job
Dear [prospective employer]
Thank you for your recent job offer. I enjoyed coming in to
interview and learning more about the position, so am delighted to
have been offered the role as [job role].
While I’m very interested in working for your company, I have been
offered [X much] more elsewhere. I’m afraid I couldn’t justify turning
this money down, and so request that you consider increasing my
starting salary to compete with my other offers, in which case I’d be
happy to come and work with you.
Regards
[Name]
Negotiation process
1. Preparation
2. Exchange the information
129
3. Bargaining
4. Closing and commitment.
1. Preparation
When you enter into a salary negotiation, bring the basics that you will
need:
*Gathering data to build your case for a successful negotiation.
* Define your objectives and those of other involved parties.
* Salary is an important factor, consider the total reward package

before deciding on your next move. That includes bonuses,
pension and health insurance, and work life balance
considerations such as vacation time, the commute, and the
flexibility of work hours.
* Research your market value to get the most good job offer.
*Consider the industry average, what local competitors pay, the

company's location, and the competition in the labor market.
*Emphasize the unique experience, skills and achievements that
you can bring to the organization.
2. Exchange the information

The information you provide must always be well researched and must
be communicated effectively.
Opening discussion: should build rapport and establish a positive tone
for a negotiation?
130
3. Bargaining
This is where most of the work is done by both parties; this is
where the actual deal will begin to take shape.
How did you present your argument and respond to objections or
requests for concessions?
Open the negotiations by saying how pleased you are to receive the job
offer, even if it falls short of your expectations. Be clear about what
you want, but avoid issuing threats.
You might be tempted to negotiate over email but it's better to
speak in person or over the phone.
This allows you to build rapport and limit miscommunication
4-Closing and commitment
The final stage would be where the last few adjustments to the deal are
made by the parties involved.
How did you and the other parties seal your agreement? Which of your
objectives did you achieve? What concessions did you make?
131

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Faculty of Nursing Helwan University

Master of nursing administration 2022/2023

Prof /Gehan Mohamed

NO Title Prepared by Page No

Collected by Abdelrahman yahia

Organization And Management Theories

At the end of the lecture the participants will be able to:

which the structure is created, maintained and used." - Dalton E.

There are 4 general management theories:

1-Frederick Taylor’s theory of scientific management 1856-1915

2-Henri Fayol s administrative management theory 1841-1925:

Advantage of administrative management theory

3-Max weber bureaucratic theory of management 1864-1920

Advantage of bureaucratic theory of management:

4-Elton mayo’s behavioral theory of management 1880-1948

-Elton mayo” experiment’s showed an increase in worker productivity

Disadvantage of the Elton mayo’s behavioral theory management:

2- Neo-classical or Humanistic Theory:

 Less formal, less control.

A) Humanistic model (Elton Mayo: 1924-1932):

b) Theory of X and Y (Douglas McGregor 1950s)

People must be pushed to People will drive themselves

C) Herzeberg motivation hygiene theory ( 1923- 2000):

D) Likert theory ( Rensis 1961):

Modern understanding of the theories includes:

The term "open systems"- open for change to the externalities

At the end of this lecture the participant will be able to:

1- Identify the concepts of: Learning and learning Theory.

1-Behaviorism learning theory:

Classical Conditioning Behavioral or operant

2-Behavioral or operant conditioning (Skinner1904-1990)

2-Cognitive learning theory (Cognitivism)

 Cognitive Learning Strategies

2-Meaningful Experiences strategy

David Ausubel made a clear distinction between meaningful

According to him, material that was closely related to what the

Learners with relevant background knowledge find it easier to add

3-Learning Through Discovery strategy

Jerome Bruner is a psychologist who built his theory on top of

His theory identified three stages of cognitive representation which

visual summarization of images, and symbolic which is the use of

4-Personalized learning strategy

1- Use of intellectual development gives teacher ↑ professional &

 Disadvantage cognitive learning theory

3-social constructivism learning theory

 This theory is the belief that knowledge is not a copy of an objective

4-Social learning theory

social learning .Because we remember things like voice pitch, images,

 Disadvantages of Social Learning Theory

5-Multiple Intelligences Theory

importance to sculptors, surgeons, chess players, graphic artists, or

6-Brain based learning theory

 Advantages of Brain Based Learning

 Integrating Brain-Based Learning in the Classroom

Engage learners physically and socially in planning activities

o There can be many forms of non verbal communication in the

Functions of Educational Administration

Educational administration theories:

Halpin's theory (1954-1966):

2-The Tridimensional Concept (Malcolm S. Knowles:1984):

3-social system Theory: Getzel’s 1957:

Getzels - Guba model says the following:

4-Functionalism Theory: Talcott Parsons

(Parsons) produced a general theoretical system for the analysis of