Nothing is permanent except change.

Change takes place regularly in the curriculums of most education

systems of the world. During the Periclean age, the teaching of the sophists and the resultant social,
economic and political changes made it necessary for Plato (a student of Socrates) to write up a
curriculum for children in schools that is comprehensive and suitable for social, economic and political
changes of the time (Cookey, 1980, Boyd, 1975). Also, Aristotle (a student of Plato) influenced by his
philosophy significantly and effectively changed the curriculum of preschool education. The Romans
adapted this curriculumn as they made slight changes in the content or subject matter of agriculture
while at the same time they laid emphasis on manual labor, religion and military science.

The advent of Christianity introduced into the existing Greek and Roman curriculum Christian teachings,
rituals and observances. Also, the curriculum went firther at revival curing the Medieval Renaissance
period that brought in the so-called "seven Liberal arts" made up of the trivium and the quadrivium. The
trivium was composed of Latin, grammar, logic and rhetorics while the quadrivium was made up of
astronomy, church music, arithmetic and geometry (Boyd, 1975). This was the structure of the
curriculum of the Western world, until the rise of technical, chivalric arts were added to the curriculum
especially those of the knighthood or chivalry. Technical subjects were taught in colleges and guilds.

Therefore, many universities expanded their curriculum. Notably Paris became a specialist in theology
while Oxford and Cambridge in classics and mathematics respectively. Now for the first time, there was
a compendium of courses in the programme of instruction of most universities. Courses included the
seven free arts as . well as the technical arts.

At this point il becomes necessary to emphasize that change in the curriculum was necessitated by the
renaissance or rebirth in civilization that introduced a new social order as well as national and political
consciousness.

However, the change in the curriculum did not stop with the renaissance but continued with the age of
the reformation. The reformers such as Martin Luther, John Calvin and John Knox, reformed the data,
methodology, principles and practice of education as well as the church to suit the circumstances of the
time a-- they believed. Hence, "teacher education programmes for the first tins began to be organized
through the instrumentality of the Jesuits - an anti-Protestant organization formed to fight agaist
Protestant doctrine and activities of their reformers" (Cookey, 1980:4). This was the beginning ofthe
church and the state participating in the education of the child. For, according to Erasmus, the Dutch, as
noted by Cookey (1 98O), "your children are begottennot to yourself alone but toyour country: not'to
your country alone but to God." +

After the Reformation was the age of Realism or the Scientific age. Scientists like Galileo. Robert Hooke,
Darwin, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Herbart and Froebel popularized science and made it possible for its
inclusion into the curriculum of higher institutions in Europe and America.

With the French and American -revolutions, new social order emerged, resulting in the birth of the
modern curriculum as well as aspects of learning in the old curriculum being reviewed through the
committee system. Hence, new subjects found a place in the programme of Schools.

However, it is pertinent to note at this juncture that many of the changes believed to be taking place in
education do not actually get into the classroom. The reforms are discussed ia a later chapter of this
book but suffice it to say that the change agents are often not serious as they either, perhaps guided by
political gains or are uncluttered that others may see the change differently than they do.

MEANING OF CURRICULUM INNOVATION

For proper understanding of this topic readers should refresh their memories on the meaning of a
curriculum. This was dealt with extensively in chapter one.

However, one should note also that curriculum is planned for a given society that is never static but
dynamic. It is because of the dynamic nature of every society which the curriculum is meant to serve
that changes occur either in the objectives of education, with a consequent change on the learning
experience presented to learners as well as on the methodology and process of evaluation. Hence, Agun
(i984) opines that as new information about people and their environment emerges, changes in
practices and approaches followed. These new practices and approaches are deliberately incorporated
into the curriculum. Thus curriculum innovation is the deliberate introduction of novelties into the
curriculum. This is because to innovate is to create something new which markedly deviates from
traditional practices that have been followed for a long time (Chauhan, 1979). It is a kind of alteration
that comes about either by adding or removing items in the curriculum. Hence, Unnih and Alexander (19
74) view "innovation ,as the introduction of a novel factor perceived as new by a given school or
community, supported by a driving force and implemented as a practical advance that deviates from
established traditional forms". B; implication, innovation emanates from a broad and purposeful
concept of the idea of society. Also, Miles, as noted by Ughamadu (1992:183), "defined innovation as a
deliberate, novel specific change, which is thought to be more efficacious in accomplishing the goals of
the system." According to him, innovation is purposefully planned.

Because of cultural differences and levels of needs, an innovation in one society may be an adoption of a
practice that long existed in another society or a reintroduction of a long discovered practice.

REASONS FOR CURRICULUM INNOVATION

I. Social order

Society is dynamic and hence keeps on changing. The changes may be in cultural beliefs, values, idea,
the philosophy of society, when this happens the curriculum of the schools have to change in line with
it. This is because the curriculum is an instrument for educating the individual in a society. In other
words, it is through the curriculum of the school that societal values, ideas, beliefs, ideals and
aspirations are transmitted, otherwise the schools and colleges become incongruous elements.

Therefore, whenever there is dissatisfaction with an as curriculum or the entire curriculum, there should
be a chirnge. or , modification. Specifically, the dissatisfaction may be with curriculum goals/objectives,
content and learning experiences to which the sheets are exposed, instructional methods and
evaluation. Hence, Smith Stanley and Shores (1 957) opine that the school curriculum is interwoven with
the social order that sustain it. For instance, the objectives of education in the colonial period had to
change because they were obsolete vis-a-vis current needs of society. Because of this, the curriculum
had to change in line with the new goals/objectives. Also, the criticisms leveled agathist one single test
or examination at the end of the semester necessitated introduction of continuous assessment tests in
all levels of our school
2. Knowledge is dynamic

Knowledge is continuous, growing and discoveries in the sciences especially have earlier held beliefs
obsolete, for example, structure of c toms as earlier explained.

(r4 ever-changing. The new I p,. tremendously made some - the knowledge about the

This set-up changes in the subject matter. Also, in education, new learningheaching emerges that has set
a wave of innovations areas such as team-teaching, simulated teaching, microateaching

Programmed learning. These changes essentially are reflected in the curriculum

3. Increase in Teaching and Learning Facilities

Technology not only brings about a rescheduling of values but also tremendously promotes the
production of hard and soft ware, and in fact a lot of educational media or teaching aids, hence,
whenever there are new facilities that can aid teaching and learning, it becomes necessary that some
curriculum innovations should be evolved. This will enhance a better organization of learning
experiences that will accommodate many students' activities and hence inject new life into the existing
cv~iculum.

4. Research Findings and their Application to Teaching Learning Situation

Researches in education, in the psychology of learning, intellectual development etc, gave ney insight on
how learning occurs. For example, Jean Piaget's theory of intellectual development enables appropriate
planning and structuring of learning experiences to suit die intellectual development level of students.
Also, the discovery method of teaching now used extensively in the teaching and learning of i science is
an offshoot of research findings. Y 2

These have influenced structural and organizational activities the actual classroom setting. Specifically,
new methods and es of teaching emerged.

ESS OF CURI$ICULUM INNOVATION

There is a need for periodical review of (after about 5 years) ing curriculum. Thus curriculum innovation
or change is an process resulting from the constant evaluation of any existing usually done by curriculum
planners. The essence of this

130

Identification of the area that needs change and thus agreement on the need for change. Studying the
activities in the school and society does this. The study may reveal areas that do not satisfy the needs of
the learner and society as well as the school. The innovators will then suggest that change should be
made and agreement for a change in the area that needs change reached.

Identification of direction of change such as new objectives. This will involve innovation in the practices
of the school that will meet the identified objectives or needs. For instance if society thinks that
objectives as contain in the curriculum no longer serves useful purpose, society may demand change. In
1969, it was this kind ofpressure that led to a national curriculum conference.
Organization of workshopsf or the production of a relevant curriculum. The Science Teachers
Association of Nigeria (STAN) has done a marvelous job in this regard. They have produced a number of
curriculum materials to accommodate the innovations made. These include the Nigerian Integrated
Science Project (NISP). As the name implies, it is an integrated approach to the study of science. This
project is the handiwork of professional teachers in various science disciplines, scientists and experts
from examination boards.

Yilot-Tesling of the new curriculum material. Usually, this is done using a similar target group or students
who will use the material. This is done to detect flaws, and any flaw detectediscorrectedby 'adoption.

Dissemination and adoption of the innovation The successful curriculum alternatives will then be
distributed to schools to be put into operation. Foyxample, upon the publication of NISP, it was
introduced to schools. It was also recommended for adoption to the various ministries of education.

Evaluation. The cumculwn material being used should be subjected to constant evaluation to know if the
objectives are being met. The whole of curriculum evaluation can follow a cycle because the final.

evaluation may give rise to further changes so that the modification may continue to give rise to a cycle
process.

The Comparative Education Study and Adaptation Centre CESAC) established in 1968) at the University
of Lagos, like STAN, 1 as been an agent of curriculum innovation. It delves into science i learning by
encouraging the active participation of pupils through inquiry and learning by discovery. Hence, CESAC
has developed physics, chemistry and biology textbooks. The process as reported by Okeke (1 98 1 : 11
2) includes:

1. identifying aspects ofthe curriculum to be revised; 2. invohi2g all concerned with the production and
translation of a curriculum by curriculum experts, school teachers, school administrators, content
experts in the shape of university personnel etc; 3. producing actual curriculum materials - pupils' texts,
teachers' guide, workbooks, - emphasizing audio-visual aids; 4. providing training courses for teachers
from selected pilot schools; 5. producing curriculum packages to be subjected to field trials in the
selected pilot schools for an extended period of time; 6. entertaining feedback from trials in pilot
schools; 7. revising curriculum materials in the light of feedback; 8. producing and introducing
curriculum packages to all schools for possible adoption or adaptation (Training of teachers is also an
essential aspect of this phases); 9. Periodically evaluating the curriculum for any necessary modification.

This approach to the production of curriculum materials is of essence foxuse in any curriculum
innovation.

FRAMING UP THE PROCESS OF CURRICULUM CHANGE

According to Ronald et a1 (1 98O), four factors are important in understanding and accurately describing
the curriculum change process. These are:

Stages of curriculum change Nature of curriculum change Orientation towards curriculum change
Strategies for curriculum change (S-N-0-S).

1. Stages of curriculum change: This has three elements to it. They are:

A. Initiation stage. This could come-abofit'm three ways:

@ When it is known that the curriculum is not achieving the purpose for which it is planned Innovation
can come about simply as an attractive alternative to what is in existence already, rn Innovation can be
mandated to take place by government. Examples are the introduction of moral instruction in primary
and secondary school, the introduction of computer in primary schools.

B. Development stage: After initiation comes the development and sustenance of the programme. This
is an arduous task because it involves evaluation, re-evaluation and modifications such that it will suit
the need of the people that necessitated the change.

C. Implementation stage: The planned change is implemented. Implementation is a complex process

involving

Fig. I

2. Nature of curriculum change

There are two elements to nature. They are:

Planned change Unplanned change

Planned change: This is the opposite of the unplanned change. It is deliberate. According to Umh (1
975), "planned change involves mutual goal setting and conscious, deliberative and collaborative effort
to apply appropriate knowledge systematically to human affairs so that procedures can be designed for
reaching the goals."

Unplanned change: As the name implies, the change occurs without planning. It is not deliberate.

STAGE:

NATURE:

Fig. 2: Source: Considered action for Curriculum Development.

3. Orientation towards curriculum change

Orientation towards curriculum change can be individual- oriented or group-oriented.

A. Individual oriented: Social, cultural patterns and values influence curriculum change. Psychologically,
however, individuals' behaviour can be predictedonthe basis of knowledge of social structure as well as
their

, ,&i.;r3 position on it. Hence, curriculum change at times seems to be necessitated . by the way
individuals are supposed to behave in society. Ronald et a1 (19SO) maintain that an individual-oriented
strategy would take into consideration personality, homeostasis, security and the like as variables
affecting the planned change.

B. Group oriented: In contrast to the individual-oriented change a group-oriented focuses primarily on

socio-psychological factors, that is, die culture of the people of group, such as norms, values as well as
incentives affected by power structure or politics.

Fig. 3: Source: Considered action for cuniculum improvement (1 980).

4. Strategies for curriculum change

The three main strategies are:

- -.

Power strategy Influence strategy 1 Reason strategy. , "4 Power strategy: in power strategv, schools and
teachers have no control over the decision for change. The decisions for change are simply ha& down to
them by the power bloc in the form of legislaiion, court orders & . -mere directives from superordinates.

The effect ofthis type of change is that teachers are usually not haqy. This makes them not seriously
committed to sustain the change. An example of power strategy may be a situation where there are
directives from the ministry of education requiring secondary schools to revert to the metric system in
mathematics within nine months.

Influence strategy: This is designed to make curriculum change attractive to participants. Therefore,
curriculum change can be sustained if the conditions for change can be made sufficiently appealing to
entice action by teachers. In other words, what to gain from the change is central. At times, the
influence strategy uses manipulation and persuasion to make teachers interested in the change.

Reasons strategy: Unlike the influence strategy, the commitment here is on the change itself not on the
incentive. The need and goals for the change are clear. This makes teachers actively involved. What is
required is for them to have sufficient knowledge, skills and resources that will propel therh more in a
reasonable, deliberate manner to reduce the discrepancy between what is and what ought to be in the
curriculum. STATE: @?fY$F--- 1mp1ementati+

TATION

Fig 4: smarsq , I, .:nsidered action for curriculum improvement (1 980)

AGENTS OF CURRICULUM INNOVATION IN NIGERLA

These include bodies, individuals, governments, institutions, and professional associations who, by their
activities, bring abaut change for the better in education. STAN is one of the notable agents of
curriculum innovation. We have seen their activities as regards curriculum innovation. Other agents are
the:

1. ~afional Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC). It was originally known as the
National Education Research Council (NEW 2. Science Teachers Association of Nigeria (STAN) 3.
Comparative Education Study and Adaptation Centre (CES AS) 4. National Teachers' Institute (NTT) 5.
Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (JAMB) 6. West African Examinations Council (WAEC) 7.
Mathematics Association of Nigeria (MAN) 8. Society for the Promotion of Igbo Language and Culture
(SPILC) 9. Curriculum Organization of Nigeria (CON) 10. International Centre for Educational Evaluation
(ICEE) 11. Ministries and government policies. Through government policies, innovations are introduced.
Such policies brought about in the 6-3-3- 4 system, the abolition of modem mathematics, the state take-
over of schools etc 12. Individual teachers in the instructional process: They can bring in worthwhile
changes in their various courses of instruction. They can discover better methods and skills that will
make learning easier. 13. Pressure groups: Pressure from parents made it possible to abolish modern
mathematics. Also, religious groups want schools to be returned to die missions. Today religious
instruction is taught in some schools 14. Alumni associations have influenced curriculum innovation in
the various schools. Usually notable areas of interest are sports, donations of books etc.

FACTORS THAT CAN INFLUENCE OR BRING ABOUT EDUCATION INNOVATION

1 . Change in social values, beliefs, traditions, etc. When values, beliefs, and tradition changes, the
objective of education change. This is because one major objective of education is to transmit culture.
Culture is seen in the values, beliefs and traditions ofthe people. It is a way of life.

Right from colonial times, changes in values, beliefs, traditions etc, have constantly affected changes in
the objectives of education. For instance, the NERC (NERDC) organized curriculum conference in 1969
was purely the result of the fact that our education was no longer serving our needs. Hence, the
conference resulted in new goals and objectives of education embodied in the National Policy on
Education that was first published in 1977 and revised in 198 1.

2. Change in the nature of knowledge and content of education: Research findings have brought about
new knowledge and today there is knowledge explosion. Thus it is bound to affect the content of
education. Latin and Greek were deemed to be the foundation of all learning. Today, these subjects
have virtually disappeared from the learning experiences organized for learners. Thus, new knowledge
has made previous knowledge irrelevant and obsolete. This new knowledge in methods, concept etc,
has to be incorporated into the curriculum.

Change in what is known about the learning process: The psychology of learning provides us with
theories of learning. Over the years different theories of learning have been propounded by different
psychologists, notable among whom are Jean Piaget, Brunner, etc. Brunner theorized on the discovery
learning and this has greatly affected the organization of instruction. This discovery and others in the
area of the learning process influence the curriculum.

Change in the system of education. The curriculum of any school is operated within a system of
education. If the primary school is to last for 8 years, as was the case, the curriculum should be modelled
in line with it. Lately, Nigeria changed to the 6-3-3-4 system of education. The implication is that school
year lasts for 16 years, There are additional subjects to be offered in secondary schools. Some of these
subjects become core to the system and hence there is an increase in the content of the curriculum.

5. Change necessitated by feedback from evaluation: Every curriculum is required to be evaluated from
time to time so as to find out the suitability of the curriculum to the needs of the learners md society in
general. Curriculum evaluation also portrays the degree of attainment of objectives by learners, the
strengths and weaknesses of. the curriculum. The findings usually turn out to influence curriculum
innovation. Take for instance if the evaluation reveals that some content matter, the method or the
material are not available, they will get back, review the curriculum and produce a new one.

Other factors that can bring about curriculum innovation include the financial status of a nation, the
learning facilities available, the organizationalstructure of the schools and the political ideology of a
nation.

FACTORS THAT MILITATE AGAINST CURRICULUM INNOVATION

Many factors militate against curriculum innovation. These factors seem to be peculiar to the developing
countries of the world especially Africa. This is because the economy, politics, socio-cultural and
psychological attitude of the people as well as their history and geography seem to oppose innovation.
All these geared up procedural barriers. Hence, we highlight the following factors.

1. Non-involvement of teachers in decision-making and actual development of curriculum materials and

curriculum innovation: When this happens, many problems in the curriculum may be found.

and teachers' attitude towards such a curriculum become negative. A case in point is the NCCE minimum
standard used before January 1997. Many courses of study in it are inadequate and lacking in content.
The implementers of the curriculum pointed out these flaws and also made appropriate suggestions for
change. This points out that teachers, the implementers of any curriculum, should be involved in the
actual development of curriculum.

2. Inability of teachers to effect the desiredchange or innovation'. This is similar to number one. Usually,
teachers are taken unawares when asked to implement a new innovation or package. They are unaware
because they were not consulted during the planning or development of the curriculum. This often
made them lack skills, competence, knowledge and understanding as well as other abilities for effective
implementation. Hence, the introductory technology aspect of the new 6-3-3-4 system as well as the
continuous assessment strategy practiced in secondary schools are problem to many teachers because
they lack knowledge and competence for its operation. This was also partly the reason for the failure of
modern mathematics in Nigerian secondary schools.

In point of fact the success of any innovation depends to a great extent on the technique/skills,
knowledge and understanding possessed by the teachers as to its aims and methods.

3. Finance: Curriculum innovation, requires a lot of money for its implementation. Money is required to
provide curriculum materials, equipment and facilities as well as for the retraining, training and
recruitment of teachers. Therefore, effective education innovation cannot be achieved without
adequate funds. The UPE failed partly because of lack of funds. Initially, money from oil sustained it.
Then the revenue from oil dwindled because of inflation and the cost soared tremendously. The
experiment couldno longer be executed.

4. Infrastructure: Infiastructural facilities may pose a hindrance to educational innovation. These

infrastruc- facilities may be physical plants, laboratories, electricity and other equipment

necessary for teaching and learning. Projected materials and other electrical gadgets cannot f~mction in
the absence of electricity.

5. Conservatism: Many teachers and school administrators are suspicious of change or innovation. By
this attitude they pose a hindrance to cbmculum innovation.

One hay to beat conservatism is to clearly specify the objective of the proposed change and allow the
change to go on in phases, spreading down conservative teachers via the receptive headteacher.
Besides, there should be pilot centres to try out the change. This will have the advantage of reassuring
teachers and administrators.

6. Political barrier: Many good innovations may not see the light of day because of politics. Innovation
introduced at state level may not achieve its purpose if it does hot employ necessary political support.
Usually, innovations are starved of funds where the part that controls the national level is in opposition
with the part that controls the state. Similarly, objection to an innovative project by special interest
groups may make it difficult for any new idea, however advantageous, to actually see the light of day.
Furthermore, lack of understanding and interest by a leader obstruct the introduction of new change.
For instance, a principal or headteacher of a school who is not interested in the new change can. hinder
its success. Helshe can do this by not giving it thenecessary support.

7. Ignorance of the valve of curriculum innovation: Some people are ignorant of the fact that changes in
societal values, beliefs and traditions obviously have corresponding changes in the school curriculum.
They are also ignorant that advances in science and technology bring about the rescheduling of value
and ferment changes in the political and economic spheres. Hence, it calls for better knowledge and skill
in learners.

8. Dependency on other systems: Because poor countries cannot afford costly innovation, they depend
on rich countries for the supply of essential materials. The training of personnel and funds necessary

for the implementation of the innovation, withdrawn, the innovation suffers.

9. Bureaucracy: It is often not easy to get things done the way they ought to be done because of
bureaucratic tendencies. This has affected Nigerian education. In Nigeria, there are practices that certain
things have to be shared irrespective of proper discharge of duty. These are the catch phrases such as
catchment area, quota system, federal character and even educationally disadvantaged. These practices
introduce mediocrity as well as engender minor intransigence between people in key roles and so
hamper innovative measures.

10. Socialand cultural barriers: The conflict of cultures militates against innovation in Nigeria, in the
north, women are not allowed to move freely and it becomes difficult at times to use them in planning
innovation. Every good education plan precedes an accurage census. But often people especially women
are apathetic to a census. The Aba Women's Riot of 1939 is a case in point.

11. General conditions: These include lack of accessible roads, long distances, isolation, lack of school
transport and poor climatic conditions, which may make it difficult to locate persons who should be
deeply involved in the innovative process.

Today, some schools are not offering introductory technology because of lack of access roads. Teachers
also run away from such schools.

12. Certzjkationorpaperqualzjication: There are people who are knowledgeable and can be employed to
help evolve or implement innovation, but have no certificate. At times when such people are employed,
they are under-remunerated in spite of the fact that they do most of the job. Because of this, they start
playing ghost to the Job and hence innovation suffers.

NOTABLE INNOVATIONS IN NIGERIAN EDUCATION

Emphasis on the study of Igbo, Hausa, and Yoruba languages as well as the use of the language of the
immediate community as a medium of instruction at the initial stage ofprimary education.
Abolition of the First School Leaving Certificate examination and the use of continuous assessment of
the pupils for award of the First School Leaving Certificate by school heads. Conversion of secondary
schools from a 5 to 6-year course.

Inclusion of technical, commercial and other vocational courses as well as academic courses to make
senior secondary school learners immediately employable on graduation. Abolition ofthe Sixth Form
(Higher School Certificate) course. Restructuring of courses from 3-year to the 4-year degree course
pattern to suit the six-year secondary school system. Introduction of continuous assessment at all levels
of education. Introduction of correspondence courses or open universities and work-study programmes
and/or sandwich programmes. Introduction of adequate adqlt and nm-formal education and special
education. Change in the school calenar and the introduction of the semester system. d Introductibn of
guidance co$nse/nselors in schools. Achange from general scien~e to integrated science. Introduction of
social studies in university curriculum and its replacement w~th nature study. New s stem of naming
compounds and elements in chemistry (IUPA~) etc. Remarks From the above, the education system in
Nigeria has been characterized by innovations. Society is not static and as it keeps evolving and changing
educational system changes in line with it. This is because education is meant to provide for the need of
the society.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

la. What do you understand by curriculum innovation? Why is cumculum innovation necessary?

2. Identify and filly explain one major change that has occurred in your subject area between 1968 and
2000.

3. Identify and discuss the process of curriculum innovation

4. Discuss barriers to curriculum innovation.

5. What factors influence curriculum innovatio