UNDERSTANDING

ISLAM

AN EXPLORATION

MOHAMMAD AHMAD WALI

UNDERSTANDING

ISLAM

AN EXPLORATION

2
 © 2024 by Mohammad Ahmad Wali

All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the permission of
the author.

Published By:

Faculty of Arabic and Islamic Studies,

Usmanu Danfodiyo University,

Sokoto

ISBN: 978-978-788-691-5

Printed By:

UDUS Press Ltd

UDUS University Press Limited

Usmanu Danfodiyo University,

Sokoto
 DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to all who persevere in the propagation of Allah's

religion.

II
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

With profound humility, I begin by extending all praise and thanks to Allah, the

Most Merciful and Compassionate, and seeking blessings upon Prophet

Muhammad (PBUH).

This book is the culmination of a collaborative endeavour, enriched by the

contributions of numerous individuals whose support and insights have been

invaluable. I am particularly indebted to the Wali Family for their unwavering

support, encouragement, and devotion to the service of Allah. Special mention

goes to my brothers, Dr Usman Muhammad Wali, and Sen. Ambassador

Abdallah Wali, for their invaluable contributions to this work. Their insights

have immensely improved the quality of the work, and their ideas have brought

attention to the relevance of certain verses, enhancing its overall impact. I also

express my profound gratitude to my daughter, Muslimah Mohammad Wali,

for her dedication and hard work in retyping, meticulous editing, and sourcing

important materials during the revision process in 2023. Her efforts have been

instrumental in bringing this book to fruition.

I extend my sincere appreciation to Professor Mohammad Amir Abdulhamid

Muzahery from Australia, for his initial editing of the 1992 version, prompted

by Professor Muhammad Yusuf Afifi of the Islamic University of Madinah. His

suggestions have been instrumental in shaping the content and structure of

this book. Additionally, I am grateful to Sheikh, Dr Muhammad Isa Talata

Mafara for writing the Foreword, and Professor Vaffi Foday Sheriff of the

Department of Islamic Studies, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto, for

III
contributing the Preface, both of whom have added depth and insight to this

work. I also acknowledge the contributions of Malami Ladan, Sa’in Sabon Birni,

Sokoto, for his thorough review and observations that have further enriched

the work.

The journey of this book began in 1992 (1413) while I was at the Islamic

University in Madinah. It was not until 2023 that discussions with Mallam Musa

Muhammad Kalgo, Dr. Abubakar Umar Naabu Dange of the Centre of Islamic

Studies, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, and Professor Muhammad Yusuf Afifi

paved the way for its revision. Professor Afifi’s request led Professor

Mohammad Amir Abdulhamid Muzahery to review the work. While Mallam

Kalgo’s efforts brought Sheikh Dr Muhammad Isa Talata Mafara on board to

review the book. Dr Abubakar Umar Naabu Dange’s coordination resulted in

Professor Vaffi Foday Sheriff contribution to the work.

The final reviews by Professor Isa Muhammad Maishanu, from the Department

of Islamic Studies and Dean of the Faculty of Arabic and Islamic Studies at

Usmanu Danfodiyo University, and Professor Sani Umar Musa, also from the

Department of Arabic Studies and former Dean of the Faculty of Arts and

Islamic Studies at Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, have been invaluable

in refining the work. Their collaborative efforts have significantly shaped the

evolution of this book, making the 2023 revision possible.

I also extend my gratitude to other family members and friends who created a

conducive environment for the completion of this work in Madinah, Sokoto,

and Abuja. In Madinah, I am particularly grateful to the late Dr. Muhseen

IV
Muhaiseen, who played a crucial role in my journey to Madinah; Professor

Muhammad Yusuf Afifi, a brother and guardian to me in Madinah; as well as

my brothers, Professor Abdullatif Al-Hamidi, Professor Omar Omarey, and

Professor Muhammad Sulaiman Al-Khudairy, all of whom are affiliated with

Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

My understanding of Islam has been nurtured by a multitude of individuals and

institutions from my earliest years. This journey of continuous learning and

discovery began in my childhood, within the nurturing walls of my parents, the

Islamiyya and the madrasa, and continued through local schools, Sanyinna

Town Primary School, and Sheikh Abubakar Gummi Memorial College, Sokoto.

My academic pursuit at the university level was a transformative experience

that further deepened my understanding of Islam. It was an era of rigorous

scholarly discipline, where the academic study of Islam opened new horizons

and challenged me to engage with complex theological, legal, and

philosophical discourses. The university was not just an institution; it was a

crucible in which my thoughts and beliefs were refined and reshaped.

Conferences, workshops, independent studies, and digital media have all been

pivotal in enhancing my knowledge and understanding of Islam. My

interactions with eminent scholars of Islam, both at home and abroad, have

been exceptionally rewarding. These scholars, with their profound wisdom and

insight, have not just imparted knowledge; they have reshaped my

understanding and approach to Islam. Their mentorship has been a beacon of

light, guiding me through the complexities of religious understanding and

practice. I extend my deepest gratitude to each of these remarkable

V
individuals. May Allah, in His infinite generosity, bestow upon them abundant

rewards for their invaluable efforts and steadfast support in realising this work.

Their contributions have been instrumental in bringing this book to life, and for

that, I am immensely appreciative. Their unwavering commitment and

guidance have not only enriched this work but have also deeply touched my

heart. I earnestly pray that Allah graces them with continued success,

contentment, and prosperity every aspect of their lives. May their paths be

illuminated with wisdom, and their endeavours be crowned with fulfilment and

divine blessings.

In acknowledging these diverse sources of knowledge and inspiration, I am

profoundly aware that my journey in the pursuit of Islamic knowledge is far from

over. Each day presents new opportunities to learn, to grow, and to contribute

to the rich Islamic scholarship. As I continue on this path, I carry with me the

lessons of the past, the inquiries of the present, and the aspirations for the

future, ever grateful for the guidance and wisdom bestowed upon me by my

teachers, mentors, and the countless sources of knowledge that have

illuminated my path.

It is my earnest wish for this book to ignite a fervent passion and keen interest

in Islam among both Muslims and non-Muslims alike. By seeking Allah's

pleasure and striving to deepen the understanding of our faith, I pray that our

efforts are accepted and forgiven for any shortcomings, and that this work

serves as a timeless source of knowledge, guidance, and inspiration for

generations to come.

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On the Day of Resurrection, when worldly possessions and relations hold no

sway, may Allah, in His infinite mercy, include this labour of love among our

scale of righteous deeds. I beseech Allah's blessings to be continuously

showered upon this work, making it a conduit of perpetual blessings and

benefits for all who encounter its message. Ameen.

Mohammad Ahmad Wali

1413/1414 Hijrah and revised 1444/1445

1992/93 and revised in 2023.

VII
 FOREWORD

In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.

All praise and gratitude are due to Allah, the Sustainer and Cherisher of the

universe. May peace and blessings be upon our beloved Prophet Muhammad,

the son of Abdullah, his kin, and companions, and all those who follow his

guided path until the Day of Judgment.

It is with great honour that I present the foreword to "Understanding Islam: An

Exploration," a seminal work by Professor, Ambassador Mohammad Ahmad

Wali. As a professor of political science, Professor Wali's endeavour into Islamic

studies is commendable. His unique perspective bridges the gap between

secular governance and religious principles, offering readers a comprehensive

understanding of Islam's role in contemporary society.

The author's background as a product of the College of Arts and Arabic

Studies, now known as Sheikh Abubakar Gummi Memorial College, a

renowned institution that has produced illustrious scholars of Arabic and

Islamic Studies, adds depth to his exploration of Islamic sciences. In spite of his

versatile experience in public service, the author has shown a keen interest in

Islamic studies and has made efforts to engage with the Islamic cause. This

book reflects his commitment to exploring and sharing Islamic knowledge. My

acquaintance with the author spans approximately four decades, dating back

to his tenure as Senior Assistant Secretary in the Sokoto State Ministry for

Information, Social Welfare, Youth, Sports, and Culture. It was here, within the

VIII
History Bureau - a unit where I was employed, that our paths first crossed. From

that initial encounter, our shared interests and yearnings for Islamic knowledge

have fostered a long-standing relationship.

This book is not merely an academic endeavour; it is a guide for those seeking

to delve deeper into the core principles of Islam, the profound wisdom of the

Quran and Sunnah, and the significant role played by Islamic scholars

throughout history. Moreover, the author addresses the pressing challenges

faced by Muslim societies today, providing insightful analysis and potential

solutions. A key focus of this work is to dispel the misconceptions that non-

Muslims often have about issues such as polygamy, divorce, and inheritance in

Islam. Of particular note is the author's exploration of Da'awah, the calling to

Allah. The author provides a comprehensive discussion on its prerequisites,

methodologies, and the impact of social media in spreading Islamic teachings.

He also addresses the places and manner of undertaking Da'awah activities, as

well as the internal and external challenges associated with it. This book is

indeed a timely addition to Islamic knowledge, filling gaps that societal

development has necessitated in the last few decades. This book is a valuable

resource for students of Islamic studies and anyone seeking to grasp the

essence of Islam in contemporary society. I highly recommend 'Understanding

Islam: An Exploration' as a beacon of knowledge. May Allah reward Professor

Wali for his invaluable contribution to Islamic literature. Ameen.

Sokoto,

Muhammad Isa Talata Mafara

Muharram 18, 1445/August 5, 2023

IX
 PREFACE

In the name of Allah, the most Gracious, the most Merciful. All praises are due

to Allah, the Lord of all the worlds, who taught us through the pen and

endowed humankind with knowledge they did not possess. May the peace and

blessings of Allah be upon Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W), his family, his

companions, and all those who follow his path until the Day of Judgment. It is

truly a privilege and an honour to pen the preface for Ambassador and

Professor Mohammad Ahmad Wali's insightful work, "Understanding Islam: An

Exploration." This comprehensive endeavour aims to elucidate the manifold

dimensions of Islam, drawing deeply from the wellspring of the Qur'an, the

Sunnah, and the scholarly contributions of esteemed Muslim Ulama.

"Understanding Islam” is not merely a book; it's an invitation. An invitation to

venture into the depths of a faith that has for centuries, captivated the minds

and hearts of billions. In a world where misconceptions about Islam abound,

Professor Wali's work acts as a beacon, dispelling shadows of ignorance and

lighting the path of true knowledge. Remarkably, the author's approach is

grounded in rigorous scholarship, encompassing an extended period of

meditation and meticulous research. His consultations with a wide array of

Islamic scholars augment the richness and breadth of the content, rendering it

both authentic and enlightening.

A remarkable feature of this to me is its deliberate avoidance of the theological

entanglements (Al-Jadal) which often characterised discourses of classical

Muslim theologians (Al-Mutakallimun). This judicious approach ensures that the

insights remain palpable to the lay reader, beautifully distilling complex Islamic

paradigms without compromising their integrity. The resultant narrative is both

X
intellectually stimulating and spiritually uplifting, making it an indispensable

guide for contemporary seekers.

Structured meticulously across nine chapters, the book addresses pivotal facets

of Islam, ranging from the inception of eminent scholars to the Islamic ethos,

divine tenets as enshrined in the Qur'an and Sunnah, the invaluable role of

Muslim Ulama, the dynamics of Muslim societies, and the multifaceted

challenges besieging the Ummah. The author’s emphasis on the role of the

Ulama, the learned scholars of Islam, is particularly noteworthy. In highlighting

their contribution, he underscores the continuity of thought and tradition in

Islam, reminding the reader that the religion is not static but rather a living,

breathing entity that has evolved and adapted while retaining its core values.

While rich in theoretical wisdom, the book also underscores the pragmatic

application of Islamic tenets in catalysing human evolution. The author’s

emphasis on Da'wah, the act of calling people to the path of Allah, as a conduit

for societal upliftment and spiritual enlightenment, is particularly resonant in an

age of burgeoning materialism and spiritual ennui. His insights furnish a

visionary roadmap for those aspiring to effectuate transformative outreach.

On the whole, "Understanding Islam: An Exploration" is more than just a

comprehensive overview of Islam, providing in-depth insights into Qur'anic

sciences, the Sunnah, jurisprudence, and Islamic thought. It's an attestation to

the enduring relevance of this great faith, an affirmation of its universality, and

a clarion call to its adherents to engage with the world in a constructive,

compassionate manner.

The work is a timely addition to the annals of Islamic literature, one that I

wholeheartedly recommend for anyone seeking to fathom the depths of this

XI
rich and profound religion, notably students, academics, researchers, and the

public. I extend my heartfelt congratulations to the author for his monumental

contribution to both Islam and humanity. I pray that this work resonates across

generations, illuminating minds and hearts alike.

Professor Vaffi Foday Sheriff

Department of Islamic Studies, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto-Nigeria

30th August 2023/13 Safar, 1445.

XII
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS III
FOREWORD VIII
PREFACE X
TABLE OF CONTENTS XIII
LIST OF TABLES XIX
ABBREVIATIONS XX

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 2

1.1 ABOUT THE BOOK: INSIGHTS INTO ISLAM 3
1.2 EMERGENCE OF FIGURES OF KNOWLEDGE 7
1.2.1 PHILOSOPHERS 7
1.2.2 PROPHETS 13
1.3 CONTINUATION OF PREVIOUS RELIGIONS 16
1.4 THE BELIEF SYSTEM 38
1.5 COMMANDMENTS OF ALLAH 38
1.6 THE QUR’AN AND HADITH 39
1.7 THE PLACE OF ISLAMIC SCHOLARS 39

CHAPTER TWO: THE BELIEF SYSTEM: FUNDAMENTALS OF RELIGION 43

2.1 BELIEF IN THE EXISTENCE AND ONENESS OF ALLAH 45
2.2 BELIEF IN ALLAH AS THE CREATOR AND SUSTAINER OF THE UNIVERSE 48
2.3 CREATION OF THE UNIVERSE 53
2.3.1 THE HEAVENS AND THE EARTH 54
2.3.2 THE SUN AND THE MOON 55
2.3.3 DAY AND NIGHT 55
2.3.4 AIR 56
2.3.5 STARS 57
2.3.6 ANIMALS, PLANTS, AND INANIMATE BEINGS 57
2.3.6.1 ANIMALS 57
2.3.6.2 THE FLIGHT OF BIRDS 58
2.3.6.3 THE BEE AND ITS SKILLS 58
2.3.6.4 SPIDER’S WEB 58
2.3.6.5 ANT’S COMMUNICATION 59
2.3.6.6 PLANTS AND FOOD 59
2.3.7 THE HUMAN BEING 60
2.3.7.1 SPECIAL CREATIONS 60
2.3.7.1.1 ADAM (AS) 60
2.3.7.1.2 HAUWA (EVE) 61
2.3.7.1.3 ISA (JESUS CHRIST) (AS) 66
2.3.7.2 CREATION OF OTHER HUMAN BEINGS FROM PAIRS 66
2 3.7.2.1 CREATION FROM A MINGLED SPERM 67
2.3.7.2.2 CREATION IN STAGES 67

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2.3.7.2.3 THE SOUL 68
2.3.7.2.4 SIGNS OF ALLAH 71
2.3.7.2.5 MAN’S RELATION WITH OTHER CREATIONS 72
2.4 BELIEF IN ALLAH AS THE LAWMAKER 75
2.5 BELIEF IN ALLAH AS THE ONLY ONE DESERVING TO BE WORSHIPPED 78
2.6 BELIEF IN HIS NAMES AND ATTRIBUTES 83
2.7 BELIEF IN THE ANGELS 90
2.8 BELIEF IN THE REVEALED BOOKS 92
2.9 BELIEF IN THE MESSENGERS 94
2.10 BELIEF IN THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD (PBUH) 106
2.10.1 CHALLENGES FACED BY THE PROPHET (PBUH) 113
2.10.1.1 CHALLENGE TO HIS PROPHETHOOD 114
2.10.1.2 MOCKERY AND TEASING 115
2.10.1.3 NAME CALLING 116
2.10.1.4 QUESTIONS TO TEST HIM 117
2.10.1.5 ARROGANCE 118
2.10.1.6 PREVENTING PEOPLE FROM ACCEPTING THE RELIGION 120
2.10.1.7 ALLEGATION OF FABRICATING THE QUR’AN 121
2.10.1.8 ECONOMIC CONCERNS 125
2.10.1.9 ISSUE OF SOCIAL CHANGE 125
2.10.1.10 PERCEPTION OF THE QUR’AN AS A LEGEND OR TALE OF ANCIENT TIMES 126
2.11 BELIEF IN THE DAY OF JUDGEMENT 138
2.11.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DAY 143
2.11.1.1 REWARD 145
2.11.1.2 PUNISHMENT 146
2.11.1.2.1 HELL FIRE 146
2.12 BELIEF IN HIS DIVINE WILL AND PREDESTINATION FOR GOOD AND EVIL 149

CHAPTER THREE: COMMANDMENTS OF ALLAH 157

3.1 WORSHIP 157
3.1.1 SALAT 160
3.1.2 ZAKAT 162
3.1.3 SAUM (FASTING THE MONTH OF RAMADAN) 163
3.1.4 HAJJ 166
3.2 ENJOINING THE RIGHT (GOOD) AND FORBIDDING THE WRONG (EVIL) 169
3.2.1 RELIGIOUS PERSPECTIVE 174
3.2.2 POLITICAL PERSPECTIVE 180
3.2.2.1 APPOINTMENT OF LEADERS 182
3.2.2.2 RESPONSIBILITY 183
3.2.2.3 ATTITUDE OF LEADERSHIP 185
3.2.2.4 OBLIGATION 186
3.2.2.5 CONSULTATION 189
3.2.2.6 PURPOSE 190
3.2.2.6.1 INTERNAL PERSPECTIVE 190
3.2.2.6.2 EXTERNAL PERSPECTIVE 193
3.2.3 ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE 204

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3.2.3.1 RELATIONSHIP TO WEALTH 204
3.2.3.2 BEST WAY TO OBTAIN WEALTH 206
3.2.3.3 BEST WAY TO SPEND WEALTH 207
3.2.3.4 ISLAMIC FINANCE 209
3.2.3.4.1 PRINCIPLES OF ISLAMIC FINANCE 209
3.2.3.4.2 PRINCIPLE OF EQUITY 209
3.2.3.4.3 PRINCIPLE OF PARTICIPATION 210
3.2.3.4.4 PRINCIPLE OF OWNERSHIP 211
3.2.3.4.5 PROHIBITION OF RIBA (INTEREST) 211
3.2.3.4.6 ISLAMIC BANKING 212
3.2.3.4.6.1 PROFIT-AND-LOSS SHARING (PLS) FINANCING PRODUCTS 212
3.2.3.4.6.2 NON-PLC FINANCING PRODUCTS 212
3.2.3.4.6.3 FEE-BASED PRODUCTS 213
3.2.3.4.6.4 ETHICAL INVESTMENTS 213
3.2.3.4.6.5 ISLAMIC BANKING IN THE MODERN WORLD 213
3.2.4 SOCIAL PERSPECTIVE 215
3.2.4.1 THE FAMILY 215
3.2.4.2 THE SOCIETY 216
3.2.4.3 MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE 219
3.2.4.4 OBEDIENCE TO PARENTS 229
3.2.4.5 BROTHERHOOD 230
3.2.4.6 GOOD MANNERS 232
3.2.4.7 POLITENESS 233
3.2.4.8 PATIENCE 235
3.2.4.9 KINDNESS 237
3.2.4.9.1 KINDNESS TO CHILDREN 237
3.2.4.9.2 KINDNESS TO ANIMALS 238
3.2.4.10 KNOWLEDGE 240
3.2.4.11 DRESSING 248
3.2.4.12 FOOD 249
3.2.4.13 DOING GOOD TO NON-MUSLIMS 250
3.2.4.14 FORGIVENESS 252
3.2.4.15 ABSTAINING FROM WRONGDOING (EVIL DOING) 253
3.2.4.16 MANIPULATION OF RELIGION 259

CHAPTER FOUR: THE QUR’AN AND THE HADITH (SUNNAH) 261

4.1 THE QUR’AN 261
4.1.1 THE QUR’AN – THE INFALLIBLE WORD OF ALLAH 263
4.1.2 ARABIC 267
4.1.3 REVELATION OF THE QUR’AN 268
4.1.3.1 THE FIRST REVELATION 272
4.1.3.2 CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE REVELATION OF QUR’ANIC VERSES 273
4.1.3.3 PLACES OF REVELATION 275
4.1.3.4 MAKKAN CHAPTERS 275
4.1.3.5 MADINAN CHAPTERS 280
4.1.4 RECITATION OF THE QUR’AN 283

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4.1.5 WRITING DOWN OF THE QUR’AN 289
4.1.6 COMPILATION OF THE QUR’AN 293
4.1.7 DEVELOPMENT OF QUR’ANIC WRITING 301
4.1.8 ARRANGEMENT OF THE QUR’AN 303
4.1.8.1 LONG AND SHORT CHAPTERS 314
4.1.8.2 TOPICS 316
4.1.8.3 STYLE 316
4.1.8.4 PROSE AND RHYTHMICITY 317
4.1.8.5 REPETITION 317
4.1.8.6 COMMENTARY OF THE QUR’AN 318
4.1.8.6.1 SOURCES OF COMMENTARY OF THE QUR’AN 323
4.1.9 GRADUAL LEGISLATION IN THE QUR’AN 324
4.10 TOUCHING THE QUR’AN 330
4.11 CATEGORISATION OF PEOPLE INTHE QUR’AN 331
4.12 PUBLISHING OF THE QUR’AN 331
4.2 SUNNAH (HADITH) 334
4.2.1 PURPOSE OF HADITH 335
4.2.2 WRITING DOWN OF HADITH 337
4.2.3 FABRICATION OF HADITH 346
4.2.4 TRANSLATION OF HADITH 353

CHAPTER FIVE: ULAMA (THE SCHOLARS) 356

5.1 COMPANIONS (SAHABAH): THE FIRST GENERATION 359
5.2 SUCCESSORS (FOLLOWERS, TABI’OON): THE SECOND GENERATION 363
5.3 MUSLIM JURISTS (AL-MUJTAHIDOON): THE THIRD GENERATION 365
5.4 ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE (FIQH) 366
5.4.1 CATEGORISATION OF ALL ACTIONS 368
5.4.1.1 CATEGORISATION OF ACTIONS IN WORSHIP 369
5.4.2 THE FOUR SCHOOLS OF ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE 371
5.4.2.1 HANAFI SCHOOL (FOUNDED BY IMAM ABU HANIFA) 371
5.4.2.2 MALAKI SCHOOL (FOUNDED BY IMAM MALIK IBN ANAS) 372
5.4.2.3 SHAFI’I SCHOOL (FOUNDED BY IMAM AL-SHAFI’I) 372
5.4.2.4 HANBALI SCHOOL (FOUNDED BY IMAM AHMAD IBN HANBAL) 372
5.4.3 VARIOUS INTERPRETATIONS 384
5.4.4 EFFECTS OF INTERPRETATION 391
5.5 IMPORTANCE OF THE ULAMA 392
5.6 RELEVANCE OF KNOWLEDGE 392
5.7 NAVIGATING CHALLENGES IN CONTEMPORARY ISLAMIC SCHOLARSHIP 395
5.8 ROLE OF THE ULAMA IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT 397

CHAPTER SIX: THE MUSLIM SOCIETY 417

6.1 MUSLIM SOCIETIES 419
6.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MUSLIM SOCIETIES 429
6.3 MUSLIM NAMES 434
6.4 SOCIAL NORMS 435
6.5 LEADERSHIP 436

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6.6 SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION 439
6.6.1 IMPROVEMENT IN SACRIFICE DURING HAJJ 439
6.6.2 REFORMS 440

CHAPTER SEVEN: CHALLENGES 442

7.1 EXTERNAL CHALLENGES 442
7.1.1 POLYGAMY 444
7.1.2 DIVORCE 448
7.1.3 INEQUALITY BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN ON INHERITANCE 450
7.1.4 WOMEN ARE MALTREATED AND REGARDED AS PROPERTY 457
7.1.5 ADULTERY 458
7.1.6 CUTTING OF HANDS OF THIEVES OR BURGLARS AND EXECUTION OF MURDERERS
AND KILLERS 460
7.1.7 HOSTILITY TOWARDS RELIGION 461
7.1.8 SECULARISM 463
7.1.9 ANTAGONISM 465
7.2 INTERNAL CHALLENGES WITHIN ISLAM ITSELF 468
7.2.1 GROUPING 468
7.2.1.1 SUNNI 469
7.2.1.2 SHI’A 469
7.2.1.3 KHARIJITES 470
7.2.1.4 QADIYANIS (AHMADIYYA) 471
7.2.1.5 SUFIS 472
7.3 SOME ISSUES OF CONCERN 474
7.3.1 MAULID 474
7.3.2 CELEBRATING COMPLETION OF THE QUR’AN 478
7.3.3 COMPETITION IN THE READING OF THE QUR’AN 480
7.3.4 HIJAB 481
7.3.5 ENVIRONMENT 482
7.3.6 PREVALENCE OF INJUSTICE AND SUFFERING 484

CHAPTER EIGHT: STRATEGIES FOR CALLING PEOPLE TO ALLAH (DA’AWAH) 487

8.1 THE PROPHET’S (PBUH) APPROACH TO INVITING PEOPLE TO ISLAM 488
8.2 DA’AWAH 495
8.2.1 CONDITIONS OF DA’AWAH 496
8.2.1.1 KNOWLEDGE OF THE RELIGION 496
8.2.1.2 KNOWING WHERE TO BEGIN 497
8.2.1.3 APPROACH WITH HIKMAH (WISDOM) 497
8.2.1.4 PATIENCE AND STEADFASTNESS 498
8.2.1.5 OPEN-MINDEDNESS 498
8.2.2 PLACES OF MAKING DA’AWAH 498
8.2.3 APPROACH TO DA’AWAH 500
8.2.4 SOCIAL MEDIA AND DA’AWAH 501
8.2.4.1 BENEFITS OF SOCIAL MEDIA ON DA’AWAH 503
8.3 CHALLENGES 504

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8.3.1 INTERNAL CHALLENGES 504
8.3.1.1 SOCIAL CHALLENGES 504
8.3.1.2 ECONOMIC CHALLENGES 505
8.3.2 EXTERNAL CHALLENGES 506
8.3.2.1 POLITICAL CHALLENGES 506
8.3.2.2 GLOBAL CHALLENGES 506

CHAPTER NINE: CONCLUSION 512

BIBLIOGRAPHY 522
APPENDIX 538
APPENDIX 1: CONSTITUTION OF MADINAH 538
APPENDIX 2: PROPHETS MENTIONED IN THE QUR’AN AND THE CHAPTERS OF
MENTIONS 546
APPENDIX 3: THIRTY NEW TESTAMENT VERSES AFFIRMING JESUS AS A MESSENGER
NOT GOD 550
INDEX 554

XVIII
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1 PIONEERS OF KNOWLEDGE ACROSS CIVILISATIONS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS 8

TABLE 2.1 THE 99 NAMES OF ALLAH AND THEIR MEANINGS 84

TABLE 2.2 THE REVEALED BOOKS 93
TABLE 2.3 AGES AND MISSIONS OF THE PROPHETS 98
TABLE 2.4 PROPHETS MENTIONED IN THE QUR’AN AND THE FREQUENCY OF MENTIONS
100

TABLE 3.1 FASTING GUIDELINES IN ISLAM 165

TABLE 3.2 THE FOUR ORTHODOX CALIPHS (29 YEARS) 185

TABLE 4.1 MAKKAN CHAPTERS 276

TABLE 4.2 MADINAN CHAPTERS 280
TABLE 4.3 THE SEVEN RECITERS 284
TABLE 4.4 TRANSMISSION OF THE TEN RECITERS 287
TABLE 4.5 COMPANIONS ENTRUSTED WITH WRITING DOWN THE QUR’AN 289
TABLE 4.6 COMPANIONS WHO MEMORISED THE QUR’AN COMPLETELY BY GROUP 290
TABLE 4.7 THE 114 CHAPTERS OF THE HOLY QUR’AN 304
TABLE 4.8 LIST OF THE GLORIOUS QUR’AN CHAPTERS ORGANISED BY TOPICS 309
TABLE 4.9 NOTABLE QUR’AN COMMENTATORS AND THEIR WORKS 320
TABLE 4.10 CHRONOLOGY OF PRINTING AND TRANSLATIONS OF THE QUR’AN 332
TABLE 4.11 AUTHENTIC HADITH COLLECTIONS AND THEIR SPECIFICATIONS 345
TABLE 4.12 CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS OF AUTHENTIC HADITH
COLLECTIONS 354

TABLE 5.1 SCHOLARS OF THE SCHOOLS OF JURISPRUDENCE 369

TABLE 5.2 SCHOOLS OF JURISPRUDENCE AND PREVALENT REGIONS 371
TABLE 5.3 THE FOUR SCHOOLS COMPARED AND CONTRASTED 373
TABLE 5.4 MINOR POINTS OF DIFFERENCE ON SOME ISSUES AMONG THE SCHOOLS 375
TABLE 5.5 PIONEERING MUSLIM UNIVERSITIES 399
TABLE 5.6 ERAS OF SCIENTIFIC ACHIEVEMENTS ACCORDING TO SARTON (1927) 403
TABLE 5.7 PIONEERING MUSLIM SCHOLARS AND THEIR FIELDS OF EXPERTISE 404
TABLE 5.8 TIMELINE OF KEY FIGURES IN ISLAMIC SCHOLARSHIP 412

TABLE 6.1 DISTRIBUTION OF THE MUSLIM POPULATION WORLDWIDE BY REGION (2009) 429
TABLE 6.2 COUNTRIES WITH SIGNIFICANT MUSLIM MINORITIES (2009) 430
TABLE 6.3 ISLAMIC EMPIRES AND DYNASTIES 438

TABLE 7.1 CHRONOLOGY OF NOTABLE MUSLIM WOMEN LEADERS IN CONTEMPORARY

HISTORY 447
TABLE 7.2 SHARE OF INHERITANCE 452

XIX
 ABBREVIATIONS

SWT - Subhanahu wa Ta'ala (Glory be to Him, used after mentioning Allah)

PBUH - Peace Be Upon Him (used after mentioning the Prophet Muhammad)

AS – Alayhis-Salam (Peace be upon him, used after mentioning Prophets other

than Prophet Muhammad (PBUH))

RA - Radhi Allahu Anhu/Anha (May Allah be pleased with him/her, used after

mentioning the companions of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH))

AH - After Hijrah (Islamic Calendar Notation)

HC - Hijri Calendar (Islamic Lunar Calendar)

CE - Common Era (equivalent to AD in secular contexts)

BC - Before Christ (used before the start of the Common Era)

AD - Anno Domini (In the year of our lord, used for years after the birth of Jesus

Christ in the Gregorian calendar)

XX
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 CHAPTER ONE
Introduction

The purpose of this work, Understanding Islam: An Exploration, is to provide a

comprehensive overview of Islam by drawing from the teachings of the Qur’an

and the Sunnah (Hadith: sayings and practices) of Prophet Muhammad, Peace

and Blessing of Allah be Upon him (PBUH). Islam, therefore, is submitting to

the Will of Allah by believing in Him and believing in Prophet Muhammad

(PBUH) as His Messenger; by observing Allah’s commandments and abstaining

from what He forbids (the do’s and don’ts) as they are outlined in the Qur’an

and Sunnah of the Prophet (PBUH) and as they are explained and interpreted

by Muslim scholars (Ulama) generation after generation. In order to properly

understand Islam as a whole, it is important to consider each of these five

components and their relationship with one another.

This work seeks to elaborate on each aspect, fostering a deeper understanding

of the religion for both Muslims and non-Muslims. By exploring the teachings

of the Qur'an and the Sunnah, readers can gain insight into the ideal way of

life that Islam presents, while acknowledging the imperfections that may arise

due to human fallibility. Additionally, this exploration aims to address any

misunderstandings or distortions surrounding Islam that may be prevalent in

society. By presenting a comprehensive and accurate portrayal of the religion,

the hope is to dispel misconceptions and promote a deeper understanding.

Within Islam, as Ibn Kathir (as cited in Al-Hajj Ahmad, 1431) elaborates, Allah

is acknowledged as the First and the Last, encompassing the qualities of Az-

Zahir and Al-Batin. His existence precedes everything, and nothing will come

2
after Him. Allah is Az-Zahir, with nothing above Him, and Al-Batin, with nothing

below Him. Eternally present with all His perfect attributes, Allah's knowledge

is profound and encompasses even the minutest details. He is aware of the

crawling of a black ant on a solid rock on a dark night, and His knowledge

extends to the exact number of grains of sand. As the Supreme Being, Allah is

Sublime and the Greatest, having created everything in perfect order and

balance. The grandeur of Allah's creation is evident in the heavens, which He

erected without any support. Celestial bodies such as the radiant sun and the

luminous moon adorn the heavens. On Earth, Allah has provided rivers and

streams for the benefit of animals, while majestic mountains stand as a

testament to His blessings. These provisions extend to nourishment and

sustenance for both humans and livestock, regardless of the season (Ibn Kathir,

as cited in Al-Hajj Ahmad: 1431 AH: 27).

This portrayal serves to highlight the magnificence of Allah as the Supreme

Being, emphasising His limitless knowledge, creation, and provisions for all

living beings. It intertwines with the comprehensive overview of Islam,

contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of the faith and its

fundamental principles.

1.1 About the Book: Insights into Islam

Understanding Islam: An Exploration delves into the essence of Islam,

beginning with an introductory overview of its fundamental principles and

practices. Central to this exploration is an in-depth examination of the Pillars

of Faith, shedding light on how these core beliefs intricately shape the daily

lives and spiritual journeys of Muslims. This foundation paves the way for a life

3
marked by devotion, righteousness, and a deep submission to Allah's divine

will.

The narrative then transitions to the historical emergence of key figures -

Prophets, philosophers, and scientists - who have significantly contributed to

humanity's ongoing quest to comprehend the divine essence of Allah, the

intricacies of the universe, and the human role within this cosmic framework.

The book also underscores the continuity of Islam, recognising it as an

extension of the teachings revealed in earlier religions. It emphasises that the

central tenets preached by Prophets across various faiths, including Christianity

and Judaism, converge on the belief in Allah and the importance of living a

righteous life.

Further, the text delves into the analysis of the Qur’an and Hadith, along with

the Ulama (Islamic scholars), including the Sahabah (Companions of the

Prophet (PBUH)), their followers, and subsequent scholars who have

significantly contributed to the evolution of Islamic jurisprudence. It also

dissects the various sources of Islamic law, encompassing the Qur’an, Hadith,

Ijma’ (consensus), Qiyas (analogical reasoning), and Istihsan (juristic

preference), and discusses the concept of Shari’ah, its objectives, and its

relevance in modern society.

The book further explores the historical progression and diversification of

Islamic jurisprudence, specifically focusing on the four major schools of thought

(Madhahib). It examines the pivotal role of Islamic scholarship, delineating the

various roles of scholars and their contributions across time. Additionally, it

offers insights into Muslim society from its inception to the present day,

discussing family dynamics within Islamic communities, the attributes of

4
successful Islamic propagators (da’iyas), and the consideration necessary for

the diverse conditions of their audience.

Addressing objections raised by non-Muslims, the book presents how Islamic

scholars have effectively responded to these challenges. The concluding

section invites reflection on the choice of embracing Islam, highlighting the

potential benefits of such a decision. Throughout, the book utilises esteemed

English translations of the Qur’an and Hadith, ensuring a thorough and

accessible understanding of their profound teachings. The selected

translations include:

1. "The Holy Qur'an: English Translation of the Meanings and

Commentary" by Abdullah Yusuf Ali (1934). This translation offers a

comprehensive commentary alongside the translation, providing valuable

insights and explanations.

2. "The Holy Qur'an: English Translation, Commentary, and Notes"

Revised Edition by Abdullah Yusuf Ali (1983).

3. "Translation of the Meaning of the Noble Qur'an into the English

Language" by Dr. Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din al-Hilali and Dr. Muhammad

Muhsin Khan (1988). This translation, produced by the King Fahd Glorious

Qur'an Printing Complex in al-Madinah al-Munawwarah, presents a faithful

rendition of the Qur'an's meanings.

4. "The Holy Qur'an: English Translation of the Meanings and

Commentary" by Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Revised and Edited by the Presidency

of Islamic Research, IFTA, Call and Guidance, King Fahd Glorious Qur'an

Printing Complex al-Madinah al-Munawwarah (1998). This revised edition

5
 of Abdullahi Yusuf Ali's translation incorporates further scholarly insights

and improvements.

5. "Explanation of the Meanings of the Noble Quran in the English

Language" (2020), translated by the Rowad Translation Centre and

published by the Islamic Propagation in Rabwah, Riyadh. This translation

offers a contemporary exploration of the meanings of the Noble Qur'an,

enhancing accessibility for modern readers.

Similarly, the book relies on accurate and contemporary English translations of

the eight authentic Hadith collections. These translations include:

1. Sahih Al-Bukhari, translated by Dr. Muhammad Muhsin Khan.

2. Sahih Muslim, translated by Nasiruddin al-Khattab.

3. Sahih Muslim, with full Commentary of Imam al-Nawawi translated

by Adil Salahi.

4. Sunan Abu Dawud, translated by Yasir Qadhi.

5. Jami’ at-Tirmidhi, translated by Abu Khaliyl.

6. Sunan An-Nasa’i, translated by Nasiruddin al-Khattab.

7. Sunan Ibn Majah, translated by Nasiruddin al-Khattab.

8. Al-Muwatta of Imam Malik, translated by Aisha Abdurrahman Bewley.

9. Musnad Imam Ibn Ahmad, translated by Nasiruddin al-Khattab.

These carefully selected translations provide a wide range of perspectives and

insights into the intricate teachings of the Qur’an and Sunnah, enabling readers

to delve into the profound wisdom and spiritual guidance contained within

these sacred texts.

6
1.2 Emergence of Figures of Knowledge

From the dawn of human existence, mankind has sought to better understand

the divine nature of Allah, the workings of the universe, our relationship with

nature, our role in the universe, and how to live in peace and harmony.

Throughout history, various figures of knowledge have emerged to address

these questions including Prophets, philosophers, and scientists. These figures

provided their own unique perspectives and solutions to the questions posed

based on their faith, observations, or research. Prophets sent by Allah, brought

forth the monotheistic religion of Islam (but coined as Judaism, Christianity,

and eventually Islam), while philosophers have historically contributed to the

advancement of human thought across various domains, including moral,

ethical, political, and scientific spheres. Their analytical approaches, critical

thinking, and innovative ideas have helped in shaping the way societies

understand and approach complex issues. Together, these figures have helped

shape the way we view and interact with the world.

1.2.1 Philosophers

The emergence of key figures in the development of human knowledge spans

across various civilisations and time periods before the advent of Islam in the

7th century AD. These individuals, hailing from diverse backgrounds and

specialising in different fields, have all had profound impacts on the

organisation of society and its progress. Their significant contributions are

summarised in Table 1, highlighting the range and depth of their influence

across various domains.

7
Table 1

Pioneers of Knowledge across Civilisations and their Contributions

Key Figure Years Civilization Significant

Contribution

Socrates 470-399 BC Ancient Greece Philosophy

Plato c. 427-347 BC Ancient Greece Philosophy

Aristotle 384-322 BC Ancient Greece Philosophy,

Science

Euclid Mid-4th century Ancient Greece Mathematics

BC

Archimedes C. 287-212 BC Ancient Greece Mathematics,

Physics

Hippocrates C. 460-370 BC Ancient Greece Medicine

Ptolemy C. 100-170 AD Roman Egypt Astronomy,

Geography

Confucius 551-479 BC Ancient China Philosophy, Ethics

Sun Tzu C. 544-496 BC Ancient China Military Strategy

Homer C. 8th century BC Ancient Greece Literature

Immanuel Kant 1724–1804 Königsberg, Philosophy

Prussia
Note. Compiled from Encyclopedia Britannica, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, and The
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (IEP).

1. Socrates, a foundational figure in Western philosophy, is known for his

contributions to ethics and epistemology. He introduced the Socratic

method, a form of argumentative dialogue that revolutionised education

and critical thinking by encouraging deep, systematic questioning to

understand complex ideas. This method not only stimulated debate and

personal reflection, but also laid the groundwork for modern logic and

8
 philosophy (Nails & Monoson, 2022). His teachings, encapsulated in his

famous assertion, “The unexamined life is not worth living,” shifted focus

from tangible to abstract concepts, significantly impacting Western thought

with a strong emphasis on ethics and morality (Vlastos, 1991). Socrates also

believed in the inherent goodness of humans and the importance of

recognising one’s ignorance, themes that continue to influence

philosophical and ethical discourse today.

2. Plato, a student of Socrates and a distinguished philosopher and

mathematician, deeply influenced Western political thought through his

seminal work, The Republic. In this text, he introduces the concept of the

"Philosopher King," suggesting that governance should be conducted by

those who are most knowledgeable and virtuous. Plato argues for a societal

structure where individuals are placed in roles suited for their knowledge

and aptitude - those more intelligent and knowledgeable should rule, while

those less knowledgeable should engage in different professions aligned

with their educational levels and aptitudes (Plato, 2003). He explores

themes such as justice, education, the soul, government, and the afterlife.

The dialogue addresses the central question of how to live a good life,

asking what an ideal state would be like and what defines a just individual.

Ultimately, the dialogue concludes with a review of different forms of

government and a description of the ideal state, where only philosophers

are fit to rule, thus shaping enduring ideas about democracy and

educational philosophy.

3. Aristotle was a student of Plato. His comprehensive work in various

disciplines significantly shaped Western intellectual tradition. His

philosophy emphasised empirical research and the importance of reason,

9
 which laid the groundwork for modern science and philosophy (Barnes,

2000). His contributions to biology, ethics, logic, metaphysics, and political

theory provided a comprehensive framework that influenced subsequent

developments in these fields for centuries.

4. Euclid, known as the "Father of Geometry,” fundamentally shaped modern

geometry through his work Elements. His systematic organisation of

geometric concepts and proofs profoundly influenced mathematical

thought and education (Gray & Ferreirós, 2021), establishing foundational

principles still taught today.

5. Archimedes, an influential mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and

astronomer, significantly advanced mathematics and engineering with his

discoveries (Toomer, 2024). His works had practical implications in

technology and engineering, impacting societal development in these

fields.

6. Hippocrates, often called the "Father of Medicine," is credited with

revolutionising the practice of medicine, establishing it as a discipline

distinct from other fields such as theurgy and philosophy, laying the

groundwork for medical ethics and practice (Jouanna, 1999), which

significantly improved healthcare and human well-being.

7. Ptolemy was a mathematician, astronomer, geographer, and astrologer. His

work in geography and the model of the solar system influenced scientific

thought for many centuries, impacting navigation, astronomy, and our

understanding of the cosmos (Toomer, 1998).

10
8. Confucius, a philosopher and politician, his teachings and philosophy,

emphasising ethics, family loyalty, and social harmony, have had a lasting

impact on societal organisation and governance in East Asia.

9. Sun Tzu, a military strategist, authored The Art of War, a treatise that

remains globally influential for its insights into military strategy, tactics, and

philosophy. His teachings have transcended military contexts to influence

modern strategies in business, leadership, and management across various

sectors.

10. Homer, although not a scientific figure, his epic poems, The Iliad, and The

Odyssey, are foundational works in Western literature and have greatly

influenced Western culture, shaping storytelling, literary themes, and

cultural values.

11. Immanuel Kant is renowned for his comprehensive and systematic work in

epistemology (the theory of knowledge), metaphysics, ethics, and

aesthetics. His critical philosophy, especially as articulated in works like the

Critique of Pure Reason, Critique of Practical Reason, and Critique of

Judgment, profoundly influenced various philosophical movements and

thinkers that followed (Guyer, 1992).

Other philosophers who came in the subsequent centuries included Jean-

Jacques Rousseau and Karl Marx. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a French

philosopher, placed emphasis on the freedom of the individual, proposing a

society in which people make and agree to their own laws in his influential

book, The Social Contract. His main idea can be summarised in the first line of

his social contract: “Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains.” In other

words, humans are naturally meant to be free and should not continue to bear

11
the “chains” of the government that exists everywhere (Rousseau, 1993).

People make the laws and agree to abide by them, unlike in monarchies where

laws are imposed. Rousseau’s ideas inspired the French Revolution of 1789 and

influenced the framing of the United States Constitution in 1787.

Karl Marx, a German philosopher, argued that history is moving inevitably

towards a purely economic goal, where the struggle between the industrial

workers and the owners will lead to a violent revolution in which the workers

will take over the control of the government and establish communism. In his

opinion, religion, which he viewed as a tool of oppression, would disappear.

People would live prosperous lives (Marx & Engels, 1848). His Communist

Manifesto, written in 1848, remains one of his most significant works. The ideas

of these philosophers have been integral in shaping the way mankind leads

their lives, and their works continue to be relevant and influential to this day.

There is no doubt that Marx’s ideas have had profound influence on the various

revolutions the world has seen since the French Revolution of 1789,

transforming the social and economic landscape of nations. The world has

changed drastically since then, providing an alternative to the previously

dominant capitalist system of production. In universities, academics are often

divided into leftists and rightists, radicals, and conservatives, each with a

different interpretation of world events. These differing perspectives stem from

varying ideas on how society should be organised and how power should be

distributed.

Academics hold different ideological positions, often rooted in either a left-

leaning or right-leaning political perspective. Leftists tend to emphasise social

and economic equality, while rightists focus more on individual responsibility

12
and freedom. Radicals challenge existing power structures, whereas

conservatives favour stability and tradition (Heywood, 2017). Each of these

positions frames the interpretation of current events, uniquely, leading to a

variety of perspectives.

Although the vision of Karl Marx for a socialist society has not been fully

realised, socialism has still impacted contemporary society. By advocating for

the rights and interests of the working class, socialist movements have forced

capitalists to alter their strategies for improving workers’ conditions, even if the

improvements are marginal. In the 20th century, several countries, including the

Soviet Union, China, Cuba, East Germany, Romania, Bulgaria, North Korea,

Poland, Hungary, Lao Peoples Democratic Republic, Vietnam, and Yugoslavia

adopted socialist systems. While many of these countries have transitioned

away from socialism, the influence of socialist principles can still be observed

in various forms, such as the welfare state implemented in countries like the

Nordic countries, Germany, the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia. Today,

liberal democracy stands as the predominant form of government, yet the

ideas of philosophers such as Karl Marx retain relevance in shaping societal

perspectives and offering potential solutions to contemporary problems.

These and many other philosophers have significantly contributed to the

development of human societies by shaping their moral, ethical, political, and

scientific thinking. Their philosophies have transcended cultural and temporal

boundaries, influencing various cultures and eras.

1.2.2 Prophets

Prophets, in contrast, are individuals chosen by Allah to convey His message

and guide humanity. Their role is not just to philosophise or speculate but to

13
deliver divine revelations and guidance, which are the ultimate source of truth

and moral law. Prophets are models of virtue and obedience to Allah, and their

lives and teachings are fundamental to the religious, ethical, and social fabric

of the societies that follow them.

This lineage of Prophethood begins with Adam and includes prominent figures

such as Nuh, Ibrahim, Musa, Dawood, Isa, and culminates with Muhammad

(PBUH). Their consistent message across time has been to affirm the oneness

of Allah, to worship Him exclusively, and to live a life of moral rectitude. This is

encapsulated in the Qur’anic verses: “Indeed, We sent to every community a

messenger, [saying], ‘Worship Allah and shun false gods’” (Qur'an 16:36), and

“O you who believe, bow down and prostrate, worship Your Lord and do good,

so that you may succeed” (Qur'an 22:77). These Prophets are revered for their

resolute commitment to spreading this divine message and their exemplary

lives, which serve as moral and spiritual guides for believers.

While philosophers contribute to human knowledge and societal development

through critical thinking and human reason, Prophets provide guidance

through divine revelation and serve as conduits for the divine will. The influence

of Prophets is universal and timeless, offering not just philosophical insights

but a comprehensive way of life that addresses the spiritual, moral, and social

needs of humanity.

In a word, philosophers, and Prophets have both profoundly influenced human

societies, albeit through markedly distinct avenues. Philosophers leverage the

tools of human reason and inquiry, delving into the depths of human thought

and experience. Their work often involves rigorous questioning and analytical

thinking, aiming to discern the nature of knowledge, reality, and existence.

14
Through their intellectual pursuits, philosophers contribute to the ongoing

evolution of human understanding, continually pushing the boundaries of our

comprehension of ourselves and the cosmos.

On the other hand, Prophets function as conduits of divine revelation,

delivering messages and guidance from Allah, the ultimate source of

knowledge. The teachings of Prophets are of divine origin, offering a holistic

and unerring framework for living a virtuous life, ensuring moral integrity in the

present world, and securing salvation in the hereafter. The content of prophetic

messages typically encompasses spiritual doctrines, ethical guidelines, and

predictions or warnings about the future.

Despite the significant contributions of both philosophers and Prophets, it is

important to recognise that they are not equal. Prophets are venerated as the

highest exemplars of human virtue and the ultimate authorities on spiritual and

moral matters. They are endowed with a unique, divine mandate and are

revered for their closeness to the divine. This reverence places them in a

distinct category, superior to that of philosophers, whose contributions, while

immensely valuable, are seen as the products of human intellect rather than

divine revelation. The Prophets are Messengers of Allah: “These messengers

were sent as bearers of glad tidings and as warners, so that the people may

have no excuse before Allah after [the coming of] the messengers. For Allah is

All-Mighty, All-Wise.” (Qur’an 4:165). This verse outlines the dual role of the

Prophets as bringers of glad tidings and as warners, ensuring that humanity is

well-informed and without excuse regarding the truth of Allah’s message.

Furthermore, Allah says:

15
 And We did not send any messenger except to be obeyed by

permission of Allah. And if, when they wronged themselves,

they had come to you, [O Muhammad], and asked forgiveness

of Allah and the Messenger had asked forgiveness for them,

they would have found Allah Accepting of Repentance and

Merciful (Qur’an 4:64).

This verse highlights the importance of obeying the Prophets, as they are sent

by Allah with His authority and guidance.

1.3 Continuation of Previous Religions

In any historical period, certain dominant evils were associated with certain

people. For example, in the time of Prophet Noah, people engaged in shirk

(polytheism); in the time of Lot, people were excessively engaged in sodomy:

And [remember] when Lot scolded [the men of] his people,

[saying], “Do you commit a shameful deed that no man has ever

done before? (Qur’an 7:80); You lust after men instead of

women! You are certainly transgressors” (Qur’an 7:81).

In the time of Shu’aib (Jethro), people were known to be cheats in business

dealings:

And to the people of Midian, We sent their brother Shu’aib. He

said, “O my people! Worship Allah- you have no other god

except Him. A clear proof has already come to you from your

Lord. So, give just measure and weight, do not defraud people

of their property, nor spread corruption in the land after it has

been set in order. This is for your own good if you are (truly)

believers (Qur’an 7:85).

16
In the time of Musa, there were individuals like Pharaoh who displayed

haughtiness, and Haman who showed obedience to kings while disobeying the

Creator (Al-Tabari, 1989). To combat these evils, Prophets preached against

them, warning people of the consequences of their actions. They endeavoured

to implement laws and regulations in society to ensure that their people were

abiding by the teachings of Allah. They worked to create an environment of

justice and mercy, where people could live in harmony and contentment.

Moreover, Prophets also aimed to educate their people, teaching them the

importance of morality, righteousness, and humility (Ibn Kathir, 2006). By doing

so, they tried to create a society where all could live in peace and security, free

from the influence of these evils:

We have not sent you [O Prophet] except as a mercy to the

worlds (Qur’an 21:107).

Ultimately, Allah revealed the final message of Islam, to serve as a

comprehensive guide for mankind on how to attain true happiness in this world

and the next. This message was a continuation of the previously revealed

messages through earlier Prophets and was intended to provide a lasting

solution to mankind’s problems. Through this message, Muslims can live in a

way that pleases Allah and brings them the greatest support. This message is

Islam, and its followers are Muslims.

Islam, thus, is not a new religion, but a continuation of the previously revealed

religions. From Adam, the first human and the first Prophet, to Prophet

Muhammad (PBUH), the last and final Prophet:

17
 Muhammad is not the father of any of your men, but (he is) the

Apostle of Allah, and the Seal of the Prophets: and Allah has full

knowledge of all things (Qur’an 33:40).

All the Prophets preached the same message: belief in Allah and associating

Him with none, do good and avoid evil. The religion is the same in essence

and originates from the same source. Allah says:

Say [O believers], “We believe in Allah and what has been sent

down to us; and what was sent down to Abraham, Ishmael,

Isaac, Jacob, and the descendants [of Jacob]; and what was

given to Moses and Jesus; and what was given to the Prophets

from their Lord. We make no distinction between any of them,

and to Him, we have submitted” (Qur’an 2:136).

The same religion has He established for you as that which He

enjoined on Noah and that which We enjoined on Abraham,

Moses, and Jesus: namely that you should remain steadfast in

Religion and make no divisions therein (Qur’an 42:13).

The religion is Islam:

And Abraham instructed his sons [to do the same] and [so did]

Jacob, [saying], "O my sons, indeed Allah has chosen for you

this religion, so do not die except while you are Muslims". (✶)

Or were you witnesses when death approached Jacob, when he

said to his sons, "What will you worship after me?" They said,

"We will worship your God and the God of your fathers,

Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac - one God. And we are Muslims

[in submission] to Him” (✶) (Qur’an 2: 132-33).

18
 But when Jesus felt [persistence in] disbelief from them, he said,

"Who are my supporters for [the cause of] Allah?" The disciples

said, "We are supporters for Allah. We have believed in Allah

and testify that we are Muslims [submitting to Him] (Qur’an

3:52).

Moses said: My people, if you believe in Allah (God), then rely

on Him if you are Muslims (Qur'an 10: 84).

The Messengers succeeded one another and confirmed what came before

them:

And in their footsteps, We sent Jesus, son of Marry, confirming

the Torah that had come before him, and We gave him the

Gospel, in which was guidance and light and confirmation of the

Torah that had come before it, a guidance and an admonition

for pious and righteous persons who fear Allah much [abstain

from all kinds of sins and evil deeds which He has forbidden]

and love Allah much [perform all kinds of good deeds which He

has ordained] (Qur’an 5:46).

In the same vein, Allah says in narrating the story of Prophet Yusuf (AS), who

said:

Verily, I have abandoned the ways of a people that believe not

in Allah and are disbelievers in the hereafter. (✶) And I follow

the ways of my fathers, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; and never

could we attribute any partners whatsoever to Allah. This is from

the Grace of Allah to us and to mankind, yet most men thank

not” (✶) (Qur’an 12:37-8).

19
The revelation of the message continued until it came to Prophet Muhammad

(PBUH) as Allah says in the Qur’an:

“Then We revealed to you, [O Muhammad], to follow the

religion of Abraham, inclining toward truth; and he was not of

those who associate with Allah” (Qur’an 16:123).

It is evident, therefore, that the core essence of all the divine revelations

conveyed by the preceding Prophets was fundamentally the same in the

foundation, emphasising the vital principle of submission to and worship of the

singular true God. The ultimate message delivered by Prophet Muhammad

(PBUH), encapsulated within the Qur'an, encompassed all the uncorrupted

divine messages sent by Allah, identifying them as Islam and their adherents

as Muslims. The designations of Judaism and Christianity, for instance, were

not specifically assigned by Allah Himself or acknowledged by Him for the

messages brought by Musa (AS) and Isa (AS), but rather coined by humans.

The use of such terms is solely for the sake of convenience and enhanced

comprehension of the issues being discussed.

It is observed that almost all the revealed religions emerged in the Middle East.

Similarly, most of the Prophets were Israelites sent to their particular people.

Europeans accepted Christianity from the Middle East; Jews accepted Judaism

from the Middle East; and Muslims accepted Islam from the Middle East. A

Muslim cannot be a true Muslim without believing in all the Messengers of

Allah, notably Adam, Nuh, Ibrahim, Musa, and Isa. One may ask, if Muslims

believe in Jesus, why don't they accept Christianity as the true religion?

Another may ask, “Why don’t Muslims accept Judaism since it came from

Prophet Musa?” The answer to these questions lies in the fact that although

20
Muslims believe in the Prophets who came before Prophet Muhammad (PBUH),

they do not believe in the alterations that have been made to their teachings

over time. Muslims believe that the original revelations given to each Prophet

were pure and unadulterated, but the teachings have been changed and

distorted by human beings over time. Thus, while Muslims may accept the

teachings of Musa and Isa, they do not accept the practices and beliefs that

have been altered by subsequent generations. Muslims adhere to the

teachings of the Qur’an, which they believe to be the final, unaltered revelation

given to mankind by Allah through His final Prophet, Muhammad (PBUH).

Furthermore, all the Prophets were sent only to their respective people:

We did not send any messenger but in the language of his

people to make things clear for them. Allah causes to stray

whom He wills and guides whom He wills, and He is the All-

Mighty, the All-Wise (Qur’an 14:4).

Muslims believe in those Prophets and the messages they brought but can only

act on the message sent to them through Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Muslims

believe in Musa and Isa as well as all the other Messengers (mentioned in the

Qur’an) as true Prophets of Allah who were sent to their respective peoples to

guide them to the right path, the path of Islam –– submission to the will of

Allah. Allah says:

Say (O Muhammad PBUH): “We believe in Allah and in what has

been sent down to us and what was sent down to Abraham,

Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and the Descendant of Jacob and what

was given to Moses, Jesus, and the Prophets from their Lord.

21
 We make no distinction between any of them and to Him (Allah)

we have submitted” (Qur’an 3:84).

Both Musa and Isa (AS) were chosen Prophets who conveyed divine messages

to their respective communities. The revelations they received, known as At-

Taurah (the Torah) and Injeel (the Gospel), were specifically intended for the

Israelites, addressing their unique historical and spiritual context. It is important

to recognise that these revelations were not universally intended for all of

humanity at that time. However, certain core teachings of these Messengers of

Allah, such as belief in Allah and associating Him with none, doing good deeds

and avoiding evil, have been incorporated and perfected in the message

brought by Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), Islam. Islam has updated and refined

certain religious practices from the teachings of Musa and Isa (AS), such as

marriage, prayer with bowing and prostration, Hajj (pilgrimage), Saum (fasting

of Ramadan), Zakat (alms giving), and societal laws. As such, Islam is the

culmination of the Abrahamic religions, offering an ideal way of life for all

mankind, not just the Israelites. And in the process, other previous practices

were blotted out, while others were retained as Allah (S.W.T) deemed fit and

as stipulated in the Qur’an, thus:

It was not for any messenger to bring a sign except with Allah’s

permission. Every matter has a destined time (Qur’an 13:38);

Allah eliminates what He wills or affirms it, and with Him is the

Master Book (Qur’an 13:39).

Thus, Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) was the last in the line of Prophets, following

Prophets Musa and Isa (AS). Islam therefore became ordained for all people

and for all nations from the time it was revealed until the Day of Judgement.

22
Musa (AS) foretold the coming of Jesus (AS), just as Jesus foretold the coming

of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). This is a testament to the continuity of the

message of truth from Allah, through His chosen Prophets:

And remember, Jesus, the son of Marry, said: “O Children of

Israel! I am the apostle of Allah (sent) to you, confirming the Law

(which came) before me, of the Torah, and giving Glad Tidings

of an Apostle to come after me, whose name shall be Ahmad.”

But when he came to them with Clear Signs, they said, “This is

evident sorcery!” (Qur’an 61:6).

Some Christians and Jews were aware of the coming of Prophet Muhammad

(PBUH), and when he came, they recognised him, but then refused to tell the

truth as Allah says:

Those to whom We have given the Scripture (Jews and

Christians) recognise him (i.e., Muhammad PBUH as a

Messenger of Allah and they also know that there is no God, but

Allah and Islam is Allah’s Religion), as they recognise their own

sons (Qur’an 6:20).

O people of the Scripture (Jews and Christians): “Why do you

disbelieve in the Ayaat (Books of Allah, while you (yourselves)

bear witness (to their truth).” (✶) O people of the Scripture (Jews

and Christians): Why do you mix truth with falsehood and

conceal the truth while you know?” (✶) (Qur’an 3:70-1).

Verily, those who concealed the clear Proofs, Evidence and

Guidance, which We have sent down, after We have made it

23
 clear for people in the Book, they are the ones cursed by Allah

and cursed by the cursers (Qur’an 2:159).

Truly, the religion in the Sight of Allah is Islam. Those who were

given the Scripture (Jews and Christians) did not differ except

after knowledge had come to them through jealousy and

transgression among themselves. And whoever disbelieves in

the Al –Ayaat (proofs, evidence, verses, lessons, signs,

revelation, etc.) of Allah, then surely, Allah is Swift in calling to

Account (Qur’an 3:19).

However, as for those who accepted the Prophet (PBUH) among the people

of the Scripture, Allah says:

Those who follow the Messenger, the Prophet who can neither

read nor write (i.e., Muhammad PBUH) whom they find written

with them in Torah (Deut, xviii, 15) and the Gospel (John xiv, 16);

–– he commands them for the Ma‘ruf (i.e., Islamic Monotheism

and all that is good), and forbids them from the Munkar (i.e.,

Polytheism of all kinds, and all that is evil and bad), he allows

them as lawful At–Tayyibaat (what is good) and prohibits them

as unlawful Al–Khabaa’ith (what is not good), he releases them

from their heavy burdens (of Allah’s Covenant), and from the

fetters (bindings) that were upon them. So those who believe in

him (Muhammad PBUH), honour him, help him, and follow the

light (this Qur’an) which has been sent down with him, it is they

who will be successful (Qur’an 7:157).

24
When the Prophet (PBUH) was harbouring concern about the message, Allah

strengthens him:

So, if you are in doubt, [O Muhammad], about that which We

have revealed to you, then ask those who have been reading

the Scripture before you. The truth has certainly come to you

from your Lord, so never be among the doubters (Qur’an 10:94).

Though some Christians and others may see this as illogical for the evidence

comes from the Qur’an, this evidence is available in the Bible:

I will raise them up a Prophet from among their brethren, like

unto thee; and I will put my word in his mouth (Deuteronomy:

Chapter 18, verse 15-18). It is expedient for you that I go away,

for if I go not away the comforter will not come unto you, but if

I depart, I will send him unto you (John, Chapter 16, Verse 7).

Describing Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) further, Jesus said:

“However, when He, the Spirit of Truth, is come, He will guide

you into all truth; for He shall not speak from Himself, but

whatsoever He shall hear, that shall He speak; and He will show

you things to come” (John, Chapter 16, Verse 13).

It is evident that in the context of history and the textual narrations, all these

refer to none other than Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Still, some may contend

that how can Muslims tell them that they know the Bible more than they? This

is a reasonable question, but when the injunction in the Bible is critically

examined it is difficult to deny that Jesus has indeed foretold the coming of

Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Some Christians may say, “Alright, we agree in

principle that Jesus has said a comforter would come after him, but why should

25
it be Muhammad and not the Holy Spirit?” The answer here is that Jesus has

said that this comforter would glorify him (Jesus), and so far, there has not been

any one or Prophet after Jesus who has so thoroughly and accurately glorified

Jesus and explained his miracles as Muhammad (PBUH) did. The Qur’an

testifies to this, first about his mother, his miraculous birth, and his own

miracles:

(Remember) when the wife of Imran said: “O my Lord! I have

vowed to You what is in my womb to be dedicated for Your

special services (free from all worldly work to serve Your place of

worship); so, accept (this) from me. Verily, You are the All –

Hearer, and All – Knower.” (✶) Then when she delivered it

(Mary), she said: “O my Lord! I deliver it as a female child, ––

and Allah knew better what She delivered. –– And the male is

not like the female, and I have named her Mary, and I seek

refuge with You (Allah) for her and for her off – spring from the

outcast Satan.” (✶) So, her Lord accepted her with goodly

acceptance. He made her grow in a good manner and put her

under the care of Zachariah. Every time he entered (her)

chamber, he found her supplied with sustenance. He said: “O

Mary! From where have you got this?” She said: “From Allah,”

Verily Allah provides sustenance to whom He will without

counting” (✶) (Qur’an 2:35-7).1

1
Mary literally means Maid – servant of Allah.

26
 And (remember) when the angels said: “O Mary! Allah chose

you, purified you (from polytheism and disbelief) and chose you

above the women of all nations (in her lifetime) (Qur’an 3:42).

(Remember) when the angels said: “O Mary! Verily, Allah gives

you glad tidings of a Word (Be: And it was i.e., Jesus the son of

Mary) from Him, his name will be Messiah Jesus, the son of Mary,

held in honour in this world and in the Hereafter, and of those

who are near to Allah” (Qur’an 3:45).

She said: “O my Lord! How shall I have a son when no man has

touched me.” He said: “So (it will be), for Allah creates what He

will. When He decreed something, He says to it only “Be” and

it is (Qur’an 3:47).

And He (Allah) will teach him (Jesus) the Book and Wisdom,

Torah, and the Gospel. (✶) And will make him (Jesus) a

Messenger to the Children of Israel (saying): “I have come to

you with a Sign from your Lord, that I design for you out of clay

as it were, the figure of a bird, and breathe into it and it becomes

a bird by Allah’s leave; and I heal him who was born blind and

the leper, and I bring the dead to life by Allah’s leave. And I

declare to you what you have eaten and what you have stored

in your houses. Surely, therein is a Sign for you if you believe.”

(✶) (Qur’an 3:48-49).

The Prophet (PBUH) says:

Both in this world and in the Hereafter, I am the nearest of all

the people to Jesus, the son of Mary. The Prophets are paternal

27
 brothers; their mothers are different, but their religion is one

(Sahih Al-Bukhari: 652).

It is not surprising, therefore, when the former Bishop of Uramaih (later Abdul-

Ahad Dawood) observed:

I am convinced that the only way to understand the sense and

the spirit of the Bible is to study it from Islamic point of view. It

is only then that the real nature of the Divine Revelation can be

understood, appreciated, and loved. It is only then, too, that the

spurious, the false, and the heterogeneous elements

interpolated in it can be discovered in their blackest features

and eliminated (Dawood, 1980: 148).

All this notwithstanding, some Christians may say well, the Qur’an has glorified

both Mary and Jesus, but the basic omission is that the Qur’an does not see

Jesus as God or Son of God and that is the crux of the matter. The Qur'an says:

They say, “The Most Compassionate has begotten a son.” (✶)

You have made a monstrous statement, (✶) at which the heavens

are about to be torn apart, the earth split asunder, and the

mountains tumble down (✶) because they have ascribed to the

Most Compassionate a son. (✶) It is not appropriate for the Most

Compassionate to beget a son. (✶) There is none in the heavens

and earth except that he will come to the Most Compassionate

in full submission. (✶) He has counted them and numbered them

precisely. (✶) Each one of them will come to Him on the Day of

Resurrection all alone. (✶) Those who believe and do righteous

28
 deeds, the Most Compassionate will endear them [to His

creation] (✶) (Qur’an 19:88-96).

Surely, they have disbelieved who say: "Allah is the Messiah

(Jesus), son of Mary." But the Messiah (Jesus) said: "O Children

of Israel! Worship Allah, my Lord and your Lord." Verily,

whosoever sets up partners in worship with Allah, then Allah has

forbidden Paradise for him, and the Fire will be his abode. And

for the Zalimun (polytheists and wrongdoers) there are no

helpers (Qur’an 5:72).

It is important to note that not all Christians believe in the divinity of Jesus

Christ. In 1984, a survey conducted among England's Anglican Bishops

discovered that more than half of them said: "Christians are not obliged to

believe that Jesus Christ was God" (Hastings, 1986). Elaborating further, they

agreed that it was sufficient to regard Jesus as God's Supreme Agent, also

known as the Messenger of God (see Appendix III). This notwithstanding, some

Christians may argue that the Qur'an does not believe in the Trinity, consisting

of God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. They claim that without

accepting the Trinitarian doctrine, the Qur'an misses one of the cardinal

principles of Christianity. However, it is important to note that the acceptance

of the Trinity is not a necessary component of the Christian faith. In fact, there

are many Christians who do not accept the Trinity, but still firmly believe in

Jesus as God’s Supreme Agent (Ehrman, 2014). This is so, for the Qur'an has

unequivocally stated:

They have certainly disbelieved, those who say, “Allah is one of

Three.” None has the right to be worshiped except One God. If

29
 they do not desist from saying this, those who disbelieve from

among them will be afflicted with a painful punishment. (✶) Why

do they not turn to Allah in repentance and seek His

forgiveness? For Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful. (✶) The

Messiah, son of Mary, was no more than a messenger. There

were messengers who passed away before him, and His mother

was a woman of truth; they both ate food. See how We make

Our signs clear to them yet see how they are deluded! (✶)

(Qur’an 5:73-75).

Similarly, the Qur'an has rejected the crucifixion of Jesus, invalidating the entire

purpose of his coming for Christians who believe that Jesus died in order to

save them from their sins. The Qur'an says:

And because of their saying (in boast), "We killed Messiah ‘Isa

(Jesus), son of Maryam (Mary), the Messenger of Allah," - but

they killed him not, nor crucified him, but it appeared so to them

[the resemblance of ‘Isa (Jesus) was put over another man (and

they killed that man)], and those who differ therein are full of

doubts. They have no (certain) knowledge, they follow nothing

but conjecture. For surely, they killed him not [i.e., ‘Isa (Jesus),

son of Maryam (Mary) (Qur’an 4:157).

Interestingly, the Bible does not contain a single explicit statement where Jesus

unequivocally declares, “I am God, worship me.” This observation highlights

the subtle understanding of Jesus’ divinity within Christian theology.

However, it is important to state that there is no need for comparison between

Islam and Christianity with the aim of making the latter inferior. Both religions,

30
as indicated earlier, originate from the same source, with a shared mission to

guide humanity:

“Say, ‘O people of the Book, come to a common term between

us and you, that we worship none but Allah and associate no

partners with Him, and that we do not take one another as lords

besides Allah.’ But if they turn away, say, ‘Bear witness that we

are Muslims [submitting to Allah]’” (Qur’an 3:64).

Islam, being the final revelation, built upon and encompassed teachings from

previous religions. It succeeded Christianity, as Christianity succeeded

Judaism. As Islam emerged as the culmination of these earlier faiths, certain

laws and practices were abrogated while others were retained:

“Whatever Verse (revelation) do We abrogate or cause to be

forgotten, but We bring a better one or similar to it. Know you

not that Allah is able to do all things?” (Qur’an 2:106).

Despite the refusal of the Jews and Christians to accept Prophet Muhammad

(PBUH) and his message, Islam addresses them as the people of the Book

and allows eating their food, and marrying pious women among them:

Today all good things have been made lawful to you. As the

food of the people of the Book is lawful to you, and your food

is lawful to them. And [it is lawful to marry] chaste believing

women and chaste women from among those who were given

the Book before you, provided that you give them their dowries

in honest wedlock, neither fornicating nor taking them as secret

lovers. Whoever rejects the faith, all his efforts will be worthless

and, in the Hereafter, he will be among the losers (Qur’an 5:5).

31
In addition, they are to be treated with respect as long as they do not show

enmity to Islam. Allah is Merciful, and He grants those whom He wishes well to

see the truth of the Prophet’s (PBUH) teachings, and come to accept Islam:

Do not argue with the People of the Book except in the best

manner, unless with those of them who transgress [against you].

And say, “We believe in what is sent down to us and what was

sent down to you, and our God and your God is One, and to

Him we submit” (Qur’an 29: 46).

Every Prophet has been sent to his own people in their own language and with

miracle to convince his people of his message, but some believed, and many

did not. Allah says:

For We assuredly sent amongst every people an apostle, (With

the Command), “Serve Allah, and eschew Evil” (Qur’an 16:36).

And We sent not a Messenger except with the language of his

people, in order that he might make (the message) clear for

them (Qur’an 14:4).

In the time of Musa, his people were famous for their sorcery and

craftsmanship. Yet, even their combined skills were no match for the miracle

that Musa was given. His miracle was a stick of wood that changed into a huge

snake and devoured all the ropes of the sorcerers. This incredible display of

power convinced people that Musa was not working with human abilities, but

with a miracle from Allah. Elaborating on this issue, the Qur’an says:

When Moses had completed the term and was travelling with

his family, he spotted a fire in the direction of Mount Tur. He said

to his family, “Stay here; I have spotted a fire. Perhaps I will bring

32
you from there some news or a brand of fire so that you may

warm yourselves” (✶) But when he came to it, he was called

from the tree in the sacred ground on the right side of the valley:

“O Moses, I am Allah, the Lord of the worlds. (✶) Throw down

your staff.” But when he saw it slithering as if it were a snake, he

turned and ran away without looking back. [Allah said], “O

Moses, come back, and have no fear; you are perfectly safe. (✶)

Put your hand into your garment, it will come out shining white

without blemish; and draw your arms tight to you to calm your

fear. These are two proofs from your Lord to Pharaoh and his

chiefs, for they are indeed a rebellious people”. (✶) Moses said,

“My Lord, I have killed one of their men, and I fear that they may

kill me. (✶) My brother Aaron is more eloquent than me in

speech, so send him with me as a helper to confirm my words,

for I fear that they may reject me (✶) Allah said, “We will

strengthen you through your brother and give you both power,

so they cannot harm you. With Our signs, you and your followers

will prevail” (✶) When Moses came to them with Our clear signs,

they said, “This is nothing but fabricated magic; we have not

heard of this from our earlier ancestors”. (✶) Moses said, “My

Lord knows best who has come with guidance from Him and

who will have the best abode in the end. The wrongdoers will

never succeed”. (✶) Pharaoh said, “O chiefs, I do not know for

you any god other than myself. So, bake for me bricks out of

clay, O Haman, and build for me a tower so that I may have a

look at the God of Moses, for I think he is a liar”. (✶) He and his

33
 soldiers were arrogant in the land without any right and thought

that they would not be brought back to Us. (✶) So, We seized

him and his soldiers and flung them into the sea. See how was

the end of the wrongdoers! (✶) (Qur’an 28: 29-40).

As for Jesus, his people were distinguished in medical practice. Thus, Allah

gave him the miracle of curing the sick, healing the dumb and the leprous, and

reviving the dead with Allah’s permission, something that medical professionals

of the time could not possibly achieve (see Bible, John 11:1-44). Through these

miracles, they were made aware that Jesus was bestowed with knowledge

beyond human understanding, granted by Allah. In contrast, the miracle of

Muhammad (PBUH) was the Qur’an, serving as a living testimony. While the

miracles of the previous Messengers were confined to specific historical

periods and ended with their death, the miracle of Muhammad (PBUH) has

endured, as he was the last and final Messenger and the Qur’an the last and

final testament of Allah, standing the test of time:

Muhammad is not the father of any of your men, but is the

Messenger of Allah and the seal of the Prophets. And Allah has

(perfect) knowledge of all things (Qur’an 33:40).

What distinguishes Islam from previous religions is its holistic approach to the

teachings and the messages of previous Prophets. By omitting some

injunctions and adding new ones, Islam provides mankind with a

comprehensive moral code of conduct to guide them through the ages, from

the 7th century AD until the last day. Moreover, unlike previous Prophets who

were sent to particular people, Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) was sent to the

entire human race, making Islam an all-encompassing faith:

34
 We have sent you [O Prophet] only as a deliverer of good news

and a warner to all of humanity, but most people do not know

(Qur’an 34:28).

Say (O Muhammad PBUH): “O mankind! Verily, I am the

Messenger of Allah (sent) unto you all – to whom belongs the

dominion of the heavens and the earth. There is none who has

the right to be worshipped but He (Laa ilaaha illaa Huwa) It is He

Who gives life and causes death. So, believe in Allah and His

Messenger (Muhammad PBUH), the Prophet who can neither

read nor write (i.e., Muhammad PBUH) who believes in Allah and

His Words (this Qur’an, the Torah, and the Gospel); follow him

so that you may be guided” (Qur’an 7:158).

Comparing himself with the previous Messengers, the Prophet (PBUH) says:

My similitude in comparison with the other Prophets before me,

is that of a man who has built a house nicely and beautifully,

except for a place of one brick in a corner. The people went

round about it and wondered at its beauty and said: “Would

that this brick be put in its place!” So I am that brick, and I am

the last (end) of the Prophets (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 735).

The religion now perfected, completed, and named Islam:

35
 This day, I have perfected your religion for you, completed My

favour upon you and have chosen for you Islam as your religion

(Qur’an 5:3).2

Islam, as the final and complete revelation from Allah, is a comprehensive and

universal religion that addresses the needs of all people, across all generations,

and in all places. Allah, the Creator, Knows the needs of human beings and

chose Islam as the perfect religion to guide them. Consequently, no religion

other than Islam is acceptable to Allah, provided it is communicated in its

entirety. Since Islam is a perfect religion, there is no need for any addition or

subtraction from it, it is complete and effective as it is. In choosing Islam as the

one true religion, Allah has ensured that it meets the needs of all people,

regardless of time or place:

And whoever seeks a religion other than Islam, it will never be

accepted of him, and in the Hereafter, he will be one of the

losers (Qur’an 3:85).

The religion, furthermore, will supersede all other religions:

It is He Who has sent His Messenger (Muhammad PBUH) with

Guidance and the Religion of Truth (Islam), to make it superior

over all religions even though the “Al – Mushrikun” (polytheists,

pagan idolaters and disbelievers in the Oneness of Allah and His

Messenger Muhammad PBUH) hate (it) (Qur’an 9:33).

In this regard, the role of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) as the seal of all the

Prophets is of utmost importance, as it affirms that no other Prophet will come

2
This verse was revealed on Arafah day (on Friday) during the last Hajj of the Prophet (PBUH). See Sahih Al-
Bukhari, Vol. 6, Hadith No. 130, and Sahih Muslim in the Book of Tafsir. After this, the Prophet lived for only 81
days before his death. See M. M. Shinqeedy (1412, p. 7).

36
after him. Islam serves as a complete way of life, guiding believers in every

aspect of their existence, be it private, public, spiritual, political, or related to

service to Allah and human progress. All aspects necessary for understanding

one’s relationship with Allah, other individuals, society, animals, plants, and

nature have been explained with clarity and detail in the teachings of the

Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Prophet (PBUH). These teachings enable Muslims

to distinguish between what is lawful and unlawful, providing them with the

opportunity to live a life of balance and piety and to strive for success here and

in the hereafter. It has explained what is lawful and unlawful:

And We have sent down to you the Book explaining all things,

a guide a Mercy, and glad tidings to Muslims (Qur’an 16:89).

Everything has been explained in the Qur’an: basic principles of life and

guidance for happiness in this world and the hereafter. It has explained life in

the next world. Despite all this, embracing the religion is not compulsory:

There is no compulsion in religion. Verily, the right path has

become distinct from the wrong path” (Qur’an 2:256).

Verily, proofs have come to you from your Lord, so whosoever

sees will do so for (the good of) his own soul, and whosoever

blinds himself will do so to his own harm, and I (Muhammad

PBUH) am not a watcher over you (Qur’an 6:104).

Against this background, the remainder of the book will delve into other

components and fundamental aspects of Islam that are essential for a

comprehensive understanding of the religion. These aspects encompass the

following:

37
1.4 The Belief System

The belief system is the foundation of the Islamic faith, providing the

fundamental principles upon which Muslims base their understanding and

practice of Islam. It encompasses a comprehensive set of core beliefs, including

the belief in the Oneness of Allah (Tawheed), the Prophets, and the Day of

Judgment. At its essence, the belief system in Islam transcends mere

intellectual concepts; it serves as the guiding framework that shapes a Muslim's

worldview, moral compass, and spiritual journey. It lays the groundwork for a

deep connection with Allah, a profound sense of purpose, and a commitment

to living a righteous life in accordance with Islamic teachings.

1.5 Commandments of Allah

Observing Allah’s Commandments and abstaining from what He forbids is the

way to submit to the divine will of Allah. The Qur’an and Sunnah of the Prophet

(PBUH) provide guidance on how to obey these commandments, and Islamic

scholars (Ulama) explain and interpret them for the faithful (Al-Qardawi, 1999).

The commands and prohibitions of Allah are the basis for the moral and ethical

code of Islam, which is an integral part of the faith. Part of the commandments

are the five fundamentals of the religion: Ibn 'Umar narrated that Allah's

Messenger (PBUH) said: Islam is based on five principles: To testify that none

has the right to be worshipped but Allah and that Muhammad is the Messenger

of Allah; to perform the prayers; to pay Zakat; to perform pilgrimage to

Makkah; and to fast according to Islamic teachings during the month of

Ramadan (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 50).

38
1.6 The Qur’an and Hadith

The Qur’an and Hadith are the primary sources of Islamic law and teachings.

They provide the foundation for understanding Islamic beliefs and practices. It

is important to note that the interpretation of these sources is left to the Ulama.

Therefore, understanding of Islamic law and teachings is based on the

interpretation of the Ulama, who are the guardians of the Islamic faith.

1.7 The Place of Islamic Scholars

The Ulama are the interpreters and guardians of the Islamic faith. They explain

and interpret the Qur’an and Sunnah for the faithful and are responsible for

providing guidance and judgements on various matters (Al-Qardawi, 1999).

Thus, the Ulama are integral for understanding Islam, as their interpretations

and judgements are what shape the way Islam is practiced. In a word, they are

the successors of the Prophets. Abu al-Darda’ said: The Messenger of Allah

(PBUH) said, “The scholars are the inheritors of the Prophets. Verily, the

Prophets do not pass on gold and silver coins, but rather they only impart

knowledge” (Sunan Abu Dawud: 3641).3

These components of Islam are interconnected and not mutually exclusive, as

the belief system and observing Allah’s Commandments overlap. While some

aspects of the belief system are evident through actions, there are other

categorisations of these components. One classification proposed by some

Islamic scholars is the division of Islam into worship (Ibadat) and dealings

(Mu’amalat). This classification aligns with the viewpoint of renowned Islamic

scholar Ibn Taymiyyah, who emphasised that people’s sayings and actions can

be divided into two types. The first type includes acts of worship that establish

3
Jam’i at-Tirmidhi, 2,606. [Related by: Abu Dawud, Nasa’i, Ibn Majah, Ahmad, Ibn Hibban, and others].

39
religion. While the second type comprises customary practices necessary for

day-to-day living (Qardawi, 1999), such as marriage, business, and politics.

Other scholars have categorised the components into creed, worship, moral

behaviour, and law, while others still see it as beliefs, worship, and relationships

that touch on political, economic, and social aspects of life. While our

categorisation may differ in structure, it shares the same content but is

approached from a different angle. The purpose of all these categorisations is

to simplify the understanding of Islam. In the subsequent chapters of this book,

our categorisation will be explained in detail. Before delving into that, the

following verses, briefly indicate the essence of Islam:

O you that are true believers, kneel and prostrate yourselves.

Worship your Lord and do good, so that you may triumph. (✶)

Strive for the cause of Allah with devotion due to Him. He has

chosen you and laid on you no burdens in the observance of

your faith, the faith of Ibrahim your father. He (Allah) has given

you the name Muslims before and in this (Qur'an) so that His

Apostle may be a witness for you, and that you yourselves may

be witnesses for your fellow--men. Therefore, attend to your

prayers and pay the alms--tax and hold fast to Allah, for He is

your Guardian. A gracious Guardian and a gracious Helper. (✶)

(Qur’an 22:77-8).

Say, ‘Indeed, my prayer, my sacrifice, my living, and my dying

are all for Allah, Lord of the worlds’ (Qur’an 6:162).

40
 We have sent down to you the Book as an explanation of

everything, and as a guidance, mercy, and glad tidings for the

Muslims (Qur’an 16:89).

Summing up, Abu Hurairah (RA) narrated a story that illustrates the essence of

Islam, faith, and righteousness (Al-Ihsan):

The Messenger of Allah (PBUH), said: 'Ask me.' But we were too

intimidated to ask him. Then a man came and sat at his knees

and said: 'O Messenger of Allah, what is Islam?' He said: 'To not

associate anything with Allah, to establish the Salat, to pay the

Zakat, and to observe fast (the month of) Ramadan.' He said:

'You have spoken the truth.' He said: 'O Messenger of Allah,

what is faith?' The Messenger of Allah said: 'To believe in Allah,

His Angels, His Book, the meeting with Him, and His

Messengers, and to believe in the Resurrection, and to believe

in Al-Qadar (the divine decree), all of it.' He said: 'You have

spoken the truth.' He said: 'O Messenger of Allah, what is Al-

Ihsan?' He said: 'To fear Allah as though you can see Him, for

although you cannot see Him, He indeed sees you.' He said:

'You have spoken the truth.' He said: 'O Messenger of Allah,

when will the Hour begin?' He said: 'The one who is asked about

it does not know more than the one who is asking. But I shall tell

you of its portents: When you see a woman giving birth to her

master, that is one of its portents. When you see the barefoot,

naked, deaf, and dumb ruling the earth, that is one of its

portents. When you see the herders of sheep competing in the

construction of lofty buildings, that is one of its portents. (It is)

41
 among five things which no one knows except Allah.' Then he

recited:

Verily, Allah, with Him (Alone) is the knowledge of the Hour, He

sends down the rain, and knows that which is in the wombs. No

person knows what he will earn tomorrow, and no person knows

in what land he will die. Verily, Allah is All-Knower, All-Aware (of

things) (Qur'an 31:34).

He said: "Then the man stood up (and left), and the Messenger of Allah (PBUH)

said: 'Bring him back to me.' They looked, but they could not find him. The

Messenger of Allah (PBUH) said: 'That was Jibril, who wanted to teach you since

you did not ask” (Sahih Al-Bukhari, 2:47).

42
 CHAPTER TWO

The Belief System: Fundamentals of Religion

The belief system in Islam, known as Iman in Arabic, encompasses faith and

conviction in the core principles of Islam. These are the existence and unity of

Allah. Believing in Allah entails believing in His Existence and Oneness, as the

Lord of the Universe, Its Creator and Sustainer), the Only One Who deserves

to be worshipped, and in His Names and Attributes as they are mentioned in

the Qur’an and authentic Hadith. Iman also entails the existence of Angels as

His creations, and the truth of the divine Books sent by Allah to His Prophets.

These include the Qur’an revealed to Muhammad (PBUH), Suhuf (Scroll)

revealed to Ibrahim (AS), Taurah (Torah) revealed to Musa (AS), Injeel (Gospel)

revealed to Isa (AS), Zabur (Psalms) revealed to Dawood (AS), and other Books

that Allah revealed to His Prophets. Furthermore, Iman involves the belief in

the Prophets sent by Allah, both those mentioned in the Qur’an and those

unmentioned, with Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) being the last of them. It also

includes belief in the Day of Judgment, when judgement will be carried out

and mankind will be divided into two groups: those destined for paradise and

those for hell. Additionally, Iman encompasses belief in divine decree (Qada)

and predestination (Qadar), the belief that all events, both good and bad, are

predetermined by Allah’s knowledge (Siddiqui, 2006). All these constitute

Iman:

O you who believe! Believe in Allah, and His Messenger

(Muhammad PBUH), and the Book (the Qur'an) which He has

sent down to His Messenger, and the Scripture which He sent

down to those before (him), and whosoever disbelieves in Allah,

43
 His Angels, His Books, His Messengers, and the Last Day, then

indeed he has strayed far away (Qur’an 4:136).

When he was asked about the meaning of Al-Iman, the Prophet (PBUH) replied:

"That you affirm your faith in Allah, in His Angels, in His Books, in His Apostles,

in the Day of Judgement, and you affirm your faith in the Divine Decree to

good and evil” (Sahih Muslim: 1).

These six articles of Iman, or the belief system, constitute the foundation of

Islam. Every Muslim must believe in all these articles, or else he cannot be

considered a Muslim. This belief should be wholehearted, free from doubt, and

should not be affected by any external influences (Al-Ashqar, 2005; Siddiqui,

2006). Muslims are expected to strive to make their faith firm and strong by

studying the Qur’an, understanding the teachings of the Prophet (PBUH), and

connecting with righteous people and scholars.

At the advent of Islam in Arabia, there were three main religious groups: idol

worshippers, Jews, and Christians (Armstrong, 2000). In Makkah, where Islam

was first revealed, the dominant religion was idol worship. The Arabs

worshipped different gods, believing them to be more powerful and able to

bring them success. In contrast, Madinah, where the Islam was completed and

where the Prophet (PBUH) settled until his death, housed Jewish and Christian

communities (Lapidus, 1988). Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) called on the idol

worshippers to abandon their idols, which they had created themselves, and

to believe in the unseen Allah. He asked them to accept him as a Messenger

of Allah and to abandon their idolatrous practices. As for the Jews and

Christians, who were already believers in Allah and followers of Musa and Isa

(AS) respectively, were called upon to accept Muhammad (PBUH) as the

44
Prophet and Messenger of Allah sent to complete Allah’s message to mankind

(Armstrong, 2000). The Makkan idolaters initially opposed the Prophet’s (PBUH)

teachings and refused to accept them. However, eventually, they all embraced

Islam. The Jews in Madinah largely remained opposed to the Prophet (PBUH)

and the religion, with only a few embracing Islam until his death. The Christians,

for the most part, accepted Muhammad (PBUH) and his message and became

Muslims (Al-Tabari, 1989). Consequently, most people in Arabia embraced

Islam and the religion began to spread across the world.

2.1 Belief in the Existence and Oneness of Allah

Belief, especially in the unseen Allah, can be a profound journey, shaped

greatly by one's upbringing and environment. For those nurtured in Islamic

settings, faith in Allah often forms an integral part of their identity from a young

age. This upbringing fosters not only a belief in Allah but also an appreciation

for the logical and spiritual underpinnings of this faith. As they grow, their

understanding deepens, reinforcing their belief through both cultural and

reasoned dimensions.

Conversely, individuals from cultural backgrounds that do not predominantly

believe in a deity, such as those with pagan or atheistic leanings, may

experience a more intricate journey towards faith in Allah. For them, embracing

faith might necessitate a deeper rational involvement and an extensive

reflection on the marvels of the natural world. This path often entails a thorough

examination of both reason and spirituality. A pertinent example is the pagans

of Makkah, who challenged the concept of monotheism. Their polytheistic

beliefs starkly contrasted with the notion of a singular God. The Qur'an

45
addressed their scepticism directly, emphasising the oneness and uniqueness

of Allah in a clear and concise manner:

Say: ‘He is Allah, the One; (✶) Allah, the Eternal Refuge (✶) He

neither begets nor is He begotten. (✶) And there is nothing

comparable to Him!’ (✶) (Qur’an 112:1-4).

Allah has never begotten a son, nor is there any god besides

Him. Otherwise, each god would have taken away what he had

created, and each would have tried to gain supremacy over the

other. Glory be to Allah far above what they ascribe to Him!

(Qur’an 23:91).

If there were, in the heavens and the earth, other gods besides

Allah, there would have been confusion in both! (Qur’an 21:22).

In the context of atheism, which is characterised by the absence of belief in

deities, the arguments span a broad spectrum, encompassing philosophical,

scientific, and empirical considerations. Notable discussions led by prominent

atheists like Bertrand Russell (1957), Richard Dawkins (2006), and Christopher

Hitchens (2007) have centred on various facets of this viewpoint, ranging from

critiques of religious texts and institutions to the exploration of moral and

ethical life without theistic belief. These perspectives often call for a critical

analysis of religious claims, advocating for evidence-based reasoning and a

secular understanding of the universe. The key arguments presented by the

atheists include:

1. Lack of Empirical Evidence: Atheists frequently argue that there is no

concrete empirical evidence supporting the existence of a deity. They stress

46
 the need for evidence-based belief systems, contending that without

empirical proof, the belief in God remains unsubstantiated.

2. The Problem of Evil: This argument challenges the idea of an all-powerful,

wholly benevolent deity, given the presence of evil and suffering in the

world. Atheists often contend that this suffering contradicts the notion of a

benevolent, omnipotent God.

3. Scientific Explanations: Atheists might point to scientific insights to explain

phenomena traditionally ascribed to divine intervention. Theories in

evolution and cosmology, for instance, provide naturalistic explanations for

the origins of life and the universe, reducing the necessity for a supernatural

creator.

4. Diversity of Religious Experience: Atheists often highlight the wide

variance in religious beliefs and experiences across cultures, suggesting that

religious beliefs are more a product of cultural context than a reflection of

universal truths.

5. Logical Inconsistencies: Some atheists focus on perceived contradictions

within theistic beliefs. For example, they may argue that attributes often

attributed to God, such as omnipotence and omniscience, are inherently

contradictory.

In engaging with such philosophical perspectives, the Almighty calls upon

human sensory perception as a means to foster belief in Him. The natural world

and the breadth of human experience are presented as essential avenues for

recognising the presence and greatness of Allah. While acknowledging the

human senses' limitations in fully comprehending metaphysical realities, these

senses are nevertheless deemed crucial for gaining tangible and specific

47
insights. As articulated by Nadwi (1979: 14), our understanding of the world

and its offerings is grounded in observation, experiences, and sensory

perception. In this vein, the Qur'an asserts:

On the earth are signs for those of assured faith. (✶) As also in

your own selves: will you not then see? (✶) (Qur'an 51:20-21).

This verse underscores the idea that evidence of divine existence and truth is

manifest both in the external world and within the human self, beckoning

thoughtful contemplation and belief.

Moreover, Allah declares:

We will show them Our signs in the universe and within

themselves until it becomes clear to them that this [Qur’an] is

the truth. Is it not enough that your Lord is a Witness over all

things? (Qur’an 41: 53).

This passage highlights the notion that signs of Allah's truth and presence are

not only observable in the wider universe but also within the individuals

themselves, underscoring the idea that the journey to faith can be a deeply

personal and introspective experience, rooted in both the external world and

internal reflection.

2.2 Belief in Allah as the Creator and Sustainer of the Universe

Allah is the Creator of the universe and what it contains. He is the Creator of

human beings and all other living and non-living things that are known and

unknown or seen and unseen by humans. Such beings are the Angels, Satan

and the Jinns. He established the rules which scientists refer to as laws of nature

and established the law for the conduct of human affairs. Ibn Kathir (1428 AH:

48
27-28) contends that it is crucial to recognise the profound process through

which Allah created humankind. He initiated the creation of man from clay and

fashioned his offspring from semen, which consists of seemingly insignificant

water, within the safe sanctuary of the womb. With divine precision, Allah

shaped human beings in perfect proportion and infused them with a unique

soul, created by Him for each individual. He blessed them with the faculties of

hearing, sight, and hearts, granting them the ability to perceive and

comprehend. Prior to this creation, they did not exist, yet Allah honoured them

with knowledge and teachings.

To believe in Him as the Creator and the Sustainer of the universe and what it

contains, and as the Sovereign and Lawmaker, Allah, the Almighty appeals to

people’s senses to look, to see, and to try to understand:

Verily! In the creation of the heavens and the earth, and in the

alternation of night and day and the ships which sail through the

sea with that which is of use to mankind, and the rain which Allah

sends down from the sky and makes the earth alive therewith

after its death, and moving creatures of all kinds that He scatters

therein and in the veering of winds and clouds which are held

between the sky and the earth, are indeed Al – Ayaat (Proofs,

evidence, verses, lessons, signs, revelation, etc.) for people of

understanding (Qur’an 2:164).

The Originator of the heavens and the earth (without anybody’s

help)! When He decrees a matter, He says to it only, Be! And it

is (Qur’an 2:117).

49
 Do you not see that all those who are in the heavens and earth

glorify Allah, as do the birds with wings outspread? Each knows

its [way of] praying and glorification. And Allah is All-Knowing of

what they do. (✶) To Allah belongs the dominion of the heavens

and earth, and to Allah is the final return. (✶) Do you not see

that Allah drives the clouds, then gathers them together, then

turns them into a heap, then you see raindrops coming out from

their midst? He sends down hail from mountains [of clouds] in

the sky, raining it down upon whoever He wills and turning it

away from whoever He wills. The flash of its lightning almost

takes away eyesight. (✶) Allah alternates the night and day.

Indeed, there is a lesson in this for people of insight. (✶) Allah

created every living creature from water. Some of them move on

their bellies, and some walk on two legs and some walk on four.

Allah creates what He wills. Allah is Most Capable of all things.

(✶) (Qur’an 24: 41-45).

Furthermore, Allah draws the attention of people to the importance of water,

plants, and fruits of all kinds for human needs to reason and believe in Him:

It is He Who sends down rain from the sky: from it you drink, and

out of it (grows) the vegetation on which you feed cattle. (✶)

With it He produces for you corn, olives, date – palms, grapes,

and every kind of fruit: verily in this is a Sign for those who give

thought (✶) (Qur’an 16:10-11).

Even the then pagans of Makkah knew there was a Lord of the universe, for

when they were asked about who created them, they would say Allah:

50
 If you ask them, who created them, they will certainly say, Allah:

how then are they deluded away (from the truth)?” (Qur’an

43:87).

If you ask them who created the heavens and earth and

subjected the sun and moon, they will surely say, “Allah.” How

are they then deluded? (Qur’an 29:61).

If you ask them who sends down rain from the sky, then revives

therewith the land after its death, they will surely say, “Allah”.

Say, “All praise is for Allah,” but most of them do not understand

(Qur’an 29:63).

Since these people knew they were created by Allah, why then did they worship

idols? Their argument was that the idols were only intermediaries between

them and Allah:

But those who take for protectors other than Allah (say): “We

only serve them in order that they may bring us nearer to Allah”

(Qur’an 39:3).

Allah says:

Do you not see that Allah has made subservient to you all that

is in the heavens and on earth, and has abundantly bestowed

upon you His favours, both apparent and hidden? Yet there are

some people who dispute concerning Allah without knowledge,

or guidance, or an enlightening scripture (✶) When it is said to

them, “Follow what Allah has sent down,” they say, “No, we

follow what we found our forefathers doing.” Is that so, even if

Satan is calling them to the punishment of the Blazing Fire?. (✶)

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Whoever submits himself to Allah and does good, he has

certainly grasped the firmest handhold. To Allah is the ultimate

decision of all matters. (✶) But whoever disbelieves, do not let

his disbelief grieve you. To Us is their return, then We will inform

them of what they used to do. Indeed, Allah is All- Knowing of

what is in the hearts. (✶) (Qur’an 31: 20-23).

Is He [not better] Who created the heavens and earth, and sent

down for you rain from the sky, by which We caused to grow

gardens of cheerful beauty? You could never cause their trees

to grow. Is there any god besides Allah? No, but they are people

who ascribe equals [to Allah]. (✶) Is He [not better] Who made

the earth a stable place to live, and caused rivers to flow through

it, and placed therein firm mountains, and made a barrier

between two flowing bodies of water? Is there any god besides

Allah? No, but most of them do not know. (✶) Is He [not better]

Who responds to the distressed when he calls out to Him, and

Who relieves suffering, and Who makes you successors on

earth? Is there any god besides Allah? Little is it that you take

heed! (✶) Is He [not better] Who guides you in the depths of

darkness of the land and sea, and Who sends the winds as

harbingers ahead of His mercy? Is there any god besides Allah?

Exalted is Allah far above the partners they associate with Him!

(✶) Is He [not better] Who originates creation then repeats it,

and Who gives you provision from the heaven and earth? Is

there any god besides Allah? Say, “Produce your evidence if you

are truthful.” (✶) Say, “No one in the heavens and earth has

52
 knowledge of the unseen except Allah.” Nor do they know when

they will be resurrected. (✶) (Qur’an 27:61-65).

2.3 Creation of the Universe

The creation of the universe is undoubtedly one of the greatest wonders that

captivates human minds. Even in ancient times, before the advent of science

and technology, the celestial system evoked a sense of profound fascination,

compelling individuals to seek deeper understanding. Today, with the

advancements in science and technology, humanity has gained a deeper

appreciation for the intricate complexity and remarkable orderliness of the

universe.

To instil belief in His Existence, Allah directs our attention to the celestial bodies

and their purposeful creation. Each phenomenon within the universe

represents a subject of profound study, possessing unique characteristics and

operating under specific laws that govern its existence and behaviour. By

simply drawing our attention to the heavenly bodies, Allah (SWT) has opened

the doors for extensive contemplation and observation, leading mankind to

document vast volumes of knowledge about these celestial entities and the

phenomena they encompass:

Have We not made the earth a resting place? (✶) And the

mountains as stakes, (✶) and created you in pairs, (✶) and made

your sleep for rest, (✶) and made the night a covering, (✶) and

made the day for seeking livelihood, (✶) and built above you

seven mighty heavens, (✶) and made therein a blazing lamp (✶)

and sent down from the rainclouds abundant water (✶) so that

53
 We may produce thereby grains and vegetation, (✶) and

gardens with dense foliage? (✶) (Qur’an 78:6-16).

2.3.1 The Heavens and the Earth

Allah created the Heavens and the Earth in six days:

Surely, your Lord is Allah Who created the Heavens and the

Earth in six Days (period), and then rose above the Throne (really

in a manner that suits His Majesty), regulating and governing all

things (Qur’an 10:3).

Your Lord is Allah, Who created the heavens and earth in six

days, and then rose over [istawa] the Throne. He makes the night

and day overlap in rapid succession. He made the sun, the

moon, and the stars – all subservient to His command. Behold,

His is the creation and the command. Blessed is Allah, Lord of

the worlds (Qur’an 7:54).

It is He Who originates the creation then repeats it, which is

easier for Him. To Him belong the most sublime attributes in the

heavens and earth, and He is the All- Mighty, the All-Wise

(30:27).

Drawing man’s attention to the basic issue of creation, Allah says:

Do not the Unbelievers see that the heavens and the earth were

joined together (as one unit of Creation), before We clove them

asunder? We made from water every living thing. Will they not

then believe? (✶) And We have set on the earth mountains

standing firm, lest it should shake with them, and We have made

54
 therein broad highways (between mountains) for them to pass

through: that they may receive guidance (✶) And We have made

the heavens as a canopy well-guarded: Yet do they turn away

from the Signs which these things (point to)! (✶) It is He Who

created the Night and the Day, and the sun and the moon: all

(the celestial bodies) swim along, each in its rounded course) (✶)

(Qur’an 21:30-33).

2.3.2 The Sun and the Moon

It is He Who made the sun a shining thing and the moon as a

light and measured out its stages, that you might know the

number of years and the reckoning (Qur’an 10:5).

He has appointed the night for resting and the sun and moon

for reckoning (Qur’an 6:96).

And the Sun runs his course for a period determined for him:

that is the decree of (Him), the Exalted in Might, the All-

Knowing. (✶) And the Moon—We have measured for her

mansions (to traverse) till she returns like the old (and withered)

lower part of date-stalk. (✶) It is not permitted to the Sun to

catch up with the Moon, nor can the Night outstrip the Day:

each (just) swims along in (its own) orbit (according to Law) (✶)

(Qur’an 36:38-40).

2.3.3 Day and Night

We have made the Night and the Day as two (of Our) Signs: the

Sign of the Night have We obscured, while the Sign of the day

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 We have made to enlighten you; that ye may seek Bounty from

your Lord, and that ye may know the number and count of the

years: all things have We explained in detail (Qur’an 17:12).

Do you not see that Allah causes the night to merge into day

and the day into the night, and has subjected the sun and the

moon, each running its course for an appointed term, and that

Allah is All-Aware of what you do? (✶) That is because Allah is

the Truth, and what they supplicate to other than Him is false,

and it is Allah Who is the Most High, the All-Great (✶) (Qur’an

31:29-30).

And He has subjected for you the night and day, the sun and

moon, and the stars are made subservient by His command.

Indeed, there are signs in this for people of understanding

(Qur’an 16:12).

It is He Who created the night and the day, the sun, and the

moon – each floating in its orbit (Qur’an 21:33).

2.3.4 Air

It is Allah Who sends the winds that stir up clouds, then He

spreads them in the sky as He wills, and He splits them into

different fragments, then you see the rain pouring down from

their midst. Then as soon as He makes it fall upon whoever He

wills of His slaves, they rejoice (Qur’an 30:48).

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2.3.5 Stars

And He made the stars as your guide through the darkness of

the land and sea. We have made the signs clear for people who

know (Qur’an 6:97).

The Prophet (PBUH) said:

The creation of these stars is for three purposes, i.e., as

decoration of the (nearest) heaven, as missiles to hit the devils,

and as signs to guide travellers. So, if anybody tries to find a

different interpretation, he is mistaken and just wastes his

efforts, and troubles himself with what is beyond his limited

knowledge (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 282).

2.3.6 Animals, Plants, and Inanimate Beings

2.3.6.1 Animals

Thirty-One animals are mentioned in the Qur’an, comprising birds (craw, fly,

hoopoe, locust, quail), marine animals (fish-whale), insects (spider, ants,

mosquitoes, honeybee, lice, moths), reptiles (snakes, frog), four-legged animals

(camel, calf, cattle, cow, dog, donkey, elephant, goat, horse, monkey, mule,

pig, lion, sheep, and wolf). Besides, six chapters (surahs) in the Quran are

named after animals, namely Baqarah (The Cow), An’aam (The Cattle) Nahl

(The Bee), Naml (The Ants) Ankabut (The Spider), and Fil (The Elephant).

Animals and birds live in communities:

There is no moving creature on earth or a bird flying with its two

wings but are communities like you. We have missed nothing in

57
 the Record, then to their Lord they will be gathered (Qur’an

6:38).

2.3.6.2 The Flight of Birds

Do they not see the birds enabled to fly in the open air? None

holds them up except Allah. Indeed, there are signs in this for

people who believe (Quran 16:79).

“Do they not see the birds above them, spreading out their

wings and folding them in? None upholds them except the Most

Gracious (Allah). Verily, He is the All-Seer of everything” Qur’an

67:19).

2.3.6.3 The Bee and its Skills

Your Lord inspired the bees, “Make homes in the mountains, the

trees, and in the trellises that people put up (✶) Then feed on

every kind of fruit and follow the ways that your Lord made easy

for you.” There comes out from their bellies a drink of various

colours, in which there is healing for people. Indeed, there is a

sign in this for people who reflect (✶) (Qur’an 16:68-69).

2.3.6.4 Spider’s Web

The likeness of those who take protectors other than Allah is that

of a spider spinning a house. Indeed, the flimsiest of houses is

the house of a spider, if only they knew *(✶) Allah knows

whatever they call upon besides Him. He is the All-Mighty, the

All-Wise (✶) (Qur’an 29:41-42).

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2.3.6.5 Ant’s Communication

Solomon’s armies of jinn, men and birds were assembled before

him, marching in organised ranks, (✶) until when they reached a

valley of the ants, an ant said, “O ants, get into your dwellings,

so Solomon and his armies do not crush you unknowingly” (✶)

(Qur’an 27:17-18).

2.3.6.6 Plants and Food

Let man consider the food he eats: (✶) How We poured down

rainwater in torrents, (✶) and caused the soil to split open [for

sprouts], (✶) and cause grains to grow in it, (✶) as well as grapes

and fodder, (✶) and olive trees and date palms, (✶) and dense

orchards, (✶) and fruits and grass, (✶) as provision for you and

your livestock (✶) (Qur’an 80:24-32).

It is He Who sends down water from the sky. Thus, We bring

forth plants of every type with it; We produce green vegetation

from it. We produce grain from it piled tight packed on one

another, and from the date palm, clusters close at hand

produced from its pollen, as well as orchards full of grapes,

olives, and pomegranates, which are so similar and yet

dissimilar. Look at their fruit as He causes it to grow and ripen.

In that are signs for folk who believe (Qur’an 6:99).

The Quran mentions 54 plants which include: bananas, barley, basil, cedar,

corn, cucumbers, date, fig, garlic, ginger, grapes, herbs, leek, lentil, mustard,

olive,, onion, pomegranate, pumpkin, tamarind, vineyards, watermelon, and

wheat. However, 3 out of the 54 plants are not found on Earth; two are found

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in heaven: a different type of lotus tree, which is thornless (Sidrat al-Muntaha)

and acacia trees, whose fruits in Paradise will be ready to eat, with no effort

required. The one found in hell is Zaqqum:

Is that (Paradise) better entertainment or the tree of Zaqqum (a

horrible tree in Hell)? (✶) We have placed it as a trial for

wrongdoers. (✶) It is a tree that grows in the bottom of the

Blazing Fire; (✶) Its cluster [of fruit] looks like devils' heads .…

(Qur’an 37:62-68; Qur’an 44:43; Qur’an 56:52).

2.3.7 The Human Being

While certain modern philosophers and scientists have sought to refute the

idea of human creation by God, instead favouring theories of evolution, these

theories have proven to be inadequate in explaining certain fundamental

aspects of human existence. In stark contrast, the Qur'an presents a more

compelling and scientifically grounded perspective on the creation of not only

human beings but all other forms of life as well.

2.3.7.1 Special Creations

2.3.7.1.1 Adam (AS)

The first human being to be created was Adam. Allah began the creation of

man with clay:

Who perfected everything He created and initiated the creation

of man from clay (Qur’an 32:7).

And (remember) when your Lord said to the Angels: “I am going

to create man (Adam) from sounding clay of altered black

smooth mud. (✶) So, when I have fashioned him completely and

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 breathed into him (Adam) the soul which I created for him, then

fall (you) down prostrating yourselves unto him" (✶) (Qur’an

15:28-9).

Elaborating on this, Ibn Kathir draws attention to the fact that, Adam, the father

of mankind, was specially created by Allah. He moulded Adam's physical form

and bestowed upon him His Spirit. Allah commanded the angels to prostrate

before Adam, establishing his status and significance. From Adam, Allah

fashioned Eve (Hauwa), his spouse, and the mother of mankind, providing

companionship for him. Together, they were placed in Paradise, where Allah

showered His blessings upon them (Ibn Kathir, 1428 AH: 27-28).

2.3.7.1.2 Hauwa (Eve)

After Adam was created then his wife, Hauwa (Eve), too was created:

O mankind, fear your Lord Who created you from a single soul,

and created from it its mate, and from both of them created

countless men and women. Fear Allah in Whose name you ask

one another, and be mindful of your kinship ties, for Allah is ever

Watchful over you (Qur’an 4: 1).

After they were created, Adam and his wife were made to live in a garden,

the Paradise:

And We said: “O Adam! Dwell you and your wife in the garden

(Paradise) and eat both of you freely with pleasures and delights

of things therein as wherever you will but come not near this tree

or you both will be of the wrongdoers (Qur’an 2:35).

All their needs were provided in the Garden:

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 Here you will neither go hungry nor naked, (✶) nor will you suffer

from thirst or from scorching heat (✶) (Qur’an 20:118-119).

This notwithstanding, Allah forewarned them about the evil of Satan:

We said “O Adam, this is an enemy to you and to your wife, so

do not let him drive you both out of Paradise, for then you will

fall into misery” (Qur’an 20:117).

Satan was an enemy to Adam and his wife for when Adam was created, Allah

instructed all the Angels to bow down for him, and all did except Satan:

And [remember] when We said to the angels, “Prostrate to

Adam;” they all prostrated except Iblis, who said, “Should I

prostrate to whom You created from clay?”. (✶) He added, “Do

You see this one whom You have honoured above me? If you

give me respite until the Day of Resurrection, I will surely

overpower his offspring, except for a few.” (✶) Allah said, “Be

gone! Whoever among them follows you, Hell will be an ample

recompense for you all) (✶) (Qur’an 17:61-63).

Elaborating this further, Allah says:

[Remember] when your Lord said to the angels, “I am going to

create a human being from clay. (✶) When I completed his

creation and breathed into him of My spirit, fall down in

prostration to him.” (✶) Then the angels fell down in prostration

all together, (✶) except Iblis, who was arrogant and became one

of the disbelievers (✶) [Allah] said, “O Iblis, what prevented you

from prostrating to whom I created with My two Hands? Did you

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just become proud, or have you always been arrogant?” (✶) He

said, “I am better than him: You created me from fire and

created him from clay.” (✶) [Allah] said, “Then get out of here,

for you are accursed (✶) and My curse will be upon you until the

Day of Judgement (✶) He said, “My Lord, then give me respite

until the Day of their resurrection.” (✶) Allah said, “You are given

respite (✶) until the Day of the appointed time (✶) Iblis said, “By

Your Might, I will surely mislead them all (✶) except Your chosen

slaves among them (✶) Allah said, “Such is the truth – and I only

say the truth – (✶) that I will certainly fill Hell with you and those

of them who follow you all together” (✶) (Qur’an 38:71-85).

And (remember) when We said to the angels: "Prostrate unto

Adam." They prostrated except Iblis. He said: "Shall I prostrate

to one whom You created from clay?" (✶) (Iblis) said: "See you

this one whom You have honoured above me, if You respite me

(keep me a live) to the Day of Resurrection, I will surely seize and

mislead his offspring (by sending them astray) all but a few!" (✶)

(Allah) said: "Go, and whosoever of them follows you, surely!

Hell will be the recompense of you (all) -- an ample recompense.

(✶) And befool them gradually those whom you can among

them with your voice (i.e., songs, music, and any other call for

Allah's disobedience), make assaults on them with your cavalry

and your infantry, mutually share with them wealth and children

(by tempting them to earn money by illegal ways -- Usury etc.,

or by committing illegal sextual intercourse, etc), and make

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 promises to them." But Satan promises them nothing but

deceit. (✶) Verily! My servant (i.e., the true believers of Islamic

Monotheism), you have no authority over them. And sufficient is

your Lord as a Guardian (✶) (Qur’an 17:61-65).

Yet, Satan deceived them (Adam and his wife) into eating the forbidden tree

and they were consequently driven out from the Garden:

Then Satan whispered suggestions to them both in order to

uncover that which was hidden from them of their private parts

(before); he said: “Your Lord did not forbid you this tree save

you should become Angels or become of immortals.” (✶) And

he (Satan) swore by Allah to them both (saying): “Verily, I am one

of the sincere well – wishers for you both” (✶) So, he misled

them with deception. Then when they tasted of the tree, that

which was hidden from them of their private parts became

manifest to them and they began to stick together the leaves of

the Garden over themselves (in order to cover their shame). And

their Lord called out to them (saying): “Did I not forbid you that

tree and tell you: Verily, Satan is an open enemy unto you?” (✶)

They said: “Our Lord! We have wronged ourselves. If You forgive

us not, and bestow not upon us Your mercy, we shall certainly

be of the losers” (✶) (Qur’an 7:20–3).

Allah accepted their prayers and forgave them:

Then Adam received from his Lord, Words and his Lord

accepted his repentance; Verily, He is the One Who accepts

repentance, the Most Merciful (Qur’an 2:37).

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Although Allah has accepted their repentance, they were nonetheless removed

from the Paradise and brought down to earth:

Allah said: “Get down, one of you an enemy to another (i.e.,

Adam, Eve, etc.). On Earth will be a dwelling – place for you and

an enjoyment, – for a time.” (✶) He said: “Therein you shall live

and therein you shall die and from it you shall be brought out

(i.e., resurrected)” (✶) (7:24–5).

Thereof (the earth) We created you, and into it We shall return

you, and from it We shall bring you out once again (Qur’an

20:55).

However, guided by His wisdom, Allah decreed that they would descend to

Earth. Allah brought forth numerous men and women from Adam and Eve,

exhibiting His infinite wisdom and diversity. Some were destined to be kings,

while others would be subjects. Some would experience wealth, while others

would endure poverty. Freedom and servitude, both physical and

metaphorical, were appointed to different individuals. Allah dispersed human

beings to inhabit every corner of the Earth, covering its vast expanse. They

would exist in successive generations until the Day of Reckoning when they

would be presented before their Lord, the All-Knowing and Most Wise.

On the earth, therefore, subsequent creation of human beings continued, and

Allah addresses the children of Adam:

O Children of Adam! If there come to you Messengers from

amongst you, reciting to you, My Verses, then whosoever

becomes pious and righteous, on them shall be no fear, nor shall

they grieve. (✶) But those who reject Our Ayat (proofs,

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 evidence, verses, lessons, signs, revelations, etc.) and treat them

with arrogance, they are the dwellers of the (Hell) Fire, they will

abide therein forever (✶) (Qur’an 7:35-6).

2.3.7.1.3 Isa (Jesus Christ) (AS)

As for the creation of Jesus Christ, Prophet Isa (AS) was created by Allah without

a father. According to the Qur’an, Allah sent the Angel Gabriel (Jibril) to

Maryam (AS), the mother of Prophet Isa (AS), and told her that He had chosen

her and purified her; He had chosen her above all the women of the world:

(Remember) when the angels said: "O Maryam (Mary)! Verily,

Allah gives you the glad tidings of a Word ["Be!" - and he was!

i.e., ‘Isa (Jesus) the son of Maryam (Mary)] from Him, his name

will be the Messiah ‘Isa (Jesus), the son of Maryam (Mary), held

in honour in this world and in the Hereafter, and will be one of

those who are near to Allah" (3:45).

The similitude of Jesus before Allah is like that of Adam; He

created him from dust, then said to him, “Be,” and he was

(Qur’an 3:59).

2.3.7.2 Creation of Other Human Beings from Pairs

Reminding people about how they are created from Adam and Eve, Allah says:

“(He is) the Creator of the heavens and the earth: He has made

for you pairs from among yourselves, and pairs among cattle: by

this means does He multiply you” (Qur’an 42:11).

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2.3.7.2.1 Creation from a Mingled Sperm

If, however, man is in doubt as to his creator, then Allah says:

Now let man but think from what he is created! (✶) He is created

from a drop emitted –– (✶) Proceeding from between the

backbone and the ribs” (✶) (Qur’an 86:5-7).

Verily We created man from a drop of mingled sperm, in order

to try him: so, We gave him (the gifts) of Hearing and Sight

(Qur’an 76:2).

He it is Who shapes you in the wombs as He pleases. He makes

you, in the wombs of your mothers, in stages, one after another,

in three veils of darkness. Such is Allah, your Lord and Cherisher:

to Him belongs all dominion (Qur’an 39:6).

Allah brought you out from your mothers’ wombs not knowing

anything, and He gave you hearing, sight and intellect, so that

you may be grateful (Qur’an 16:78).

2.3.7.2.2 Creation in Stages

Man is created under stages: “Do you deny Him Who created you out of dust,

then out of a sperm – drop, then fashioned you into a man?”

Man We did create from a quintessence (of clay); (✶) Then We

placed him as (a drop of) sperm in a place of rest, firmly fixed;

(✶) Then We made the sperm into a clot of congealed blood;

then of that clot We made a (foetus) lump; then We made out

of that lump bones and clothed the bones with flesh; then We

developed out of it another creature: so blessed be God, the

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 Best to create! (✶) After that, at length, ye will die. (✶) Again,

on the Day of Judgement, will ye be raised up (✶) And We have

made, above you, seven tracts; and We are never unmindful of

(Our) Creation (✶) (Qur’an 23:12–17).

It is God Who created you in a state of (helpless) weakness, then

gave (you) strength after weakness, then, after strength, give

(you) weakness and a hoary head: He creates as He wills, and it

is He Who has all knowledge and power (Qur’an 30:54).

2.3.7.2.3 The Soul

When Allah creates human beings, He breathes into them an understanding of

what is wrongdoing and what is right conduct. It is the faculty of distinguishing

between right and wrong. Allah says:

By the Soul, And the proportion and order Given to it (91:7).

Then He inspired it (with conscience of) what is wrong for it and

what is right for it (Qur’an 91:8).

The human soul is composed of two elements: the tendency to do what is

wrong and tendency to do what is right, irrespective of one’s place of birth,

religion, and nationality. These tendencies equip human beings with the

capacity to engage in both good and or bad actions depending on the

circumstances. The dominance of one tendency over the other is significantly

influenced by an individual’s environment, hereditary tendencies, and the Will

of Allah. Consequently, it is not surprising to find good people in religions other

than Islam, or among those who do not profess any religion at all, whether in

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the past, present or future.4 To this extent, it is up to humans to choose

between being good or bad, as Allah has granted them the ability to make that

choice:

We showed him the Way: whether he be grateful or ungrateful

(rests on his will) (Qur’an 76:3).

Every man's fate We have fastened on his own neck: on the day

of judgment, We shall bring out for him a scroll, which he will

see spread open (Qur’an 17:13).

However, because of the nature of the human soul:

“The (human) soul is certainly prone to evil, unless my Lord do

bestow His Mercy: but surely My Lord is Oft – Forgiving, Most

Merciful” (Qur’an 12:53).

Thus, Allah in His mercy has continually sent His Messengers to guide people

on the true path, with the final message brought to mankind through His

Messenger, Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Those who accept Allah’s Message

are promised paradise in the hereafter, while those who reject it are promised

hellfire. However, individuals who have not heard Allah’s Message until their

death will not be punished, as Allah is Just and Merciful:

Anyone who submits to guidance will be guided only so far as

he himself is concerned, while anyone who strays away, only

strays by himself. No burdened soul shall bear another's burden.

We have never acted as punishers until We have dispatched a

messenger (Qur’an 17:15).

4
These people may be honest and reject all forms of corruption, but doing good things alone is not enough, it
must be related to belief in Allah.

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 And (remember) when Abraham said: “My Lord! Show me how

You give life to the dead.” He (Allah) said: “Do you not believe?”

He (Abraham) said: “Yes (I believe), but to be stronger in Faith.”

He Said: “Take four birds; then cause them to incline towards

you (slaughter them, cut them into pieces) and then put a

portion of them on every hill and call them; they will come to

you in haste. And know that Allah is All – Mighty, All – Wise”

(Qur’an 2:260).

Mankind is created and given the best form to serve Allah and to be tested:

We have indeed created man in the best of moulds (Qur’an

95:4).

People are not created in vain, but to serve Allah: “I have only

created Jinn and men, that they may serve Me (✶) No

sustenance do I require of them, nor do I require that they

should feed Me (✶) For Allah is He Who Gives (all) sustenance,

–– Lord of Power, –– Steadfast (for ever)” (✶) (Qur’an 51:56-8).

While serving Allah, they will be tested who will be grateful to Allah:

That which is on earth We have made but as a glittering show

for the earth, in order that We may test them –– as to which of

them are best in conduct (Qur’an 18:7).

Allah has indeed honoured human beings: He puts in them something of His

Spirit, made Angels to bow to Adam, makes them use clothes, gives them

sophisticated brains to think and to control other creations and created

everything for their need:

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 But He fashioned him in due proportion and breathed into him

something of His spirit. And He gave you (the faculties of)

hearing and sight and feeling (and understanding): little thanks

do ye give! (Qur’an 32:9).

We have honoured the sons of Adam; provided them with

transport on land and on sea; given them for sustenance things

good and pure; and conferred on them special favours, above a

great part of Our Creation (Qur’an 17:70).

The point, in all this, is to emphasise the intricate creation of mankind by Allah,

showcasing His knowledge, wisdom, and purpose behind the diversity and

succession of human existence. Understanding this narrative allows us to

appreciate the profound significance of human life and our individual roles in

the grand design of Allah's creation (Ibn Kathir, 1428 AH: 28).

2.3.7.2.4 Signs of Allah

In addition to all these, Allah indicates His Signs to people so that they can

believe in Him. Some of the Signs are:

Among His Signs is this, that He created you from dust; and

then, –– behold, you are men scattered (far and wide)! (✶) And

among His Signs is this, that He created for you mates from

among yourselves, that you may dwell in tranquillity with them,

and He has put love and mercy between your (hearts): verily in

that are Signs for those who reflect (✶) And among His Signs is

the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the variations in

your languages and your colours: verily in that are Signs for

those who know (✶) And among His Signs is the sleep that you

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 take by night and by day, and the quest that you (make for

livelihood) out of His Bounty: verily in that are Signs for those

who hearken (✶) And among His Signs, He shows you the

lightning, by way both of fear and of hope, and He sends down

rain from the sky and with it gives life to the earth after it is dead:

verily in that are Signs for those who are wise (✶) And among

His Signs is this, that heaven and earth stand by His Command:

then when He calls you, by a single call, from the earth, behold,

you (straightway) come forth (✶) (Qur’an 30:20-25).

Among His Signs are the Night and the Day, and the sun and

moon. Adore not the Sun and the Moon, but adore God Who

created them, if it is Him ye wish to serve (Qur’an 41:37).

Among His Signs is this, that He sends the Winds, as heralds of

Glad Tidings, giving you a taste of His (Grace and) Mercy, --that

the ships may sail (majestically) by His Command and that ye

may seek of His Bounty: in order that ye may be grateful (Qur’an

30:46).

And a Sign for them is that We bore their race (through the

flood) in the loaded Ark; (Qur’an 36:41).

2.3.7.2.5 Man’s Relation with Other Creations

Everything on Earth has been fashioned and provided by Allah for the benefit

and use of humankind: from the vast oceans and majestic mountains to the

tiniest organisms and natural resources, are creations of Allah, made with a

purpose and wisdom. “He it is Who created for you all that is on earth” (Qur’an

2:29). It implies that while everything on earth is created for human use, it is

72
not for exploitation or destruction. Instead, it encourages a balance where

humans are expected to appreciate, protect, and sustain the natural world. It

is a call for sustainable living and responsible usage of resources, respecting

the intricate balance and harmony Allah has established in the natural world.

For example, He created cattle and animals for the use of man and his benefit:

And cattle He has created for you (men): from them you derive

warmth, and numerous benefits, and of their (meat) you eat. (✶)

And ye have a sense of pride and beauty in them as ye drive

them home in the evening, and as ye lead them forth to pasture

in the morning. (✶) And they carry your heavy loads to lands

that ye could not (otherwise) reach except with souls distressed:

for your Lord is indeed Most Kind, Most Merciful. (✶) And (He

has created) horses, mules, and donkeys, for you to ride and use

for show; and He has created (other) things of which you have

no knowledge (✶) (Qur’an 16:5-8).

On other creations, Allah says:

Allah is He who has created the Heavens and the Earth and

sends down water (rain) from the sky, and thereby brought forth

fruits as a provision for you; and He had made the ships to be of

service to you, that they may sail through the sea by His

command, and He has made rivers (also) to be of service to you.

(✶) And He has made the sun and the moon, both constantly

pursuing their course, to be of service to you, and He has made

the night and the day, to be of service to you. (✶) And He gave

you of all that you asked for, and if you count the Blessing of

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 Allah, never will you be able to count them (✶) (Qur’an 15:32–

4).

Appreciating all things requires reflection, thinking and understanding of

Allah's creation:

It is He Who sends down rain from the sky: from it ye drink, and

out of it (grows) the vegetation on which ye feed your cattle. (✶)

With it He produces for you corn, olives, date-palms, grapes,

and every kind of fruit: verily in this is a Sign for those who give

thought. (✶) He has made subject to you the Night and the Day;

the Sun and the Moon; and the Stars are in subjection by His

Command: verily in this are Signs for men who are wise. (✶) And

the things on this earth which He has multiplied in varying

colours (and qualities): verily in this is a Sign for men who

celebrate the praises of God (in gratitude). (✶) It is He Who has

made the sea subject, that ye may eat thereof flesh that is fresh

and tender, and that ye may extract therefrom ornaments to

wear; and thou seest the ships therein that plough the waves,

that ye may seek (thus) of the bounty of God and that ye may

be grateful. (✶) And He has set up on the earth mountains

standing firm, lest it should shake with you; and rivers and roads;

that ye may guide yourselves, (✶) And marks and signposts; and

by the stars (men) guide themselves. (✶) Is then He Who creates

like one that creates not? Will ye not receive admonition? (✶) If

ye would count up the favours of God, never would ye be able

to number them: for God is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful. (✶)

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 And God doth know what ye conceal, and what ye reveal. (✶)

Those whom they invoke besides God create nothing and are

themselves created (✶) (Qur’an 16:10-20).

O people, a similitude is set forth, so listen to it: those whom

you invoke besides Allah can never create even a fly, even if they

all come together for that. And if a fly snatches something away

from them, they cannot retrieve it. How feeble is the invoker as

well as the invoked! (Qur’an 22: 73).

It is He Who gave you life, then will cause you to die, and then

He will bring you back to life. Indeed, man is ever ungrateful

(Qur’an 22: 66).

2.4 Belief in Allah as the Lawmaker

Allah is the Lawmaker, even the Prophets did not make laws on their own. The

Prophet is commanded to say:

Say (O Muhammad PBUH): “I don’t tell you that with me are the

treasures of Allah, nor I know the Ghaib: [(literally means a thing

not seen). But this word includes vast meanings: Belief in Allah,

Angels, Revealed Books, Allah’s Messengers, Day of

Resurrection, and the Al–Qadar (Divine Preordainments.) It also

includes What Allah and His Messenger PBUH informed about

the knowledge of the matters of the Past, Present and the future

things, e.g., news about the creation of the Heavens and the

Earth, Botanical and Zoological life, the news about the Nations

of the Past, and about Paradise and Hell, etc.)], nor I tell you that

I am an angel. I but follow what is revealed to me by inspiration.”

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 Say: “Are the blind and the one who sees equal? Will you not

then take thought” (Qur’an 6:50).

Despite all this, man is always contentious:

We have explained in detail in this Qur’an for the benefit of

mankind, every kind of similitude: but man is, in most things,

contentious (Qur’an 18:54).

We have presented in this Qur’an every kind of example for

mankind. But no matter what sign you bring them, the

disbelievers will surely say, “You follow nothing but falsehood”

(Qur’an 30:58).

In this context, any laws promulgated, such as constitutions or other civil or

criminal laws, must be in accordance with Allah’s Law to be considered Islamic.

Therefore, any law that contradicts the will of Allah are deemed to be un-

Islamic. However, constitutions and other legal frameworks that comply with

Allah’s injunctions, such as those that prevent evil and promote justice, are

considered acceptable means of governing individuals, society, and

government operations. It is important to note that, although they share a

common goal of preventing evil and ensuring justice, constitutions and other

legal systems may adopt different approaches to achieve these goals.

Similarly, Muslim parliamentarians or legislators are obliged to create laws that

are in accordance with Allah’s Laws. Failure to abide by Allah’s Laws and instead

relying on ideas of individuals, leaders, or priests may lead to the violation of

the Islamic faith. As Allah says:

They (Jews and Christians) took their Rabbis and their monks to

be their lords (by obeying them in things that they made lawful

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 or unlawful according to their own desires without being

ordered by Allah) besides Allah, and (they also took as their

Lord) Messiah, son of Mary, while they (Jews and Christians)

were commanded (in the Torah and the Gospel) to worship none

but one God (Allah). None has the right to be worshipped but

He. Praise and Glory be to Him, (far above is He) from having

the partners they associate (with Him) (Qur’an 9:31).

Once, while the Prophet (PBUH) was reciting the above Verse, Adi bin Hatim

Al-Ta’i (formally a Christian) said:

O Allah’s Prophet! They do not worship them (rabbis and

monks). Allah’s Messenger said: “They certainly do. They (i.e.,

rabbis and monks) made legal things illegal, and illegal things

legal, and they (i.e., Jews and Christians) followed them; and by

doing so they really worshipped them.”5

In the same vein, Allah says:

Have you seen those (hypocrites) who claim that they believe in

that which has been sent down to you, and that which was sent

down before you, and they wish to go for judgement (in their

disputes) to the Taghuut (false judges etc.) while they have been

ordered to reject them. But Satan wishes to lead them far astray

(Qur’an 4:60).

To be a real believer, one must accept what the Prophet (PBUH) has brought

for mankind:

5
Narrated by Ahmad, Jami’ at-Tirmidhi, and Ibn Jarir; in the Interpretation of the Meaning of the Noble Qur’an
(Khan & Al-Hilali, 1988, Vol. 2, p. 36).

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 Surely, We have sent down to you (O Muhammad PBUH), the

Book (this Qur’an) in trust that you might judge between men

by that which Allah shows you (i.e., teaches you through Divine

inspiration) (Qur’an 4:105).

But no, by your Lord, they can have no faith, until they make you

judge in all disputes between them and find in their souls no

resistance against your decisions but accept (them) fully with

submission (Qur’an 4:65).

Although the Prophet (PBUH) is no longer alive, the Qur’an and his Sunnah,

which form the foundation of his judgements, remain available. The Prophet

(PBUH) said: “I am leaving among you two things; you will never go astray so

long as you adhere to them: the Book of Allah and the Sunnah of His

Messenger” (Muwatta Imam Malik: 1601). Ultimately, Allah is the Sovereign,

the Ruler, the Master, and the Law Maker. The final authority rests with Him:

“The command is for none but Allah” (Qur’an 12:40).

2.5 Belief in Allah as the Only One Deserving to be Worshipped

It is an established principle of Islamic theology that Allah is the sole Creator,

and therefore the only One Who deserves to be worshipped. Any attempt to

associate any entity with Allah in worship is considered to be shirk (the act of

ascribing partners to Allah) and is strictly prohibited in Islam. This includes

worshipping Angels, Jinn, evil spirits, Prophets, saints, spiritual leaders,

political leaders, ideological leaders, and stars, and idolising graves. All entities

are creations of Allah and can therefore not be associated with Him in

worship. Indeed, the Qur’an states that everything in the heavens and in the

earth submits to Allah:

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 Do they not look at God’s creation, (even) among (inanimate)

things— how their (very) shadows turn round from the right and

the left, prostrating themselves to God, and that in the humblest

manner? (✶) And to God doth obeisance all that is in the

heavens and on earth, whether moving (living) creatures or the

angels: for none are arrogant (before their Lord). (✶) They all

revere their Lord, high above them, and they do all that they are

commanded. (✶) God has said: “Take not (for worship) two

gods: for He is just One God: then fear Me (and Me alone).” (✶)

(Qur’an 16:48–51).

Do you not see that to Allah prostrate all those who are in the

heavens and all those on earth: the sun, the moon, the stars, the

mountains, the trees, the moving creatures, and many humans?

But there are many on whom the punishment has become due.

Whoever Allah disgraces, none can honour him. Allah surely

does what He wills (Qur’an 22: 18).

All the Prophets of Allah from Adam to Muhammad (PBUH) have taught people

to worship none but Allah:

Indeed, We sent Noah to his people, and he said: 'O my people!

Worship Allah! You have no other Ilah (God) but Him. (La ilaha

ill Allah, none has the right to be worshipped but Allah).

Certainly, I fear for you the torment of a great Day!' (Qur’an

7:59).

And to 'Ad (people, We sent) their brother Hud. He said: 'O my

people! Worship Allah! You have no other Ilah (God) but Him.

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(La ilaha ill Allah, none has the right to be worshipped but Allah).

Will you not fear (Allah)?' (Qur’an 7:65).

And to (the people of) Madyan (Midian), (We sent) their brother

Shu'aib. He said: 'O my people! Worship Allah! You have no

other Ilah (God) but Him. (La ilaha ill Allah, none has the right to

be worshipped but Allah). Verily, a clear proof (sign) from your

Lord has come unto you, so give full measure and full weight

and wrong not men in their things, and do not make mischief on

the earth after it has been set in order, that will be better for you,

if you are believers.' (Qur’an 7:85).

And to Thamud (people, We sent) their brother Salih. He said:

'O my people! Worship Allah! You have no other Ilah (God) but

Him. (La ilaha ill Allah, none has the right to be worshipped but

Allah).' (Qur’an 7:73).

And verily, We have sent among every Ummah (community,

nation) a Messenger (proclaiming): Worship Allah (Alone) and

avoid (or keep away from) Taghut (all false deities etc. i.e. do not

worship Taghuts besides Allah) (Qur’an 16:36).

We never sent before you [O Prophet] any messenger without

revealing to him that none has the right to be worshiped except

Me, so worship Me (Qur’an 21: 25).

You alone we worship, and You alone we ask for help (5). Guide

us to the straight path (6) (Qur’an 1:5-6).

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 And your God is One God (Allah), there is none who has the

right to be worshipped but He, (La ilaha illa Huwa) the Most

Beneficent, the Most Merciful (Qur’an 2:163).

Thus, the aim of sending these Prophets and Messengers to man and Jinn was

to guide them towards worshiping Allah Alone, as Allah said:

And I (Allah) created not the Jinns and men except they should

worship Me (Alone) (Qur'an 51:56).

And to worship Allah means to obey Him and to do all He has commanded,

and to abstain from all He has forbidden. Then those who obey Allah will be

rewarded in Paradise, and those who disobey Him will be punished in the

Hellfire:

And to Allah belongs whatever is in the heavens and whatever

is in the earth - that He may recompense those who do evil with

[the penalty of] what they have done and recompense those

who do good with the best [reward] (Qur’an 53:31).

Thus, associating others with Allah is the gravest sin that can be committed by

one and is considered a major form of shirk. This is an act of apostasy against

Allah and His commandments, as it implies that someone or something else is

being worshipped as an equal to Allah. Consequently, it is a direct violation of

the core tenets of Islam. Allah is Most Merciful and Forgiving, and He forgives

all sins other than associating others with Him if one sincerely repents before

death:

Verily, Allah forgives not (the sin of) setting up partners in

worship with Him, but He forgives whom He pleases other sins

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 than that, and whoever sets up partners in worship with Allah,

indeed he has strayed far away (Qur’an 4:116).

If anyone assigns partners to Allah, he is as if he had fallen from

heaven and been snatched up by birds, or the wind had

swooped (like a bird on its prey) and thrown him into a far –

distant place (Qur’an 22:31).

And God has made for you mates (and companions) of your own

nature. And made for you, out of them, sons and daughters and

grandchildren, and provided for you sustenance of the best: will

they then believe in vain things, and be ungrateful for God’ s

favours? (✶) And worship others than God, such as have no

power of providing them, for sustenance, with anything in

heavens or earth, and cannot possibly have such power? (✶)

Invent not similitudes for God: for God knoweth, and ye know

not (✶) (Qur’an 16:72–4).

Allah calls on the people:

O mankind! Worship your Lord (Allah), Who created you and

those who were before you so that you may become Al-

Muttaqin (pious and righteous persons who fear Allah much

[abstain from all kinds of sins and evil deeds which He has

forbidden] and love Allah much [perform all kinds of good

deeds which He has ordained]. (✶) Who has made the earth a

resting place for you, and the sky as a canopy, and sent down

rain from the sky and brought forth therewith fruits as a provision

for you. Then do not set up rivals unto Allah (in worship) while

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 you know (that He alone has the right to be worshipped) (✶)

(Qur’an 2:21-2).

2.6 Belief in His Names and Attributes

Allah has several names and attributes as He indicates in the Qur’an. Believing

in what Allah has attributed to Himself and what the Prophet (PBUH) has

attributed to Him without changing their meanings or giving resemblance to

others. As Allah says: “There is nothing like unto Him, and He is the All – Hearer,

the All – Seer” (Qur’an 42:11). For example, He says He has Hands: “To one

whom I have created with My Both Hands” (Qur’an 38:75). He also said: “The

Hand of Allah is over their hands” (Qur’an 48:10).

All these confirm two Hands for Allah, but there is no similarity for them. He

Has a face, but unlike ours; He sees with eyes, but unlike our own eyes for

“There is nothing like unto Him” ( Qur’an 42:11). “And (all) the Most Beautiful

Names belong to Allah, so call on Him by them” (Qur’an 7:180):

He is Allah; none has the right to be worshiped except Him,

Knower of the unseen and the seen; He is the Most

Compassionate, the Most Merciful. (✶) He is Allah; none has the

right to be worshiped except Him, the Sovereign, the Most Holy,

the Most Perfect, the Granter of Security, the Watcher overall,

the All-Mighty, the Compeller, the Supreme. (✶) Glory be to

Allah far above what they associate with Him. He is Allah, the

Creator, the Maker, the Fashioner. He has the most beautiful

names. All that is in the heavens and earth glorifies Him, for He

is the All-Mighty, the All-Wise (✶) (Qur’an 59: 22-24).

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The Prophet (PBUH) said that Allah Has ninety-nine names and attributes (Sahih

Al–Bukhari: 419) as shown in Table 2.1:

Table 2.1

The 99 Names of Allah and their Meanings

S/N Name Transliteration Meaning

1 ُ‫ٱلْرَّحْمَـان‬ Ar-Rahmaan The Most or Entirely Merciful

2 ُ‫ٱلْرَّحِيْم‬ Ar-Raheem The Bestower of Mercy

3 ُ‫ٱملَلِك‬ Al-Malik The King and Owner of Dominion

4 ُ‫ٱلْقُدُّوس‬ Al-Quddus The Absolutely Pure

5 ُ‫ٱلْسَّالم‬ As-Salam The Perfection and Giver of

Peace

6 ُ‫ٱملُؤْمِن‬ Al-Mu’min The One Who gives Iman and

Security

7 ُ‫ٱملُهَيْمِن‬ Al-Muhaymin The Guardian, The Witness, The

Overseer

8 ُ‫ٱلْعَزِيز‬ Al-Aziz The All Mighty

9 ُ‫ٱلْجَبَّار‬ Al-Jabbar The Compeller, The Restorer

10 ُ‫ٱملُتَكَبِّر‬ Al-Mutakabbir The Supreme, The Majestic

11 ُ ‫ٱلْخ َالِق‬ Al-Khaaliq The Creator, The Maker

12 ُ‫ٱلْبَارِئ‬ Al-Baari’ The Originator

13 ُ‫ٱملُصَوِّر‬ Al-Musawwir The Fashioner

14 ُ‫ٱلْغَفَّار‬ Al-Ghaffar The All- and Oft-Forgiving

15 ُ‫ٱلْقَهَّار‬ Al-Qahhaar The Subduer, The Ever-

Dominating

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16 ُ‫ٱلْوَهَّاب‬ Al-Wahhaab The Giver of Gifts

17 ُ‫ٱلْرَّزَّاق‬ Ar-Razzaaq The Provider

18 ُ‫ٱلْفَتَّاح‬ Al-Fattah The Opener, The Judge

19 ُ‫ٱلْعَلِيم‬ Al-‘Aleem The All-Knowing, The Omniscient

20 ُ‫ٱلْقَابِض‬ Al-Qaabid The Withholder

21 ُ‫ٱلْبَاسِط‬ Al-Baasit The Extender

22 ُ ‫ٱلْخ َافِض‬ Al-Khaafidh The Reducer, The Abaser

23 ُ‫ٱلْرَّافِع‬ Ar-Raafi’ The Exalter, The Elevator

24 ُّ‫ٱملُعِز‬ Al-Mu’izz The Honourer, The Bestower

25 ُّ‫ٱملُذِل‬ Al-Mudhill The Dishonourer, The Humiliator

26 ُ‫ٱلْسَّمِيع‬ As-Samee’ The All-Hearing

27 ُ‫ٱلْبَصِير‬ Al-Baseer The All-Seeing

28 ُ‫ٱلْحَكَم‬ Al-Hakam The Judge, The Giver of Justice

29 ُ‫ٱلْعَدْل‬ Al-‘Adl The Utterly Just

30 ُ‫ٱلْلَّطِيف‬ Al-Lateef The Subtle One, The Most Gentle

31 ُ‫ٱلْخَبِير‬ Al-Khabeer The Acquainted, The All-Aware

32 ُ‫ٱلْحَلِيم‬ Al-Haleem The Most Forbearing

33 ُ‫ٱلْعَظِيم‬ Al-Atheem The Magnificent, The Supreme

34 ُ‫ٱلْغَفُور‬ Al-Ghafoor The Forgiving, The Exceedingly

Forgiving

35 ُ‫ٱلْشَّكُور‬ Ash-Shakoor The Most Appreciative

36 ُّ‫ٱلْعَلِي‬ Al-‘Ali The Most High, The Exalted

37 ُ‫ٱلْكَبِير‬ Al-Kabeer The Greatest, The Most Grand

38 ُ‫ٱلْحَفِيظ‬ Al-Hafeez The Preserver, The All-Heedful

and All-Protecting

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39 ُ‫ٱملُقِيت‬ Al-Muqeet The Sustainer

40 ُ‫ٱلْحَسِيب‬ Al-Haseeb The Reckoner, The Sufficient

41 ُ‫ٱلْجَلِيل‬ Al-Jaleel The Majestic

42 ُ‫ٱلْكَرِيم‬ Al-Kareem The Most Generous, The Most

Esteemed

43 ُ‫ٱلْرَّقِيب‬ Ar-Raqeeb The Watchful

44 ُ‫ٱملُجِيب‬ Al-Mujeeb The Responsive One

45 ُ‫ٱلْوَاسِع‬ Al-Waasi’ The All-Encompassing, The

Boundless

46 ُ‫ٱلْحَكِيم‬ Al-Hakeem The All-Wise

47 ُ‫ٱلْوَدُود‬ Al-Wadood The Most Loving

48 ُ‫ٱملَجِيد‬ Al-Majeed The Glorious, The Most

Honourable

49 ُ‫ٱلْبَاعِث‬ Al-Ba’ith The Resurrector, The Raiser of the

Dead

50 ُ‫ٱلْشَّهِيد‬ Ash-Shaheed The All- and Ever Witnessing

51 ُّ‫ٱلْحَق‬ Al-Haqq The Absolute Truth

52 ُ‫ٱلْوَكِيل‬ Al-Wakeel The Trustee, The Disposer of

Affairs

53 ُّ‫ٱلْقَوِي‬ Al-Qawiyy The All-Strong

54 ُ‫ٱملَتِني‬ Al-Mateen The Firm, The Steadfast

55 ُّ‫ٱلْوَلِي‬ Al-Waliyy The Protecting Associate

56 ُ‫ٱلْحَمِيد‬ Al-Hameed The Praiseworthy

57 ُ‫ٱملُحْصِي‬ Al-Muhsi The All-Enumerating, The

Counter

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58 ُ‫ٱملُبْدِئ‬ Al-Mubdi The Originator

59 ُ‫ٱملُعِيد‬ Al-Mueed The Restorer, The Reinstater

60 ‫ٱملُحْيِى‬ Al-Muhyee The Giver of Life

61 ُ‫ٱملُمِيت‬ Al-Mumeet The Bringer of Death, The

Destroyer

62 ُّ‫ٱلْحَى‬ Al-Hayy The Ever-Living

63 ُ‫ٱلْقَيُّوم‬ Al-Qayyoom The Sustainer, The Self-Subsisting

64 ُ‫ٱلْوَاجِد‬ Al-Waajid The Perceiver

65 ُ‫ٱملَاجِد‬ Al-Majeed The Illustrious, The Magnificent

66 ُ‫ٱلْوَاحِد‬ Al-Waahid The One

67 ‫ٱألَحَد‬ Al-Ahad The Unique, The Only One

68 ُ‫ٱلْصَّمَد‬ As-Samad The Eternal, Satisfier of Needs

69 ُ‫ٱلْقَادِر‬ Al-Qadeer The Capable, The Powerful

70 ُ‫ٱملُقْتَدِر‬ Al-Muqtadir The Omnipotent

71 ُ‫ٱملُقَدِّم‬ Al-Muqaddim The Expediter, The Promoter

72 ُ‫ٱملُؤَخِّر‬ Al-Mu’akhkhir The Delayer, The Retarder

73 ُ‫ٱألَوَّل‬ Al-Awwal The First

74 ُ‫ٱآلخِر‬ Al-Akhir The Last

75 ُ‫ٱلْظَّاهِر‬ Az-Zaahir The Manifest

76 ُ‫ٱلْبَاطِن‬ Al-Baatin The Hidden One, Knower of the

Hidden

77 ‫ٱلْوَالِي‬ Al-Waali The Governor, The Patron

78 ‫ٱملُتَعَالِي‬ Al-Muta’ali The Self Exalted

79 ُّ‫ٱلْبَر‬ Al-Barr The Source of Goodness, The

Kind Benefactor

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 80 ُ‫ٱلْتَّوَّاب‬ At-Tawwaab The Ever-Pardoning

81 ُ‫ٱملُنْتَقِم‬ Al-Muntaqim The Avenger

82 ُّ‫ٱلْعَفُو‬ Al-Afuw The Pardoner

83 ُ‫ٱلْرَّؤُف‬ Ar-Ra’oof The Most Kind

84 ُ‫ٱملُلْكُ مَالِك‬ Maalik-ul-Mulk Master of the Kingdom, Owner of

the Dominion

85 ‫ٱلْجَاللِ ذُو‬ Dhul-Jalaali Wal- Possessor of Glory and Honour,

ُ‫وَٱإلِكْرَام‬ Ikraam Lord of Majesty, and Generosity

86 ُ‫ٱملُقْسِط‬ Al-Muqsit The Equitable, The Requiter

87 ُ‫ٱلْجَامِع‬ Al-Jaami’ The Gatherer, The Uniter

88 ُّ‫ٱلْغَني‬ Al-Ghaniyy The Self-Sufficient, The Wealthy

89 ُّ‫ٱملُغْنِي‬ Al-Mughni The Enricher

90 ُ‫ٱملَانِع‬ Al-Mani’ The Withholder

91 ُ‫ٱلْضَّار‬ Ad-Dhaar The Distresser

92 ُ‫ٱلْنَّافِع‬ An-Naafi’ The Propitious, The Benefactor

93 ُ‫ٱلْنُّور‬ An-Nur The Light

94 ‫ٱلْهَادِي‬ Al-Haadi The Guide

95 ُ‫ٱلْبَدِيع‬ Al-Badee’ The Incomparable Originator

96 ‫ٱلْبَاقِي‬ Al-Baaqi The Ever-Surviving, The

Everlasting

97 ُ‫ٱلْوَارِث‬ Al-Waarith The Inheritor, The Heir

98 ُ‫ٱلْرَّشِيد‬ Ar-Rasheed The Guide, Infallible Teacher

99 ُ‫ٱلْصَّبُور‬ As-Saboor The Forbearing, The Patient

Note. Adapted from Sahih Al-Bukhari (Hadith 419); as-Sadi (n.d.).

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The Names and attributes of Allah are what consolidate and give a further

expression of the other fundamental belief articles associated with Allah as the

Creator and Sustainer, as the Lawmaker and as the only One worthy to be

worshipped. It is the Names and the Attributes that show how Merciful,

Forgiving, or Knowledgeable Allah is. For instance, the Attribute of Allah as All-

Knowing is further elaborated, where He made it clear that He is the Ultimate

Source of Knowledge and Wisdom and the key to the knowledge of mysteries

is with Him:

And with Him are the keys of the Al-Ghaib (all that is hidden),

none knows them but He. And He knows whatever there is on

the earth and in the sea. Not a leaf falls but He knows it. There

is not a grain in the darkness of the earth nor anything fresh or

dry but is written in a Clear Record (Qur’an 6:59).

To Allah belongs the unseen [aspects] of the heavens and earth;

and the coming of the Hour is no more than the blink of an eye

or even quicker, for Allah is Most Capable of all things (Qur’an

16:77).

Allah’s Attributes of Mercy and Forgiveness are expressed throughout the

Qur’an. Some of the expressed verses include:

Then Adam received some words from his Lord, and He

accepted his repentance. He is the Accepter of repentance,

Most Merciful (Qur’an 2: 37).

Except for those who repent, mend their deeds, and clarify the

truth; I will surely accept their repentance, for I am the Accepter

of Repentance, Most Merciful (Qur’an 2: 160).

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 Except those who repent after that and mend their ways, for

Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful (Quran 3: 89).

He has only forbidden to you carrion, blood, the flesh of swine,

and what has been sacrificed to other than Allah. But if someone

is compelled by necessity – neither driven by desire nor

exceeding immediate need – then there is no sin upon him; for

Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful (Qur’an 2: 173).

His knowledge of the following mysteries:

Verily the knowledge of the Hour is with God (alone). It is He

Who sends down rain, and He Who knows what is in the wombs.

Nor does anyone know what it is that he will earn on the morrow:

nor does anyone know in what land he is to die. Verily with God

is full knowledge and He is acquainted (with all things) (Qur’an

31:34).

However, Allah shows some of the mysterious things to His Messengers:

He (alone) knows the Unseen, nor does He make any one

acquainted with His Mysteries-- (✶) Except an apostle whom He

has chosen (✶) (Qur’an 72:26-27).

2.7 Belief in the Angels

Angels are supernatural beings created by Allah to serve Him in different forms

and capacities. Belief in Angels is a fundamental part of Islam, as they are

mentioned in both the Qur’an and Hadith. Authentic Hadith confirmed that

Angels are created from light and can take different forms, depending on the

task assigned to them. These tasks range from recording humans’ deeds to

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guarding the gates of paradise and hell. While some Angels are explicitly

mentioned in the Qur’an and Hadith, such as Jibril (responsible for conveying

revelations to the Prophets), Mika’il (responsible for rain), Azra’il (responsible

for death), Malik (the keeper of the hellfire), and Israfil (the blower of the

trumpet). There are also many other angels who are not mentioned (Al-Ashqar,

1998):

All praise be to Allah, the Originator of the heavens and earth,

Who made the angels messengers with two, three, or four

wings. He increases in creation whatever He wills. Indeed, Allah

is Most Capable of all things (Qur’an 35:1).

On the Day when the sky will split asunder with clouds, and the

angels will be sent down in succession (Qur’an 25:25).

Alongside the belief in Angels is the belief in Jinn, which are supernatural

beings that reside in the natural world and can be found all over the world.

However, Jinn are more prevalent in some societies than others. While modern

science may consider some manifestations of Jinn as forms of mental illness,

religious traditions confirm their existence as the creation of Allah with their

lifestyles different from those of humans (Al-Ashqar, 1998).

The existence of Jinn has been theorised in various cultures and societies

across the world, with references in multiple languages such as English, French,

and more. However, the reason for the greater awareness of the presence of

Jinn in some societies than others is still largely unknown and warrants further

investigation. Moreover, the awareness of the presence of Jinn in the world

today appears to be dwindling compared to previous times, which raises

questions about the factors contributing to the decline. The relationship

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between Jinn, Angels, and devils is complex and multifaceted. While Angels

are typically associated with good and devils with evil, Jinn are often

considered to fall somewhere in between, with some being good and some

being bad (Al-Ashqar, 1998). These distinctions between the three entities,

however, could be more nuanced than previously assumed. For example, it is

possible that certain Jinn may possess qualities of both good and evil, and that

the difference between the three is more subtle than previously thought. Jinn

were created from smokeless fire. This unique origin sets them apart from

Angels, who were created from light, and humans, who were created from clay

(Al-Ashqar, 1998): “And the jinn We created before that, from smokeless fire”

(Qur’an 15:28).

2.8 Belief in the Revealed Books

Revealed Books are the revelations specifically mentioned in the Qur’an.

Muslims must believe that Allah has sent books to mankind through his

Messengers, so as to guide them on how to serve Him and to show them the

right path:

Indeed, We have sent Our Messengers with Clear Proofs, and

revealed with them the Scripture and the Balance (Justice) that

mankind may stand forth in justice (Qur’an 57:25).

Mankind were one community and Allah sent Prophets with

Glad Tidings and Warnings, and with them He sent the Scripture

in truth to judge between people in matters wherein they

differed (Qur’an 2:213).

The Books mentioned in the Qur’an are sacred texts that are attributed to

divine revelation. These Books include:

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Table 2.2

The Revealed Books

Arabic Name Transliteration English Name Prophet

‫التَّوراة‬ At-Taurah Torah Prophet Musa (AS)

‫اإلِنجِيل‬ Al-Injeel Gospel Prophet Isa (AS)

‫الصُّحُف‬ As-Suhuf Scrolls Prophet Ibrahim (AS)

‫الزَبُور‬ Az-Zabur Psalms Prophet Dawood (AS)

‫القُرْآن‬ Al-Qur'an Qur'an Prophet Muhammad

(PBUH)
Note. Information from the Qur’an (6:154; 5:44; 17:55; 57:27; 87:18-19).

Allah has spoken about these Books. The Qur’an testifies in numerous verses

about its being the word of Allah revealed to Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). On

Taurah (Torah), He says:

Then, We gave Moses, the Book (the Torah), to complete (Our

Favour) upon those who would do right and explaining all things

in detail and a guide and mercy; that they might believe in the

meeting with their Lord (Qur’an 6:154).

Verily, We did send down Torah (to Moses), therein was

guidance and light, by which the Prophets, who submitted

themselves to Allah’s will, judged the Jews. And the Rabbis and

the priests (too judged the Jews by the Torah after those

Prophets) for to them was entrusted the protection of Allah’s

Book, and they were witnesses thereto (Qur’an 5:44).

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On Zabur (Psalms), Allah says:

“And to David We gave the Psalms” (17:55).

On Injeel (Gospel), Allah says:

And We sent Jesus, son of Mary, and gave him the Gospel. And

We ordained in the hearts of those who followed him

compassion and Mercy. But the Monasticism which they

invented for themselves, We did not prescribe for them, but

(they sought it) only to please Allah therewith, but that they did

not observe it with the right observance. So We gave those

among them who believe, their (due) reward, but many of them

are Faasiquun (rebellious, disobedient to Allah) (Qur’an 57:27).

On Scroll, Allah says: “Indeed, this was in the earlier Scriptures,

(✶) the Scriptures of Abraham and Moses” (✶) (Qur’an 87: 18-

19).

2.9 Belief in the Messengers

Messengers are Prophets chosen by Allah to deliver His Message to their

communities regarding His commandments. Muslims must believe that Allah,

the Almighty, sent several Messengers or Prophets to guide mankind. The

Qur’an mentions the names of 25 Prophets. These Prophets were sent to guide

their respective communities and convey the Message of Allah to them. For

example, the Qur’an recounts various instances of Prophets reminding their

people to fear Allah and obey His Commands:

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1. “When their brother Noah said to them, "Do you not fear Allah? (✶) I am a

trustworthy messenger to you, (✶) so fear Allah and obey me" (✶) (Qur’an

26:106-108).

2. “When their brother Hud said to them, "Will you not fear Allah? (✶) I am a

trustworthy messenger to you, (✶) so fear Allah and obey me" (✶) (Qur’an

26:124-126).

3. "When their brother Salih said to them, "Will you not fear Allah? (✶) I am a

trustworthy messenger to you, (✶) so fear Allah and obey me" (✶) (Qur’an

26:142-144).

4. “When their brother Lot said to them, "Will you not fear Allah? (✶) I am a

trustworthy messenger to you, (✶) so fear Allah and obey me" (✶) (Qur’an

26:161-163).

5. “When Shu'ayb said to them, "Will you not fear Allah? I am a trustworthy

messenger to you, so fear Allah and obey me" (Qur’an 26:177-179).

Furthermore, the Quran instructs the followers of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH):

6. "Say, [O Muhammad], 'If you love Allah, then follow me; Allah will love you

and forgive you your sins, for Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful'" (Qur’an

3:31).

7. "Say, 'Obey Allah and the Messenger.' But if they turn away, then Allah does

not like the disbelievers" (Qur’an 3:32).

Muslims believe in all the Messengers sent by Allah and make no distinction

among them:

Say (O Muslims): “We believe in Allah and that which has been

sent down to us and that which has been sent down to Abraham,

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 Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and to the twelve sons of Jacob, and that

given to Moses, Jesus, and that given to the Prophets from their

Lord. We make no distinction between any of them, and to Him

we have submitted (in Islam)” (Qur’an 2:136).

Some of the Messengers are mentioned in the Qur’an, while others are not. Of

those mentioned, Allah says:

That was Our argument which We gave Abraham against his

people. We elevate in ranks whom We will. Your Lord is All-Wise,

All-Knowing. (✶) We granted him Isaac and Jacob – each of

them We guided as We previously guided Noah, and among his

descendants: David, Solomon, Job, Joseph, Moses, and Aaron.

Thus, do We reward those who do good. (✶) And Zachariah,

John, Jesus, and Elias – each was among the righteous. (✶) Also

Ishmael, Elisha, Jonah, and Lot – each of them We preferred

over all other people [of their times]. (✶) And some of their

fathers, their descendants, and their brothers–We chose them

and guided them to a straight path (✶) (Qur’an 6:83-87).

And mention in the Book [the story of] Idris. He was a man of

truth and a prophet. (✶) And We raised him to a high status. (✶)

These are the prophets whom Allah has favoured from among

the descendants of Adam, and from those whom We carried

with Noah [in the Ark], and from the descendants of Abraham

and Israel [Jacob], and from those whom We guided and chose.

Whenever the verses of the Most Compassionate were recited

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 to them, they fell down in prostration, weeping (✶) (Qur’an 19:

56-58).

O my people, do not let your opposition to me cause you to

suffer a punishment similar to that of the people of Noah, the

people of Hud or the people of Salih. And the people of Lot are

not far away from you (Qur’an 11: 89).

Those who rejected Shu‘ayb became as if they had never lived

there. Those who rejected Shu‘ayb were themselves the losers

(Qur’an 7:92).

And [remember] Isma’il (Ishmael), Idris (Enoch) and Dhul-Kifl

(Ezekiel); they were all steadfast (Qur’an 21:85).

As for those who believe, do righteous deeds, and believe in

what has been sent down to Muhammad (PBUH) – which is the

truth from their Lord – He will absolve them of their sins and set

their condition right (Quran 47:2).

The Qur’an mentions twenty-five Prophets who were sent to various people

and places, as in Table 2.3 and the number of times they are mentioned as in

Table 2.4. As for those not mentioned, Allah says:

And some Messengers We mentioned to you above, and

Messengers We have not mentioned to you (Qur’an 4:164).

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Table 2.3

Ages and Missions of the Prophets

Prophet Age People Location Reference

Adam (AS) 1000 India; Sri Lanka;

years Makkah, and

Jeddah

Idris (AS) 356 Unknown Babylon (Iraq) and 19:56-57

years (Ancient People) later Egypt

Nuh (AS) 1,100 People of Nuh Mount Judi, 7:59

years Turkey

Hud (AS) 265 People of 'Ad Southern Arabia; 7:65

years Yemen

Saleh (AS) 586 People of Surrounding 7:73

years Thamud regions east of

the Gulf of AI-

'Aqabah; Lebanon

Lut (AS) 150 People of Iraq 7:80-84

years Sodom and

Gomorrah

Ibrahim (AS) 195 Various Nations Babylon (Iraq); 21:51-71

years Canaan

Isma’il (AS) 137 Arab Tribes Makkah, Saudi 19:54-55

years Arabia

Ishaq (AS) 120 Canaan Hebron, Palestine 19:49-50

years (Israelites)

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Yaqub (AS) 129/13 Canaan Northern Iraq; 12:6-7

9 years (Israelites) Syria; Palestine;

Egypt

Yusuf (AS) 110 Ancient Egypt Syria; Palestine; 12:4-101

years Egypt

Shu’aib (AS) 882 People of Midianite in Syria; 7:85

years Madyan Lebanon

Ayyub (AS) 146 Unknown Amman, Jordan 38:41-44

years (Ancient People)

Dhul Kifl Unknown Mount Qasiyun, 38:48

(AS) (Ancient People) Syria

Musa (AS) 125 Children of Egypt; Midian; 20:9-88

years Israel/Pharaoh’s Palestine

Egypt

Harun (AS) 119 Children of Egypt 20:29-32

years Israel/Pharaoh’s

Egypt

Dawood 70 Kingdom of Jerusalem and 38:17-26

(AS) years Israel Ramallah,

Palestine

Sulaiman 150 Kingdom of Jerusalem (Al- 27:15-44

(AS) years Israel Quds), Palestine

Ilyas (AS) Israelites Heliopolis, Egypt 37:123

Alyasa (AS) Israelites Heliopolis, Egypt 38:48

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 Yunus (AS) People of Nineveh, Iraq 37:139-

Nineveh 148

Zakariya 207 Children of Palestine 19:2-15

(AS) years Israel

Yahya (AS) 95 Children of Palestine or 19:12-15

years Israel Damascus, Syria

Isa (AS) 37 Children of Palestine 19:16-34

years Israel

Muhammad 63 Arab Tribes Saudi Arabia; 47:2

(PBUH) years People of World

Makkah,

Mankind
Note. Adapted from Ibn Kathir (2006); Abu Khalil (2003).

Table 2.4

Prophets Mentioned in the Qur’an and the Frequency of Mentions

Prophet Number of Times Mentioned

Musa (AS) 136

Ibrahim (AS) 69

Nuh (AS) 43

Lut (AS) 27

Yusuf (AS) 27

Isa (AS)6 25

Adam (AS) 25

Harun (AS) 20

6
23 times as Ibn Maryam and 11 times as Al-Masih.

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 Sulaiman (AS) 17

Ishaq (AS) 17

Dawood (AS) 16

Yaqub (AS) 16

Isma’il (AS) 12

Shuaib (AS) 11

Salih (AS) 9

Zakariya (AS) 7

Hud (AS) 7

Yahya (AS) 5

Muhammad (PBUH)7 4

Yunus (AS) 4

Ayyub (AS) 4

Idris (AS) 2

Alyasa (AS) 2

Ilyas (AS) 3

Dhul Kifl (AS) 2

Note. Adapted from Abu Khalil (2003). See Appendix II for the chapters in which they
appeared in.

Allah has chosen His Messengers above all people:

Allah chose Adam and Noah, the family of Abraham, and the

family of ‘Imran above all people). (✶) They were descendants

7
Referred to as Messenger, Messenger of Allah, and Prophet 16 times and as warner, bearer of glad tidings, and
the one who invites people to Allah 2 times.

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 of one another. And Allah is All-Hearing, All-Knowing (✶)

(Qur’an 3:33-34).

Some of the Messengers are elevated over others as Allah determined. They

came in different periods and to different societies with common and specific

messages:

Those messengers - some of them We caused to exceed others.

Among them were those to whom Allah spoke, and He raised

some of them in degree. And We gave Jesus, the Son of Mary,

clear proofs, and We supported him with the Pure Spirit (Qur’an

2:253).

For example, on Musa (Moses) Allah says:

O Moses, I have chosen you above men, by My Messages, and

by My speaking (to you). So, hold that which I have given you

and be of the grateful (7:144).

And We wrote for him on the tablets the lesson to be drawn

from all things and explanation of all things (and said): Hold

these with firmness and enjoin your people to take the better

therein. I shall show you the homes of the rebellious

(disobedient to Allah) (Qur’an 7:145).

On Yusuf (Joseph), the Qur'an says:

My Lord! You have indeed bestowed on me (something) of

sovereignty and taught me (something) of the interpretation of

dreams and other things. The (Only) Creator of the Heavens and

the earth! You are my "Wali" (Protector, Helper, Supporter,

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 Guardian etc.) in this world and in the Hereafter, cause me to die

as one submitting to Your will (as a Muslim) and join me with the

righteous (Qur’an 12:101).

On Dawood (David), Allah says:

We bestowed Grace a foretime on David from Ourselves: "O ye

Mountains! sing ye back the Praises of God with him! and ye

birds (also)! and We made the iron soft for Him-- (Qur’an 34:10).

To David We gave Solomon (for a son)--how excellent in Our

service! Ever did he turn (to Us)! (Qur’an 38:30).

And your Lord is most knowing of whoever is in the heavens and

the earth. And We have made some of the prophets exceed

others [in various ways], and to David We gave the book [of

Psalms] (Qur’an 17:55).

On Sulaiman (Solomon), Allah says:

And Solomon was David's heir. He said: "O ye people! we have

been taught the speech of Birds, and on us has been bestowed

(a little) of all things: this is indeed Grace manifest (from God)"

(Qur’an 27:16).

And We did try Solomon: We placed on his throne a body

(without life): but he did turn (to Us in true devotion): (✶) He

said, "O my Lord! Forgive me, and grant me a Kingdom, which,

(it may be), suits not another after me: for Thou art the Grantor

of Bounties (without measure)." (✶) Then We subjected the

Wind to his power, to flow gently to his order, whithersoever he

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willed— (✶) As also the evil ones, (including) every kind of

builder and diver— (✶) As also others bound together in fetters

(✶) "Such are Our Bounties: whether thou bestow them (on

others) or withhold them, no account will be asked." (✶) And he

enjoyed, indeed, a Near Approach to Us, and a beautiful Place

of (final) Return (✶) (Qur’an 38:34-40).

And to Solomon (We made) the Wind (obedient): its early

morning (stride) was a month's (journey), and its evening (stride)

was a month's (journey); and We made a Font of molten brass

to flow for him; and there were Jinns that worked in front of him,

by the leave of his Lord, and if any of them turned aside from

Our command, We made Him taste of the Penalty of the Blazing

Fire. (✶) They worked for him as he desired, (making) Arches,

Images, Basins as large as Reservoirs, and (cooking) Cauldrons

fixed (in their places): "Work ye, sons of David, with thanks! But

few of My servants are grateful!" (✶) Then, when We decreed

(Solomon's) death, nothing showed them his death except a

little worm of the earth, which kept (slowly) gnawing away at his

staff: so, when he fell down, the Jinns saw plainly that if they had

known the unseen, they would not have tarried in the

humiliating Penalty (of their Task) (✶) (Qur’an 34:12-14).

We gave David and Solomon knowledge, and they both said:

"Praise be to Allah (God), Who has made us excel over many of

His believing servants" (Qur’an 27:15).

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It may be noted that Prophet Ibrahim (AS) was the progenitor of all the

Prophets who came after him, namely Isma’il (Ishmael), son of Ibrahim (AS);

Ishaq (Isaac), son of Ibrahim (AS); Yaqub (Jacob), son of Ishaq; Yusuf (Joseph),

son of Yaqub; Shu’aib (Jethro), Ayyub (Job), Dhul Kifl (Ezekiel), Musa (Moses),

Harun (Aaron), Dawood (David), Sulaiman (Solomon), Ilyas (Elias), Alyasa

(Elisha), Yunus (Jonah), Zakariya (Zachariah), Yahya (John the Baptist), Isa (Jesus)

and Muhammad (PBUH), from Isma’il.

Messengers were sent to guide mankind to the right path so that people would

have no excuse for not following the right path, the path of Allah:

Messengers as bearers of good news as well as of warning in

order that mankind should have no plea against Allah after the

Messengers. And Allah is Ever All-Powerful, All-Wise (Qur’an

4:165).

Some of the Messengers lived during the same period. They were Ibrahim, Lut,

Ishaq, Yaqub, and Isma’il. Similarly, Musa (AS) lived at the same time as his

brother Harun (AS), while Isa (AS) lived in the same period as Zakariya (AS).

Muhammad (PBUH), on the other hand, was alone in his time and the last of

them all.

The teachings of the Messenger (PBUH) were unified by the basic ideals of

honesty, loyalty, sympathy for the weak, and other moral and ethical ideals.

These values have been integral to various cultures and societies throughout

history and are still widely accepted today. They have been taught by the

Messengers, from Adam (AS) to Muhammad (PBUH). While Islam, as it is known

today, is a new religion compared to the others, it is, however, a continuation

of the previously revealed religions. Through the Messengers, Allah has sought

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to establish consistent ethical and moral values through the ages and to all of

humanity.

2.10 Belief in Prophet Muhammad (PBUH)

Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) was born in the Year of the Elephant in the city of

Makkah on Monday, the 12th day of Rabi’ul Awwal, (20th April, 571 AD)

according to the view held by the majority (Lings, 1983; Ibn Kathir, 2006). He

is Muhammad ibn ‘Abdullah ibn ‘Abd al-Mutallib ibn Hashim ibn ‘Abd Manat

ibn Qusayy ibn Kilab. His lineage goes back to Isma’il the son of Ibrahim (peace

be upon them), from Quraysh, an Arab tribe. His father, Abdullah bin Abdul-

Mutallib, passed away seven months before his birth. He was raised by his

mother, Aminah, until her death when he was six years old. His grandfather,

Abdul-Mutallib, assumed guardianship until he passed away two years later,

leaving the Prophet (PBUH) under the guardianship of his uncle, Abu Talib. At

the age of twenty-five, the Prophet (PBUH) married Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, a

wealthy widow who was fifteen years his senior (Ibn Ishaq, 1967; Lings, 1983;

Al-Tabari, 1989; Ibn Kathir, 2006).

In 610 AD, at the age of forty, Muhammad (PBUH) was chosen by Allah through

revelation to be His last Messenger for mankind. For the following thirteen

years in Makkah, he continued to preach the submission of mankind to Allah

and the cessation of idol worship. However, the people of Makkah generally

refused to submit to Allah and persecuted the believers, forcing the Prophet

(PBUH) and few of his followers to migrate (Hijrah) to Madinah, a city about 416

kilometres away from Makkah, where its people accepted Islam and

accommodated them (Ibn Ishaq, 1967; Al-Tabari, 1989; Ibn Hisham, n.d).

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For the next decade, the Prophet (PBUH) preached in Madinah and propagated

his teachings, advocating for the principles of Islam throughout the Arabian

Peninsula. By the time of his death on Monday, the 12th day of Rabi’ul Awwal,

11th year of Hijrah (8th June, 632 AD), the entire region had accepted Islam, and

all oppositions had been quelled (Lings, 1983; Ibn Hisham, n.d). In addition,

the Prophet (PBUH) had successfully established an Islamic system of

governance, effectively challenging the existing power dynamics of the

Byzantine and Persian Empires.

Believing in Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) means accepting the message he had

brought and obeying his commands:

But no, by your Lord, they can have no Faith, until they make

you judge in all disputes between them and find in their souls

no resistance against your decisions but accept (them) fully with

submission (Qur’an 4:65).

It is not fitting for a Believer, man, or woman, when a matter has

been decided by God and His Apostle, to have any option

about their decision: if anyone disobeys God and His Apostle,

he is indeed on a clearly wrong Path (Qur’an 33:36).

The Prophet (PBUH) must be respected:

Indeed, Allah sends His blessings upon the Prophet, and His

angels pray for him. O you who believe, invoke Allah’s blessings

upon him, and send him greetings of peace” (Qur’an 33:56).

Muhammad is the Apostle of God (Qur’an 48:29).

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 Indeed, in the Messenger of Allah (Muhammad PBUH) you have

a good example to follow for him who hopes in (the Meeting

with) Allah and the Last Day and remembers Allah much (Qur’an

33:21).

The Prophet (PBUH) was sent as a mercy to mankind by showing them the right

path and bringing them from darkness to light:

We have not sent you [O Prophet] except as a mercy to the

worlds (Qur’an 21:107).

And We have not sent you but for all mankind as a bringer of

glad tidings and a warner, but most people do not know (Qur’an

34:28).

Say [O Prophet], “O people, I am the Messenger of Allah to you

all. To Him belongs the dominion of the heavens and earth;

none has the right to be worshiped except Him; He gives life

and causes death.” So believe in Allah and His Messenger, the

unlettered Prophet, who believes in Allah and His words, and

follow him, so that you may be guided (Qur’an 7: 158).

O mankind, the Messenger has come to you with the truth from

your Lord, so believe; it is better for you. But if you disbelieve -

then, indeed, to Allah belongs whatever is in the heavens and

earth. And Allah is All-Knowing, All-Wise (Qur’an 4: 170).

O Prophet, We have sent you as a witness, a bearer of glad

tidings and a warner (✶) and a caller to [the way of] Allah by His

command, and as a lamp spreading light (✶) And give glad

tidings to the believers that they will have a great bounty from

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 Allah (✶) Do not yield to the disbelievers and the hypocrites

and pay no heed to their annoyances. Put your trust in Allah, for

Allah is sufficient as a Trustee of affairs (✶) (Qur’an 33:45-8).

Despite the clear evidence of the divine revelations and the logical

explanations provided by the Messenger of Allah, many unbelievers persisted

in their refusal to accept the truth of the divine message. Initially, they refused

to accept the idea of monotheism and the divinely appointed Messenger,

preferring instead to cling to the superstitious beliefs of their ancestors and the

primordial polytheistic worship of their societies. To this extent, Allah

challenged them on several issues:

On the creation, the unbelievers were challenged to bring a creator other than

Allah:

He created the heavens without pillars that you can see; and He

placed firm mountains on the earth so it does not shake with

you; and He spread therein all kinds of creatures. We sent down

rain from the sky and caused to grow therein all kinds of fine

plants. (✶) This is Allah’s creation. So show Me what others

beside Him have created. In fact, the wrongdoers are clearly

misguided (✶) (Qur’an 31:10-11).

Whomsoever We give a long life, We cause his strength to

decline. Do they not then understand? (Quran 36:68).

Say: “Have ye seen (these) ‘partners’ of yours whom ye call upon

besides God?” Show me what it is they have created in the

(wide) earth. Or have they a share in the heavens? Or have We

given them a Book from which they (can derive) clear

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 (evidence)?—Nay, the wrongdoers promise each other nothing

but delusions (Qur’an 35:40).

So ask them, “Are they more difficult to create or other things

We created? We created them from sticky clay. (✶) and when

they are reminded, they pay no heed, (✶) and when they see a

sign, they ridicule it, (✶) and they say, “This is nothing but clear

magic. (✶) Is it that when we are dead and become dust and

bones, will we really be raised up again, (✶) and our forefathers

too?” (✶) Say, “Yes, and you will be disgraced.” (✶) It will only

be a single Blast, and at once they will be looking around. (✶)

They will say, “Woe to us! This is the Day of Judgment!” (✶)

(Qur’an 37:11-20).

As for the People of the Book, Allah says:

O People of the Book, why do you disbelieve in the verses of

Allah while you testify [to their truth]?” (✶) O People of the

Book, why do you mix the truth with falsehood and conceal the

truth knowingly? (✶) (Qur’an 3:70-71).

O you who were given the Scripture, believe in what We have

sent down [to Muhammad] – confirming your own Scriptures –

before We obliterate faces turning them backwards, or We curse

them as We cursed the Sabbath-breakers. For Allah’s will is

always executed (Qur’an 4:47).

O People of the Book, do not go to extremes in your religion,

and do not say about Allah but the truth. The Messiah, Jesus,

son of Mary, was only a messenger of Allah, and His Word that

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He bestowed upon Mary, and a spirit from Him. So believe in

Allah and His messengers and do not say “Three” [Trinity].

Cease; that is better for you. Indeed, Allah is the only One God.

Glory be to Him, [far exalted is He] to have a son. To Him

belongs all that is in the heavens and all that is on earth, and

sufficient is Allah as a Disposer of Affairs (Qur’an 4:171).

O People of the Book, there has come to you Our Messenger,

revealing to you much of what you have been concealing of the

Scripture, and overlooking much. There has surely come to you

from Allah a light and a clear Book (Qur’an 5:15).

O People of the Book, there has come to you Our Messenger,

making things clear to you, after an interval between the

messengers, so you do not say, “No bearer of glad tidings or a

warner has ever come to us.” Now there has come to you a

bearer of glad tidings and a warner. And Allah is Most Capable

of all things (Qur’an 5:19).

Had the People of the Book believed and feared Allah, We

would have surely expiated their sins from them and admitted

them to Gardens of Pleasure (Qur’an 5:65).

Say, ‘O people of the Book, come to a common term between

us and you, that we worship none but Allah and associate no

partners with Him, and that we do not take one another as lords

besides Allah.’ But if they turn away, say, ‘Bear witness that we

are Muslims [submitting to Allah]’ ” (Qur’an 3:64).

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After all these clear proofs, Allah calls on people to believe in Him and to serve

Him, for failure to do that will cost a lot:

O mankind! do your duty to your Lord, and fear (the coming of)

a Day when no father can avail aught for his son, nor a son avail

aught for his father. Verily, the promise of God is true: let not

then this present life deceive you nor let the Chief Deceiver

deceive you about God (Qur’an 31:33).

Know ye (all), that the life of this world is but play and

amusement, pomp and mutual boasting and multiplying, (in

rivalry) among yourselves, riches, and children: Here is a

similitude: How rain and the growth which it brings forth, delight

(the hearts of) the tillers; soon it withers; thou wilt see it grow

yellow; then it becomes dry and crumbles away. But in the

Hereafter is a Penalty severe (for the devotees of wrong), and

Forgiveness from God and (His) Good Pleasure (for the devotees

of God). And what is the life of this world, but goods and

chattels of deception?. (✶) Be ye foremost (in seeking)

forgiveness from your Lord, and a Garden (of Bliss), the width

whereof is as the width of heaven and earth, prepared for those

who believe in God and His apostles: that is the Grace of God,

which He bestows on whom He pleases: and God is the Lord of

Grace abounding (✶) (Qur’an 57:20-21).

A consequence of refusal to believe:

Those who reject Our Al – Ayaat (proofs, evidence, verses,

lessons, signs, revelations, etc.), We shall gradually (little by

112
 little) seize them with punishment in the ways they perceive not

(Qur’an 7:182).

But those who reject (God)--for them will be the Fire of Hell: no

term shall be determined for them, so they should die, nor shall

its Penalty be lightened for them: thus do We reward every

ungrateful one! (✶) Therein will they cry aloud (for assistance):

"Our Lord! bring us out: we shall work righteousness, not the

(deeds) we used to do!" Did we not give you long enough life

so that he that would receive admonition? And (moreover) the

warner came to you. So taste ye (the fruit of your deeds): for

the Wrongdoers there is no helper." (✶) Verily God knows (all)

the hidden things of the heavens and the earth: verily He has

full knowledge of all that is in (men's) hearts (✶) (Qur’an 35:36-

38).

2.10.1 Challenges Faced by the Prophet (PBUH)

Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and the early Muslims encountered numerous

challenges and hostilities from the non-believers of Makkah. Their struggles

included enduring mockery and scorn, as the disbelievers attempted to belittle

and ridicule the Prophet (PBUH), often displaying overt arrogance. Despite

these efforts to undermine him, these challenges only served to solidify the

Prophet's (PBUH) resolve and dedication to his divine mission. His remarkable

courage and unwavering commitment in the face of adversity stand as a

powerful proof to his integrity and the profoundness of his mission to

disseminate the teachings of Islam.

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During this early period of Islamic propagation, the non-believers presented

various arguments against the religion. The Qur'an, in its wisdom, addresses

these arguments, offering responses that span a range of themes. Key

arguments from the non-believers and their corresponding responses in the

Qur'an include:

2.10.1.1 Challenge to his Prophethood

The unbelievers often questioned Muhammad's status as a Prophet. The

Qur'an addresses this in several places, where it emphasises that Muhammad

(PBUH) does not read or write, and the verses are divine revelations:

And you did not recite before it any scripture, nor did you

inscribe one with your right hand. Then [i.e., otherwise] the

falsifiers would have had [cause for] doubt. (✶) Rather, this

[Qur’an] is clear verses [preserved] in the hearts of those who

have been given knowledge. And none rejects Our verses

except the wrongdoers (✶) (Qur’an 29:48-49).

And they say: “Why has not an angel been sent down to him?”

Had We sent down an angel, the matter would have been

judged at once, and no respite would have be granted to them

(Qur’an 6:8).

And they say: "What sort of an apostle is this, who eats food,

and walks through the streets? Why has not an angel been sent

down to him to give admonition with him? (✶) "Or (why) has not

a treasure been bestowed on him, or why has he (not) a garden

for enjoyment?" The wicked say: "Ye follow none other than a

man bewitched" (✶) (Qur’an 25:7-8).

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 And the apostles whom We sent before thee were all (men) who

ate food and walked through the streets: We have made some

of you as a trial for others: will ye have patience? For God is One

Who sees (all things) (Qur’an 25:20).

Despite all this, they demanded physical miracles as proof of his Prophethood.

He explained that previous generations were sent miracles, but they still did

not believe, and the Qur'an itself is a miracle:

And nothing has prevented Us from sending signs [i.e., miracles]

except that the former peoples denied them. And We gave

Thamud the she-camel as a visible sign, but they wronged her.

And We send not the signs except as a warning (Qur’an: 17:59).

They say, “Why is it that no signs have been sent down to him

from his Lord?” Say, “The signs are only with Allah, and I am only

a clear Warner.” (✶) Is it not enough for them that We have sent

down to you the Book which is being recited to them? Indeed,

there is a mercy and reminder in it for people who believe (✶)

(Qur’an: 29:50-51).

2.10.1.2 Mockery and Teasing

The unbelievers of Makkah exhibited a great deal of animosity towards the

Prophet (PBUH), subjecting him to mockery and ridicule. It was intended to

discredit his message and undermine the legitimacy of his authority:

And among them are who hurt the Prophet (Muhammad PBUH)

and say: "He is (lending his) ear (to every news)." Say: "He listen

to what is best for you; he believes in Allah; has faith in the

believers; and is a Mercy to those of you who believe." But those

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 who hurt the Messenger (Muhammad PBUH) will have a painful

torment (Qur’an 9:61).

When the Unbelievers see thee, they treat thee not except with

ridicule. "Is this," (they say), "the one who talks of your gods?"

And they blaspheme at the mention of (God) Most Gracious!

(Qur’an 21:36).

The Unbelievers say (in ridicule): "Shall we point out to you a

man that will tell you, when ye are all scattered to pieces in

disintegration, that ye shall (then be raised) in a New Creation?

(✶) "Has he invented a falsehood against God, or has a spirit

(seized) him?"--Nay, it is those who believe not in the Hereafter,

that are in (real) Penalty, and in farthest Error (✶) (Qur’an 34:7-

8).

And indeed, mocked at were Messengers before you; but their

scoffers were surrounded by the thing that they used to mock at

(Qur’an 6:10).

2.10.1.3 Name Calling

They called the Prophet (PBUH) all sorts of names. They called him insane,

soothsayer: And they say:

"O you (Muhammad PBUH) to whom the Dhikr (the Qur’an) has

been sent down! Verily, you are a mad man! (Qur’an 15:6). “And

(they) said: "Are we going to abandon our alihah (gods) for the

sake of a mad poet?" (Qur’an 37:36).

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Allah consoled His Prophet (PBUH):

Therefore, remind (mankind of Islamic Monotheism, O

Muhammad (PBUH). By the Grace of Allah, you are neither a

soothsayer, nor a madman (Qur’an 52:29).

Likewise, no Messenger came to those before them but they

said: "A sorcerer or a madman!"(Qur’an 51:52).

2.10.1.4 Questions to Test Him

The Prophet (PBUH) was subjected to rigorous questioning about the Day of

Judgement, historical events, and other matters, in an effort to discredit and

ridicule him. However, Allah continually provided him with answers to these

queries:

And no example or similitude do they bring (to oppose or to

find fault in you or in this Qur’an), but We reveal to you the truth

(against that similitude or example), and the better explanation

thereof. (Qur’an 25:33).

“They asked you about the Hour (Day of Resurrection): “When

will be its appointed time?” Say: “The knowledge thereof is with

my Lord (Alone). None can reveal its time but He. ... It shall not

come upon you except all of a sudden" (Qur’an 7:187).

They ask you concerning the Hour, “When will it be?” (✶) How

could you possibly mention that? (✶) Its knowledge rests only

with your Lord (✶) (Qur’an 79: 42-44).

They ask [mockingly], “When is the Day of Judgment?” (✶) It is

the Day when they will be punished by the Fire. (✶) [It will be

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 said], “Taste your punishment! This is what you were seeking to

hasten” (✶) (Qur’an 51: 12-14).

Does he promise you that when you die and have become dust

and bones, that you will be brought forth again? (✶) Away, off

with whatever you are threatened with! (✶) There is nothing

except our life of this world; we die, others are born, and none

will be resurrected (✶) (Qur’an 23:35-37)

Does man think that We cannot reassemble his bones? In fact,

We are able to restore even his very fingertips (Qur’an 75:3-4)

And they ask you, [O Muhammad], about the soul. Say, "The

soul is of the affair [i.e., concern] of my Lord. And you [i.e.,

mankind] have not been given of knowledge except a little"

(Qur’an 17: 85).

And they ask you, [O Muhammad], about Dhul-Qarnayn. Say, "I

will recite to you about him a report" (✶) Indeed, We

established him on earth and gave him the means to achieve

everything. (✶) (Qur’an 18: 83-84).

They ask you about the mountains, say, “My Lord will scatter

them into dust, (✶) and He will leave the earth level and plain,

(✶) you will not see therein any troughs or peaks” (✶) (Qur’an

20: 105-107).

2.10.1.5 Arrogance

They made varieties of boastful statements to the Prophet (PBUH), provoking

him, but always, Allah was with the Prophet (PBUH):

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 “And (remember) when they said: "O Allah! If this (Qur'an) is

indeed the Truth (revealed) from you, then rain down on us a

shower of stones from the sky or bring on us a painful torment”

(Qur’an 8:32).

They were replied:

“But Allah would not punish them while you (Muhammad PBUH)

were amongst them, nor will He punish them while they seek

(Allah's) forgiveness” (Qur’an 8:33).

Similarly:

They say, “We will never believe in you until you cause a spring

to gush forth for us from the earth, (✶) or until you have a garden

of date palms and grapevines, and you cause rivers to flow

abundantly in their midst, (✶) or you make the sky to fall upon

us in pieces – as you claim – or bring Allah and the angels before

us face to face, (✶) or until you have a house of gold, or you

ascend to the heaven, and even then we will never believe in

your ascension unless you bring down to us a book which we

can read.” Say, “Glory be to my Lord! Am I anything but a

human, sent as a messenger?” (✶) Nothing prevented people

from believing when guidance came to them except that they

said, “Has Allah sent a human as a messenger?” (✶) Say, “If

there had been angels walking on earth peacefully, We would

have certainly sent down to them from the heaven an angel as

a messenger.” (✶) Say, “Allah is Sufficient as a witness between

me and you. He is indeed All-Aware, All-Seeing of His slaves.”

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 (✶) Whoever Allah guides is truly guided; and whoever He

causes to stray, you will find none to protect them besides Him.

On the Day of Resurrection, We will gather [and drag] them on

their faces – deaf, dumb, and blind. Their abode will be Hell;

every time it subsides, We will flare it up for them. (✶) That will

be their recompense because they rejected Our verses and said,

“What! When we are turned into bones and crumbled particles,

will we really be raised as a new creation?” (✶) Do they not see

that Allah, Who created the heavens and earth, is able to create

the like of them? He has decreed for them an appointed time,

about which there is no doubt, yet the wrongdoers persist in

denial (✶) (Qur’an 17:90-99).

2.10.1.6 Preventing People from Accepting the Religion

The unbelievers of Makkah sought to undermine the impact of the Qur’an by

actively discouraging people from listening to it when it was read aloud:

The Unbelievers say: "Listen not to this Qur'an (Qur’an 41:26).

When you recite the Qur’an, We place between you and those

who do not believe in the Hereafter an invisible barrier (✶) We

have placed covers on their hearts so that they do not

understand it, and deafness in their ears. When you mention

your Lord alone in the Qur’an, they turn their backs in aversion.

(✶) We are well aware of what they wish to hear when they listen

to you, and what they say when they converse in private, when

the wrongdoers say, “You are not following but a bewitched

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 man.” (✶) See how they call you names! Thus, they have gone

astray and cannot find a way (✶) (Qur’an 17: 45-48).

Have you seen the one who prevents (✶) a slave [of Allah] from

praying? (✶) What if this [slave] is rightly guided, (✶) and enjoins

righteousness? (✶) (Qur’an 96: 9-12).

In order to subjugate and coerce the Muslim minority, their oppressors

implemented a boycott of their social and economic activities. This boycott

was accompanied by severe persecution, leaving many Muslims no choice but

to migrate to the safety of Abyssinia (Ethiopia), under the protection of Negus

(Najjashi) the then ruler of the land and eventually to the city of Madinah. Such

oppressive measures symbolised concerted attempts to not only repress the

religious beliefs of the Muslim minority but also to deny them their right to

practice their faith without fear of intimidation or reprisal.

2.10.1.7 Allegation of Fabricating the Qur'an

The unbelievers accused the Prophet (PBUH) of fabricating the Qur'an himself,

rather than being a revealed scripture. Refuting this, the Qur’an states that the

Qur’an’s Arabic is pure, and it contains knowledge beyond the Prophet’s

(PBUH) capacity:

We already know they are saying: "It is merely a human being

who is teaching him!" The tongue of the person whom they hint

at is foreign, while this is clear Arabic speech (Qur’an 16:103).

“Say: "The (Qur'an) was sent down by Him Who knows the

Mystery (that is) in the heavens and the earth: verily He is Oft-

Forgiving, Most Merciful" (Qur’an 25:6).

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 And this Qur'an is not such as could ever be produced by other

than Allah (Lord of the Heavens and the Earth), but (on the

contrary) it is a confirmation of (revelation) that was before it (i.e.

The Torah and the Gospel, etc.), and a full explanation of the

Book (i.e. laws and orders, etc. decreed for mankind) -- wherein

there is no doubt -- from the Lord of the ‘Alamin (Mankind, Jinns

and all that exists) (Qur’an 10:37)

Say: "If the whole of mankind and Jinns were to gather together

to produce the like of this Qur'an, they could not produce the

like thereof, even if they backed up each other with help and

support. (✶) And We have explained to man, in this Qur'an,

every kind of similitude: yet the greater part of men refuse (to

receive it) except with ingratitude!” (✶) (Qur’an 17:88-9).

Furthermore, Allah draws their attention:

Do they not then consider the Qur’an carefully? Had it been

from other than Allah, they would surely have found therein

much contradictions (Qur’an 4:82).

Do they not then earnestly seek to understand the Qur'an, or

are their hearts locked up by them? (Qur’an 47:24).

It is unequivocal from the Qur’an that Muhammad (PBUH) was not the author

of its contents. Rather, it is explicit that the Qur’an is a revelation from Allah,

unaltered and untarnished.8 This is evidenced by the numerous verses in the

Qur’an that affirm its divine origin.

8
See Ahmad Muhammad Jamal 1954 (first print) 1991 4th Print Al–Qur’an Al–Kareem: Kitabun Uhkimat Ayaatuhu.
Vol. 1, Beirut: Daru Ihyaul Ulum. p370–372.

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1. First, the Qur’an makes it clear that the Qur’an was revealed to Muhammad

(PBUH) by Allah, emphasising its divine source:

Allah has sent down to you the Book (Al-Qur’an), and Al –

Hikmah (Islamic Laws, knowledge of legal and illegal things i.e.,

the Prophet’s Sunnah – legal ways), and taught you that which

you knew not (information about the knowledge of the matters

of the Past, Present, and Future things, e.g. News about the

creation of the Heavens, and the Earth, Botanical and Zoological

life, the news about the Nations of the Past, and about the

Paradise and Hell etc.). And Ever Great is the Grace of Allah unto

you (O Muhammad PBUH) (Qur’an 4:113).

2. Second, the Qur’an identifies the Prophet (PBUH) and contains numerous

references to his life and actions, highlighting the role of the Prophet (PBUH)

as a recipient of the divine message:

“Muhammad is not the father of any of your men, but he is the

Messenger of Allah and the seal of the prophets. And Allah is

All-Knowing of everything” (Qur’an 33:40).

3. Third, the Qur’an provides instructions to the Prophet (PBUH), directing him

to perform certain actions or convey specific messages to his followers:

“Messenger, convey what has been sent down to you from your

Lord. If you do not do that, then you have not conveyed His

message. Allah will protect you from the people. Allah does not

guide the disbelieving people” (Qur’an 5:67).

4. Fourth, some verses in the Qur’an contain admonitions or advice directed

at the Prophet (PBUH):

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 He frowned and turned away, (✶) when the blind man came to

him. (✶) How would you know? Perhaps he might be purified,

(✶) or he might take heed and benefit from the reminder? (✶)

But he who was indifferent, (✶) you give him your full attention,

(✶) although you are not to be blamed if he does not purify

himself. (✶) But as for the one who came to you striving [for

purification], (✶) and he fears Allah, (✶) you let yourself to be

distracted from him” (✶) (Qur’an 80:1-10).

5. Fifth, the Qur’an includes historical accounts of past people and events that

the Prophet (PBUH) would not have had prior knowledge of:

“This is one of the stories of the unseen that we reveal to you

[O Prophet]; neither you nor your people knew it before this. So

be patient; the outcome is for the righteous” (Qur’an 11:49).

6. Sixth, certain verses in the Qur’an restrain the Prophet (PBUH) from specific

actions:

They were about to tempt you away from what We have

revealed to you [O Prophet], so that you would fabricate

something else and attribute it to Us; then they would have

surely taken you as a close friend. (✶) Had We not made you

stand firm; you would nearly have inclined to them a little. (✶)

In that case, We would have made you taste double

punishment, both in this life and after death. Thereupon you

would have found no helper against Us (✶) (Qur’an 17:73-75).

7. Seventh, some verses in the Qur’an depict Allah speaking directly to His

Prophet (PBUH): “I have chosen you, so listen to what is being revealed:

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 (✶) ‘Indeed, I am Allah; none has the right to be worshiped

except Me, so worship Me and establish prayer to remember

me” (✶) (Qur’an 20:13-14).

8. Finally, there are stylistic differences between the text of the Qur’an and the

Hadith of the Prophet (PBUH).

There are, of course, other reasons, but it suffices to limit the exposition within

the Qur’an itself.

2.10.1.8 Economic Concerns

Embracing Islam was seen as a threat to their socio-economic structure,

especially the Ka’abah’s role in their trade-based society, gambling, and usury.

Islam addresses economic issues, urging fair trade and condemning usury:

They will ask you about liquor and gambling. SAY: In each of

them there lies serious vice as well as some benefits for

mankind. Yet their vice is greater than their usefulness." They

may ask you what to spend. SAY: "As much as you can spare!"

Thus Allah (God) explains His signs to you so that you may

meditate (Qur’an: 2:219).

You who believe, do not live off usury which is compounded

over and over again. Heed Allah so that you may prosper

(Qur’an 3:130).

2.10.1.9 Issue of Social Change

Islam’s social teachings, particularly about equality and rights, were

revolutionary at that time. It talked about the equality of all humans,

undermining tribal and racial hierarchies prevalent in Makkah:

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 O mankind, We have created you from a male and female, and

set you up as peoples and tribes so you may recognise [and

cooperate with] one another. The noblest among you with Allah

is that one of you who best performs his duty; Allah is All-

knowing, All-Aware (Qur’an 49:13).

2.10.1.10 Perception of the Qur’an as a Legend or Tale of Ancient Times

The people of Makkah expressed scepticism towards the revelations bestowed

upon the Prophet (PBUH), viewing them as mere tales, whereas the stories

mentioned were lessons from history, not just tales:

And when it is said to them: “ What is it that your Lord has sent

down (unto Muhammad PBUH)?” They say: “Tales of the

ancients!” (Qur’an 16:24).

When Our Verses (of the Qur’an) are recited to him, he says:

“Tales of the ancients!” (Qur’an 68:15).

And they say: “Tales of the ancients, which has been written

down, and they are dictated to him morning and afternoon”

(Qur’an 25:5).

This is one of the stories of the unseen that we reveal to you [O

Prophet]; neither you nor your people knew it before this. So be

patient; the outcome is for the righteous (Qur’an: 11:49).

The Prophet (PBUH) was, however, asked to respond:

Say: “It (this Qur’an) has been sent down by Him (Allah) (the Real

Lord of the heavens and earth) Who knows the secrets of the

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 heavens and the earth. Truly, He is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful”

(Qur’an 25:6).

These instances highlight the multifaceted nature of the challenges faced by

early Muslims and the comprehensive responses provided by the Qur’an, which

not only addressed the immediate arguments of the disbelievers but also laid

down fundamental principles for the Islamic faith.

Other Messengers before Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) also experienced similar

opposition from their people:

And indeed (many) Messengers were mocked at before you (O

Muhammad PBUH) but I granted respite to those who

disbelieved and finally I punished them. Then how (terrible) was

My Punishment! (Qur’an 13:32).

If they reject you [O Prophet], the people of Noah, ‘Ad and

Thamud before them also rejected [their prophets], (✶) as did

the people of Abraham and the people of Lot, (✶) and the

people of Midian. And Moses was[also] rejected. But I gave

respite to the disbelievers, then I seized them. How severe was

My response! (✶) (Qur’an 22: 42-44).

Regarding Prophet Nuh (Noah), Allah says:

And indeed We sent Noah to his people (and he said): "I have

come to you as a plain warner. (✶) That you worship none but

Allah, surely, I fear for you the torment of a painful Day (✶)

(Qur’an 11:25-6).

However, the chiefs of disbelievers among his people responded by saying:

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 But the chiefs of his people who disbelieved said, “We only see

you a human being like ourselves, and we do not see those who

follow you except the lowest among us apparently. We do not

see you superior to us, rather, we think that you are liars” (Qur’an

11:27).

They further provoked Nuh by saying:

"O Noah! You have disputed with us and much have you

prolonged the dispute with us, now bring upon us what you

threaten us with, if you are of the truthful" (Qur’an 11:32).9

Thus, they were punished with a great flood for their disbelief and rejection of

Prophet Nuh's message (7:64):

But they denied him, so We saved him and those who were with

him in the ship, and We drowned those who denied Our signs.

Indeed, they were a blind people (Qur’an 7:64).

As for Prophet Hud (Eber), he called his people, Ad:

"...O my people! Ask forgiveness of your Lord and repent to

Him, He will send you (from the sky) abundant rain, and add

strength to your strength, so turn you not away as criminals

(Disbelievers in the Oneness of Allah)" (Qur’an 11:52).

However, their response was negative:

They said: "O Hud! No clear proof have you brought us, and we

shall not leave our gods for your (mere) saying! And we are not

believers in you. (✶) We say nothing but that some of our gods

9
Allah has indeed punished them by flood.

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 (false deities) have seized you with evil (madness)” (✶) (Qur’an

11:53-54).10

To this extent, the people of Prophet Hud, the ‘Ad, were destroyed by a

devastating wind for their arrogance and refusal to heed Prophet Hud's

warnings:

Then, when they saw it as a cloud approaching their valleys, they

said, 'This is a cloud bringing us rain!' Rather, it is that for which

you were impatient: a wind, within it a painful punishment

(Qur’an 46:24).

As for Prophet Saleh (Salih) (AS) who was sent to Thamud, his people, he called

on them:

"...O my people! Worship Allah, you have no other god but Him.

He brought you forth from the earth and settled you therein,

then ask forgiveness of Him and turn to Him in repentance.

Certainly, my Lord is Near (to all by His knowledge), Responsive"

(Qur’an 11:61).

His people said:

"... ‘O Salih! You had been among us as a figure of hope (as a

future leader) till this (calling of yours to monotheism)! Do you

(now) forbid us the worship of what our fathers worshipped? We

are indeed in doubt as to that to which you invite us.” (Quran

11:62)

10
Allah sent his punishment to the people of Hud, but saved Hud and those who believed with him (Qur’an 11:58).

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Saleh brought them a clear proof about his message -- a she-camel, but they

killed her:

"... O my people! This she-camel of Allah is a Sign to you, leave

her to feed on Allah's earth, and touch her not with evil, or a

near torment will seize you." (✶) But they hamstrung her. So, he

said: "Enjoy yourselves in your homes for three days. This is a

promise (i.e., a threat) that will not be belied (✶) (Qur’an 11:64-

5).11

Thus, Thamud were destroyed by a terrifying sound for their disbelief and for

harming the she-camel sent as a sign:

The huge blast seized those who did wrong, and they fell dead

in their homes (Qur’an 11:67).

Similarly, Prophet Lut (AS) warned his people against their homosexuality and

oppression, but they were persistently, wickedly rebellious up to the time when

Lut received some guests and the people wanted to commit their disdainful

crime of sodomy with them:

And when our Messengers came to lot, he was grieved on their

account and felt himself straitened for them (lest the town

people should approach them to commit sodomy with them).

He said: "This is a distressful day (Qur’an 11:77).

As Prophet Lut anticipated, no sooner had the town people heard about the

guests of Lut than they approached them:

11
Thamud were indeed punished, but Allah saved Salih and those who believed with him (11:66-8).

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 And his people came rushing towards him, and since a foretime

they used to commit crimes (sodomy etc.), he said: "O my

people! Here are my daughters (i.e., the daughters of my

nation), they are purer for you (if you marry them lawfully). So,

fear Allah and degrade me not as regards my guests! Is there

not among you a single right-minded man?" (✶) They said: "You

know well that we are not in need of your daughters, and indeed

you know quite well what we want" (✶) (Qur’an 11:78-79).

Lut could not do anything against his people but to say:

"... Would that I had strength (men) to overpower you, or that I

could betake myself to some powerful support (to resist you)"

(Qur’an 11:80).

During this confrontation between Lut and his people, the guests were

watching. But they were not ordinary guests, they were Messengers of Allah.

They comforted Lut by saying:

"... O Lot! Verily, we are the Messengers from your Lord! By no

means shall they reach you! So, travel with your family in a part

of the night, and let not any of you look back, but your wife (will

remain behind). Verily, that punishment which will afflict them,

will afflict her. Indeed, morning is their appointed time. Is not

the morning near?" (Qur’an 11:81).12

For we are going to bring down on the people of this township

a Punishment from heaven, because they have been wickedly

12
The people of Lot were punished, their town [Sadum in Palestine] was turned upside down and rained on them
showers of stones (Qur’an 11:82).

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 rebellious. (✶) And We have left thereof an evident Sign, for any

people who (care to) understand (✶) (Qur’an 29:34-35).13

Thus, the people of Sodom and Gomorrah were punished for their wicked

deeds and rejection of Prophet Lut's message with a rain of brimstone:

And We rained upon them a rain [of stones]. Then see how was

the end of the criminals (Qur’an 7:84):

And We turned (the cities of Sodom) upside down and rained

down upon them stones of baked clay. (✶) Surely, in this are

signs for those who perceive. (✶) And verily! They (the cities)

were right on the highroad (from Makkah to Syria i.e. the place

where the Dead Sea is now). (✶) Surely, therein is indeed a sign

for the believers (✶) (Quran 15:74-77).

As for Prophet Shu’aib (Jethro) (AS) who was sent to the people of Midian,

he called on them:

"... O my people! Worship Allah, you have no other god but

Him, and give not short measure or weight, I see you in

prosperity; but I fear for you the torment of a Day that (the

torment) will be surrounding (you from) all around. (✶) And O

my people! Give full measure and weight in justice and reduce

not from the people the things that are their due and do not

commit mischief in the land causing corruption. (✶) That which

13
"The whole tract on the east side of the Dead Sea (where the Cities were situated) is covered with sulphureous
salts and is deadly to animal and plant life. The Dead Sea itself is called in Arabic the Bahr Lut (the Sea of Lot). It
is a scene of utter desolation, that should stand as a Symbol of the Destruction that a waits Sin" (Yusuf Ali, n.d.,
The Holy Qur'an, Note 3457).
Abdullahi Yusuf Ali (1934). The Holy Qur’an: Translation and Commentry. Note 3233.

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 is left by Allah for you (after giving the rights of the people) is

better for you, if you are believers. And I am not set over you as

a watcher"(✶) (Qur’an 11:84-86).

The people of Midian responded by saying:

"... O Shu’aib! Does your (religion of) prayer command you that

we leave worshiping what our fathers used to worship or that we

leave off doing what we like with our property? Verily, you are

the forbearer, right-minded!" [They said this sarcastically]

(Qur’an 11:87).

Shu’aib continued in his preaching:

"... O my people! Let not my Shiqaq [separation, enmity, anger

and opposition, etc., for your disbelief in the Oneness of Allah

{Monotheism} and your worshipping of the idols, and your

defrauding of the people (in their things) and your giving of

short measures and weights to the people, etc.,] cause you to

suffer the fate similar to that of the people of Noah or of Hud or

of Salih and the people of Lot are not far off from you! (✶) And

ask Forgiveness of your Lord and turn unto Him in repentance.

Verily, my Lord is Most Merciful, Most Loving (✶) (Qur’an 11:89-

90).

They responded by saying:

“O Shu’aib! We do not understand much of what you say, we

see you a weak (man, it is said that he was a blind man) among

us. Were it not for your family, we should certainly have stoned

you and you are not worthy of respect” (Qur’an 11:91).

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The people of Shu’aib, people of Midian, like other arrogant ones before them,

were destroyed by an earthquake for their dishonesty in trade and rejection of

Prophet Shu’aib's message:

And the earthquake seized them, and they became within their

home [corpses] fallen prone (Qur’an 7:91).

And when Our Commandment came, We saved Shu’aib and

those who believed with him by a Mercy from Ourselves. And

the (Awful) cry seized the wrong-doers, and they lay dead

prostrate in their homes. (✶) As if they had never lived there! So

away with Madyan (Midian)! -- As away with Thamud! (all these

nations were destroyed) (✶) (Qur’an 11:94-95).

Regarding the people of Musa:

[In the case of] Qarun, Pharaoh and Haman, Musa brought them

explanations and they [still] acted overbearing on earth; yet they

could never get ahead [of Us] (Qur’an 29:39).

Pharaoh said, “O Haman, build a tower for me so that I may

reach the pathways – (✶) the pathways to the heavens so that I

have a look at the God of Moses, for I think he is a liar.” This is

how Pharaoh’s evil deeds were made appealing to him and he

was hindered from the [right] way, and the plan of Pharaoh led

only to ruin (✶) (Qur’an 40:36-37).

So, Pharaoh and his followers faced various signs and plagues, ultimately

leading to their drowning in the sea for their tyranny and rejection of Prophet

Musa (AS):

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 And (remember) when We parted the sea for you and saved you

and drowned Fir’aun’s (Pharaoh) people while you were looking

(at them, when the seawater covered them) (Qur’an 2:50).

So this day We shall deliver your body (from the sea) that you

(Pharaoh) may be a sign to those who come after you! And

verily, many among mankind are heedless of Our Signs (Quran

10:92).

Encapsulating these incidences and the accompanying punishment, Allah says:

Each one of them We seized for his crime: of them, against some

We sent a violent tornado (with showers of stones); some were

caught by a (mighty) Blast; some We caused the earth to swallow

up; and some We drowned (in the waters): it was not God Who

injured (or oppressed) them: they injured (and oppressed) their

own souls (Qur’an 29:40).

These stories serve as warnings and lessons. They are not only as historical

accounts but also as moral and spiritual lessons, emphasising the

consequences of rejecting divine guidance and the Prophets sent by Allah.

In all this, the belief system is the essence of Islam and serves as the foundation

upon which other aspects of the religion are built. Although it is separated from

other aspects for the sake of analysis and explanation all the components are

integrated to form a complete Islam. In other words, it is not enough for one

to just believe without corresponding actions. The Prophet (PBUH) spent

thirteen years in Makkah preaching the fundamental principle of faith in One

Allah, and thus the other aspects of the belief system. By adhering to the belief

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system, an individual is able to observe Allah’s commandments, abstain from

what He forbids, and maintain a virtuous and righteous life.

Numerous religious philosophers have attempted to explain faith from a

philosophical perspective. However, these efforts have often been deemed

inadequate due to the limitation of the sensory organs. Our eyes, ears,

tongues, and hands cannot tell us about the Creator of the universe; they

cannot confirm or refute the existence of life after death; and they cannot deny

the existence of anything imperceivable. Intellectual faculties alone are

incapable of conceiving any concept without drawing upon prior sensory

experiences stored in the mind (Nadwi, 1979: 18).

This limitation of the intellect was addressed by Ibn Khaldun (1332AD–1406AD)

in his Muqaddimah (Introduction to History), where he warned “Do not trust

the claims of thought to be able to comprehend beings and their causes and

to follow out the ramifications of existence –– this is sheer nonsense” (Ibn

Khaldun, 1989).14 In essence, the fundamental limitations of our sensory organs

and intellect prevent us from understanding faith through a philosophical lens:

“For every percipient imagines the world to be restricted to his

range of perceptions, which is far from the truth. Notice the

deaf, for whom the world is confined to the four senses and

reflection, and for whom no sounds exist. In the same way the

blind lack knowledge of visible thing. It is only the traditions they

take over from their parents, teachers and acquaintances that

make them admit the existence of what they do not perceive. In

other words, their belief is founded on the general opinion

14
Although a historical figure himself, the work of Ibn Khaldun, especially his "Muqaddimah," is still revered for
its insightful analysis of the historical processes, including the rise and fall of civilizations.

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 around them, not on their instincts or sense of perceptions.

Similarly, animals, if they could answer our questions, would be

found to deny the possibility of intellectual, reflective acts of the

mind.”

“This point being established; it is probable that there is a kind

of perception superior to our own; for our perceptions are

created and cannot comprehend the vast range of beings. God’s

creation, being vaster than man’s, is outside man’s range of

comprehension. He alone comprehends all …

“This does not impugn the validity of the mind or its

apprehensions. The mind is an accurate scale, whose recordings

are certain and reliable; but to use it to weigh questions relating

to Unity of God, or the afterlife, or the nature of prophecy, or

the divine qualities, or other such objects falling outside its

range, is like trying to use a goldsmith scale to weigh mountains.

This does not mean that the scale is in itself inaccurate.”

“The truth of the matter is that mind has limits within which it is

rigidly confined; it cannot therefore hope to comprehend God

and His qualities, itself being only one of the many atoms

created by God” (Nadwi, 1979: 24).

Ibn Rushd (d. 1198) also known as Averroes, critically examined the various

arguments put forward by religious philosophers on faith and its metaphysical

implications. He argued that human beings are limited by their “sensory

organs and intellectual faculties,” which cannot comprehend metaphysical

reality (Leaman, 1998). In other words, reasoning can only go as far as its

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jurisdiction allows, as it has no power to go beyond that. This concept is further

affirmed in the Qur’an, which speaks of the unseen and the unknowable nature

of the soul, located in an unknown part of the human body:

They ask you [O Prophet] about the soul. Say, “The soul is only

known to my Lord, and you have not been given knowledge

except a little” (Qur’an 17:85).

In this regard, Ibn Rushd provides a comprehensive and sophisticated analysis

of faith, demonstrating the superiority of the Qur’anic arguments over those of

philosophers (Leaman, 1998). His work Fasl al-Maqal (The Decisive Treatsie)

highlights the limitations of human intellect and emphasises the importance of

relying on divine revelation for understanding the metaphysical aspects of

existence.

2.11 Belief in the Day of Judgement

The Day of Judgement is the day of accountability. Believing in the Day of

Judgement means believing there will be an afterlife, in which individuals will

be held accountable for their actions in this world. This day is understood to

be a time when all human beings of different epochs and locations are

resurrected and subjected to a judgement, in which they will be rewarded or

punished according to their deeds in this world. It signifies the conviction that

this world is not the end, but rather a trial stage to an afterlife where all will be

gathered for judgement:

Surely, He will gather you together on the Day of Resurrection

about which there is no doubt. And who is more true in

statement than Allah? (Of course, none) (Qur’an 4:87).

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 It is Allah Who begins (the process of) creation; then repeats it;

then shall you be brought back to Him (30:11).

What is the life of this world but amusement and play? But verily

the Home in the Hereafter, that is life indeed, if they but knew

(Qur’an 29:64).

However, the unbelievers doubted the Day of Judgement:

And they say: "What! when we lie, hidden and lost, in the earth,

shall we indeed be in a creation renewed?" Nay, they deny the

meeting with their Lord! (✶) Say: "The Angel of Death, put in

charge of you, will (duly) take your souls: then shall ye be

brought back to your Lord." (✶) If only thou couldst see when

the guilty ones will bend low their heads before their Lord,

(saying:) "Our Lord! We have seen and we have heard: now then

send us back (to the world): we will work righteousness: for we

do indeed (now) believe" (✶) (Qur’an 32:10-12).

They said: "When we are dead and have become dust and

bones, shall we be resurrected indeed? (✶) Verily, this we have

been promised, we and our fathers before (us)! This is only the

tales of the ancients! (✶) (Qur’an 23:82-83).

Some proofs were presented in the form of questions to the unbelievers on the

reality of the Day of Judgement:

Say: "Whose is the earth and whosoever is therein? If you

know!" (✶) They will say: "It is Allah's!" Say: "will you not then

remember?" (✶) Say "Who is (the) Lord of the seven heavens,

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 and (the) Lord of the Great Throne?" (✶) They will say: "Allah."

Say: "Will you not then fear Allah (believe in His Oneness, obey

Him, believe in the Resurrection and Recompense for each and

every good or bad deed)? (✶) Say: "In Whose Hand is the

sovereignty of everything (i.e. treasures of each and everything)?

And He protects (all), while against Whom there is no protector,

(i.e. if Allah saves anyone none can punish or harm him, and if

Allah punishes or harms anyone none can save him), if you

know." (✶) They will say: ("All that belongs) to Allah." Say: "How

then are you deceived and turned away from the Truth?” (✶)

(Qur’an 23:84-89).

The logic of the Day of Judgement hinges on the fact that people are created

for a purpose as indicated earlier:

Did you think that We created you with no purpose, and that

you would not be brought back to Us? [for account] (Qur’an

23:115).

Does Man think that he will be left uncontrolled, (without

purpose)? (✶) Was he not a drop of sperm emitted (in lowly

form)? (✶) Then did he become a leech-like clot; then did (God)

make and fashion (him) in due proportion. (✶) And of him He

made two sexes, male and female. (✶) Has not He, (the same),

the power to give life to the dead? (✶) (Qur’an 75:36-40).

In a further elaboration regarding man’s creation and his eventual return to

Allah, the Qur’an states:

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 O mankind! if ye have a doubt about the Resurrection, (consider)

that We created you out of dust, then out of sperm, then out of

a leech-like clot, then out a morsel of flesh, partly formed and

partly unformed, in order that We may manifest (Our Power) to

you; and We cause whom We will to rest in the wombs for an

appointed term, then do We bring you out as babies, then

(foster you) that ye may reach your age of full strength; and some

of you are called to die, and some are sent back to the feeblest

old age, so that they know nothing after having known (much).

And (further), thou seest the earth barren and lifeless, but when

We pour down rain on it, it is stirred (to life), it swells, and it puts

forth every kind of beautiful growth (in pairs). (✶)This is so,

because God is the Reality: it is He Who gives life to the dead,

and it is He Who has power over all things. (✶) And verily the

Hour will come: there can be no doubt about it, or about (the

fact) that God will raise up all who are in the graves (✶) (Qur’an

22:5 –7).

Does man think that We cannot assemble his bones? (✶) Nay,

We are able to put together in perfect order the very tips of his

fingers (✶) (Qur’an 75:3-4).15

Now let man but think from what he is created! (✶) He is created

from a drop emitted—(✶) Proceeding from between the

15
“The miracle conveyed here lies in the specification of man's fingertips among the other parts of his body. The
reason is that certain organs have common features among people, whereas fingertips never look alike among
people. This was proved for the first time only in the later part of the 19th century, that is, after the above verse
had been revealed for about twelve centuries and a half. In 1902 A.D., England officially adopted the method of
identification and recognition by means of fingerprints. This is because the finger linings never change during the
lifetime of a person” (Tabbarah, 1988, p. 467).

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 backbone and the ribs: (✶) Surely (God) is able to bring him back

(to life)! (8) The Day that (all) things secret will be tested. (✶)

(Man) will have no power, and no helper (✶) (Qur’an 86:5-10).

And among His Signs is this: you see the earth barren and

desolate; but when We send down rain to it, it is stirred to life

and yields increase. Truly, He Who gives life to the (dead) earth

can surely give life to (men) who are dead. For He has power

over all things (Qur’an 41:39).

On Judgement Day, Allah will Ask those who did not believe in Him while in

this world:

O you assembly of Jinn and mankind! “Did not there come to

you Messengers from amongst you, reciting unto you My verses

and warning you of the meeting of this Day of yours?” They will

say: “We bear witness against ourselves.” It was the life of this

world that deceived them. And they will bear witness against

themselves that they were disbelievers (Qur’an 6:130).

Believing in the Day of Judgement is a fundamental tenet in Islam,

encompassing various aspects of the afterlife. This belief includes the

punishment or comfort of the soul in the grave, the existence of Heaven and

Hell, and the vision of Allah by the believers on that Day. The Qur'an teaches

that the soul of the deceased will be questioned by two angels, Munkar and

Nakir, regarding their faith in Allah and the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). The

soul will also experience either comfort or punishment in the grave, depending

on the individual's good or bad deeds in life:

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 As for those who are given their record in their right hand, (✶)

they will have an easy reckoning, (✶) and will return to their

people joyfully. (✶) And as for those who are given their record

˹in their left hand˺ from behind their backs, (✶) they will cry for

[instant] destruction, (✶) and will burn in the blazing Fire. (✶)

(Qur’an 84:7-12).

2.11.1 Characteristics of the Day

Indeed, the Day of Judgment is a time appointed, (✶) the Day

when the Trumpet will be blown, you will come forth in crowds,

(✶) and the sky will be opened up and will become gateways,

(✶) and the mountains will vanish, becoming like a mirage. (✶)

Indeed, Hell is lying in wait, (✶) a resort for the transgressors,

(✶) wherein they will abide for endless ages. (✶) They will

neither taste therein any coolness nor any drink, (✶) except

scalding water and discharge of wounds, (✶) a fitting

recompense. (✶) Indeed, they did not expect a reckoning, (✶)

and utterly rejected Our verses. (✶) But We have enumerated

everything in a record. (✶) So taste [the punishment], for We will

not increase you except in torment.” (✶) Indeed, the righteous

will have salvation, (✶) gardens and vineyards, (✶) and full-

bosomed maidens of equal age, (✶) and a full cup [of wine]. (✶)

They will not hear therein vain talk or lies – (✶) a reward and a

generous gift from your Lord, (✶) [from] the Lord of the heavens

and earth and all that is between them, the Most

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 Compassionate; none will dare to speak to Him. (✶) On the Day

when the Spirit and the angels will stand in rows; none will dare

to speak, except those to whom the Most Compassionate

granted permission, and they will only speak the truth. (✶) That

Day is sure to come. So whoever wills may seek a path leading

to his Lord. (✶) Indeed, We have warned you of an imminent

punishment on the Day when everyone will see what his hands

have sent forth, and the disbeliever will say, “Oh, I wish that I

were dust!” (✶) (Qur’an 78: 17-40).

On the Day when the earth will be changed to another earth

and so will be the heavens, and they (all creatures) will appear

before Allah, the One, the Irresistible (Qur’an 15:48).

Furthermore, the Day of Judgement will involve a separation between the

righteous and wicked:

On that Day people will proceed in separate groups1 to be

shown [the consequences of] their deeds. (✶) So whoever does

an atom’s weight of good will see it. (✶) And whoever does an

atom’s weight of evil will see it (✶) (Qur’an 99:6-8).

The righteous will be rewarded with entrance into Heaven:

Every soul will taste death. And you will only receive your full

reward on the Day of Judgment. Whoever is spared from the

Fire and is admitted into Paradise will ˹indeed˺ triumph, whereas

the life of this world is no more than the delusion of

enjoyment (Quran 3:185).

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While the wicked will be subjected to the Fire of Hell:

“Our Lord! Indeed, those You commit to the Fire will be

[completely] disgraced! And the wrongdoers will have no

helpers” (Quran 3:192).

2.11.1.1 Reward

The believers will be rewarded according to their deeds with paradise and will

have the honour of seeing their Lord:

“On that Day (some) faces will be bright, (✶) looking at their

Lord” (✶) (Qur’an 75:22-23).

Verily Allah will admit those who believe and work righteous

deeds, to Gardens, beneath which rivers flow: for Allah carries

out all that He plans (Qur’an 22:14).

As for those who believe and do righteous deeds, We will admit

them into gardens under which rivers flow, abiding therein

forever. They will have therein pure spouses, and We will admit

them into a cool refreshing shade (Qur’an 4:57).

Addressing the believers, Allah says:

My servants, you have no need to fear today nor should you feel

saddened; (✶) [tell] those who believe in Our signs and are

committed to submit [to Allah]: (✶) Enter the Paradise rejoicing,

both you and your spouses! (✶) Gold platters and cups will be

passed around among them containing anything (their) souls

may hanker for and (their) eyes delight in. You will live there for

ever. (✶) Such is the Paradise which you will inherit because of

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 what you have been doing. (✶) You will have plenty of fruit to

eat in it (✶) (Qur’an 43:68-73).

But the sincere (and devoted) servants of God— (✶) For them is

a Sustenance Determined, (✶) Fruits (Delights), and they (shall

enjoy) honour and dignity (✶) In Gardens of Felicity. (✶) Facing

each other on Thrones (of dignity): (✶) Round will be passed to

them a Cup from a clear-flowing fountain, (✶) Crystal-white, of

a taste delicious to those who drink (thereof), (✶) Free from

headiness; nor will they suffer intoxication therefrom. (✶) And

beside them will be chaste women; restraining their glances,

with big eyes (of wonder and beauty). (✶) As if they were

(delicate) eggs closely guarded (✶) (Qur’an 37:40-49).

2.11.1.2 Punishment

If Allah were to punish men according to what they deserve, He

would not leave on the back of the (earth) a single living

creature: but He gives them respite for a stated Term: when their

Term expires, verily Allah has in His sight all His servants (Qur’an

35:45).

Those who reject God and hinder (men) from the path of God,

for them will We add Penalty to Penalty; for that they used to

spread mischief (Qur’an 16:88).

2.11.1.2.1 Hell Fire

The Sinners will be in the Punishment of Hell, to dwell therein

(forever): (✶) No way will the (punishment) be lightened for

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them, and in despair will they be there overwhelmed. (✶) No

way shall We be unjust to them: but it is they who have been

unjust themselves (✶) (Qur’an 43:74-76).

And surely, We have created many of the jinn and mankind for

Hell. They have hearts wherewith they understand not, they

have eyes wherewith they see not, and they have ears wherewith

they hear not (the Truth). They are like cattle, nay even more

astray; those! They are the heedless ones (Qur’an 7:179).

Verily Allah has cursed the Unbelievers and prepared for them a

Blazing Fire-- (✶)To dwell therein forever: no protector will they

find, nor helper. (✶) The Day that their faces will be turned

upside down in the Fire, they will say: "Woe to us! would that

we had obeyed God and obeyed the Apostle!" (✶) And they

would say: "Our Lord! we obeyed our chiefs and our great ones,

and they misled us as to the (right) path. (✶) "Our Lord! give

them Double Penalty and curse them with a very great Curse!”

(✶) (Qur’an 33:64-68).

[The angels will be told], “Gather all those who did wrong and

their fellows, and whatever they used to worship (✶) besides

Allah, and lead them to the way of Hell. (✶) And stop them, for

they are to be questioned.” (✶) [They will be asked], “What is

the matter with you, that you no longer help one another?” (✶)

Rather on that Day, they will surrender completely. (✶) They will

turn to one another, reproaching one another. (✶) [The

followers] will say, “It was you who used to delude us from the

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 right way.” (✶) [The misleaders] will say, “Rather, you yourselves

were not believers, (✶) and We had no power over you, rather

you yourselves were a transgressing people. (✶) Now the

punishment of our Lord has come true against us; we will surely

taste it. (✶) We did misguide you, for we ourselves were

misguided.” (✶) On that Day they will all share in the

punishment. (✶) This is how We deal with the wicked, (✶) for

whenever it was said to them, “None has the right to be

worshipped except Allah,” they became arrogant, (✶) and said,

“Are we going to abandon our gods for a mad poet?” (✶)

Rather, he came with the truth and confirmed the messengers.

(✶) You will surely taste the painful punishment, (✶) and you will

only be recompensed for what you used to do (✶) (Qur’an

37:22-39).

Those who reject Our verses, We will cast them into the Fire.

Whenever their skins are burnt through, We will replace them

with fresh skins, so that they may taste the punishment. Indeed,

Allah is All-Mighty, All-Wise (Qur’an 4:56).

It (Hell) has seven gates, for each of those gates is a (special)

class (of sinners) assigned (Qur’an 15:44).

Islamic scholars have consistently affirmed beliefs regarding the Day of

Judgement, elaborating on the concept and its implications for life on Earth.

Through their work, they have sought to provide a deeper understanding of

the Day of Judgment, emphasising the importance of faith and righteous

deeds in determining one's eternal fate.

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2.12 Belief in His Divine will and Predestination for Good and Evil

Allah has predestined the happening of everything: when and where such

things will happen and whether good or bad:

No misfortune can happen on earth or in your souls but is

recorded in a decree before We bring it into existence: that is

truly easy for God: (✶) In order that you may not despair over

matters that pass you by, nor exult over favours bestowed upon

you. For God loves not any vainglorious boaster-- (✶) (Qur’an

57:22-23).

Believing in predestination comprises four things:

First, a Muslim must believe in the unlimited knowledge of Allah. He knows all

that has happened, what will happen and all that His servants will do - good or

bad, before they are even born. He knows their fate, who will enter Paradise or

Hell and when they will die. He knows everything about his creations:

Verily, Allah is the All-Knower of everything (Qur’an 8:75).

That you may know that Allah has power over all things, and that

Allah surrounds (comprehends) all things in (His) Knowledge

(Qur’an 65:12).

Second, a Muslim must accept the principles of Al-Qadar (destiny,

predestination). This belief encompasses the notion that all events that occur,

both good and bad, have been pre-ordained and recorded in the Book (Lauhul

Mahfuz):

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 Do you not know that Allah knows all that is in the heaven and

on earth? That is all [written] in a Record. This is indeed easy for

Allah (Qur’an 22:70).

And all things We have recorded with numbers (as a Record) in

a clear book (Qur’an 36:12).

We know that which the earth takes of them (their dead bodies),

and with Us is a Book preserved (i.e., the Book of Decrees)

(Qur’an 50:4).

Third, a Muslim must believe in the Will of Allah (Mashi'a) for only what He wills

that will happen:

Verily, His command, when He intends a thing, is only that He

says it, "Be," and it is! (Qur’an 37:82).

Verily! Allah does what He will (Qur’an 22:18).

Nothing can be done without Allah's will:

And you will not, unless (it be) that Allah wills, -- the Lord of the

Alamin (Mankind, Jinns and all that exists) (Qur’an 82:29).

Fourth, Muslims must believe, as indicated earlier that, Allah is the Creator of

all things:

Allah is the Creator of all things, and He is "Wakil" (Trustee,

Disposer of Affairs, Guardian, etc.) over all things (Qur’an 39:62).

In short, all that has happened or will happen is with His Knowledge, Will and

His Permission. However, the doing of good or bad by individuals remains their

own responsibility and choice, as Allah has provided them with the free will to

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choose between belief and disbelief, and between right and wrong. Allah says

in the Qur’an:

Is there not a period of time when each human is nothing yet

worth mentioning? (✶) ˹For˺ indeed, We ˹alone˺ created humans

from a drop of mixed fluids, ˹in order˺ to test them, so We made

them hear and see. (✶) We already showed them the Way,

whether they ˹choose to˺ be grateful or ungrateful (✶) (Qur’an

76:1-3).

Have We not given them two eyes, (✶) a tongue, and two

lips; (✶) and shown them the two ways ˹of right and wrong˺? (✶)

(Qur’an 90:8-10).

And by the soul and ˹the One˺ Who fashioned it, (✶) then with

˹the knowledge of˺ right and wrong inspired it! (✶) Successful

indeed is the one who purifies their soul, (✶) and doomed is

the one who corrupts it! (✶) (Qur’an 91:7-10).

Furthermore, in order to encourage people to do good, Allah sent Prophets to

serve as guides and direct them to the righteous path. However, some may

argue that since everyone’s actions are predetermined before they are born,

their choices in the world are merely following a pre-determined course of

action, regardless of whether it is good or bad. Despite this, the responsibility

of individuals to choose their path in life remains. Ultimately, Allah Has given

people the power to choose, and it is up to them to make the right decisions.

The concept of Allah writing in the Mother of the Book (Lauhul Mahfuz) about

what will happen to mankind and other creations is an indication of His

Omniscience and Foreknowledge of the choices and events that will take place

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in the universe. This does not mean, however, that Allah has predetermined

the destiny of humans, such that they are unable to choose anything else.

Rather, Allah has granted man the free will to choose from the available options

as one desires.

An analogy to help understand this concept is that of a teacher who knows

their students very well. The teacher may predict the grades the students will

achieve based on their knowledge of the students' abilities, work ethic, and

past performance. However, this prediction does not remove the students'

responsibility to study and perform well on their exams. Similarly, while Allah

knows what choices we will make, He has given us the free will to choose

between right and wrong, and we are responsible for the decisions we make in

our lives. However, even though man makes his choices, Allah has the power

to allow man’s choices to be or not to be. This is reflected in the following

verses signifying the ultimate Power of Allah:

But you cannot will, unless Allah wills. Verily, Allah is Ever All-

Knowing, All-Wise (Qur’an 76:30).

And you cannot will unless (it be) that Allah wills - the Lord of

the ‘Alamin (mankind, jinn and all that exists) (Qur’an 81:29).

This idea is further exemplified in the prohibition of consuming pork in Islam.

When an individual chooses to eat pork without being forced, they are held

accountable for their decision. However, if it is forced upon them, it is

considered Allah’s choice, and the individual is not held accountable for it:

He has only forbidden you [to eat] carrion, blood, swine, and

what is slaughtered in the name of any other than Allah. But if

someone is compelled by necessity—neither driven by desire

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 nor exceeding immediate need—they will not be sinful. Surely

Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful (Quran 2:173).

A relevant example comes from an insightful encounter between Umar bin

Khattab and Abu Ubaida bin Al-Jarrah during the plague of 'Amwas, an

epidemic that afflicted Islamic Syria in 638–639. When Umar bin Khattab and

his companions were on the way to Sham (Syria) and reached Sargh, the

commanders of the Muslim army, Abu Ubaida bin Al-Jarrah and his

companions met him and told him that an epidemic had broken out in Sham.

Umar (RA) made an announcement, "I will ride back to Madinah in the morning,

so you should do the same." Abu 'Ubaida bin Al-Jarrah said (to ‘Umar), "Are

you running away from what Allah had ordained?" Umar said, "Would that

someone else had said such a thing, O Abu 'Ubaida! Yes, we are running from

what Allah had ordained to what Allah has ordained. Don't you agree that if

you had camels that went down a valley having two places, one green and the

other dry, you would graze them on the green one only if Allah had ordained

that, and you would graze them on the dry one only if Allah had ordained that?"

At that time 'Abdur-Rahman bin 'Auf, who had been absent because of some

job, came and said, "I have some knowledge about this. I have heard Allah's

Messenger (PBUH) saying, 'If you hear about it (an outbreak of plague) in a

land, do not go to it; but if plague breaks out in a country where you are

staying, do not run away from it.'" Umar thanked Allah and returned to

Madinah (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 5729).

Allah’s Divine Will encompasses various aspects of human life, including love

and enmity. The Qur’an states:

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 The love of desirable things has been made appealing to

people, such as women, children, hoarded heaps of gold and

silver, branded fine horses, livestock, and tilled land. These are

the pleasures of the life of this world, but with Allah is the best

place of return (Qur’an 3:14).

Additionally, enmity among people is a part of the Divine Will:

Then Satan tempted them and drove them out of the state they

were in, and We said, “Go down [to the earth], as enemies to

one another. You will have abode on earth and provision for an

appointed time (Qur’an 2:36).

Furthermore, the Divine Decree includes corruption on earth, as mentioned in

the conversation between Allah and the Angels when Allah decided to appoint

a vicegerent on earth:

And [remember] when your Lord said to the angels, “I am going

to appoint a vicegerent on earth.” They said, “Will You appoint

on it someone who will spread corruption therein and shed

blood, while we glorify You with Your praises and proclaim Your

holiness?” He said, “I know that which you do not know (Qur’an

2:30).

While everything occurs within the framework of the Divine Decree, man has

the ability and freedom to make decisions within those parameters. Therefore,

all events result from His Knowledge, Power, and Will.

Choices are a fundamental aspect of life and are ultimately derived from Allah.

These choices may be classified as either good or bad, lawful, or unlawful, and

ultimately, it is up to the individuals to determine which option is most

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appropriate for them in accordance with their spiritual and moral convictions.

Thus, individuals must exercise discernment in selecting options that are in line

with Allah’s Will and that will lead to the best outcome for themselves and

others.

Another aspect of belief in predestination is the matter of death. Muslims

believe that death is a natural part of life and that it is predetermined by Allah:

Everyone shall taste death. And only on the Day of Resurrection

shall you be paid your wages in full. And whoever is removed

away from the Fire and admitted to Paradise, he indeed is

successful. The life of this world is only the enjoyment of

deception (a deceiving thing)” (Qur’an 3:185).

People die only when it is their time to die:

And no person can ever die except by Allah’s Leave and at an

appointed term. And whoever desires a reward in (this) world,

We shall give him of it; and whoever desires a reward in the

Hereafter, We shall give him thereof. And We shall reward the

grateful (Qur’an 3:145).

Thus, Muslims do not fear death itself, it is rather the problems or difficulty

associated with illness resulting in pains, which sometimes precede death; that

is more of a concern (Wali, 1984). The Prophet (PBUH) said that Allah has

created an illness and a cure for every ailment. A critic may argue that rather

than predestined death, it is the level of advancement and development of

people that facilitate their long life as appeared evident in today’s world where

those in developed societies live longer than those in poorly developed

societies. Life expectancy varies between developed and less developed

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countries, and this includes Muslims living in both societies. One explanation

for these differences is that better living conditions contribute to increased life

expectancy. According to this perspective, Allah has destined a longer life for

those living in developed countries with higher average life expectancies and

has arranged for the circumstances that promote longevity in those societies.

There are instances of people migrating from less developed countries to more

medically advanced countries from backward countries, resulting in longer life

expectancies in their new homes. Conversely, the opposite may also occur. Yet,

even within the context of such environmental disparity which provides for the

long life of others over others, the ultimate Hand of Allah is seen where cases

of longevity even in poorly developed societies and cases of short lives in

developed societies. In both cases, there is no escape from the divine decree.

Ultimately, life expectancy differences can be understood within the context of

Allah’s Will and the circumstances He has ordained for individuals and societies.

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 CHAPTER THREE
Commandments of Allah
The Commandments of Allah are about actively putting the belief system into

action. Belief in Allah is manifested in observing Allah’s commandments. To

make belief relevant, one must observe the commands of Allah and strive to

live according to them. Allah commands us to serve Him and to avoid the

things that He has forbidden.

There are actions that are related to the belief system; those related to worship;

those related to relationships between individuals; between individuals and

society, and between living things and non-living things. Observing what Allah

commands can be categorised into three distinct areas: worship, doing good,

and ensuring justice (Al-Qardawi, 1999). Each category of action serves a

different purpose within the belief system. Worship is the primary way of

expressing devotion and gratitude to Allah and involves a variety of activities

prescribed in the Qur’an and Sunnah, such as prayer, fasting, and pilgrimage.

Doing good demonstrates one's faith and emulates the Prophet’s (PBUH)

example, including activities such as charity and kindness to animals. Ensuring

justice upholds Allah's values, making the world a better place for everyone.

Together, these three areas provide a comprehensive framework for living out

one's faith.

3.1 Worship

Worship is specifically for Allah alone. Worshiping Allah comprises fulfilling the

five pillars of Islam, which include Shahada (declaration of faith), Salat (ritual

prayer): “who believe in the unseen, establish prayer, and spend out of what

We have provided for them” (Qur’an 2:3); Zakat (almsgiving): “And establish

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prayer, give Zakat, and bow [to Allah] with those who bow” (Qur’an 2:43); Saum

(fasting during the month of Ramadan): “O you who believe, fasting is

prescribed upon you as it was prescribed upon those who were before you, so

that you may become righteous” (Qur’an 2:183); and Hajj (pilgrimage to

Makkah):

And Complete Hajj and ‘Umrah for Allah. But if you are

prevented, then [offer] whatever sacrificial animal is available,

and do not shave your heads until the sacrificial animal reaches

its place of sacrifice. But if anyone among you is sick or has an

ailment of the scalp [and had his head shaved], then he must

compensate by fasting, charity, or a sacrificial offering. And

when you are safe, then if anyone takes a break between ‘Umrah

and Hajj, he must offer a sacrifice of whatever animal is available.

However, if he cannot afford an offering, he should fast for three

days during Hajj and seven days upon his return [home], making

ten days in all. This is for those who are not of the residents of

the Sacred Mosque. And fear Allah and know that Allah is severe

in retribution (Qur’an 2:196).

These acts serve as reminders of Allah’s greatness and mercy and are intended

to bring the worshipper closer to Him. The five pillars of Islam are essential to

Muslim’s faith as they provide guidance to live a life of true faith and obedience

to Allah. “Ibn 'Umar (RA) narrated: Allah's Messenger (PBUH) said: Islam is

based on (the following) five (principles):

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 1. To testify that La ilaha illallah wa anna Muhammad-ar-Rasul Allah (none

has the right to be worshipped but Allah and that Muhammad is the

Messenger of Allah).

2. Iqamat-as-Salat [to perform the (compulsory congregational) Salat

(prayers))

3. To pay Zakat.

4. To perform Hajj. (i.e., pilgrimage to Makkah).

5. To observe Saum [fasts (according to Islamic teachings)] during the

month of Ramadan” (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 8).

Prayer (Salat) is an act of worship to Allah, performed five times a day at a

specified time. Almsgiving (Zakat) is the practice of giving a certain fixed

proportion of the wealth and of every kind of the property liable to Zakat of a

Muslim to be paid yearly for the benefit of the poor in the Muslim community:

Alms [zakat] is only for the poor and the needy; those in charge

of it; those whose hearts may be attracted [to Islam]; for freeing

those in bondage; for those in debt; for the cause of Allah; and

for [the stranded] traveller – as ordained by Allah, for Allah is All-

Knowing, All-Wise (Qur’an 9:60).

Fasting the Month of Ramadan (Saum) involves abstaining from food and drink

during the daylight hours of Ramadan:

“O believers! Fasting is prescribed for you—as it was for those

before you—so perhaps you will become mindful [of Allah]”

(Qur’an 2:183).

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The Pilgrimage to Makkah (Hajj) is a journey that every Muslim should

undertake at least once in their lifetime if able:

Pilgrimage to the House is a duty owed to Allah upon all people

who are able to make their way to it; whoever disbelieves, then

Allah is in no need for the worlds (Qur’an 3:97).

These four aspects of worship, together with belief in Allah and His Messenger,

Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), constitute the five pillars of Islam. By following

the five pillars of Islam, a Muslim will gain the peace and joy of knowing that

they follow the Will of Allah and are living a life of true faith and devotion.

3.1.1 Salat

On the night of the Prophet’s (PBUH) ascension to Heaven (Isra and Mi’raj),

Salat was made compulsory (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 3207). This miraculous event

took place one year prior to the Hijrah of the Prophet (PBUH). The exact

procedures of the five daily Salat were defined, including the number of

Raka’at, the recitation of Surahs, and the specific movements of the body such

as bowing and prostration. Furthermore, the Prophet (PBUH) was taught how

to perform the Salat as a leader, and how others should follow his actions.

Additionally, the Prophet (PBUH) was commanded to remind all Muslims of the

importance of Salat, and the great reward that comes with performing it with

sincerity and devotion:

Recite what has been revealed to you of the Book and establish

prayer. Indeed, [genuine] prayer should deter [one] from

indecency and wickedness. The remembrance of Allah is [an]

even greater [deterrent]. And Allah [fully] knows what you [all]

do (Qur’an 29:45).

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Salat is the most important act of worship in Islam and the first act of worship

to be made compulsory. It is performed five times a day in congregation, with

no exemptions, regardless of age, gender, health, or location. These five daily

prayers are Fajr Prayer (at dawn), Zuhr Prayer (at noon), Asr Prayer (late noon),

Maghrib Prayer (at sunset), and Isha Prayer (at night). Each prayer is preceded

by a specific set of actions and rituals, including purification, and supplication.

Salat is an integral part of a Muslim's faith and serves to remind us of our

accountability to Allah and to strengthen our connection with Him:

Offer prayers perfectly from mid-day till the darkness of the

night (i.e., Zuhr, Asr, Maghrib, and Isha Prayers), and recite the

Qur'an in the early dawn (i.e., the morning prayer). Verily, the

recitation of the Qur'an in the early dawn is ever witnessed

(attended by the angels in charge of mankind of the day and the

night) (Qur’an 17:78).

Worshipping brings servants closer to their Lord, allowing them to remember

their position as servants and to fulfil their obligations to themselves and to

others. In addition, worship improves one's manners and attitude, while

providing physical benefits and preparing one to bear the hardships of life. For

example, the daily practice of ablution in preparation for prayer, standing,

bowing, and prostrating in prayer; circumambulation of the Ka'abah, walking

between Safa and Marwa, standing at Arafah, sleeping in the open space in

the night at Muzdalifah and staying at Minah all these in Hajj; as well as fasting

and enduring hunger, thirst, and lack of sleep all contribute to enhancing one’s

attitude and physical wellbeing (Al-Sibai, 2007: 33-5). Through worship, one

can be better equipped to meet the challenges of life and remain close to their

Lord:

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 O you who believe, remember Allah much (✶) and glorify Him

morning and evening (✶) (Qur’an 33: 41-42).

3.1.2 Zakat

Zakat is an important pillar of the Islamic faith and is a form of charity that is

mandatory for all Muslims:

Establish prayer, give zakat, and obey the Messenger, so that

you may be shown mercy” (Qur’an 24: 56).

The example of those who spend their wealth in the way of Allah

is like a seed (of grain) which grows seven spikes; in each spike

is a hundred grains. And Allah multiplies [His reward] for whom

He wills. And Allah is All-Encompassing and Knowing (Qur’an

2:261).

It is a way of giving back to the community and is an essential part of the Islamic

faith. There are many reasons why Zakat is so important and understanding

these reasons can help strengthen faith and motivate believers to fulfil their

religious obligations.

First, Zakat is a way to demonstrate gratitude to Allah for all the blessings that

He has bestowed upon us. In the Qur’an, Allah says:

And (remember) when your Lord proclaimed: ‘If you are grateful,

I will surely increase you (in favour)’ (Qur’an 14:7).

Zakat is a way of expressing thanks for the countless blessings that Allah has

given us and is a way of acknowledging that all that we have comes from Him.

In addition, Zakat is a way of purifying one’s wealth. Wealth is a test from Allah,

and it is important to remember to use it wisely. By giving Zakat, we are

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reminded to be mindful of what we own and to use it in a way that is pleasing

to Allah. Furthermore, Zakat is a means of providing for those who are less

fortunate. It is a way of providing support to those who are in need, and it helps

to create a sense of social justice and equity. This is particularly important in

times of crisis, such as during the pandemic, when Zakat can be used to help

those who are struggling to make ends meet.

Alms [zakat] is only for the poor and the needy; those in charge

of it; those whose hearts may be attracted [to Islam]; for freeing

those in bondage; for those in debt; for the cause of Allah; and

for [the stranded] traveller – as ordained by Allah, for Allah is All-

Knowing, All-Wise” (Qur’an 9:60).

3.1.3 Saum (Fasting the Month of Ramadan)

Saum or fasting during the month of Ramadan, is one of the five pillars of Islam

and holds immense significance for Muslims worldwide. The act of fasting

involves abstaining from food, drink, and sexual relations from dawn (Fajr) until

sunset (Maghrib) for the entire month. The purpose of fasting is to attain Taqwa

(piety) and to develop a closer relationship with Allah. It serves as a time for

self-reflection, self-discipline, and spiritual growth.

Fasting during the Month of Ramadan is obligatory for every Muslim as Allah

says:

O you who believe, fasting is prescribed upon you as it was

prescribed upon those who were before you, so that you may

become righteous. (✶) [Fast is for] a specific number of days;

but if anyone of you is ill or on a journey, he should make up for

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 those days. As for those who can only fast with hardship, a

compensation can be made by feeding a needy person [for each

day]. But anyone who volunteers to give more, it is better for

him. Yet fasting is better for you if only you knew. (✶) Ramadan

is a month in which the Qur’an was sent down as a guidance for

mankind and as clear signs that show the right way and

distinguish between right and wrong. So whoever of you

witnesses this month, should fast. But if anyone is ill or on a

journey, he should make up for those days. Allah wants ease for

you and does not want hardship for you, so that you may

complete the prescribed number of days, and proclaim the

greatness of Allah for having guided you, and so that you may

be grateful (✶) (Qur’an 2:183-185).

Fasting was made compulsory in the second year of Hijrah (624 AD). Regarding

the significance of fasting, Abu Hurairah (RA) narrated that Allah's Messenger

(PBUH) said, "All the actions of the children of Adam are multiplied, a good

deed is ten times it’s like up to seven hundred times. Allah said: 'Except fasting,

for it is for Me, and I give the reward for it. He leaves his desires and food for

My sake’” (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 1904; Sahih Muslim: 1151).

The fasting person has two times of happiness: “happiness when he breaks his

fast and happiness when he meets his Lord. Indeed, the changing of the breath

of the fasting person is better with Allah than the scent of musk” (Sahih Al-

Bukhari: 7492; Sahih Muslim: 1152).

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There are a number of issues involved in fasting: types, exceptions, actions that

invalidate it, and time for starting and breaking it as highlighted under Table

3.1:

Table 3.1

Fasting Guidelines in Islam

Category Details

Types of Fasts There are two types of fasts: obligatory (Fard) and

voluntary (Sunnah).

Obligatory Fast Performed during the month of Ramadan.

Voluntary Fasts Performed throughout the year except on forbidden

(General) days.

Voluntary Fasts Performed on special days such as Mondays and

(Special Days) Thursdays, the three bright days of the month (13th,

14th, and 15th), Tashura and Ashura and Arafah day.

Exemptions from Certain individuals are exempt from fasting during

Fasting Ramadan, including children who have not reached

puberty, the elderly, pregnant or nursing women,

travellers, and those suffering from illness (see Quran

2:184).

Actions that Actions that nullify the fast include intentional eating

Invalidate the Fast or drinking, sexual intercourse, deliberate vomiting,

and menstruation or post-childbirth bleeding. If any

of these occur, the fast must be made up after

Ramadan (Qada) or, in the case of sexual intercourse,

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 expiation (Kaffarah) is required in addition to making

up the fast.

Making Up Missed If unable to fast due to temporary reasons, missed

Fasts days must be made up after Ramadan. If unable to

fast permanently, feeding a poor person for each

missed day is required (Fidyah).

Iftar and Suhoor Iftar is the meal taken at sunset to break the fast,

while Suhoor is the pre-dawn meal. It is a Sunnah to

break the fast with dates and water, as the Prophet

(PBUH) said, "When one of you breaks his fast, let

him break it with dates; if he cannot find any, then

with water, for it is pure" (Sunan Abu Dawud: 2356).

Note. Based on Al Jaziri (2009).

3.1.4 Hajj

Hajj is an annual pilgrimage to Makkah, in present day Saudi Arabia, that all

Muslims must make at least once in their lifetime if they are physically and

financially able:

And proclaim the pilgrimage to all people; they will come to you

on foot and on every lean camel from every distant pathway. (✶)

So that they may attain benefits and pronounce Allah’s name

during the appointed days over the sacrificial animals that He

has provided for them; then eat from it and feed the desperate

poor. (✶) Then let them complete their rites, fulfil their vows,

and circumambulation the Ancient House [Ka’ba]” (✶) (Qur’an

22:27-29).

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 In it are clear signs [such as] the standing place of Abraham;

whoever enters it will be safe. Pilgrimage to the House is a duty

owed to Allah upon all people who are able to make their way

to it; whoever disbelieves, then Allah is in no need for the worlds

(Qur’an 3:97).

Hajj is a deeply spiritual journey of self-discovery and growth, offering profound

insight into the meaning of life. It brings one closer to Allah and fosters a

deeper understanding of the Islamic faith. At the heart of the Hajj is the

Ka’abah, a cubicle-like structure that is the holiest site in Islam and was built by

Prophets Ibrahim and Isma’il (AS):

And [remember] when We made the House [Ka‘ba] a focal point

and a sanctuary for the people. “[O believers], take the Station

of Abraham as a place for prayer.” We charged Abraham and

Ishmael to purify My House for those who perform

circumambulation or stay for worship, or those who bow down

and prostrate (Qur’an 2:125).

Muslims circle the Ka’abah seven times (Tawaf), signifying a spiritual cleansing

and renewal of faith. The Hajj also includes a symbolic stoning of the devil (Rami

al-Jamarat), meant to purge the soul of sin (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 1753).

Hajj serves as a powerful reminder of the importance of humility, as it teaches

Muslims to recognise and accept their own limitations and to avoid pride. It

emphasises humility in interactions with others and respect for all people.

Furthermore, Hajj is a reminder of the power of generosity and charity,

encouraging Muslims to donate to charity to help those less fortunate during

their pilgrimage:

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 O you who believe, spend in charity from the good things you

have earned and of what We have produced for you from the

earth. Do not choose inferior things for charity, which you

yourselves would not take except by overlooking. And know

that Allah is Self-Sufficient, Praiseworthy” (Qur’an 2:267).

This serves to emphasise the importance of community and solidarity,

reminding Muslims to strive to help and support each other in times of need.

The wisdom of the Hajj is timeless, offering spiritual insight and growth. As an

important part of Islamic practice and tradition, Hajj is an act of devotion and

surrender to Allah, demonstrating commitment to the Islamic faith:

O you who believe, be patient and endure, stand on guard and

fear Allah, so that you may be successful (Qur’an 3:200).

The Hajj is an experience that encourages introspection, reflection, and an

appreciation of the Divine.

Hajj, on the whole, offers Muslims profound insights into the unity and solidarity

of the Islamic Ummah. It serves as a unifying force, bringing together the

diverse peoples of the Islamic nation. Despite varying colours, races, and

languages, Muslims share a common Lord, Prophet, Revealed Book, and

Qiblah (direction of prayer), which bind them in a unique bond.

During Hajj, the display of love, mercy, sympathy, and cooperation among the

pilgrims strengthen the bonds of brotherhood that transcend any differences

they may have, through shared emotions and collective observance of rituals.

This unification aligns perfectly with divine teachings, as Allah states in the

Quran, "The believers are but brothers" (Quran 49:10) and "So He brought

your hearts together so that by His grace you became brothers" (Quran 3:103).

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Through the Hajj experience, it becomes evident that Muslims, regardless of

their origins, are part of a larger family, the Ummah, united by their unwavering

faith and devotion to the one true God. Hajj goes beyond mere rituals,

embodying the oneness of the Islamic nation and stands as a testament to their

shared identity and the strength that arises from their unity.

Hajj imparts the true bond of the Islamic Nation, highlighting that the Ummah

is a community of diversity, united by the shared values of faith, compassion,

understanding, cooperation, and togetherness. As Muslims return from this

sacred journey, they carry with them the invaluable lessons of Hajj, fostering

love and unity among their fellow believers, and contributing to a harmonious

and cohesive Islamic society.

3.2 Enjoining the Right (Good) and Forbidding the Wrong (Evil)

Doing good and avoiding evil have long been a cornerstone of religious,

political, economic, social, and moral behaviour. By following Allah’s

commands and implementing them in our daily lives, we fulfil the purpose of

our creation and demonstrate our belief in Him:

Allah enjoins justice, kindness, and giving relatives [their dues],

and He forbids shameful acts, evil deeds, and oppression. He

exhorts you, so that you may take heed (Qur’an 16:90).

Doing good deeds include acts of kindness and charity towards others, such

as feeding the poor, helping those in need, being generous to those who

cannot afford to pay, and refraining from causing harm to others:

It is not righteousness to turn your faces towards the east or the

west, but righteousness is to believe in Allah, the Last Day, the

angels, the Scriptures, and the prophets; and to give charity out

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 of one’s cherished wealth to relatives, orphans, the needy, the

wayfarer, beggars, and to free slaves; to establish prayer and

give zakat; to fulfil the ratified pledges; to be patient at times of

hardship, adversity, and during the battle. Such are the true

believers, and such are the righteous (Qur’an 2:177).

Other good acts include restraining your anger (Qur’an 3:134); returning a

greeting in a better manner (Qur’an 4:86); keeping your oaths (Qur’an 5:89);

accepting peace if enemy wants it (Qur’an 8:61); honouring your treaties

(Qur’an 9:4); feeding the poor (Qur’an 22:36); turning away from ill speech

(Qur’an 23:3); keeping your trusts & promises (Qur’an 23:8); walking in a

humble manner (Qur’an 25:63); thinking good of others (Qur’an 24:12);

speaking nicely, even to the ignorant (Qur’an 25:63); responding to evil with

good (Qur’an 41:34); making peace between fighting groups (Qur’an 49:9);

being good to guests (Qur’an 51:24-27); making room for others at gatherings

(Qur’an 58:11).

These acts serve to promote unity and cooperation in society, as well as

demonstrate an appreciation of the blessings that Allah has bestowed upon us.

Furthermore, by doing good deeds, one can become a model of moral

excellence and a source of inspiration for others:

You are the best community ever raised for humanity—you

encourage good, forbid evil, and believe in Allah. Had the

People of the Book believed, it would have been better for

them. Some of them are faithful, but most are rebellious (Qur’an

3:110).

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These deeds are specifically for the benefit of individuals and society. It is

important to note that actions must be done for the sake of Allah and not for

praise or reward. The deeds must be based on approved actions, meaning that

the end should not justify the means. By adhering to these principles, Muslims

can strive to serve Allah through worship and good deeds, thereby achieving

the highest ranks of faith:

O believers! When you are told to make room in gatherings,

then do so. Allah will make room for you ˹in His grace˺. And if

you are told to rise, then do so. Allah will elevate those of you

who are faithful, and ˹raise˺ those gifted with knowledge in rank.

And Allah is All-Aware of what you do (Qur’an 58:11).

Doing good has long been a cornerstone of religious, political, economic,

social, and moral behaviour: Allah commands doing anything that is just and

good and forbids all kinds of shameful deeds and injustice pertaining to Him

and to the created. Doing anything good is acceptable to Allah provided it is

within the following criteria (Shanqeedy, 1412: 21–3):

1. The deed should be in conformity with what Prophet Muhammad (PBUH)

has brought for mankind, for Allah Says:

Whatever the Messenger (Muhammad PBUH) gives you, accept

it, and whatever he forbids you, refrain from it. And fear Allah;

indeed, Allah is severe in punishment. Qur’an 59:7).

He who obeys the Messenger (Muhammad PBUH), has indeed

obeyed Allah” (Qur’an 4:80).

“Say (O Muhammad to mankind): “If you (men really) love Allah,

then follow me” (Qur’an 3:31).

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Any action, therefore, which is not derived from the teachings of the Prophet

(PBUH) is not based on divine revelation and thus, should not be accepted.

Such actions are a consequence of human creativity, not divine guidance, and

therefore are not in accordance with the teachings of the Prophet (PBUH). Such

actions cannot be tolerated or accepted, as they only lead to deviation and

disunity. Therefore, one should always strive to seek guidance from the

teachings of the Prophet (PBUH) rather than relying on human-made laws. In a

word, any law that contradicts the Shari’ah is not to be tolerated and should be

firmly rejected.

2. The deed should be done purely for the sake of Allah without showing off

or desire to gain praise. (Saying to themselves), "We feed you only for the sake

of Allah, seeking neither reward nor thanks from you (Qur’an 76:9). It is of

utmost importance that actions are done solely for the sake of Allah, to please

Him and win His pleasure, and not for any other purpose, not for worldly

recognition or for fame. Those who do good deeds for the purpose of being

praised by others are not truly doing it for Allah, and such actions are not

acceptable in His Eyes. Believers must strive to keep their intentions pure and

not let any other motives interfere with their act of worship. If actions are

sincere and done out of love for Allah, He will accept them and be rewarded:

And as for those who believe (in the Oneness of Allah) and do

righteous good deeds, Allah will pay them their reward in full.

And Allah does not like the Zalimun (polytheists and wrong

doers) (Qur’an 3:57).

But those who believe and do righteous deeds – they are the

people of Paradise; they will abide therein forever (Qur’an 2:82).

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 And whoever does good deeds, be he a male or a female, and

is a true believer in the Oneness of Allah (Muslims), such will

enter Paradise and not the least injustice even to the size of a

speck on the back of a date – stone will be done to them (Qur’an

4:124).

3. The deed should be based on true doctrine. Every work is based on a certain

notion, assumption, or belief. Any action which is not derived from true

doctrine, in this case, Islam, is faulty and unacceptable:

And We shall turn to whatever deeds they did (in this life), and

We shall make such deeds as floating dust scattered about

(Qur’an 25:23).

They are those for whom there is nothing in the Hereafter but

Fire; vain are the deeds they did therein. And of no effect is that

which they used to do (Qur’an 11:16).

Thus, actions must fulfil the aforementioned criteria to be acceptable to Allah.

While one may generally be good and kind to others and oppose all forms of

corruption and evil, if these actions lack sincerity or are motivated by desire for

recognition, or do not align with the three criteria, then they are considered

unacceptable by Allah. For instance, the Prophet’s (PBUH) uncle, Abu Talib,

supported the Prophet (PBUH) against the Makkan pagans, but his actions did

not absolve him from being among the pagans as he had refused to embrace

Islam until his death. Consequently, the Prophet (PBUH) was not allowed to

seek forgiveness for him, despite his good deeds. This example serves as a

reminder that the intention behind actions is as important as the actions

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themselves, and if intentions do not adhere to Islamic principles, then even

good deeds will be rejected by Allah:

It is not proper for the Prophet and those who believe to ask

Allah’s Forgiveness for pagans even though they may be kin,

after it has become clear to them that they are the dwellers of

the Fire (because they died in a state of disbelief) (Qur’an 9:113).

Doing good and avoiding evil can be further understood from religious,

political, economic, and social perspectives:

3.2.1 Religious Perspective

Religiously, doing good encompasses a variety of activities such as ensuring

justice, calling people to Islam, engaging in jihad in the course of Allah,

obedience to one’s parents, being generally kind to people, keeping trust

given to one and developing a moral code of conduct, respecting the rights of

others, and promoting goodwill and compassion among people. In this

section, two issues are considered: calling to the way of Allah and the concept

of Jihad.

1. Calling to the Way of Allah

Calling people to the way of Allah by different strategies had been what the

Prophet (PBUH) primarily did throughout his life as Messenger of Allah. To

underscore the importance of this responsibility even for other Muslims, Allah

in many verses of the Qur’an recognised those who made such efforts:

And who is better in speech than he who [says: "My Lord is Allah

(believes in His Oneness)," and then stands straight (acts upon

His order), and] invites (men) to Allah's (Islamic Monotheism),

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 and does righteous deeds, and says: "I am one of the Muslims

(Qur’an 41:33).

[It is a triumph of] those who turn [unto God] in repentance

[whenever they have sinned], and who worship and praise [Him],

and go on and on [seeking His goodly acceptance], and bow

down [before Him] and prostrate themselves in adoration, and

enjoin the doing of what is right and forbid the doing of what is

wrong, and keep to the bounds set by God. And give you [O

Prophet] the glad tiding [of God's promise] to all believers!

(Qur’an 9:112).

2. The Concept of Jihad

Jihad, striving for the sake of Allah, is about the efforts of Muslims to obey

Allah’s commands, strive for justice and righteousness, and to uphold the faith.

Jihad is viewed as a collective obligation for all Muslims to propagate and

defend their religion. The Qur’an states:

Allah has purchased from the believers their lives and their

wealth, and in return, they will have Paradise; they fight in the

cause of Allah, and they kill or are killed. This is a true promise,

given by Him in the Torah, the Gospel, and the Qur’an. Who is

more faithful to his promise than Allah? Rejoice then in the

transaction you have made with Him; that is the supreme

triumph (Qur’an 9:111).

Let those who sacrifice the life of this world for the Hereafter

fight in the way of Allah; for whoever fights in the way of Allah,

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 whether he is killed or attains victory, We will give him a great

reward (Qur’an 4:74).

Abdullah ibn Mas’ud, a Companion of the Prophet (PBUH), asked the Prophet

(PBUH) about good deeds: “O Allah’s Messenger! What is the best deed?” He

replied, “To offer the Salat (prayers) at their early fixed stated times.” I asked,

“What is next in goodness?” He replied, “To be good and dutiful to your

parents.” I further asked, “What is next in goodness?” He replied, “To

participate in Jihad in Allah’s Cause.” I did not ask Allah’s Messenger (PBUH)

anymore and if I had asked him more, he would have told me more (Sahih Al-

Bukhari: 505).

Calling people to Islam (Da’awah) by preachers and literature to enlighten

people towards the religion are the most important aspect of Jihad today.

However, Jihad is sometimes misinterpreted to mean only as a ‘holy war’ or a

call to violence. This is not the case. Jihad is about defending the religion when

Muslims are threatened and striving for justice and righteousness:

And what is it with you? You do not fight in the cause of Allah

and for oppressed men, women, and children who cry out, "Our

Lord! Deliver us from this land of oppressors! Appoint for us a

saviour; appoint for us a helper—all by Your grace” (Qur’an

4:75).

It is about engaging in struggle for the sake of Allah, which could be in the

form of spiritual struggle or physical struggle. The main types of Jihad are those

of the heart, tongue, and hand. The jihad of the heart is the most important

and the most difficult. It is the struggle to keep one’s faith in Allah and to submit

to Allah’s will:

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 “As for those who struggle in Our cause, We will surely guide

them along Our Way. And Allah is certainly with the good-

doers” (Qur’an 29:69).

The jihad of the tongue is the effort to propagate the faith and to speak out

against injustice and oppression:

And whose words are better than someone who calls (others) to

Allah, does good, and says, "I am truly one of those who

submit”? (Qur’an 41:33).

The jihad of the hand is the physical struggle against injustice and oppression,

but it should always be done in accordance with Islamic law and with respect

for human life. The conditions include:

Fight in the cause of Allah (only) against those who wage war

against you, but do not exceed the limits. Allah does not like

transgressors. (✶) Kill them wherever you come upon them and

drive them out of the places from which they have driven you

out. For persecution is far worse than killing. And do not fight

them at the Sacred Mosque unless they attack you there. If they

do so, then fight them—that is the reward of the disbelievers.

(✶) But if they cease, then surely Allah is All-Forgiving, Most

Merciful. (✶) Fight against them ˹if they persecute you˺ until

there is no more persecution, and ˹your˺ devotion will be to

Allah ˹alone˺. If they stop ˹persecuting you˺, let there be no

hostility except against the aggressors (✶) (Qur’an 2:190-193).

Indeed, the number of months ordained by Allah is twelve—in

Allah’s Record since the day He created the heavens and the

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 earth—of which four are sacred. That is the Right Way. So do not

wrong one another during these months. And together fight the

polytheists as they fight against you together. And know that

Allah is with those mindful ˹of Him˺ (Qur’an 9:36).

In fighting, Muslims are not allowed to go beyond their limits. It is prohibited

to kill women, old people, children, and monks who do not participate in

fighting against the Muslims. Additionally, any fighting must refrain from felling

trees or killing animals (Sunan Abu Dawud: 2608). Thus, while the practice of

Jihad has shifted to a primarily non-violent approach, a clear set of limits and

prohibition on the use of violence in the name of Islam has been established

and must be adhered to.

The expansionist jihads of the past, driven solely by the desire to spread Islamic

rule, stand in stark contrast to the more localised and defensive nature of

contemporary jihads (Armstrong, 2000). From the 7th to the 10th centuries,

Muslim armies conquered vast territories, including Persia, the Byzantine

Empire, and parts of the Indian subcontinent, primarily to spread the message

of Islam and establish Islamic rule (Kennedy, 2007). This expansion was driven

by the belief that Islam was the ultimate truth, and that the Muslim community

had a duty to spread this truth to the rest of the world, known as “Da’awah”

(Armstrong, 2000; Esposito, 2002). Consequently, Muslim conquests were

characterised by a mix of religious zeal and political ambition, with the

establishment of Islamic rule over new territories often achieved through

military means.

Jihad, as it relates to expansionism, was last executed in the nineteenth

century. Since then, other forms of Jihad took precedence to align with the

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circumstances of the modern era. Today, contemporary jihad mainly focuses on

self-defence, national liberation, and the protection of the rights of Muslims

and oppressed peoples. This shift reflects the evolving political, social, and

religious landscape of the contemporary world, along with the growing

importance of international law, human rights, and the principle of self-

determination. For instance, the Mujahideen in Afghanistan, Palestine, and

Bosnia have drawn on a deep sense of religious identity and purpose to inspire

their struggle, with martyrdom seen as an honourable way to protect the

Islamic community and its values. All these jihads (may Allah bless the martyrs)

are confined within a national territory. In Palestine, Arabs have been fighting

to reclaim their land and to establish a Palestinian State; in Afghanistan,

Muslims fought the Russians and subsequently foreign invaders and drove

them all, including their puppets out of their country; and in Bosnia, Muslims

are fighting to establish an Islamic State out of the former Yugoslavia.

What is noteworthy is that in all these conflicts, numerous non-Muslims have

sided with the Muslims, often for reasons of political expediency rather than

religious or ideological conviction (Esposito, 1999; Cleveland & Bunton, 2016).

While contemporary jihads are driven by nationalistic and religious sentiments,

they are also driven by a sense of justice and solidarity. The Mujahideen are

perceived as defenders of the oppressed, fighting for human rights and dignity

in the face of injustice. This is evidenced by the fact that many non-Muslims

have joined forces with the Mujahideen in multiple nations. For instance, the

United States and the United Kingdom backed Afghan Mujahideen against the

Russians and their puppet government in Afghanistan, not out of any affinity

for Islam or Muslims, but to drive communism out of Afghanistan. Despite

these political alliances, the Mujahideen have drawn on a deep sense of

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religious identity and purpose to fuel their struggle, particularly the case in

Bosnia and Palestine, where martyrdom is considered an honourable means of

defending the Islamic community and its values. In this respect, modern jihads

have followed the example of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), who led an

armed struggle against those who sought to oppress the Muslim community in

Arabia.

In contemporary times, colonialism evolved into neo-colonialism, shifting from

direct conquest to economic dominance and cultural control. The influence of

media, international aid, and cultural and educational linkages has made this

form of control increasingly pervasive. Internally, however, the concept of jihad

is not prominent in the minds of Muslim leaders or the majority of Muslims.

Current immigration policies worldwide, leading to the deportation of

immigrants, make it challenging to foster a united Muslim identity for the

purposes of jihad. No country tolerates illegal immigrants, even if they are law-

abiding. Citizens often resent immigrants occupying important positions in

government or in private businesses. This creates a sense of insecurity among

Muslim immigrants and resentment among citizens of their host countries. As

immigrants become more established in their adopted countries, they

frequently face resistance and discrimination, perceived as taking away

opportunities from citizens. These dynamic further divides immigrants and

citizens, complicating the creation of a unified Muslim identity.

3.2.2 Political Perspective

Politically, doing good involves promoting justice, protecting vulnerable

populations, ensuring political integrity, and preventing the abuse of power. It

is an essential element of the Islamic legal system; it is through politics that

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Islamic law can be implemented, and genuine justice can be ensured. It is

important to recognise the importance of political systems in Islam and

understand the essential role it plays in the maintenance of law and order and

in promoting justice:

Those who, if We give them power in the land, they establish

prayer and give Zakat, and enjoin what is right and forbid what

is wrong. And to Allah belongs the outcome of all matters

(Qur’an 22: 41).

“Abu Sa‘id al-Khudri (RA) reported: ‘I heard the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) say:

‘Whoever of you sees an evil, let him change it with his hand; and if he is not

able to do so, then [let him change it] with his tongue; and if he is not able to

do so, then with his heart — and that is the weakest level of faith’” (Sahih

Muslim: 49).

Islamic politics is rooted in the Qur'an and the Sunnah of the Prophet (PBUH),

and is based on the principles of justice, fairness, and equality. The Qur'an

emphasises the importance of justice and fairness in governance:

O you who believe, stand up for justice as witnesses for Allah,

even against yourselves or parents and relatives. Whether one

is rich or poor, Allah takes best care of both. So do not let your

desires to cause you swerve from justice. If you distort your

testimony or refuse to give it, then Allah is indeed All-Aware of

what you do (Qur'an 4:135).

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3.2.2.1 Appointment of Leaders

Leaders are appointed or elected after consultations. Islamic leadership is

typically established through consultation and consensus among the

community. The first four Caliphs, known as the Rightly Guided Caliphs, were

chosen through various methods of appointment and election, with

consultation and agreement from the community being key factors (Madelung,

1996). The first Caliph, Abubakar Siddiq, was elected first by a select-group of

people of Madinah (Al-Ansar), upon the nomination by Umar bin Khattab, and

subsequent allegiance of the people of Madinah, including Muhajiroon (The

Muslims who migrated from Makkah to Madina). The second Caliph, Umar bin

Khattab was appointed by Abubakar Siddiq at his death bed after consultation

with the senior Companions of the Prophet (Sahabah). The third Caliph, Usman

bin Affan, was elected by a group of six Companions of the Prophet (PBUH),

constituted by Umar bin Khattab on his death bed (Ibn Sa’d, 1907; Al-Tabari,

1989; Ibn Hajar Al-Asqalani, n.d). The fourth Caliph, Ali bin Abi Talib was

elected by a group of senior Companions of the Prophet (PBUH) after the

assassination of the third Caliph. The fifth Caliph, Mu’awiyah bin Abi Sufyan,

was elected by a group of Muslims after the assassination of the fourth Caliph.

After Mu’awiyah, his son Yazid assumed the leadership and began the

Umayyad Dynasty. Later dynasties and empires such as the Abbasid, Fatimid,

Ayyubi, Mamluk, and the Ottoman Empire, until its disintegration into a

number of countries such as Turkey, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and

several North African and Central African countries (Hodgson, 1974; Kennedy,

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2004; Cleveland & Bunton, 2016),16 followed different methods of appointing

leaders, but consultation remained an important principle (Madelung, 1996).

However, Islamic teachings emphasise the importance of strength and

capability in leadership roles, drawing from the guidance of Prophet

Muhammad (PBUH). This is exemplified in a Hadith where the Prophet (PBUH)

advised Abu Dharr (may Allah be pleased with him), acknowledging his

perceived weakness. The Prophet (PBUH) said: 'O Abu Dharr, I see that you are

weak, and I love for you what I love for myself. Do not rule over two persons

and do not manage an orphan's property' (Sahih Muslim: 1826). This Hadith

underlines the principle that individuals who may not possess the requisite

strength or capability should not be entrusted with leadership responsibilities,

particularly in managing affairs of others, including those of orphans. It reflects

the emphasis on ensuring that those in positions of authority are well-equipped

to handle the responsibilities and trusts placed upon them.

3.2.2.2 Responsibility

The fundamental responsibilities of leaders have been clearly spelt out by the

Qur’an:

It is those who, if We give them power in the land, they establish

prayer and give Zakat, and enjoin what is right and forbid what

is wrong. And to Allah belongs the outcome of all matters

(Qur’an 22:41).

From the verse, four fundamental issues are clear, and they are: Protection of

the religion, economic stability, promotion of all that is good, and prohibition

16
Known for his three-volume work, "The Venture of Islam," Hodgson's scholarship covers the history of the
Islamic world from its inception up to modern times.

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of all that is wrong in the light of the Qur’an and Sunnah. In order to achieve

all these, administrative mechanisms are put in place to ensure compliance as

well as reward and punishment.

In his work The Essentials of Good Government and the Obligation of

Leadership, Sheikh Usman Dan Fodiyo contends that:

I...] the leader is appointed to safeguard the rule of law. He is

appointed with a specific mandate to uphold the rule of law, to

ensure justice and equality in such a way that the citizen gets his

entitlements and the property and well-being of orphans, the

infirm, the insane and so on, are safeguarded. The leader must

do his utmost and exercise power in the fear of Allah. If he is

upright, his work will show complete lack of self-interest. He is

not appointed to oppress his subjects or to amass personal

wealth. What he must do is lead the people as far as religion

and their material wellbeing are concerned and thank Allah for

having the opportunity to do so (Dan Fodiyo, 1807 as cited in

Wali, 2010: 18-19).

Leaders have responsibility towards their subjects as Muslims have obligation

towards their leaders. The latter respect, support and obey the former as long

as the leaders are on the right path.

Ibn Umar (RA) reported: “I heard the Messenger (PBUH) say: ‘All of you are

shepherds and every one of you is responsible for his herd. A leader is a

shepherd, a man is the shepherd over his family and a woman is the shepherd

over her husband’s house and his children. So all of you are shepherds, and

every one of you is responsible for his herd.”" In another wording: ''All of you

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are shepherds and every one of you is responsible for his herd. A leader is a

shepherd and is responsible for his herd. A man is the shepherd over his family

and is responsible for his herd. A woman is the shepherd over the house of her

husband and is responsible for her herd. A servant is the shepherd over the

wealth of his master and is responsible for his herd. So all of you are shepherds,

and every one of you is responsible for his herd’’ (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 7138, Sahih

Muslim: 1829).

Table 3. 2

The Four Orthodox Caliphs (29 Years)

Caliph Place of Date Age Age Age Caliphate

Birth and before After Years

Death Hijrah Hijrah

Abubakar Makkah 573- 62 51 13 2

Siddiq Madinah 634

Umar bin Makkah 582- 65 41 24 10

Khattab Madinah 645

Usman bin Makkah 577- 82 47 35 12

Affan Madinah 655

Ali bin Abi Makkah 600- 63 23 40 5

Talib Kufa 661

Note. Adapted from Madelung (1996).

3.2.2.3 Attitude of Leadership

Attitude of the government towards the governed, has been made very clear

by the Qur’an thus:

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 And lower your wing [in kindness] to the believers who follow

you (Qur’an 26:215).

It is by Allah’s mercy that you [O Prophet] became lenient to

them. If you had been harsh and hard-hearted, they would have

dispersed from you. So pardon them, seek forgiveness for them,

and consult them in the important matters. But once you have

made a decision, put your trust in Allah, for Allah loves those

who put their trust in Him (Qur’an 3:159).

This means “to be kind, gentle, and considerate with them, as a high-flying

bird is when she lowers her wing to her offspring.” Leaders should exercise

their authority with kindness, gentleness, and consideration towards those they

lead. This is akin to how a high-flying bird lowers her wings to her offspring,

which serves as an example of the care and compassion that should be applied

to those under a leader’s charge. In this regard, Aisha (RA) reported: “I heard

the Messenger (PBUH) saying in my house: ‘O Allah, treat harshly those who

rule over my nation with harshness and treat gently those who rule over my

nation with gentleness (Riyad as-Salihin: 654). Furthermore, “Ma’qil ibn Yasar

(RA) reported that the Prophet (PBUH) said: ‘There is no one whom Allah has

put in a position of authority, and he dies on the day he dies cheating those

under his authority, but Allah will forbid Paradise for him”' ( Sahih Al-Bukhari;

Sahih Muslim).

3.2.2.4 Obligation

The leader is expected to be accountable to the people and to act in their best

interests by protecting the rights of the individual and of the community and

ensuring justice. This is essential for justice and for the preservation of social

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harmony in the society. Leaders hold positions of authority and are expected

to exercise their authority in a way that is consistent with the principles of

justice, fairness, and equality, and to refrain from using their power for personal

gain:

And it is He Who has made you generation coming after

generation replacing each other over the earth. And He has

raised you in ranks some above others that He may try you in

that which He has bestowed on you (Qur’an 6:165).

The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) said, "Whosoever of you is appointed by us

to a position of authority and he conceals from us a needle or something

smaller than that, it would be misappropriation (of public funds) and [he] will

(have to) produce it on the Day of Judgment" (Sahih Muslim: 103).

It is essential that the relationship between a leader and those they govern be

reciprocal, with both sides recognising their shared responsibility to uphold the

commandments of Allah. As such, the governed are expected to obey their

leaders’ instructions and directives, as long as they align with Islamic teachings.

Allah says:

O you who believe, obey Allah, and obey the Messenger, and

those of you who are in authority. If you disagree over anything,

refer it to Allah and the Messenger, if you believe in Allah and

the Last Day; that is better and more commendable in the end

(Qur’an 4:59).

In this regard, when the Prophet (PBUH) appointed Abdullah bin Hudhaafa bin

Qasi bin Adee as the Commander of a Sariya (army unit) he said: Whoever

obeys me, obeys Allah, and whoever disobeys me, disobeys Allah, and

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whoever obeys my ruler (the ruler I appoint), obeys me and whoever disobeys

my ruler, disobeys me (Sahih Al-Bukhari, 52: 204). This Hadith underscores the

importance of obedience to those in authority:

“But whoever opposes the Messenger after guidance has

become clear to him, and follows other than the way of the

believers, We will leave him to what he has chosen, and burn

him in Hell. What a terrible destination!” (Qur’an 4:115).

But where a ruler disobeys Allah based on his whims and caprices, not because

he does not believe in Allah’s rulings, then that does not take him outside Islam

and he must be obeyed, and it is not permissible to fight him or remove him

from power. However, if a leader disobeys Allah and His Messenger

Muhammad (PBUH) and believes that his position and rulings are better than

those of Allah and His Messenger, then it is no longer obligatory to obey him,

as his actions are contrary to Islamic principles. In such cases, obedience to the

leader is not required, as Ibn Umar reported: “It is a duty upon a Muslim man

to listen and obey authorities, whether he likes it or not, unless they command

sinful obedience. If they command sinful obedience, then there is no listening

or obedience to them” (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 2955).

Therefore, individuals should not obey their orders if they go against the

teachings of Islam and fall within the realm of kufr (disbelief). It is important to

note that even in these cases, the goal should not be to engage in a fight but

rather to protect the sanctity of Islamic principles.

The first Caliph after the Prophet (PBUH), Abubakar Siddiq (RA), provided

guidance on how to follow orders and when to dissent from them. After being

elected as Caliph, Abubakar Siddiq proceeded to the mosque of the Prophet

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(PBUH) to receive the universal pledge of allegiance from the people. After

then, he mounted the pulpit as the Caliph of Islam and delivered the following

legendary speech to the audience:

O people, I have been elected your leader, although I am not

better than anyone from among you. If I do any good, give me

your support. If I go wrong, set me right. Listen, truth is honesty

and untruth is dishonesty. The weak among you are powerful in

my eyes, as long as I do not get them their due, Allah willing.

The powerful among you are weak in my eyes, as long as I do

not take away from them what is due to others, Allah willing.

Listen, if people give up striving for the cause of Allah, Allah

sends down disgrace on them. If a people become evil doers,

Allah sends down calamities on them.

Listen, you must obey me as long as I obey Allah and His

Messenger. If I disobey Allah and His Messenger, you are free to

disobey me.

3.2.2.5 Consultation

Consultation and collaboration are highly emphasised in Islamic governance,

as the Qur’an states: And those who respond to their Lord and establish prayer,

and conduct their affairs by mutual consultation, and spend out of what We

have provided for them (Qur'an 42:38). Consultation is a very critical

component of the Islamic political system. Leaders should not impose their

views on the people, they should consult them. The Prophet (PBUH) conducted

the affairs of the Muslim community in a manner that was later emulated by his

Rightly Guided Companions who succeeded him in leading the community.

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Today, consultation in state affairs is embodied in institutions such as

parliaments, and legislative or consultative bodies. These entities discuss

government proposals on issues affecting the people. Even within the

executive branch, ministers convene to discuss matters of national or

international importance. However, parliaments and other popular assemblies

often face challenges. For instance, when making important economic, social,

and political decisions that impact the people, members of parliaments and

popular assemblies may be subjected to intense pressure from lobbies,

organisations, aristocrats, and international powers who attempt to sway their

votes in favour of certain interests, sometimes through enticement or even

bribery. As a result, not all decisions made by these parliaments align with

morality or the best interest of the people.

Moreover, membership in parliaments is typically determined through national

elections, a process that can be prohibitive for underprivileged and ordinary

citizens due to the exorbitant costs associated with campaigning and utilising

media to sell themselves to the public. Consequently, wealthy elites often step

in to support politicians to win elections, which can, in turn, influence policy

decisions and expectations of compensation for their support.

The role and purpose of Islamic politics can be understood better by examining

it from both internal and external perspectives.

3.2.2.6 Purpose

3.2.2.6.1 Internal Perspective

From an internal viewpoint, Islamic politics pertains to the governing structure,

norms, and practices within Muslim-majority countries or among Muslim

communities. The internal purposes can be summarised as follows:

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1. Establishing Justice: A key objective is to establish a just socio-political

order. The Quran mentions justice multiple times, emphasising its centrality to

the faith:

O you who believe, stand up for justice as witnesses for Allah,

even against yourselves or parents and relatives. Whether one

is rich or poor, Allah takes best care of both. So do not let your

desires to cause you swerve from justice. If you distort your

testimony or refuse to give it, then Allah is indeed All-Aware of

what you do (Quran 4:135).

O you who believe, stand firm for Allah by bearing true

testimony, and do not let the hatred of a people lead you away

from justice. Be just; that is closer to righteousness. And fear

Allah, for Allah is All-Aware of what you do (Quran 5:8).

2. Implementation of Shari’ah: For many, Islamic politics is about the

implementation of Shari’ah (Islamic law) in governance. This can range from

personal law to criminal law, depending on the extent to which a country or

community embraces Shari’ah.

3. Promotion of Unity: Within the diverse world of Islam, which spans various

cultures, languages, and sects, a purpose of Islamic politics is to promote unity

under the banner of faith:

And hold firmly to the rope of Allah all together and do not

become divided. And remember the favour of Allah upon you -

when you were enemies and He brought your hearts together

and you became, by His favour, brothers. And you were on the

edge of a pit of the Fire, and He saved you from it. Thus does

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 Allah make clear to you His verses that you may be guided

(Qur’an 3:103).

Obey Allah and His Messenger, and do not dispute with one

another, or else you will lose courage and your strength will

weaken. And be steadfast, for Allah is with those who are

steadfast (Qur’an 8:46).

4. Welfare and Rights: Ensuring the welfare of the citizenry, particularly the

vulnerable sections like orphans, widows, and the poor, is another core

purpose. Islamic politics often emphasises social justice, redistribution of

wealth, and charitable acts:

Righteousness is not that you turn your faces toward the east or

the west, but [true] righteousness is [in] one who believes in

Allah, the Last Day, the angels, the Book, and the prophets and

gives wealth, in spite of love for it, to relatives, orphans, the

needy, the traveller, those who ask [for help], and for freeing

slaves; [and who] establishes prayer and gives Zakat; [those who]

fulfil their promise when they promise; and [those who] are

patient in poverty and hardship and during battle. Those are the

ones who have been true, and it is those who are the righteous

(Qur’an 2:177).

They ask you, [O Muhammad], what they should spend. Say,

"Whatever you spend of good is [to be] for parents and relatives

and orphans and the needy and the traveller. And whatever you

do of good - indeed, Allah is Knowing of it” (Qur’an 2:215)

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5. Moral and Ethical Society: A core purpose is to cultivate a society based on

Islamic morals and ethics. This can involve regulations pertaining to

consumption of alcohol, dietary restrictions, and moral policing:

And let there be [arising] from you a nation inviting to [all that

is] good, enjoining what is right and forbidding what is wrong,

and those will be the successful (Qur’an 3:104).

3.2.2.6.2 External Perspective

From an external perspective, Islamic politics pertains to how Muslim-majority

countries or Muslim communities relate to the outside world:

1. Diplomatic Relations: Islamic politics often plays a role in the formation of

alliances and diplomatic relations. Muslim-majority countries might gravitate

towards each other due to shared religious values and histories.

O mankind, indeed, We have created you from male and female

and made you peoples and tribes that you may know one

another. Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is

the most righteous of you. Indeed, Allah is Knowing and

Acquainted. (Quran, 49:13).

And if they incline to peace, then incline to it [also] and rely upon

Allah. Verily, He is the All-Hearer, the All-Knower (Quran, 8:61).

2. Economic Cooperation: This can be seen in initiatives like the Organisation

of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) that seeks to promote economic cooperation

among member states.

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3. Defence and Security: Shared religious and cultural values can translate into

mutual defence pacts or intelligence sharing in the face of common perceived

threats:

Prepare against them whatever force you can and cavalry, to

deter Allah’s enemies and your enemies, and others besides

them whom you do not know, but Allah knows them. Whatever

you spend in the cause of Allah will be repaid to you in full, and

you will not be wronged (Qur’an 8:60).

Those who migrated for the sake of Allah after being oppressed,

We will surely give them good in this world. But the reward of

the Hereafter is greater, if only they knew (Qur’an 16:41).

And if any one of the polytheists seeks your protection, then

grant him protection so that he may hear the words of Allah [i.e.,

the Qur’an]. Then deliver him to his place of safety. That is

because they are a people who do not know (Qur’an 9:6).

4. Promotion and Protection of Muslim Rights Worldwide: One objective is

to ensure the rights of Muslims in non-Muslim majority countries are protected.

This can involve diplomatic interventions or support for international

resolutions.

5. Da’awah (Propagation): From an external perspective, there is also an

emphasis on Da'awah, or the effort to invite people to understand and

potentially embrace Islam:

Invite to the way of your Lord with wisdom and good instruction

and argue with them in a way that is best (Quran 16:125).

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 And who is better in speech than one who invites to Allah and

does righteousness and says, 'Indeed, I am of the Muslims.'

(Quran 41:33).

6. Counteracting Islamophobia: Given the rise of Islamophobia in various

parts of the world, a political objective might be to counteract these negative

narratives by promoting interfaith dialogue and showcasing the peaceful

teachings of Islam:

You will certainly be tested in your wealth and your own selves,

and you will certainly hear from those who were given the

Scripture before you and from those who associate partners with

Allah much abusive words. But if you observe patience and fear

Allah, that is a matter of firm resolve (Qur’an 3:186).

We know that you are distressed by what they say (Qur’an

15:97).

On the whole, the purpose of Islamic politics, whether viewed from an internal

or external perspective, revolves around the principles, teachings, and

traditions of Islam. It aims to manifest these principles in governance and

international relations while ensuring the welfare and rights of Muslims globally.

Still on the internal and external views of the purpose of Islamic politics, Sheikh

Shanqeedy (1412) indicates that on the external front, politics is to ensure

national security, to be able to defend itself against external aggression as Allah

says:

Prepare against them whatever force you can and cavalry, to

deter Allah’s enemies and your enemies, and others besides

them whom you do not know, but Allah knows them. Whatever

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 you spend in the cause of Allah will be repaid to you in full, and

you will not be wronged (Qur’an 8:60).

All these will be relevant only if Muslims are united at home and hence Allah

commands the Muslims to be united:

And hold firmly to the rope of Allah all together and do not

become divided. And remember the favour of Allah upon you -

when you were enemies and He brought your hearts together

and you became, by His favour, brothers. And you were on the

edge of a pit of the Fire, and He saved you from it. Thus does

Allah make clear to you His verses that you may be guided

(Qur’an 3:103).

Thus, Muslims should not quarrel among themselves:

Obey Allah and His Messenger, and do not dispute with one

another, or else you will lose courage and your strength will

weaken. And be steadfast, for Allah is with those who are

steadfast (Qur’an 8:46).

However, if two groups among the Muslims fight, leaders should arbitrate

between them. If it becomes clear that one of the two transgresses, then the

transgressor should be brought to book:

If two groups of the believers fight one another, make peace

between them. If one of them transgresses against the other,

fight against the transgressing group until they submit to the

rule of Allah. Then if they submit, make peace between them

with fairness, and be just, for Allah loves those who are just. (✶)

The believers are but brothers, so make peace between your

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 brothers. And fear Allah, so that you may be shown mercy (✶)

(Qur’an 49:9-10).

Moreover, on the internal front, Sheikh Shanqeedy (1412) avers that the state

should protect the following fundamental rights and safety of its citizens. These

include the protection of religion, lives, mind, relationships (family), honour,

property, and judgement (Shanqeedy, 1412: 40-5).

1. Religion

The protection of religion is a fundamental right of every citizen. Islam is a

religion of tolerance, and its followers must be treated with equal respect and

dignity. A country must guarantee that no one is persecuted on the basis of

their religion, and that everyone’s right to practice their religion is respected

and protected. This protection includes the right for Muslims to practice their

faith freely, without fear of discrimination, harassment, or violence. It also

includes the right to build mosques, participate in religious ceremonies, and

express personal religious beliefs without fear of retribution.

The state must also ensure that Muslims can practice their religion in public

spaces. Muslims should be able to attend religious services, pray in public,

and participate in religious ceremonies without experiencing judgment or

harassment. Additionally, the state should facilitate access to religious

education and resources for Muslim communities. This includes providing

access to Mosques, Islamic schools, and other religious institutions. By doing

so, that state helps ensure that Muslims can practice their faith in a secure and

supportive environment.

However, people have the free choice to believe or disbelieve in Islam:

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 Say, “The truth is from your Lord. Whoever wills may believe,

and whoever wills may disbelieve.” We have prepared for the

wrongdoers a Fire which will encompass them like the walls. If

they cry for relief, they will be relieved with water like boiling oil

that will scald the faces. What a terrible drink, and what a terrible

resting place (Qur’an 18:29).

Whoever accepts guidance, it is only for his own good; and

whoever goes astray, it is only for his own loss. No bearer of

burden will bear the burden of another, nor do We punish until

We have sent a messenger. (Qur’an 17:15).

There is no compulsion in religion; the truth has been made

distinct from falsehood. Whoever rejects Taghoot [false gods]

and believes in Allah, has indeed grasped the strong handhold

that never breaks. And Allah is All-Hearing, All-Knowing (Qur’an

2:256).

Belief is an individual choice ― or, rather, it is a choice involving the individual

and Allah.

2. Lives

Protection of life is necessary by state authorities. Thus, murder or killing

people without just cause is prohibited:

Do not kill any soul that Allah has forbidden, except in the

course of justice. If anyone is killed wrongfully, We have given

his heir authority [of compensation], but he should not exceed

the bounds in killing, for he is already supported [by law] (Qur’an

17:33).

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 And whoever kills a believer intentionally, his recompense is Hell

to abide therein, and the Wrath and the Curse of Allah are upon

him, and a greater punishment is prepared for him (Qur’an 4:93).

For this reason, We ordained for the Children of Israel that

whoever kills a person – unless in retribution for murder or

corruption in the land – it is as if he killed all mankind; and

whoever saves a life, it is as if he saved the life of all mankind.

Our messengers came to them with clear signs, yet many of

them continued to exceed the limits afterwards in the land

(Qur’an 5:32).

O you who believe, legal retribution is prescribed for you in

cases of murder – a free for a free, a slave for a slave, and a

female for a female. But if one is pardoned by the victim’s

guardian, then a fair ransom of blood-money should be set and

paid in best way. This is a concession and a mercy from your

Lord. But whoever transgresses the limits afterwards, will have a

painful punishment (✶) In the legal retribution, there is [saving

of] life for you, O people of understanding, so that you may

become righteous (✶) (Qur’an 2:178-179).

This undoubtedly is a deterrent measure to protect individual life.

3. Mind

Intoxicants, such as alcohol and drugs, have been shown to impair cognitive

function, decision-making, and self-control (National Institute on Alcohol

Abuse and Alcoholism, 2004). It is not surprising, therefore, the Qur’an,

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 therefore, emphasises the importance of maintaining a clear and healthy

mind, as demonstrated in the following verse:

O you who believe! Intoxicants (all kinds of alcoholic drinks) and

gambling, Al–Ansab and Al–Azlam (arrows for seeking luck or

decision, etc.) are an abomination of Satan’s handiwork. So,

avoid (strictly all) that (abomination) in order that you may be

successful (Qur’an 5:90).17

This verse highlights the negative impact of intoxicants, gambling, and other

practices that can impair one's judgment or lead to detrimental consequences,

such as increased risk of accidents, poor health outcomes, and strained

relationships. By avoiding intoxicants, Muslims are encouraged to maintain a

clear mind and prioritise their spiritual well-being. Gambling, likewise, can have

severe consequences on individuals and their families. It can lead to financial

problems, addiction, and a breakdown of social relationships (American

Psychiatric Association, 2013). By prohibiting gambling, the Qur'an aims to

protect the individual and the community from the harmful effects of this

activity.

The prohibition of Al-Ansab (idolatrous sacrifices) and Al-Azlam (arrows for

seeking luck or decision) further emphasises the importance of maintaining a

clear mind and relying on God's guidance rather than superstitious practices.

By avoiding these practices, Muslims can cultivate a stronger connection with

their faith and develop a clearer sense of purpose in their lives. The Qur'an's

teachings on maintaining a clear and healthy mind serve to protect individuals

17
Qur'an (5:90) Trans M.M. Khan & M.T. Al-Hilali. “Al – Ansaab” were stone – altars at fixed places or at graves,
etc, whereon sacrifices were slaughtered during fixed periods of occasions and seasons in the name of idols, Jinns,
Angels, pious men, saints, etc, in order to honour them, or to expect some benefit from them.”

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and communities from the harmful effects of intoxicants, gambling, and other

practices that can lead to negative consequences. By following these

teachings, Muslims can strive for success in both their spiritual and worldly lives.

4. Relationships (Family)

People are told about the evil of adultery:

And come not near to unlawful sex. Verily, it is a Fahishah (i.e.,

anything that transgresses its limits: a great sin), and an evil way

(that leads one to Hell unless Allah forgives one) (Qur’an 17:32).

Subsequently, a law was promulgated making adultery unlawful among other

things, to protect children from being without legitimate fathers:

As for the woman and the man who commit fornication; flog

each of them a hundred lashes. Do not let pity for them make

you lenient concerning the law of Allah if you believe in Allah

and the Last Day. And let a group of the believers witness their

punishment (Qur’an 24:2).

The relationship of children to their fathers is very important so much so that,

even if women are divorced, they are to wait for three months period of

menstruation before they engage in another marriage, and they should not

hide what is in their womb. All this is to make sure she is not carrying the child

of the previous husband. Allah says:

And divorced women shall wait (as regards their marriage) for

three menstrual periods, and it is not lawful for them to conceal

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 what Allah has created in their wombs, if they believe in Allah

and the Last Day (Qur’an 2:228).18

In the event of the death of the husbands, wives must wait for four months and

ten days before they can engage into another marriage as Allah says:

And those of you who die and leave wives behind them, they

(the wives) shall wait (as regards their marriage) for four months

and ten days, then when they have fulfilled their terms, there is

no sin for you if they (the wives) dispose off themselves in a just

and honourable manner (i.e., they can marry) (Qur’an 2:234).

As for pregnant women, they should wait until when they give birth: “As for

pregnant women, their waiting period ends with delivery. And whoever fears

Allah, He will make his matters easy for him” (Qur’an 65:4).

5. Honour of Individuals

As for those who accuse chaste women [of adultery] but fail to

produce four witnesses, flog them eighty lashes and do not

accept their testimony ever, for it is they who are the rebellious

(Qur’an 24:4). Why did they [who slandered] not produce for it

four witnesses? And when they do not produce the witnesses,

then it is they, in the sight of Allah, who are the liars (Qur’an

24:13).

6. Property

As regards the protection of property, Allah says:

18
The waiting ('iddah) period is a multifaceted provision within Islamic law that serves to uphold religious
commandments, ensure clarity regarding lineage, provide time for emotional healing, promote social stability,
and ensure ethical conduct in marital relationships.

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 And eat up not one another’s property unjustly (by stealing,

robbing, deceiving etc.) by giving bribery to the rulers (judges),

before presenting your cases that you may knowingly eat up a

part of the property of others sinfully (by means of false

witnesses, etc.) (Qur’an 2:188).

In relation to this, Allah prohibits all forms of stealing:

The thief male and female, cut off his or her hand (right hand

from the wrist joint), as a recompense for that which they

committed, a punishment by way of example from Allah. And

Allah is All –Powerful, All – Wise (Qur’an 5:38).

7. Justice

We sent down the Torah which contains guidance and light; the

prophets who submitted themselves to Allah were judging by it

for the Jews, and so did the rabbis and scholars because they

were entrusted to protect the Scripture of Allah, and they were

witnesses to it. So do not fear people but fear Me, and do not

trade My verses for a small price. Whoever does not judge

according to what Allah has revealed, it is they who are the

disbelievers (Qur’an 5:44).

The crux of the matter is that whoever does not judge people according to

Allah’s Law and believes the law they create or enforce is superior to Allah’s

Law, then that individual is considered a complete disbeliever. However, if the

person acknowledges Allah’s Laws are supreme but is unable to implement

them for some reason, he is considered unjust rather than a disbeliever

(Shanqeedy, 1412 AH: 23-4). This situation is observed in many Muslim

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societies. In these societies, Muslim judges do not judge according to Allah’s

injunctions, either due to the coexistence of Muslims and non-Muslims or as a

consequence of historical issues like colonialism or neo-colonialism.

One might wonder about those in positions of authority who do not implement

Allah’s injunctions. They can still be obeyed if they believe in Allah and His

Messenger and prioritise Shari’ah over any non-Islamic laws. However, they

may not be able to implement Shari’ah due to certain circumstances or

constraints (Shanqeedy, 1412: 23-4).19 In such cases, it is essential to recognise

the nuances of their situation while still striving to uphold the principles of

Islam.

3.2.3 Economic Perspective

Economically, doing good involves creating economic opportunities,

protecting the environment, providing necessities such as food and shelter, and

promoting economic stability. The Qur'an lays the foundation for economic

relations through three primary principles: the relationship between wealth and

its sources, the most ethical means of acquiring wealth, and the most beneficial

means of utilising it (Kahf, 1997). These principles are essential for the

development of an equitable and just economic system and form the basis of

Islamic economic theory.

3.2.3.1 Relationship to Wealth

The Qur’an establishes the relationship between wealth and its sources by

emphasising the concept of divine ownership and stewardship. Wealth

ultimately belongs to Allah and humans are custodians of His wealth:

19
See M. A. Shanqeety (1412), pp. 23–24, and the Hadith of Ibn Abbas on Kufr duna kufr.

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 Believe in Allah and His Messenger and spend [in Allah’s cause]

out of what He has entrusted you with. For those among you

who believe and spend, there will be a great reward (Qur’an

57:7).

Those who greedily withhold what Allah has given them of His

grace, should not think that it is good for them, rather it is bad

for them; their necks will be chained by what they greedily

withheld on the Day of Resurrection. To Allah belongs the

inheritance of the heavens and earth, and Allah is All-Aware of

what you do (Qur’an 3: 180).

O you who believe, spend in charity from the good things you

have earned and of what We have produced for you from the

earth. Do not choose inferior things for charity, which you

yourselves would not take except by overlooking. And know

that Allah is Self-Sufficient, Praiseworthy (Qur’an 2:267).

And He gives it to whom He wishes:

Is it they who distribute the mercy of your Lord? It is We Who

have distributed their livelihood among them in the life of this

world and have raised some of them above others in ranks, so

that they may serve one another. But the mercy of your Lord is

better than what they accumulate (Qur’an 43:32).

And Allah has favoured some of you over others in wealth and

properties (Qur’an 16:71).

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3.2.3.2 Best Way to Obtain Wealth

The Qur’an outlines the most ethical means of acquiring wealth. This includes

honest and ethical trade, investment, and other forms of business:

O believers! Do not devour one another’s wealth illegally, but

rather trade by mutual consent. And do not kill [each other or]

yourselves. Surely Allah is ever Merciful to you (Qur’an 4:29).

Similarly, Allah prohibits riba (usury):

Those who consume usury will not stand [on the Day of

Resurrection] except like those being beaten by Satan. That is

because they say, “Trade is just like usury.” But Allah has

permitted trade and forbidden usury. Whoever desists because

of receiving admonition from his Lord may keep his past gains,

and his case is left to Allah. But whoever returns to it, they are

the people of the Fire; they will abide therein forever. (✶) Allah

destroys usury and nourishes charities, and Allah does not like

any ungrateful sinner (✶) (Qur’an 2:275-276).

Furthermore, Allah prohibits bribery and other unethical means of obtaining

wealth:

And do not consume one another’s wealth unjustly or send it [in

bribery] to the rulers in order that [they might aid] you [to]

consume a portion of the wealth of the people in sin, while you

know [it is unlawful] (Qur’an 2:188).

On obtaining the best wealth, Qur’an says:

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 O believers! Eat from the good things We have provided for

you. And give thanks to Allah if you (truly) worship Him [alone]

(Qur’an 2:172).

3.2.3.3 Best Way to Spend Wealth

The Qur’an outlines the most beneficial means of using wealth. This includes

donating a portion of wealth to charity:

O believers! Donate from the best of what you have earned and

of what We have produced for you from the earth. Do not pick

out worthless things for donation, which you yourselves would

only accept with closed eyes. And know that Allah is Self-

Sufficient, Praiseworthy (Qur’an 2:267).

Investing in the community and using resources responsibly. Wealth should not

be hoarded or used unproductively:

O you who believe, there are many rabbis and monks who

consume people’s wealth unlawfully and prevent people from

Allah’s way. Those who hoard gold and silver and do not spend

it in the way of Allah, give them tidings of a painful punishment

(Qur’an 9:34).

And that it should be used to promote the common good and benefit of the

society.

On spending the wealth, it may be noted that it is only a means, not an end in

itself; it may be used for good or bad purposes. Those who use their wealth for

good causes will be rewarded by Allah:

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 The likeness of those who spend their wealth in the Way of Allah,

is as the likeness of a grain (of corn); it grows seven ears, and

each ear has a hundred grains. Allah gives manifold increase to

whom He pleases. And Allah is All – Sufficient, for His creature’s

needs, All – knower (Qur’an 2:261).

But seek, with the (wealth) which Allah has bestowed on you,

the Home of the Hereafter, nor forget your portion in this world:

but do your good, as Allah has been good to you, and seek not

(Occasions for) mischief in the land: for Allah loves not those

who do mischief” (Qur’an 28:77).

However, those who are misers and refuse to spend in the cause of Allah,

should be prepared for Allah’s punishment:

They who hoard up gold and silver [“Al – Kanz”] the money, the

Zakat (yearly obligatory charity 2 1/2 %) of which has not been

paid], and spend them not in the way of Allah, –– announce unto

them a painful torment (Qur’an 9:34).

And let not those who covetously withhold of that which Allah

has bestowed on them of His Bounty (Wealth) think that it is

good for them [and do not pay the obligatory charity (Zakat)].

Nay, it will be worse for them; the things which they covetously

withheld, shall be tied to their necks like a collar on the Day of

Resurrection (Qur’an 3:180).

On this foundation, Islamic finance operates. With its distinct values, it offers

not only financial solutions for Muslims adhering to their religious beliefs but

also provides an ethical alternative to the conventional banking system. This

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form of finance is shaped by three core principles: equity, participation in

productive efforts for profit, and a strong emphasis on actual asset ownership

during transactions (Hussain & Turk, 2015).

3.2.3.4 Islamic Finance

3.2.3.4.1 Principles of Islamic Finance

Islamic finance is grounded in principles that prioritise ethical and equitable

financial dealings. The key principles include:

3.2.3.4.1.1 Principle of Equity

This principle emphasises justice and fairness in financial transactions,

prohibiting riba (usury or exorbitant interest). Riba is seen as an increment in

wealth without any associated effort or work, as reflected in the Qur’anic verses:

O you who believe, do not consume usury, doubled and

multiplied. And fear Allah, so that you may succeed (Qur’an

3:130).

Those who consume usury will not stand [on the Day of

Resurrection] except like those being beaten by Satan. That is

because they say, “Trade is just like usury.” But Allah has

permitted trade and forbidden usury. Whoever desists because

of receiving admonition from his Lord may keep his past gains,

and his case is left to Allah. But whoever returns to it, they are

the people of the Fire; they will abide therein forever. (✶) Allah

destroys usury and nourishes charities, and Allah does not like

any ungrateful sinner. (✶) Those who believe, do righteous

deeds, establish prayer, and give zakat, will have their reward

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 with their Lord; and they will have no fear, nor will they grieve.

(✶) O you who believe, fear Allah, and give up usury that is still

due, if you are truly believers. (✶) But if you do not do it, then

beware of a declaration of war from Allah and His Messenger.

However, if you repent, you may retain your capital – neither

harming nor suffering harm (✶) (Qur’an 2:275-279).

Whatever you lend in usury in order to gain more at the expense

of people’s wealth, it will not increase [in reward] with Allah. But

whatever you give as charity, seeking Allah’s pleasure – it is they

who will have multiple reward (Qur’an 30:39).

These verses highlight the prohibition of riba in Islam and encourage fair and

ethical financial dealings. The Qur’anic stance is that riba leads to unfair

exploitation and is harmful to society, thus its prohibition is emphasised

strongly. The alternative presented is to engage in fair trade and to give in

charity, both of which are seen as morally and spiritually beneficial practices.

Another important aspect is the outlawing of gharar, which signifies extreme

uncertainty, stemming from ambiguous contracts or unspecified outcomes.

This principle obligates a transparent disclosure preceding any contractual

agreements, ensuring fairness and clarity. Additionally, there is a mandate for

eligible Muslims to give a 2.5% Zakat (alms-tax) to assist the underprivileged,

fostering communal ties (Hussain & Turk, 2015).

3.2.3.4.1.2 Principle of Participation

This principle underscores the belief that capital should be rewarded but not

through the mere passage of time. Instead, profit should be tied to risk-taking.

Returns on investments are legitimised through risk and are determined based

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on the performance or productivity of an asset or project (El-Gamal, 2006).

Essentially, wealth generation should arise from genuine productive

endeavours.

3.2.3.4.1.3 Principle of Ownership

Ownership is pivotal in Islamic finance. Financial transactions should be

anchored on tangible assets or properties that one possesses. This principle

discourages practices like short selling, emphasising the necessity for real

economic activities, property rights, respect for ownership, and the importance

of honouring contractual obligations (Saeed, 1996; Hussain & Turk, 2015).

In essence, Islamic finance is grounded in ethical and equitable principles and,

currently, it encompasses banking, leasing, Sukuk (securities) and equity

markets, investment funds, Takaful (insurance), and micro finance. In all this,

Islamic banking is the most popular sector in the system.

3.2.3.4.2. Prohibition of Riba (Interest)

Riba, often interpreted as usury, is strictly forbidden in Islamic finance (see

Qur'an 2:275-279). This prohibition stems from the emphasis on ensuring

mutual interest and effort in any financial venture (Usmani, 2002). While all

forms of riba are prohibited in Islamic teachings, not all interest is necessarily

viewed as riba. However, many scholars equate the interest charged in

conventional banking, especially if it's excessive or compound, to the Qur’anic

concept of riba (Chapra, 1992; Saeed, 1996; El-Gamal, 2006). This results in its

prohibition in Islamic banking. Essentially, any form of exploitative gain in

financial transactions is seen as riba and thus disallowed.

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3.2.3.4.3 Islamic Banking

Islamic banking, a prominent sector within Islamic finance, operates in strict

compliance with Shari’ah, the Islamic law. Far from being a mere alternative to

conventional banking, it encapsulates a holistic financial approach that's been

refined over centuries. It emphasises ethics, justice, and communal well-being.

It is an institution developed to realise the objectives (Maqasid) of Shari'ah in

the financial sector. It offers various financial instruments that ensure fairness,

transparency, and adherence to Shari’ah principles. They can be categorised

as:

3.2.3.4.3.1 Profit-and-loss sharing (PLS) Financing Products

Including Musharakah (joint venture) and Mudarabah (profit-sharing). In

Musharakah, all partners provide capital for a project or asset, and profits are

distributed based on agreed ratios, while losses are borne according to capital

contribution. Mudarabah is a partnership where one party provides funds, and

the other offers services. Profits are divided as per the agreement, but any

losses are exclusively borne by the financier unless due to the manager's

negligence or misconduct (Usmani, 2002; El-Gamal, 2006).

3.2.3.4.3.2 Non-PLC Financing Products

These include:

1. Murabahah: A cost-plus sale where the bank buys goods and sells them to

the customer on a deferred payment basis. This resembles conventional

loans but focuses on asset acquisition rather than just monetary exchanges.

2. Ijarah: A lease contract where the asset remains under the ownership of the

lessor (the bank) throughout the leasing period.

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3. Salam: An agreement for future delivery of goods in exchange for an

upfront payment, originally designed to aid small farmers.

4. Istisna’: A contract where a not-yet-produced commodity is transacted,

usually involving the bank, client, and producer (Ahmad, 1980; Saeed,

1996; Usmani, 2002).

3.2.4.3.3. Fee-Based Products

1. Wakalah (Agency Agreements): Bank acts as an agent or guarantors for a

customer in trade transactions or issuing credit facilities.

2. Kafalah (Financial Guarantees): A financial guarantee where the bank

pledges on behalf of the debtor to cover certain liabilities.

3. Ju’ala (Contracts for Specific Services): Contract for rendering a specified

service instead of producing a product ( Ahmad, 1980; Usmani, 2002).

3.2.3.4.3.4 Ethical Investments

Aligned with the broader objectives of socio-economic justice in Islamic

economics, Islamic financial institutions steer clear from industries prohibited

in Islam like gambling, alcohol, and usury (Chapra, 1992). By abstaining from

ethically questionable sectors, they uphold high ethical standards, promoting

a socially responsible financial ecosystem.

3.2.3.4.3.5 Islamic Banking in the Modern World

Islamic banking, representing a significant component within Islamic finance,

operates in alignment with Shari’ah. It is more than just an alternative to

conventional banking; it encapsulates a comprehensive financial approach

refined over centuries, emphasising ethics, justice, and societal well-being. The

institution has been established to fulfil Shari'ah's objectives within the financial

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domain. Its rapid growth, even in non-Muslim countries, is a proof of its global

relevance (ICD-Refinitiv Report, 2022).

Islamic banking instruments include the aforementioned PLS financing

products, non-PLS financing products, and fee-based products. The

distinctiveness of Islamic banking lies in its prohibition of interest. In contrast

to conventional banks that derive income from interest differentials between

loans and deposits, Islamic banks operate on a risk-sharing model. Mechanisms

like Mudarabah and Musharakah are embodiments of this approach.

Its relevance in today's financial landscape is evident in its significant growth

and widespread acceptance. Islamic banking is no longer just a niche but has

evolved into a dominant segment the global banking sector. Its principles of

social justice, risk-sharing, and ethical investing have attracted many, not just

those adhering to Islamic faith. As of 2021, there were 566 Islamic banks in

over 136 countries with assets of $2.8 trillion, with over 1,900 mutual funds

worldwide complying with Islamic principles. The total Islamic financial assets

grew from $2.17 trillion in 2015 to $4 trillion in 2021, with projections indicating

a surge to approximately $5.9 trillion by 2026 (ICD-Refinitiv Report 2022).

Several renowned scholars, including Muhammad Taqi Usmani, Dr. Ziauddin

Ahmad, and Dr. Abdul Halim Zarabozo, have contributed significantly to the

field. Their intellectual endeavours have provided a structured understanding

of Islamic economic principles, acting as a bridge between ancient teachings

and contemporary financial demands. Their insights have demystified the

differences between traditional banking interest and the Qur’anic concept of

riba, ensuring Islamic banking's authenticity and relevance.

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To this extent, Islamic banking and finance offer a holistic alternative that

emphasises equity, participation, ownership, and adherence to ethical

standards. In an age where global financial systems are often questioned for

their ethical practices and resilience to crises, Islamic finance stands as a model

of stability and moral integrity. Its principles resonate not just with those of the

Islamic faith but with anyone interested in a just, equitable, and ethically

grounded financial system.

3.2.4 Social Perspective

Socially, doing good involves promoting social harmony, providing social

services, and encouraging tolerance and understanding among different

cultures. It emphasises the importance of strong social relationships. Family

and societal life are two very important aspects of Islamic social life, and it is

within these two contexts that social relationships are formed and nurtured.

3.2.4.1 The Family

Family serves as the foundation of society and represents the most important

social relationship. Within the family, individuals learn to interact with one

another and develop their spiritual and intellectual skills. Islamic family law, as

found in the Qur'an and Hadith, outlines the principles and values essential for

nurturing strong family relationships.

The Qur'an highlights the importance of providing a secure and harmonious

environment within the family:

“And among His signs is this, that He created for you mates from

among yourselves, that you may dwell in tranquillity with them,

and He has put love and mercy between your (hearts)…”

(Qur'an 30:21).

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Family relationships are based on values such as mutual respect, caring, and

equality. The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) emphasised these values when he

said: "The best of you are those who are best to their families, and I am the

best of you to my family" (Jami’ at-Tirmidhi: 3895). In Islam, parents are

responsible for providing guidance and teaching their children the values of

Islam:

"O you who believe! Save yourselves and your families from a

Fire whose fuel is men and stones…" (Qur'an 66:6).

A healthy family will provide its members with emotional, physical, and financial

support, as demonstrated in the following Hadith: "It is the duty of a Muslim

who has something which is to be given as a bequest not to have it for two

nights without having his will written down regarding it" (Sahih Al-Bukhari:

2738).

3.2.4.2 The Society

Societal life in Islam is rooted in the principles of justice, mercy, and

compassion. Muslims are encouraged to treat all members of the community

with respect and dignity, regardless of their social status or background. This

sense of collective responsibility extends to looking out for those less fortunate

and providing support during times of difficulty. The Qur'an emphasises the

importance of helping others and cooperating in righteousness and piety:

O you who believe! Violate not the sanctity of the Symbols of

Allah, nor of the Sacred Month, nor of the animals brought for

sacrifice, nor the garlanded people or animals1, and others nor

the people coming to the Sacred House (Makkah), seeking the

bounty and good pleasure of their Lord. But when you finish

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 the Ihram (of Hajj or ‘Umrah ), you may hunt, and let not the

hatred of some people in (once) stopping you from Al-Masjid-

Al-Haram (at Makkah) lead you to transgression (and hostility on

your part). Help you one another in Al-Birr and At-Taqwa (virtue,

righteousness, and piety); but do not help one another in sin

and transgression. And fear Allah. Verily, Allah is Severe in

punishment (Qur'an 5:2).

The relationship between individuals in the community is based on mutual

respect, cooperation, and understanding. Muslims are encouraged to form

close relationships with their neighbours and to be tolerant and understanding

of cultural and religious differences. The Prophet (PBUH) said, "He is not a

believer who eats his fill while his neighbour beside him is hungry" (Sunan Ibn

Majah: 3694). By fostering a sense of unity and cohesion within the community,

Muslims can create strong and supportive communities that reflect the core

values of their faith.

However, even though Islam encourages support to individual needs in the

society, it frowns at idleness on the part of individuals. Begging is also seriously

discouraged especially due to idleness: Abdullah ibn Umar reported: The

Prophet (PBUH) said, “A man continues to beg people until he will come on

the Day of Resurrection without any flesh on his face” (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 1405;

Sahih Muslim: 1040). Begging is accommodated only on very serious

circumstances.

Muslims also have a complex and dynamic relationship with the wider society,

especially as a minority in many parts of the world. Despite potential

differences and misunderstandings, most Muslims strive to live in harmony with

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their non-Muslim neighbours, fostering mutual respect and understanding. The

Qur'an encourages Muslims to be just and kind to all people, regardless of

their religion, and to seek to create a society where people of all faiths can

coexist in peace and harmony:

O you who believe, stand up for justice as witnesses for Allah,

even against yourselves or parents and relatives. Whether one

is rich or poor, Allah takes best care of both. So do not let your

desires to cause you swerve from justice. If you distort your

testimony or refuse to give it, then Allah is indeed All-Aware of

what you do (Qur'an 4:135).

The Prophet (PBUH) also emphasised the importance of maintaining good

relations with non-Muslims. In a Hadith narrated by Anas, the Prophet (PBUH)

said: "None of you will believe until you love for your brother what you love for

yourself" (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 12). Although the term "brother" is used here,

many scholars interpret this to refer to both fellow Muslims and non-Muslims,

as the message is one of universal compassion and goodwill. Furthermore, the

Qur'an states:

Allah does not forbid you from those who do not fight you

because of religion and do not expel you from your homes -

from being righteous toward them and acting justly toward

them. Indeed, Allah loves those who act justly (Qur'an 60:8).

This verse highlights the importance of treating non-Muslims fairly and justly,

particularly when they are not hostile towards Islam.

Muslims strive to live according to the values of the Qur'an and be good

citizens by participating in public life, promoting justice, and engaging in

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charitable activities. They are encouraged to participate in public discourse and

engage in meaningful dialogue with their non-Muslim neighbours to bridge

the gap between Muslims and non-Muslims. Muslims also have a responsibility

to be informed about political and social issues and to participate in the

democratic process when possible. It is important for Muslims to stand up for

their rights and beliefs in the face of discrimination or unfair treatment, while

remaining vigilant in defending their rights and religious beliefs.

In summary, the relationship between a Muslim and the larger society is

complex, but it is possible for Muslims and non-Muslims to coexist peacefully

and respectfully. By adhering to the principles of justice, mercy, and

compassion, Muslims can foster mutual understanding and respect between

themselves and their non-Muslim neighbours.

3.2.4.3 Marriage and Divorce

Believers are encouraged to get married as it is the sunnah of the Prophet

(PBUH): They (your wives) are as a garment to you, and you are as a garment

to them (Qur’an 2:187).

Marriage is seen as a contract between two individuals and is considered to be

a religious duty. It is a way of unifying two individuals in a legally binding

relationship, as well as having the potential for spiritual growth and

development. As a result, marriage is taken very seriously, and couples are

encouraged to enter the bond with mutual respect, understanding and

commitment:

If you fear you will not be fair to (your) orphan (prospective

wives), then marry (instead) whoever you like of women: two,

three and four. But if you fear that you will not be fair (in your

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 treatment of all your wives) then one (is enough) or those that

your right hands possess—this is prescribed lest you commit

injustice (Qur’an 4:3).

Marriage, a sacrosanct institution in Islam, is not just a union of two souls but

also a means of spiritual enhancement and societal harmony. Prophet

Muhammad (PBUH) once poignantly remarked, "When a person marries, he

has fulfilled half of the religion; so let him fear Allah regarding the remaining

half" (Al-Bayhaqi, 2008). This statement underscores the immense spiritual

significance of marriage. By entering into this sacred institution and fulfilling its

multifaceted responsibilities, individuals are poised on a path of personal

development, moral improvement, and profound spiritual fulfilment.

Islam venerates marriage as a strong fortress of moral values. Through the

sanctified union, individuals are provided a legitimate framework to engage in

physical relationships, in alignment with divine edicts. This arrangement serves

not just the biological imperative but elevates individuals, urging them towards

modesty, chastity, and a life of heightened moral integrity.

Central to the Islamic concept of marriage is the divine infusion of love,

compassion, and mutual understanding. The Qur’an eloquently attests to this

with the verse:

And among His signs is this, that He created for you mates from

among yourselves, that you may find tranquillity in them; and

He placed between you affection and mercy. Indeed, in that are

signs for a people who give thought (Quran 30:21).

Here, love is not just a fleeting emotion but a divine gift, a sign of God's mercy,

and a source of serenity.

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Beyond emotional and spiritual union, marriage in Islam serves the noble

purpose of procreation. It acts as a conduit for ensuring the continuity of human

lineage, a sentiment powerfully echoed in the Quran:

And Allah has made for you from your mates, and has produced

for you from them, sons and grandsons, and has bestowed upon

you good provisions. Do they then believe in falsehood and

deny the blessings of Allah? (Quran 16:72).

Through descendants, life is further enriched, and divine blessings manifest in

manifold ways.

Marriage heralds a union of companionship, alleviating loneliness, ensuring

that neither has to tread life's journey in solitude. It fosters a deep emotional,

psychological, and spiritual bond between partners, enriching their lives. At its

core, marriage functions as the bedrock of societal stability. Families that

emerge from this sacred institution become repositories of cultural, moral,

ethical, and spiritual values, handed down through generations. They become

the nurturing grounds where the future of the community is moulded, where

lessons of compassion, ethics, and spirituality are imparted.

Islam, in its divine wisdom, meticulously outlines the rights and responsibilities

within the marital bond. Women, emblematic of respect and honour, are

assured rights such as financial security and equitable treatment, especially

emphasised in instances of polygamous unions:

If you fear that you may not maintain justice with orphan girls

[by marrying them] then marry women of your choice – two,

three, or four; but if you fear that you may not maintain justice,

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 then marry only one, or slave-girls you may own. That is more

likely to avoid committing injustice (Quran 4:3).

In parallel, men are entrusted with distinct responsibilities, ensuring they act as

stewards of care, love, and protection. This balance encapsulates Islam's

timeless principles of justice, equity, and mutual respect.

Marriage in Islam, thus isn't merely a societal contract but a divine covenant,

an institution interwoven with spiritual, moral, and social imperatives. It serves

as a mirror reflecting the holistic ethos of Islam, balancing individual growth

with collective prosperity.

On whether marriage can be arranged without the consent of female partner,

it is reported that Imam Malik pointed out that it is right for the father to marry

his daughter to anybody he wishes based on the account of the circumstances

of Prophet Musa’s (AS) marriage in Midian, where the father of the girl said, as

reported in the Qur’an:

I intend to wed one of these my daughters to you, on condition

that you serve me for eight years; but if you complete ten years,

it will be (grace) from you. But I intend not to place you under a

difficulty (Qur’an 28:27).

Ibn Hazm (994-1064), the renowned Andalusian scholar, jurist and theologian,

was most surprised by this analogy, for the verse did not at all suggest the girl

was forced into marriage. It is likely that the girl had given her consent to her

father before the father mentioned it. As for Abdullah Yusuf Ali, he indicated

that Musa (AS) had stayed for some time with the family, and “the particular

girl intended was no doubt tacitly settled long before, by the mutual attraction

of the young hearts themselves” (Ali, 1998). What is astonishing in all this is the

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presence of a Hadith on the issue, where the Prophet (PBUH) said: "Her

permission is her keeping quiet" (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 5139). Besides, the

daughter in question seems to have given her concept as reported in the

Qur’an: One of the two daughters said, “O dear father, hire him; the best one

you can hire is the strong and trustworthy” (Qur’an 28:26).

It should be noted that Allah forbids the following categories of marriage:

1. Marriage to Close Relatives: Islam forbids marriage between individuals

who are closely related, such as parents and their children, siblings, and

uncles and aunts with their nieces and nephews:

Do not marry the women whom your fathers married, except

what happened in the past: it is indeed a shameful, detestable,

and evil practice. (✶) It is prohibited for you [to marry] your

mothers, your daughters, your sisters, your paternal and

maternal aunts, your brother’s daughters, your sister’s

daughters, your foster-mothers, your foster-sisters, your

mothers-in-law, your step-daughters under your guardianship if

you have consummated the marriage with their mothers –

however if you have not consummated the marriage, it is not a

sin [to marry them] – nor wives of your own sons, nor two sisters

together, except for what happened in the past, for Allah is All-

Forgiving, Most Merciful (✶) (Qur’an 4:22-23).

2. Marriage of a Woman to more than one Husband (Polyandry): Islam

prohibits polyandry, meaning that a woman cannot be married to more than

one man at a time.

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3. Marriage to a Married Woman: A man cannot marry a woman who is

already in wedlock:

Also ˹forbidden are˺ married women—except ˹female˺ captives

in your possession.1 This is Allah’s commandment to you. Lawful

to you are all beyond these—as long as you seek them with your

wealth in a legal marriage, not in fornication. Give those you

have consummated marriage with their due dowries. It is

permissible to be mutually gracious regarding the set dowry.

Surely Allah is All-Knowing, All-Wise (Qur'an 4:24).

4. Marriage during the Waiting Period (Iddah): A divorced woman or a

widow must observe a waiting period (iddah) before she can remarry. This

period is to ensure that she is not pregnant from her previous marriage, and

it varies depending on the circumstances:

“Divorced women should wait for three menstrual cycles. It is

not permissible for them to hide what Allah has created in their

wombs if they believe in Allah and the Last Day” (Qur’an 2:228).

Those among you who pass away and leave widows behind,

they should refrain from remarrying for four months and ten

days. When they have completed their waiting period, there is

no sin on you concerning what they do for themselves in a

reasonable manner. And Allah is All-Aware of what you do

(Qur'an 2:234).

5. Marriage to Non-Muslims: Muslim men are allowed to marry women from

the People of the Book (Jews and Christians), but Muslim women are only

allowed to marry Muslim men.

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 This day [all] good foods have been made lawful, and the food

of those who were given the Scripture is lawful for you and your

food is lawful for them. And [lawful in marriage are] chaste

women from among the believers and chaste women from

among those who were given the Scripture before you, when

you have given them their due compensation, desiring chastity,

not unlawful sexual intercourse or taking [secret] lovers. And

whoever denies the faith - his work has become worthless, and

he, in the Hereafter, will be among the losers (Qur’an 5:5).

And do not marry polytheistic women until they believe. And a

believing slave woman is better than a polytheist, even though

she might please you. And do not marry polytheistic men [to

your women] until they believe. And a believing slave is better

than a polytheist, even though he might please you. Those

invite [you] to the Fire, but Allah invites to Paradise and to

forgiveness, by His permission. And He makes clear His verses

[i.e., ordinances] to the people that perhaps they may remember

(Qur’an 2: 221).

6. Temporary Marriage (Mut'ah): Temporary marriage, or marriage with a

predetermined duration, is not permissible in Islam (Sahih Muslim: 44).

7. Marriage to a Pagan or Atheist: Muslims are not permitted to marry

pagans or atheist.

These guidelines help ensure that marriages in Islam are based on mutual

consent, respect, and compatibility, and that they contribute to the overall well-

being and harmony of the society. However, it is also realistic in acknowledging

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that not all marriages result in everlasting harmony. When discord grows and

reconciliation seems remote, Islam provides a structured mechanism for

divorce as a last resort. Islam positions divorce as a permissible act, albeit

discouraged. The Qur'an says: “If they decide on divorce – then indeed, Allah

is Hearing and Knowing” (Qur'an, 2:227). This shows that while divorce is not

encouraged, there's a recognition that sometimes it is necessary.

Marriage is about mutual respect, love, and understanding. When these

fundamental principles are violated, continuing in such a union might be more

harmful than beneficial. The Qur'an says: “But if they separate [by divorce],

Allah will enrich each [of them] from His abundance...” (Qur'an, 4:130). Here,

the divine wisdom implies that if a marriage is no longer tenable, separation

can be better for individual well-being.

Islam does not allow impulsive divorces. There is a structured procedure to

ensure both parties reflect on their decision. The Qur'an mandates waiting

periods (‘iddah) to ensure no hasty decisions are made and to confirm there

are no pregnancies, which might further complicate matters. Additionally, the

Qur'an advises arbitration before making a final decision:

If you fear a breach between them, appoint an arbitrator from

his family and another from hers. If they both want

reconciliation, Allah will bring harmony between them. Indeed,

Allah is All-Knowing, All-Aware (Qur’an 4:35).

When it comes to the actual process of divorce, there are two methods that are

permissible in Islam: khul’ and talaq. Khul’ is a form of divorce initiated by the

wife, if she finds it impossible to live with her husband due to valid reasons.

This is based on the Hadith where a woman approached the Prophet (PBUH)

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seeking dissolution from her husband, Thabit ibn Qays. She did not have

complaints about his character or religion but admitted she could not reconcile

herself to remain with him. The Prophet (PBUH) asked if she would return the

garden Thabit had given her as a dower, and upon her agreement, he

instructed Thabit to accept the garden and pronounce the divorce (Sahih Al-

Bukhari: 5273). This instance highlighted the right of a woman to seek divorce

(khul') if she feels she cannot fulfil her marital duties, even in the absence of

explicit maltreatment. As for talaq, it is a form of divorce initiated by the

husband, whereby he can issue one to three pronouncements of divorce, after

which the couple are considered to be legally divorced:

Divorce may be pronounced twice; then either retaining in all

kindness or separating in the best way. It is not lawful for you to

take back anything that you have given them [of dowry], except

when they both fear that they would not be able to maintain the

limits ordained by Allah. So if you fear that they would not be

able to maintain the limits set by Allah, then there is no sin upon

either of them if she opts to give something for her release.

These are the limits ordained by Allah, so do not exceed them;

whosoever exceeds the limits ordained by Allah, it is they who

are the wrongdoers (✶) And if he has divorced her [for the third

time], then she is not lawful to him afterward until [after] she

marries a husband other than him. And if he [i.e., the latter

husband] divorces her [or dies], there is no blame upon them

[i.e., the woman and her former husband] for returning to each

other if they think that they can keep [within] the limits of Allah.

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 These are the limits of Allah, which He makes clear to a people

who understand (✶) (Qur’an 2:229-230)

Even in divorce, Islam emphasises moral conduct. The Qur'an states:

When you divorce women and they have completed their

waiting period, either retain them with fairness or release them

with fairness. Do not retain them in order to harm them,

exceeding the limits. Whoever does this, he has wronged

himself. Do not make mockery of Allah’s verses and remember

Allah’s grace upon you and what He has sent down to you of the

Book and the Wisdom, to exhort you. And fear Allah and know

that Allah is All-Knowing of everything (Qur’an 2:231).

This emphasises fairness and decency, without resorting to harm or undue

hardship. Divorce can lead to societal challenges. By structuring the process,

ensuring waiting periods, and advocating for reconciliation where possible,

Islam aims to mitigate potential disruptions to the social fabric.

Islam also lays down certain laws to ensure that both parties are treated fairly

throughout the divorce process:

O you who believe, when you marry believing women and then

divorce them before the marriage is consummated, you have no

reason to ask them to observe any waiting period, so give them

a compensation and release them in a pleasant manner (Qur’an

33:49).

While marriage in Islam is sacred, the faith acknowledges the complexities of

human relationships. Divorce, while a last resort, is a confirmation of Islam's

realistic approach to human affairs. Through a framework based on fairness,

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reflection, and ethics, Islam ensures that the difficult decision of divorce, when

necessary, is carried out in a manner that respects the dignity and rights of all

involved.

3.2.4.4 Obedience to Parents

Obedience to parents is a cornerstone of Islamic faith. According to Islamic

teachings, the highest form of respect that a person can offer is to show

obedience to one’s parents. This is because Allah has bestowed upon us the

gift of parents, and it is our duty to honour and respect them. The Prophet

Muhammad (PBUH) commanded us to show the utmost respect and obedience

to our parents and to always treat them with kindness. The Qur’an speaks of

the importance of honouring one’s parents in several verses. One such verse

states:

We have enjoined upon man kindness to his parents. His mother

bore him in weakness upon weakness, and his weaning took

place within two years. Be grateful to Me and to your parents.

To Me is the final return. (✶) But if they strive to make you

associate partners with Me of what you have no knowledge,

then do not obey them. Yet keep company with them in this

world with kindness and follow the way of those who turn to Me

[in repentance]. Then to Me is your return, and I will inform you

of what you used to do (✶) (Qur’an 31:14-15).

Your Lord has ordained that you worship none but Him and show

kindness to parents. If one or both of them reach old age in your

care, do not say to them a word of annoyance nor scold them,

rather speak to them noble words (✶) and lower to them the

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 wing of humility out of mercy, and say, “My Lord, have mercy

upon them as they raised me when I was small” (✶) (Qur’an

17:23-24).

In addition to the Qur’an, there are many Hadith that speak of the importance

of obedience to parents. One such Hadith is, “Your Heaven lies under the feet

of your mother.” “It was narrated from Mu'iwiyah bin Jahimah As-Sulami, that

Jahimah came to the Prophet (PBUH) and said O Messenger of Allah I want to

join the expedition and I have come to seek your counsel advice." The Prophet

(PBUH) said: "Do you have a mother?" He said: "Yes." The Prophet (PBUH)

said: "Then stay with her, for Paradise is beneath her feet."(Sunan An-Nasa’i:

3106). This Hadith is a reminder of the importance of honouring and respecting

one’s mother.

3.2.4.5 Brotherhood

Brotherhood has been a prominent feature of Islamic practice since its

inception. This concept is deeply rooted in the teachings of the Qur’an and the

Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), which emphasise the importance

of communal unity and cooperation among Muslims:

The believers are but one brotherhood, so make peace between

your brothers. And be mindful of Allah so you may be shown

mercy (Qur’an 49:10).

Help you one another in Al-Birr and At-Taqwa (virtue,

righteousness, and piety); but do not help one another in sin

and transgression. And fear Allah. Verily, Allah is Severe in

punishment (Qur’an 5:2).

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The five daily prayers (Salat) illustrate this emphasis on unity, as Muslims all

around the world come together to perform these shared rituals of devotion to

Allah:

Who believe in the unseen, establish prayer, and donate from

what We have provided for them (Qur’an 2:3).

Similarly, the Friday prayer (Jumu’ah) fosters a sense of togetherness among

Muslims within a locality, as they gather every week for congregational worship:

“O believers! When the call to prayer is made on Friday, then

proceed [diligently] to the remembrance of Allah and leave off

[your] business. That is best for you, if only you knew” (Qur’an

62:9).

While the two annual Eid prayers serve as an opportunity for Muslims across a

country to join in shared acts of worship, further promoting the bonds of

brotherhood (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 962). Moreover, the annual pilgrimage (Hajj) to

Makkah culminates in the gathering at the sacred site of Arafah. Muslims from

all corners the globe unite in a shared experience of devotion and submission

to Allah, transcending geographical, racial, and cultural boundaries:

And proclaim to the people the hajj [pilgrimage]; they will come

to you on foot and on every lean camel; they will come from

every distant pass (✶) That they may witness [i.e., attend]

benefits for themselves and mention the name of Allah on

known [i.e., specific] days over what He has provided for them

of [sacrificial] animals. So eat of them and feed the miserable

and poor. (✶) Then let them end their untidiness and fulfil their

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 vows and perform tawaf around the ancient House (✶) (Qur’an

22:27-29).

3.2.4.6 Good Manners

Good manners are highly valued in Islam and are essential for fostering strong

relationships. Practicing good manners is seen by Muslims as a way of showing

respect and displaying humility. Activities such as visiting, eating, and drinking

should all be done with consideration for the moral and ethical perspectives of

those involved. Politeness, patience, and perseverance are essential for

maintaining positive relationships and should be applied in any social context.

Furthermore, exhibiting chastity, modesty, assistance, honesty, respect for

neighbours, hospitality for guests, and mercy towards others will help to foster

strong, healthy relationships (Sahih Al-Bukhari, Vol. 8, Book 73). Additionally,

understanding and empathy towards others should be exercised to build trust

and promote social cohesion. By adhering to these principles, Muslims foster

more meaningful and respectful interactions with each other.

Good manners promote social understanding among people. The Prophet

(PBUH) advised that if three people travel together, they should appoint one

as the leader of the group (Abu Dawud: 2608). Muslims are encouraged to

prioritise the rights of the community over their own personal rights.

Allah has described His good servants in the Qur’an:

And the slaves of the Most Beneficent (Allah) are those who walk

on the earth in humility and sedateness, and when the foolish

address them (with bad words) they reply back with mild words

of gentleness (Qur’an 25:63).

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By practicing good manners and treating others with kindness, Muslims can

contribute to a more harmonious and compassionate society.

3.2.4.7 Politeness

Politeness is an important part of Islamic etiquette. In Islam, politeness is seen

as a sign of respect and is highly valued. The Prophet (PBUH) taught that

politeness is a sign of good character and is a part of faith. In the Qur’an, Allah

commands Muslims to be polite in their interactions with others:

The ˹true˺ servants of the Most Compassionate are those who

walk on the earth humbly, and when the foolish address them

˹improperly˺, they only respond with peace” (Qur’an 25:63).

And speak to people with kind words (Qur’an 2:83).

Do not turn your face away from people [in contempt], and do

not walk on earth in arrogance. Indeed, Allah does not like

anyone who is arrogant and boastful (✶) Be moderate in your

gait and lower your voice. Indeed, the most repugnant of voices

is the voice of donkeys (✶) (Qur’an 31:18-19).

O you who believe, let not some men ridicule others, for it may

be that they are better than them; nor let some women ridicule

others, for it may be that they are better than them. Do not

speak ill of one another, nor call one another by [offensive]

nicknames. How evil is the name of wickedness after having

faith! And whoever does not repent, it is they who are the

wrongdoers (✶) O you who believe, avoid much of the

suspicion, for some suspicions are sin. Do not spy on one

another, nor backbite one another. Would any of you like to eat

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 the flesh of his dead brother? You would surely abhor it. So, fear

Allah. Indeed, Allah is Accepting of Repentance, Most Merciful

(✶) (Qur’an 49:11-12).

Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) emphasised that politeness is an essential part of

the Muslim character: “The most beloved of people to Allah are those who are

most polite” (Sunan Ibn Majah: 3314). In addition to being polite in speech,

Muslims are also encouraged to be polite in their actions. It is important to be

respectful of the rights and feelings of others, and to always be mindful of how

one’s actions may affect them. The Prophet (PBUH) also taught that politeness

should be practiced in all interactions, regardless of who the other person is.

He said: “The most dignified among you is the one who is most courteous”

(Sunan Abu Dawud: 4799). Politeness is also important when it comes to

disagreements. Muslims are encouraged to disagree in a respectful manner,

without resorting to insults or name-calling. Finally, politeness is also an

important part of Islamic hospitality. Muslims are encouraged to treat guests

with kindness and respect, and to always be generous and hospitable.

The purpose of strengthening individual personality in Islam is to enable

individuals to effectively carry out their responsibilities and to be able to make

sacrifices in the cause of Allah. To achieve this, it is necessary to cultivate certain

qualities that are essential for success in life:

1. Perseverance: This is chief among them, as it is the key to success in this

world: “O believers! Patiently endure, persevere, stand on guard, and

be mindful of Allah, so you may be successful” (Qur’an 3:200).

2. Strength: Muslims must also be physically and mentally strong, for

perseverance is impossible without a sound body and clear mind. Islam

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 encourages its adherents to take part in activities such as swimming,

throwing spears and riding horses in order to develop these physical

qualities (Sahih Muslim, 20:4711; 33:6441).

3. Self-respect and Pride: Islam urges its followers to cultivate a sense of self-

respect and pride in the face of adversity. This is important to ensure

that individuals remain strong in their faith and convictions, and do not

waver in their dedication to the cause of Allah: “Do not falter or grieve,

for you will have the upper hand, if you are [true] believers” (Qur’an

3:139).

3.2.4.8 Patience

Patience is a virtue that is highly praised in Islam. The Qur’an and Hadith both

encourage Muslims to be patient in the face of hardship and adversity. Patience

is seen as a sign of faith and an essential attribute of a Muslim. The Qur’an

reminds us that patience is an important part of faith:

“Seek help through patience and prayer” (Qur’an 2:45).

O you who have believed, seek help through patience and

prayer. Indeed, Allah is with the patient” (Qur’an 2:153).

And certainly, We shall test you with something of fear, hunger,

loss of wealth, lives, and fruits, but give glad tidings to As-

Sabirun (the patient) (Qur’an 2:155).

Do you think that you will enter Paradise before Allah tests those

of you who fought (in His Cause) and (also) tests those who are

As-Sabirun (the patient)? (Qur’an 3:142).

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 And obey Allah and His Messenger, and do not dispute (with

one another) lest you lose courage, and your strength departs

and be patient. Surely, Allah is with those who are As-Sabirun

(the patient) (Qur’an 8:46).

Whose hearts are filled with fear when Allah is mentioned and

As-Sabirun [who patiently bear whatever may befall them (of

calamities)]; and who perform As-Salat (Iqamat-as-Salat), and

who spend (in Allah’s Cause) out of what We have provided

them (Qur’an 22:35).

These verses encourage believers to seek Allah’s help through prayer and

patience. Patience is also connected to the concept of sabr, which means

patience and perseverance in the face of difficulty. The Prophet (PBUH) said,

sabr is a sign of true faith. In a Hadith, he said: “He who is deprived of patience

and forbearance is deprived of all good” (Sahih Muslim: 2592). This Hadith

emphasises the importance of patience in the face of adversity.

Patience is seen as an essential part of the practice of Islam. The Prophet

(PBUH) said: “The strong believer is better and more beloved to Allah than the

weak believer, although both are good. Strive for that which will benefit you

and seek the help of Allah” (Sunan Ibn Majah: 79). This Hadith encourages

believers to be patient and steadfast in their faith:

The good deed and the evil deed cannot be equal. Repel (the

evil) with one which is better (i.e., Allah ordered the faithful

believers to be patient at the time of anger, and to excuse those

who treat them badly), then verily! he, between whom and you

there was enmity, (will become) as though he was a close friend.

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 (✶) But none is granted it (the above quality) except those who

are patient, and none is granted it except the owner of the great

portion (of the happiness in the Hereafter i.e., Paradise and in

this world of a high moral character) (✶) (Qur’an 41:34-35).

3.2.4.9 Kindness

3.2.4.9.1 Kindness to Children

Islam gives importance to treating children with kindness, patience, and

compassion, and it is seen as a sign of faith to treat children kindly. The Prophet

Muhammad (PBUH) was known to be very kind and gentle with children, and

he encouraged the same behaviour from his followers. He taught that children

should be respected and provided for, and that parents should be patient and

loving with their children. The Prophet (PBUH) said: “He who does not show

mercy to our children nor acknowledge the right of old people is not one of

us” (Sahih Muslim: 6363). Similarly, Bukhari narrates an incident where the

Prophet (PBUH) kisses his grandson, Al-Hasan, in front of a Companion named

Al-Aqra. When Al-Aqra expressed surprise at the Prophet’s (PBUH) affectionate

gesture, the Prophet (PBUH) reminded him of the importance of mercy and

kindness towards children (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 28). Aisha (RA) reported: The

Messenger of Allah (PBUH), said, “The best of you are the best to their families,

and I am the best to my family. When your companion dies, then do not abuse

him” (Jami’ at-Tirmidhi: 3895).

Islam provides numerous examples and teachings that emphasise the

importance of kindness and compassion towards children. However, it is

unfortunate that in many Muslim societies, children are not being treated as

stipulated by Islam due to ignorance. It is not accurate to generalise the

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treatment of children in Europe as the gold standard that all other societies

should strive for. While many European parents may outwardly express love for

their children, the treatment of children can vary significantly within different

communities and families. For example, some young adults in Europe may

experience neglect or estrangement from their families once they reach the

legal age of maturity. Moreover, children in Europe, as in other parts of the

world, are exposed to numerous forms of exploitation and abuse, such as

sexual abuse, human trafficking, or other criminal activities.

These unfortunate realities highlight that the treatment of children in Europe is

not universally ideal, and that every society must continually work to improve

the safety, security, and welfare of their youngest members. It is essential for all

communities, regardless of their cultural or religious background, to strive

towards better treatment of children, guided by the principles of kindness,

compassion, and protection. By doing so, societies can work towards fostering

a nurturing and supportive environment that allows children to grow and

flourish.

3.2.4.9.2 Kindness to Animals

Treating animals with kindness is an ideal that should be upheld everywhere. It

is true that there is much care for pets (owned by individuals) in Europe, but

the care and training of these animals do not necessarily extend to true

kindness to animals overall. In Europe, stray dogs and cats are collected and

killed after being offered for sale, and thousands of animals are executed

annually for economic and political purposes. Thus, it is clear that true kindness

to animals is not just a matter of care and training, but also of understanding

and compassion.

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In comparison, Muslims show a much greater level of kindness and compassion

towards animals. The Qur'an and the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad

(PBUH) provide numerous guidelines and teachings that guide Muslims in their

dealings with animals. For example, Muslims are commanded to show kindness

and mercy towards animals, and they are prohibited from causing them

unnecessary suffering. Animal sacrifices are only permitted in certain

circumstances and only after the animal has been treated humanely. Muslims

are also encouraged to feed animals and to avoid causing them any harm. The

Prophet (PBUH) said, “Whoever is kind to the creatures of Allah, is kind to

himself” (Sahih Bukhari, 40:551). This shows that Muslims recognise the

importance of treating animals with respect and compassion.

Some examples from the Qur'an and Sunnah that highlight the importance of

kindness toward animals include the following:

1. The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) discouraged using animals for target

practice and emphasised the importance of avoiding unnecessary harm to

them (Sahih Bukhari).

2. Muslims are instructed to provide water to animals and to ensure they have

access to it (Sahih Muslim): “All living beings roaming the earth and winged

birds soaring in the sky are communities like yourselves. We have left

nothing out of the Record. Then to their Lord they will be gathered all

together” (Qur’an 6:38).

3. When slaughtering an animal, Muslims are instructed to do so in the most

humane manner, using a sharp knife to minimise pain (Sahih Muslim).

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4. The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) once reprimanded a man for

overburdening his animal, reminding him of the importance of treating

animals with kindness (Sunan Abu Dawud).

5. The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) narrated a story about a man who found

a dog suffering from thirst. The man “descended into the well, filled up his

leather sock with water, and holding it in his teeth, climbed up and

quenched the thirst of the dog,” which led to Allah's forgiveness for the

man (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 133; Riyad As-Salihin: 126).

6. A Hadith tells a story of a woman who was punished in Hell because she

imprisoned a cat without feeding or letting it go to find food (Sahih Muslim:

5570).

7. The Prophet (PBUH) was known for his kindness and compassion towards

animals. He advised his followers not to burden animals with heavy loads

or to harm them unnecessarily. He also forbade the practice of cutting off

a part of an animal while it was still alive.

By adhering to these teachings, Muslims acknowledge the significance of

treating all living beings with respect, compassion, and kindness.

3.2.4.10 Knowledge

Seeking Knowledge is a powerful tool in Islam, used to reach a greater spiritual

understanding of Allah. The Qur’an is filled with references to the wonders of

the natural world, including the heavens, the earth, mountains, rains, rivers,

plants, animals:

And among His signs is the creation of the heavens and earth,

and the diversity of your tongues and colours. (✶) Indeed, there

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 are signs in this for those who have knowledge. And among His

signs is your sleep by night and day, and your seeking of His

bounty [by day]. Indeed, there are signs in this for people who

listen. (✶) And among His signs is that He shows you lightning,

causing fear and hope, and He sends down water from the sky,

reviving therewith the earth after its death. Indeed, there are

signs in this for people who understand. (✶) And among His

signs is that the sky and earth are maintained by His command.

Then when He calls you out of the earth, you will immediately

come forth. (✶) To Him belong all those who are in the heavens

and earth; all are devotedly obedient to Him. (✶) It is He Who

originates the creation then repeats it, which is easier for Him.

To Him belong the most sublime attributes in the heavens and

earth, and He is the All-Mighty, the All-Wise (✶) (Qur’an 30:22-

27).

These references are designed to appeal to man’s senses and to encourage

and appreciate for the divine wisdom inherent in Allah’s creation,

encompassing both the natural world and humankind (Mustapha, 1988).

Muslims are encouraged to use the knowledge they gain from these

observations to reflect upon the world and to deepen their understanding of

Allah’s divine will. Through this process, knowledge becomes a source of

spiritual and moral growth, allowing individuals to become more aware of

their purpose in life and to develop an inner connection with Allah:

[Are they better] or those who worship [their Lord] devoutly in

the hours of the night, prostrating and standing, fearing the

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 Hereafter and hoping for the mercy of their Lord? Say, [O

Prophet,] "Are those who know equal to those who do not

know?" None will be mindful [of this] except people of reason

(Qur’an 39:9).

Modern educational systems around the world have largely been successful in

providing effective curricula that are both relevant and applicable to

contemporary contexts. However, incorporating Islamic values and principles

into education can help students make connections between the natural world

and the Creator, Allah. For example, students can learn about the differences

in climate and vegetation and understand that this diversity reflects Allah’s

wisdom and power:

And He has subjected for you all that is in the heavens and all

that is on earth; all is from Him. Indeed, there are signs in this

for people who reflect (Qur’an 45:13).

Do you not see that Allah has subjected to you all that is on the

earth and the ships that sail through the sea by His command?

He holds the sky from falling down on the earth except by His

permission. Indeed, Allah is Ever Gracious and Most Merciful to

people (Qur’an 22: 65).

Furthermore, by discovering the main causes of phenomena like rainfall,

students can recognise that the ultimate source of these events is Allah:

It is Allah Who sends the winds which stir up clouds, then We

drive them to a dead land, and revive therewith the earth after

its death. Such will be the Resurrection (Qur’an 35:9).

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 It is Allah Who sends the winds that stir up clouds, then He

spreads them in the sky as He wills, and He splits them into

different fragments, then you see the rain pouring down from

their midst. Then as soon as He makes it fall upon whoever He

wills of His slaves, they rejoice (Qur’an 30:48).

This type of education, which emphasises the Islamic perspective, can help

students recognise the importance of their faith and its various implications,

thereby enhancing their overall educational experience. Islamic education is

distinct from traditional educational approaches found in Europe, as it

emphasises understanding the relationship between Allah and the material

world, for Allah says:

Indeed, We have created everything according to a determined

measure (Qur’an 54:49).

Allah is the One Who created seven heavens [in layers], and

likewise for the earth. The [divine] command descents between

them so you may know that Allah is Most Capable of everything,

and that Allah certainly encompasses all things in [His]

knowledge (Qur’an 65:12).

The duality of educational systems in countries with a large Muslim population,

such as Gambia, Nigeria, and Pakistan raises questions about Islamic

education, its purpose, and implications for the overall educational system.

This duality between secular or Western education and Islamic religious

education has confused many as to what Islamic education truly is and what it

strives to achieve (Wali, 2016). Islamic education is unique in that it combines

both secular and religious aspects.

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From the start of Islamic civilisation in the 7th century onwards, education has

held a distinct place in Islam and has developed a long and distinguished

intellectual history. The earliest revelation to the Prophet (PBUH) in 610 AD at

the Cave of Hira in Makkah was about education:

Read! In the Name of your Lord, Who has created (all that exists),

(✶) Has created man from a clot (a piece of thick coagulated

blood). (✶) Read! And your Lord is the Most Generous, (✶) Who

has taught (the writing) by the pen [the first person to write was

Prophet Idrees (Enoch)]. (✶) Has taught man that which he knew

not (✶) (Qur’an 96:1-5).

The verses created a solid basis for pursuing knowledge and provided a

framework for Islamic education. Reading implies learning from,

understanding, and acting in accordance with the Book. Islamic education

evolved from this comprehensive character-building, and the Qur’an has

continually reinforced its importance with numerous verses. These include:

1. “Allah will exalt in degree those of you who believe, and

those who have been granted knowledge” (Qur’an 58:11).

2. “Say: ‘Are those who know equal to those who know not?’

It is only men of understanding who will remember (i.e., get

a lesson from Allah’s Signs and Verses)” (Qur’an 39:9).

3. “And Allah teaches you. And Allah is the All-knower of each

and everything” (Qur’an 2:282).

The Prophet (PBUH) said: “Seeking knowledge is an obligation upon every

Muslim” (At-Tirmidhi: 74; Ibn Majah: 224).

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The beauty of the Islamic educational philosophy lies in its multifaceted

approach, addressing both the spiritual and material aspects of life as well as

character development. Islamic education encompasses both acquired and

revealed knowledge. Acquired knowledge is the outcome of in-depth research,

exploration, and investigation by human beings in response to specific

revelations, and it includes subject areas such as medicine, sciences, social

sciences, arts, and humanities (Wali, 2016). In contrast, revealed knowledge

consists of studies of matters and issues decided by Allah and His Prophet,

covering fields such as Qur’an recitation, Tafsir (exegesis), theology,

jurisprudence, Hadith narration, history, character building, and Shari’ah Law

(See Qur’an 39:9). The acquired knowledge allows one to comprehend Allah,

the Creator, in more detail and empowers one to make use of the

environment's abundant potential:

Verily! In the creation of the heavens and the earth, and in the

alternation of night and day, and the ships which sail through

the sea with that which is of use to mankind, and the water (rain)

which Allah sends down from the sky and makes the earth alive

therewith after its death, and the moving (living) creatures of all

kinds that He has scattered therein, and in the veering of winds

and clouds which are held between the sky and the earth, are

indeed Ayat (proofs, evidences, signs, etc.) for people of

understanding (Qur’an 2:164).

Islamic education also has specific guidelines for gender separation in the

classroom. While males and females may be in the same class, they must be

separated according to gender, typically with males in the front and females in

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the back, or males on one side and females on the other. This ensures that the

educational environment remains respectful and focused on learning:

Tell the believing men to lower their gazes and guard their

private parts; that is purer for them. Indeed, Allah is All-Aware

of what they do. (✶) Tell the believing women to lower their

gazes and guard their private parts, and not to reveal their

beauty except what appears. And let them draw their veils over

their chests, and not to reveal their beauty except to their

husbands, their fathers, their fathers-in-law, their sons, their

stepsons, their brothers, their brothers’ sons or sisters’ sons,

their fellow women, slaves whom they own, male attendants

who have no [sexual] desire, or children who are still unaware of

private aspects of women. Nor let them stamp their feet in order

to draw attention to their hidden charm. And turn to Allah in

repentance all together, O believers, so that you may be

successful (✶) (Qur’an 24:30-31).

Islam places great importance on knowledge and learning, teaching that all

things can be studied in order to gain a deeper understanding of Allah’s

creation. Everything studied today whether living things (human beings,

animals, and plants) or non-living things, is a part of Islamic education. Muslims

are expected to study both Islamic and Western history, in line with the

teachings of the Qur’an, which recounts the history of Pharaoh and other

people who disobeyed Allah and their terrible end:

We recount to you part of the story of Moses and Pharaoh in

truth for people who believe (✶) Indeed, Pharaoh arrogantly

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 elevated himself in the land and divided its people into different

factions, oppressing one group of them, slaughtering their sons

and sparing their women alive. He was truly one of those who

spread corruption (✶) But We wanted to bestow favour upon

those who were oppressed in the land and make them leaders

and inheritors [of the land] (✶) and to establish them in the land,

and to show Pharaoh, Haman and their soldiers that which they

feared (✶) (Qur’an 28:3-6).

People are also instructed to ask those who know about what happened to

those who disobeyed Allah and about the message: “We did not send before

you except men to whom We sent revelation. Ask the people of knowledge, if

you do not know” (Qur’an 16:43). Moreover, Muslims should engage in

dialogue and research before something is invented or new behaviours are

introduced to determine whether they are lawful, promoting a greater

understanding of Allah’s creation and more effective adaption to its changes.

The approach to learning has undergone significant transformation over the

centuries. Initially, education was imparted one-to-one, with a teacher

imparting knowledge to a single student. This system was eventually replaced

by a one-to-many approach, where a teacher instructs a group of students

simultaneously. This further developed into the one-to-class system, where a

teacher instructs an entire class, following the same course of instruction. The

advent of technology revolutionised the educational landscape, enabling

students to access lessons through books, computers, television, radio, and

social media.

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These technological advancements have enabled the development of

interactive learning experiences. In the modern era, students no longer need

to attend a physical classroom to gain knowledge. Instead, they can access

learning materials virtually, from the comfort of their own home. This has

enabled a more personalised education and opened up new possibilities for

learning. Furthermore, this has facilitated the proliferation of knowledge to

unprecedented horizons, with more information becoming available each day.

3.2.4.11 Dressing

Muslims are encouraged to dress modestly and not to display their beauty or

wealth ostentatiously. This is because Islam teaches that modesty is a virtue

and extravagance is discouraged. The primary principle of Islamic dress is to

cover the ‘awrah, which refers to the parts of the body that must be covered

according to Islamic guidelines. This is based on the teachings of the Qur’an,

which states:

O children of Adam, We have provided you with garments to

cover your bodies, as well as for adornment. But the best

garment is the garment of righteousness. That is one of the

signs of Allah, so that they may take heed (Qur’an 7:26).

Muslim women are expected to cover their hair as a sign of modesty and

respect, typically using a hijab, or a headscarf. Though specifics of dress can

vary based on different interpretations. The general requirement is for the

clothing to cover most of the body, except for the face, hands, and sometimes

feet. The Qur’an states:

O Prophet! tell your wives and daughters, and the believing

women, that they should cast their outer garments over their

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 persons (when abroad): that is most convenient, that they should

be known (as such) and not molested: and Allah is Oft-Forgiving,

Most Merciful (Qur’an 33:59).

For men, the dress code typically requires covering the area from the navel to

the knees. It is recommended to wear loose-fitting clothing that does not draw

attention to the body, supporting the principle of modesty. This is to avoid

drawing attention away from the inner spiritual beauty of a person.

Additionally, men are advised to avoid extravagant or flashy clothing to further

adhere to the values of simplicity and humility.

3.2.4.12 Food

O messengers, eat from the lawful things and act righteously,

for I am All-Knowing of what you do (Qur’an 23:51).

So eat from the lawful and good things that Allah has provided

for you, and be grateful for Allah’s blessings, if it is Him that you

worship (Qur’an 16:114).

Say [O Prophet], “I do not find in what has been revealed to me

anything forbidden to eat except carrion, running blood or the

swine flesh – which is impure – or a sinful offering in the name

of other than Allah. However, if someone is compelled by

necessity – neither driven by desire nor transgressing due limit

– then your Lord is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful” (Qur’an 6:145).

He has only forbidden you dead meat, and blood, and the flesh

of swine, and any (food) over which the name of other than God

has been invoked. But if one is forced by necessity, without wilful

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 disobedience, nor transgressing due limits, then God is Oft-

Forgiving, Most Merciful (Qur’an 16:115).

O you who believe, eat of the good things We have provided

for you, and be grateful to Allah, if you truly worship Him alone

(✶) He has only forbidden to you carrion, blood, the flesh of

swine, and what has been sacrificed to other than Allah. But if

someone is compelled by necessity – neither driven by desire

nor exceeding immediate need – then there is no sin upon him;

for Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful (✶) (Qur’an 2:172-173).

In this regard, the Prophet (PBUH) reminded the believers that Allah is Pure, He

only accepts excellent things. He then mentioned a person who travels much,

with untidy hair and dust in it. In spite of the fact that his food, his drink, his

clothing, and his sustenance are all illegal, he raises his hand toward the sky

and makes the supplication, "O Lord, O Lord." Then, how can his supplication

be granted?" (Sahih Muslim: 65).

3.2.4.13 Doing good to Non–Muslims

It is essential for Muslims to uphold justice and good relations with non-

Muslims in accordance with Islamic principles. This is outlined in the Qur'an,

which states: "And do not let the hatred of a people prevent you from being

just. Be just; that is nearer to righteousness" (Qur’an 5:8).

In this regard, Asmaa’ bint Abubakar (may Allah be pleased with her and her

father) reported: “My mother, who was a polytheist, came to visit me with her

son during the period of the peace treaty between Quraysh and the Prophet

(PBUH). I went to seek the advice of the Prophet (PBUH) saying: ‘My mother

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came willingly; should I maintain a good relation with her?’ He replied: ‘Yes,

maintain a good relationship with her’” (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 2620).

Muslims should be good and just in their relations with non-Muslims as long as

the non-Muslims do not fight them and do not persecute them either by their

actions or sayings or kick them out of their country as Allah says:

Allah does not forbid you from those who do not fight you

because of religion and do not expel you from your homes -

from being righteous toward them and acting justly toward

them. Indeed, Allah loves those who act justly (Qur’an 60:8).

Therefore, Muslims are expected to strive to be just and equitable in their

dealings with non-Muslims, whilst being cognisant of their rights to defend

themselves against injustice. Moreover, Muslims should strive to foster

harmonious relationships with non-Muslims, as this will contribute to creating a

more peaceful and tolerant society.

On the whole, observing Allah’s commandments (the dos) is a fundamental

spiritual practice in Islam. According to Islamic jurisprudence, all acts of worship

fall into two categories: obligatory (fard) and recommended (mustahabb). The

four obligatory acts of worship (fard) are Salat, Zakat, Fasting, and

Hajj. However, certain exceptions apply depending on the circumstances. For

example, performing Hajj is obligatory only for those who have the means and

are in good health. Similarly, Zakat is only obligatory for those who have the

means. Fasting during the month of Ramadan is only obligatory for those who

are able to do so. Prayer, however, has no such exemptions; even if one is sick,

so long as he is conscious, one is expected to offer it in some way, for example,

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by nodding the head or pointing the fingers. Taken together these various

aspects of doing good are essential for creating a just and equitable society.

3.2.4.14 Forgiveness

Forgiveness is a central theme in Islam, emphasising the importance of mercy,

compassion, and pardoning others. Both the Qur'an and Sunnah provide

numerous examples and teachings on forgiveness, encouraging Muslims to

practice it in their daily lives:

Show forgiveness, enjoin what is good, and turn away from the

ignorant (Qur’an 7:199).

Kind speech and forgiveness are better than charity followed by

injury. And Allah is Free of need and Forbearing (Qur’an 2:263).

And those who, when they commit an immorality or wrong

themselves [by transgression], remember Allah and seek

forgiveness for their sins - and who can forgive sins except Allah?

- and [who] do not persist in what they have done while they

know (Qur’an 3:135).

Allah promises that He will forgive those who turn to Him in sincere repentance

and seek His Forgiveness. He says:

And [He] will forgive you your sins and repair your deeds (Qur’an

25:70).

The Prophet (PBUH) said, "Whoever suffers an injury and forgives (the person

responsible), Allah will raise his status to a higher degree and remove one of

his sins” (Sahih Al-Bukhari, 73:5). Furthermore, the Prophet (PBUH) mentioned

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that Allah is the Most Merciful and Forgiving, and He loves to forgive,

encouraging believers to seek His forgiveness (Sahih Muslim, 32:6250).

A notable example from the Sunnah is the Prophet's (PBUH) forgiveness

towards his enemies in Makkah after the conquest of the city. Despite years of

persecution and hostility, the Prophet (PBUH) forgave them and declared a

general amnesty.

In conclusion, forgiveness is a vital aspect of a Muslim's character, as

emphasised by the Qur'an and Sunnah. Both sources encourage believers to

practice forgiveness, mercy, and compassion towards others, as it leads to

spiritual growth and the attainment of Allah's mercy and forgiveness.

Those who work for this world will be rewarded accordingly:

Those who seek the life of this world and its splendour, We will

repay them in full in this life for their deeds, and nothing will be

diminished from them therein. (✶) It is they who will have

nothing in the Hereafter but the Fire. All their efforts will be

worthless, and all their deeds will be futile (✶) (Qur’an 11:15-

16).

Be gracious, enjoin what is right, and turn away from those who

act ignorantly (Qur’an 7:199).

3.2.4.15 Abstaining from Wrongdoing (Evil Doing)

Although the concepts of good and evil are often subjective, there is a

consensus among religious and philosophical traditions that abstaining from

evil doing is an essential part of doing good. Allah forbids all evil deeds and

affirms the importance of avoiding them. In addition to the explicit teachings

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of the Qur'an, Islamic jurisprudence also provides guidance on the types of

actions that constitute evil doings. These include joining others in worship

along with Allah, sorcery, corruption, adultery, murder, theft, drinking of

intoxicants, riba (usury), gambling, dishonesty, eating up orphan’s wealth,

accusing chaste women, and oppression (Sahih Al–Bukhari: 28). In the same

vein, the Prophet (PBUH) said: "He who does not forbid evil, he is a partner in

it" (Sunan Abu Dawud: 4338). This reinforces the notion that it is not enough

merely to refrain from evil, but one must also actively oppose it. Ultimately, it

is important to note that abstaining from evil is an integral part of doing good

and is an essential part of living a moral life in accordance with Islamic

teachings. As the Qur'an states:

Allah enjoins justice, kindness, and giving relatives [their dues],

and He forbids shameful acts, evil deeds, and oppression. He

exhorts you, so that you may take heed (Qur’an 16:90).

Say (O Muhammad PBUH): “Come, I will recite what your Lord

has prohibited you from, join not anything in worship with Him;

be good and dutiful to your parents; kill not your children

because of poverty: We provide sustenance for you and for

them, come not near to shameful sin (illegal sexual intercourse,

etc.) whether committed openly or secretly, and kill not the life

which Allah has forbidden, except for a just cause (according to

Islamic law). This He has commanded you that you may

understand. (✶) And come not near to the orphan’s property,

except to improve it, until he (or she) attains the age of full

strength; and give full measures and full weight with justice. We

burden not any soul, but that which it can bear. And whenever

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 you give your word (i.e., judge between men or give a witness,

etc.), say the truth even if a near relative is concerned, and fulfil

the Covenant of Allah, This He commands you that you may

remember. (✶) And verily, this (i.e., Allah’s Commandments

mentioned in the above two verses (151 and 152) is My Straight

Path, so follow it, and follow not (other) paths, they will separate

you away from His path. This He has ordained for you that you

may become Al – Muttaqin (Pious and righteous persons who

fear Allah much [abstain from all kinds of sins and evil deeds

which He has forbidden] and love Allah much [perform all kinds

of good deeds which He has ordained]) (✶) (Qur’an 6:151-3).

Furthermore, Allah says:

And kill not your children for fear of poverty. We provide for

them and for you. Surely, the killing of them is a great sin. (✶)

And come not near to the unlawful sexual intercourse. Verily, it

is a "Fahishah" [i.e., anything that transgresses its limits (a great

sin)], and an evil way (that leads one to Hell unless Allah forgives

him). (✶) And do not kill anyone which Allah has forbidden,

except for a just cause. And whoever is killed (intentionally with

hostility and oppression and not by mistake), We have given his

heir the authority [(to demand "Qisaas", -- law of equality in

punishment -- or to forgive, or to take "Diya" (Blood money)].

But let him not exceed limits in the matter of taking life (i.e., he

should not kill except the killer only). Verily, he is helped (by the

Islamic law). (✶) And come not near to the orphan's property

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 except to improve it, until he attains the age of full strength. And

fulfil (every) covenant. Verily! the covenant, will be questioned

about. (✶) And give full measure where you measure, and

weigh with a balance that is straight. That is good

(advantageous) and better in the end. (✶) And follow not (O man

i.e. say not, or do not or witness not etc.) that of which you have

no knowledge (e.g. one's saying: "I have seen," while in fact he

has not seen, or "I have heard," while he has not heard). Verily!

The hearing and the sight, and the heart, each of those you will

be questioned (by Allah). (✶) And walk not on the earth with

conceit and arrogance. Verily, you can neither bend nor

penetrate the earth, nor can you attain a stature like the

mountains in hight. (✶) All the bad aspects of these (the above-

mentioned things) are hateful in the Sight of your Lord (✶)

(Qur’an 17:31-38).

Others include don't lie (Qur’an 22:30); don’t spy (Qur’an 49:12); don’t insult

(Qur’an 49:11); don’t waste (Qur’an 17:26); don’t backbite (Qur’an 49:12); don’t

take bribes (Qur’an 27:36); don’t spread gossip (Qur’an 24:15); don’t harm

believers (Qur’an 33:58); don’t be rude to parents (Qur’an17:23); don’t make

fun of others (Qur’an 49:11); don’t say what you don't do (Qur’an62:2); don't

insult others' false gods (Qur’an 6:108); don’t deceive people in trade (Qur’an

6:152); don't take items without right (Qur’an 3:162); don't ask unnecessary

questions (Qur’an 5:101); don't be miserly nor extravagant (Qur’an 25:67);

don't call others with bad names (Qur’an 49:11); don't claim yourselves to be

pure (Qur’an 53:32); don't ask for repayment for favours (Qur’an 76:9); don't

remind others of the favours you done to them (Qur’an 2:264).

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Whereas on issues of faith, Allah appeals to the mind of the individual to see

and observe His creation, on areas of observing what He commands to be done

and abstaining from what He forbids, He, in addition, calls on the peoples’

sense of history, to investigate and find out what happened to the previous

people who had disobeyed Him:

Do they not travel through the earth, and see what was the End

of those before them, –– though they were superior to them in

strength? Nor is Allah to be frustrated by anything whatever in

the heavens or on earth: for He is All – Knowing, All – Powerful

(Qur’an 35:44).

Do they not travel through the earth, and see what was the end

of those before them? They were superior to them in strength:

they tilled the soil and populated it in greater numbers than

these have done: there came to them their apostles with Clear

(Signs), (which they rejected, to their own destruction): it was not

Allah who wronged them, but they wronged their own souls

(Qur’an 30:9).

People are further told to refer to the history of previous civilisations and see

what the causes of their collapse were. Allah says the causes were due to their

refusal to accept His Message:

Have they not seen how many a generation before them We

have destroyed? –– whom We had established on earth, as We

have not established you. And We poured out on them rain from

the sky in abundance and made the rivers flow beneath them.

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 Yet We destroyed them for their sins and created after them

another generation (Qur’an 6:6).

Another cause of collapse of civilisation is corruption and arrogance and

immorality on the part of people. Allah says:

If We will, We could send down upon them a [compelling] sign

from the heavens, leaving their necks bent in [utter] submission

to it (Qur’an 26:4).

As for those who believe and do right actions, He will reward

them in full and increase them out of His grace. But those who

are too proud and arrogant, He will subject them to a painful

punishment. And besides Allah they will have no protector or

helper (Qur’an 4:173).

Corruption, immorality, and other social harms are pervasive features of many

societies, prompting questions as to why Allah allows them to continue.

However, according to Islamic scripture, there is a time and place for all events,

and when the time comes, there is no escape from the consequences. This

understanding is echoed in the Qur’an, which states, "And Allah will establish

and make apparent the truth by His Words, however much the Mujrimun

(criminals, disbelievers, polytheists, sinners) may hate it.” (Qur’an 10:82). Thus,

it can be concluded that corruption and immorality cannot persist indefinitely,

as Allah will eventually intervene and provide justice.

Whenever people tend to go beyond their bound, Allah checks them by

sending others to replace them:

And if Allah did not check one set of people by means of

another, the earth would indeed be full of mischief. But Allah is

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 a Lord of bounties to the Alamin (Mankind, Jinns and all that

exists) (Qur’an 2:251).

All this is for the benefit of humanity. Laws have been promulgated to provide

protection to individuals for their honour and property. Therefore, it is essential

to recognise the importance of avoiding evil actions and promoting good ones

in order to live a life that is pleasing to Allah.

3.2.4.16 Manipulation of Religion

Manipulators of Islam are described as “Munafiqun”, because of this, there is

a special chapter in the Qur’an about them (Surah Al-Munafiqun: Chapter 63).

These individuals, who outwardly appear as believers, yet harbour disbelief in

their hearts. They use the religion for their own selfish goal; partake in a variety

of religious activities, such as–– praying in the mosques and participation in

Hajj and Umrah pilgrimages. Additionally, they may be involved in the decision-

making process, as well as economic activities conducted with other Muslims.

Moreover, they are known to take part in battles even though not believing in

the cause they are fighting for. This highlights the critical need for sincerity in

one’s religious life.

In light of this, abstaining from doing evil is crucial. It can be categorised into

two prohibitions: those that are completely prohibited, the doing of which

affects individuals and society as a whole, and those that are makruh

(undesirable). This classification serves as a guideline for Muslims to not only

avoid clear-cut wrongdoings but also to steer clear of actions that might not

be explicitly forbidden yet are still discouraged due to their potential negative

impact. The teachings of Islam thus emphasise the importance of inner sincerity

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and the avoidance of hypocrisy, urging believers to reflect on their intentions

and actions continuously.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
The Qur’an and the Hadith (Sunnah)

The Qur’an and the Sunnah are the foundational sources of Islam, with the

Qur’an as the primary source and the Sunnah as the secondary. Understanding

Islam must be derived from these sources, as they provide the basis for belief

in Allah and His Messenger, the observation of His Commandments, and

avoidance of what He forbids. In essence, Islam is embodied within teachings

of the Qur’an and Sunnah, providing comprehensive guidance for humanity.

They offer not only specific directives, but also general guidelines that assist in

addressing situations where explicit statements might be absent.

4.1 The Qur’an

The Qur’an is the divinely revealed Book of Allah, sent through His Messenger,

Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) as guidance for all:

This [Qur’an] is a blessed Book which We have sent down, so

follow it and fear Allah, so that you may be shown mercy (Qur’an

6:155).

Alif Lam Mim. (✶) This is the Book about which there is no

doubt, a guidance for the righteous, (✶) who believe in the

unseen, establish prayer, and spend out of what We have

provided for them, (✶) and those who believe in what has been

sent down to you [O Prophet] and in what was sent down before

you, and in the Hereafter they believe with certainty. (✶) It is

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 they who are upon guidance from their Lord, and it is they who

are successful (✶) (Qur’an 2: 1-5).

With the truth We have sent down this [Qur’an] and with the

truth it has descended, and We have not sent you [O Prophet]

except as a bearer of glad tidings and a warner (Qur’an 17:105).

We have revealed to you [O Prophet] the Book in truth,

confirming the scriptures that came before it and as a criterion

over them. So judge between them according to what Allah has

revealed, and do not follow their desires in disregard of the truth

that has come to you. To each of you We have ordained a law

and a way of life. If Allah had willed, He would have made you

a single community, but He tests you in what He has given you.

So compete with one another in doing good deeds. To Allah

you will all return, then He will inform you concerning things

over which you used to differ (Qur’an 5:48).

The Qur'an is a unique book with a timeless message of paramount importance

to all of humanity. It encompasses various topics, from the spiritual to the

practical, presenting them in different forms such as direct commands,

reminders of Allah’s bounties, admonitions, and warnings. By relating stories of

past societies and their outcomes, the Qur’an encourages deep reflection on

individual actions and their consequences. The Qur’an’s timeless message is

universal, providing guidance and instruction to all who seek it. In this way, the

Qur’an provides a comprehensive blueprint for living a life that is pleasing to

Allah.

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4.1.1 Qur’an - The Infallible Word of Allah

The Qur’an is the most sacred and important text in Islam. It is believed to be

the literal word of God, revealed to the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) over a

period of 23 years. The Qur’an is the primary source of guidance for Muslims,

providing them with a deep moral and spiritual framework that influences every

aspect of life. The Qur’an is not only a guide, but also a source of profound

wisdom, helping Muslims to understand and interpret their faith across diverse

contexts. It provides comfort and solace in times of distress and challenges,

reminding Muslims of the enduring beauty and power of their faith, and the

rewards of righteousness. As the foundation of Islamic teachings, the Qur’an is

invaluable for living life in accordance with Allah’s will, as it serves as a constant

source of guidance, inspiration and solace to millions of Muslims around the

world:

Surely this Qur'an guides to that which is most upright, and

gives good news to the believers – who do good – that they will

have a mighty reward (17:9).

The Qur’an has been described as: Al-Qur’an Al-Majid (“The Glorious Qur’an;”

50:1, 85:21) or Al-Qur’an Al-Kareem (“The Noble Qur’an”; 56:77). Other names

of the Qur’an are:

1. Al-Furqan (The Criterion 25:1, 2:185): this is a title referring to the Qur’an

as the decisive criterion that distinguishes right from wrong. It is the

ultimate source of guidance for living a life of faith and morality.

2. Al-Dhikr (The Remembrance 15:9): is a title referring to the Qur’an as a

source of remembrance and a reminder of Allah’s Favour and Blessings.

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 It is a reminder of the past, a guide for the present, and a hope for the

future.

3. Al-Huda (The Guidance 2:2): is a title referring to the Qur’an as a source

of guidance for all humanity. It is the only source of true guidance that

leads to success in this life and the hereafter.

4. Al-Noor (The Light 24:35): the Qur’an is referred to as the source of

spiritual and intellectual illumination. It is a source of guidance and light

which guides one against the darkness of ignorance and confusion.

5. Al-Rahman (The Most Gracious 55:1): is a title referring to the Qur’an as

a source of mercy and compassion. It is a source of solace and comfort

in times of trial and tribulation.

6. Al-Mubeen (The Manifest Qur’an 15:1, 4: 174, 5:15, 6:59): is a title

referring to the Qur’an as a source of clarity and certainty. It is a source

of knowledge and wisdom which leads one to the truth.

The uniqueness and inimitability of the Qur’an was made clear when the

unbelievers were first informed that they could not produce the like of the

Qur’an:

Say, “If all humans and jinn were to come together to produce

something similar to this Qur’an, they would not be able to

produce the like of it, even if they collaborated with one

another” (Qur’an 17: 88).

Second, they were challenged to produce another book of guidance from Allah

which is better than the Qur'an:

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 Say (to them, O Muhammad PBUH): "Then bring a Book from

Allah, which is a better guide than these two [the Taurah (Torah)

and the Qur’an], that I may follow it, if you are truthful." (✶) But

if they answer you not (i.e. do not bring the Book nor believe in

your doctrine of Islamic Monotheism), then know that they only

follow their own lusts. And who is more astray than one who

follows his own lusts, without guidance from Allah? Verily Allah

guides not the people who are Zalimun (wrong-doers,

disobedient to Allah, and polytheists) (✶) (Qur’an 28:49-50).

Third, when they failed, they were asked to produce just ten chapters like the

chapters of the Qur'an for they said it was forged by Muhammad (PBUH):

Or they, "He (Prophet Muhammad PBUH) forged it (this

Qur'an)." Bring you then ten chapters like unto it, forged and

call whomsoever you can, other than Allah (to your help) -- if you

speak the truth!” (✶) If then they answer you not, you know then

that this Revelation (this Qur’an) is sent dawn with the

knowledge of Allah and that None has the right to be

worshipped but He! Will you then be Muslims (those who submit

to Islam)? (✶) (Qur’an 11:13-14).

Fourth, when they failed again, they were asked to produce just a chapter like

a chapter in the Qur'an:

And if you (Arab pagans, Jews and Christians) are in doubt

concerning that which We have sent down to Our Slave

(Muhammad PBUH), (i.e. this Qur’an), then produce a chapter of

the like thereof and call your witnesses (supporters and helpers)

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 besides Allah, if you are truthful. (✶)But if you do it not, and you

can never do it, then fear the Fire (Hell) whose fuel is men and

stones, prepared for the disbelievers (✶) (Qur’an 2:23-4).

Despite their persuasive rhetoric and oratory skills,20 and numerous historical

attempts at imitation, some in outright mockery of the Prophet (PBUH) and

others undertaken genuinely by leading Arabic authorities (recalling that the

Prophet's (PBUH) era witnessed the world's best exponents of the Arabic

language), the unbelievers have continually failed to meet the challenge. To

this day, the Qur’an remains unique, its inimitability signifying both its

miraculous nature and its divinity.

The Qur’an, in a word, is a book of guidance as mentioned earlier:

(This is) a Book which We have revealed unto you (O

Muhammad PBUH) in order that you might lead mankind out of

darkness (or disbelief and polytheism) into light (of belief in

Oneness of Allah and Islamic Monotheism) by their Lord's leave

-- to the path of the Al-Mighty, the Owner of all Praise (Qur’an

14:1).

Thus, it is meant to be communicated:

“This Qur'an has been revealed to me that I may warn therewith

you and whom-so-ever it may reach” (Qur’an 6:19).

20
The Arabs were known for their eloquence, oratory, poetry, and literature. They used to hold annual literary
festival during which poets compete with one another in poetry and oratory in market called Ukkaz.

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4.1.2 Arabic

The revelation was revealed in Arabic language because Prophet Muhammad

(PBUH) was an Arab:

Verily, We have sent it down as an Arabic Qur'an in order that

you may understand (Qur’an 12:2).

And indeed, the Qur’an is the revelation of the Lord of the

worlds. (✶) Brought down by the Trustworthy Spirit [Gabriel] (✶)

Upon your heart [O Muhammad], so that you may be of the

warners. (✶) In a clear Arabic language (✶) (Qur’an 26:192-5).

And indeed, [O Muhammad], you receive the Qur’an from the

All-Wise, All- Knowing (Qur’an 27:6).

And thus We have sent it down as a Qur’an in Arabic, and have

explained therein in detail the warnings, in order that they may

fear Allah, or that it may cause them to have a lesson from it (or

to have the honour for believing and acting on its teachings)

(Qur’an 20:113).

And his immediate environment was Arab:

And if We had sent this as a Qur'an in a foreign language other

than Arabic, they would have said: "Why are not its verses

explained in detail (in our language)? What! (A Book) not in

Arabic and (the Messenger) an Arab?" Say: "It is for those who

believe, a guide and a healing" (Qur’an 41:44).

The Arabic language holds significant importance within Islamic tradition.

Although there isn’t a specific reference to support that Allah taught Arabic to

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Prophet Isma’il (AS), it is widely believed that the language has been preserved

and passed down through generations. The Qur’an is a transcript of the

Preserved Tablet (Lauhul Mahfuz): “But this is a glorious Qur’an (✶) [inscribed]

in a Preserved Tablet” (✶) (Qur’an 85:21-22). The Tablet or the Book contains

an invaluable record of all that has transpired and all that is yet to come,

carefully preserved in heaven and reserved as a source of knowledge and

guidance for all mankind (Asad, 1980; Ibn Warraq, 2003; Haleem, 2005).

The Arabic language has been kept alive in the Arabian desert, allowing the

Islamic faith to spread throughout the world. Despite being isolated from the

outside world, the Arab community managed to preserve the language and its

rich heritage. With the revelation of the Qur’an in Arabic, the language became

the official language of Islam (Ibn Warraq, 2003; Haleem, 2005; Van Putten,

2017), ensuring that its teachings would be accessible to future generations.

The Qur’an holds within it a wealth of knowledge and wisdom that remains

relevant today, which is why the preservation of the Arabic language is of

upmost importance.

4.1.3 Revelation of the Qur’an

The revelation of the Glorious Qur’an spanned a period of 23 years, with the

first 13 years (610–622 AD) in Makkah and the remaining 10 years (622–632

AD) in Madinah (Asad, 1980). Unlike the Taurah, which was revealed to Musa

(AS) in its entirety, the Qur’an was revealed in piecemeal, with verses and

chapters on various occasions and in different locations (Asad, 1980; Abu

Khalil, 2001; Haleem, 2005). Some verses were revealed during the Prophet’s

(PBUH) journeys, while others emerged at night or during the day. This gradual

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revelation allowed for the adaptation of the teachings of the Qur’an and the

development of the Islamic faith:

“This is a Qur’an that We have revealed over stages so that you

may recite it to people at a slower pace, and We have sent it

down in a successive manner” (Qur’an 17:106).

In many instances, Qur’anic chapters were revealed in sections, often

comprising three, five or more verses. In some cases, additional verses were

later revealed to complete the chapter, while in few cases, only a verse was

revealed at a time. However, there are some chapters which were revealed

entirely at once. These chapters include Chapter 1 (Suratul Fatihah), Chapter

114 (Suratun Nas), Chapter 113 (Suratul Falaq), Chapter 112 (Suratul Ikhlas),

Chapter 111 (Suratul Masad), Chapter 110 (Suraatun Nasr), Chapter 108

(Suratul Kauthar), Chapter 98 (Suratul Baiyinah), and Chapter 77 (Suratul

Mursalat) (Al-Suyuti, 1996: 107). This gradual revelation serves as proof of the

Qur’an’s divine origin and its miraculous nature.

The Qur'an was revealed in piecemeal for several reasons:

1. To strengthen the heart of the Prophet (PBUH) and to enable him to

memorise it.

2. To provide answers to questions asked by both believers and non-

believers, while the revelation was on-going.

3. To abrogate some verses and replace them with others in the gradual

legislation of principles of Islam.

4. To make it easier for people to learn and work with it gradually.

5. To prepare people to receive Allah's Message and to see to its

implementation.

269
 6. To gradually legislate on principles of Islam until it reaches the peak, as

in the case of prohibition of drinking alcohol.

The revelation was brought to the Prophet (PBUH) by Allah's Messenger, Angel

Jibril (Gabriel), for Allah does not communicate to humans physically:

It is not fitting for a man that Allah should speak to him except

by inspiration, or from behind a veil, or by sending of a

Messenger to reveal, with Allah's permission, what Allah wills:

for He is Most High, Most Wise (Qur’an 42:51).

From the above verse, it is clear that Allah communicates with His servants in

three ways: inspiration, behind a veil, and by sending a Messenger. Of these,

Allah chose to communicate the Qur'an to Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) by

sending a Messenger, Angel Jibril, to bring the Message:

Say, the Holy Spirit has brought the Revelation from thy Lord in

Truth, in order to strengthen those who believe, and as a Guide

and Glad Tidings to Muslims (Qur’an 16:102).21

However, that was not the only way in which the Prophet (PBUH) had received

revelation from Allah: he received revelation through inspiration:

Likewise, We have revealed to you a revelation by Our

command. You knew nothing of the Scripture or matters of faith,

but We have made it [the Qur’an] a light by which We guide

whom We will of Our slaves. And you are truly leading people

to a straight path (✶) the path of Allah, to Whom belongs all

21
Holy Spirit is the title of the Angel Gabriel, through whom the revelation came down.

270
 that is in the heavens and all that is on earth. Indeed, to Allah

return all matters (✶) (Qur’an 42:52-3).

And this (the Qur’an) is a blessed Book which We have sent

down, confirming (the revelations) which came before it, so that

you may warn the Mother of Towns (i.e., Makkah) and all those

around it. Those who believe in the Hereafter believe in it (the

Qur’an), and they are constant in guarding their Salat (prayers)

(Qur’an 6:92).

When asked how the revelation came to him, the Prophet (PBUH) replied:

"Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell, this form of Inspiration is

the hardest of all and then this state passes off after I have grasped what is

inspired. Sometimes the Angel comes in a form of a man and talks to me, and

I grasp whatever he says” (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 2). For example, there was a time

the Prophet (PBUH) was with his Companions when Angel Jibril appeared to

him and his Companions in a human shape and asked the Prophet (PBUH)

questions: about Islam, belief, Ihsan, the hour and its signs. On describing the

condition of the Prophet (PBUH) while he was receiving revelation, Aisha (RA)

said: "Verily I saw the Prophet (PBUH) being inspired Divinely on a very cold

day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the inspiration is

over) (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 2).

The revelation began in the month of Ramadan:

Ramadan is the month in which the Qur’an was revealed as a

guide for humanity with clear proofs of guidance and the

standard [to distinguish between right and wrong]. So whoever

is present this month, let them fast. But whoever is ill or on a

271
 journey, then ˹let them fast˺ an equal number of days ˹after

Ramadan˺. Allah intends ease for you, not hardship, so that you

may complete the prescribed period and proclaim the greatness

of Allah for guiding you, and perhaps you will be grateful

(Qur’an 2:185).

When in Ramadan was it revealed, Allah says:

Verily! We have sent it (this Qur'an) down in the Night of Al-

Qadar (Decree) (✶) And what will make you know what the Night

of Decree is? (✶) The Night of Decree is better than a thousand

months (i.e., worshipping Allah in that Night is better than

worshiping Him a thousand months, i.e., 83 years and 4 month)

(✶) (Qur’an 97:1-3).

4.1.3.1 The First Revelation

The first revelation came to the Prophet (PBUH) at the age of forty, on a

Monday, while he was at the Cave of Hira. Angel Gabriel appeared to him and

asked him to recite (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 478). However, the Prophet (PBUH)

replied that he could not read. Angel Gabriel asked him for the second and

third time, held and pressed him, and then released him, saying:

Read in the Name of your Lord, Who has created (all that exists).

(✶) He created man out of a clot. (✶) Read! And your Lord is the

Most Generous. (✶) Who has taught (the writing) by the pen. (✶)

Has taught man that which he knew not” (✶) (Qur’an 96:1-5).

Thus, the first revelation comprised the first five verses of Chapter Ninety-Six

(Al-‘Alaq). Following this, other verses and chapters were revealed over time.

272
Before the initial revelation of the Qur’an, the Prophet (PBUH) experienced

several inspirations, as narrated by Aisha (RA). She reported that the

commencement of the Divine Inspiration to the Prophet (PBUH) was in the form

of true dreams in his sleep, which turned out to be accurate. He then began to

seek solitude, frequently retreating to the Cave of Hira, near Makkah, to

worship Allah until he received guidance when Angel Jibril came to him (Sahih

Al-Bukhari: 478). The Prophet (PBUH) engaged in worship following the

tradition of Prophet Ibrahim (AS).

The Qur’an was initially revealed in Arabic using the Quraysh dialect. To

facilitate easier understanding and recitation among various Arab tribes, the

Messenger of Allah (PBUH), requested that Allah allow the Qur’an to be

expressed in other Arab dialects, rather than limiting it to the Quraysh dialect

(Al-Suyuti, 1996; Al-Nadwi, 2000). In response to this request, Allah sent Angel

Jibril to teach the Messenger (PBUH), the different Arab dialects and how to

recite the Qur’an in these dialects. Consequently, the Prophet (PBUH) recited

the Qur’an to the Companions in seven different dialects, as taught by Angel

Jibril, without any room for personal judgment or comparison of linguistic

equivalents (Al-Suyuti, 1996; Al-Nadwi, 2000; Al-Jallad, 2018). This approach

enabled the Companions to understand the Qur’an more clearly and facilitated

the spread of Islam to different regions.

4.1.3.2 Circumstances of Revelation of Qur'anic Verses

Understanding the circumstances of the revelation of Qur'anic verses is crucial

for explaining and interpreting the Qur'an. Some verses may appear difficult to

comprehend or confusing without the knowledge of the historical context in

which they were revealed. The context can shed light on the meaning and

273
interpretation of these verses. For example, during the revelation of the Qur’an,

the Arabian Peninsula was primarily a tribal society. The verses at this time

reflected the prevailing customs and addressed the needs of the people. The

verse on inheritance was revealed to address the issue of inheritance among

the tribes, as tribal laws did not provide for a fair system. Similarly, verses on

the treatment of women aimed to improve their status and protect them from

oppression. Therefore, understanding the historical context of the revelation of

verses can provide insight into their meaning and interpretation.

Furthermore, some Qur'anic words may have several meanings and

interpretations, as the Qur’an was revealed to address the needs of people of

different times, cultures, and backgrounds. Therefore, it is important to

understand the various interpretations of a verse before drawing any

conclusion. This understanding can help explain the relevance of a verse in a

particular context and why it may have different meanings in different contexts.

The mode of revelation of the Qur'an can be categorised into two: first, verses

and chapters concerned with the basic principles of Islam. Second, verses

concerned with explaining certain events (including the history of previous

Prophets and some personalities) and providing answers to questions posed

by both Muslims and non-Muslims (people of the book and infidels) (Asad,

1980; Rahman, 1980). However, it should be noted that some responses to

questions form part of the fundamental principles of Islam, as the Qur’an

provides a comprehensive framework for faith, law, and morality. Thus, the

Qur’an serves as both a source of knowledge and guidance, as well as a source

of inspiration and reflection.

274
4.1.3.3 Places of Revelation

The revelation, as indicated earlier, began while the Prophet (PBUH) was in

Makkah and ended in Madinah, after his migration. In this regard, Qur'anic

chapters can be grouped into two categories: Makkan and Madinan. Makkan

chapters are those that were revealed while the Prophet (PBUH) was in Makkah

before his migration to Madinah, while Madinan chapters are those that were

revealed after he settled in Madinah. Furthermore, the revelation of the Qur'an

is not limited to these two places, and it is believed that the Qur'an was

revealed in many other places (Abu Khalil, 2001). Therefore, it is important to

understand that the categorisation of Qur'anic chapters into Makkan and

Madinan is based on the two main places of revelation and not on the

chronological order of the verses.

4.1.3.4 Makkan Chapters

The revelations in Makkah were verses and chapters of great importance to

Muslims, as these were revealed by Allah to guide the Prophet (PBUH) and his

followers through their struggles in Makkah. The first chapter to be revealed in

Makkah was Chapter Ninety-Six (Suratul Alaq), and the last chapter to be

revealed in Makkah was either Chapter Twenty-Three or Chapter Twenty-Nine

(Surah Al-Mu’minoun or Surah Al-Ankaboot). The first chapter to be made

public in Makkah was Chapter Fifty-Three (Suratun Najm). In total, eighty-six

chapters of the Qur’an were revealed in Makkah before the Prophet (PBUH)

migrated to Madinah. These chapters provided guidance and comfort to the

believers during their time in Makkah, and continue to provide guidance,

wisdom, and strength to Muslims across the world today. The chapters are:

275
Table 4.1

Makkan Chapters

Order of Chapter Chapter Verses

Revelation Number

1 Surah Al-Alaq 96 19

2 Surah Al-Qalam 68 52

3 Surah Al-Muzzammil 73 20

4 Surah Al-Muddathhir 74 56

5 Surah Al-Fatiha 1 7

6 Surah Al-Lahab 111 5

7 Surah At-Takwir 81 9

8 Surah Al-A’la 87 19

9 Surah Al-Lail 92 21

10 Surah Al-Fajr 89 30

11 Surah Adh-Dhuha 93 11

12 Surah Al-Sharh 94 8

13 Surah Al-Asr 103 3

14 Surah Al-Adiyat 100 11

15 Surah Al-Kauthar 108 3

16 Surah At-Takathur 102 8

17 Surah Al-Ma’un 107 7

18 Surah Al-Kafirun 109 6

19 Surah Al-Fil 105 5

20 Surah Al-Falaq 113 5

276
21 Surah An-Nas 114 6

22 Surah Al-Ikhlaas 112 4

23 Surah An-Najm 53 62

24 Surah Abasa 80 42

25 Surah Al-Qadr 97 5

26 Surah Ash-Shams 91 15

27 Surah Al-Buruj 85 22

28 Surah At-Tin 95 8

29 Surah Quraish 106 4

30 Surah Al-Qari’ah 101 11

31 Surah Al-Qiyama 75 40

32 Surah Al-Humaza 104 9

33 Surah Al-Mursalat 77 50

34 Surah Qaf 50 45

35 Surah Al-Balad 90 20

36 Surah At-Tariq 86 17

37 Surah Al-Qamar 54 55

38 Surah Sad 38 88

39 Surah Al-A’raf 7 206

40 Surah Al-Jinn 72 28

41 Surah Yasin 36 83

42 Surah Al-Furqan 25 77

43 Surah Fatir 35 45

44 Surah Maryam 19 98

45 Surah Ta-ha 20 135

277
46 Surah Al-Waqi’a 56 96

47 Surah Ash-Shu’araa 26 227

48 Surah An-Naml 27 93

49 Surah Al-Qasas 28 88

50 Surah Al-Israa 17 111

51 Surah Yunus 10 109

52 Surah Hud 11 123

53 Surah Yusuf 12 111

54 Surah Al-Hijir 15 99

55 Surah Al-An’am 6 165

56 Surah As-Saffat 37 182

57 Surah Luqman 31 34

58 Surah Saba 34 54

59 Surah Az-Zumar 39 75

60 Surah Al-Ghafir 40 85

61 Surah Fussilat 41 54

62 Surah Ash-Shura 42 53

63 Surah Az-Zukhruf 43 89

64 Surah Ad-Dukhan 44 59

65 Surah Al-Jathiya 45 37

66 Surah Al-Ahqaf 46 35

67 Surah Az-Zariyat 51 60

68 Surah Al-Gashiya 88 26

69 Surah Al-Kahf 18 110

70 Surah An-Nahl 16 128

278
 71 Surah Nuh 71 28

72 Surah Ibrahim 14 52

73 Surah Al-Anbiya 21 112

74 Surah Al-Muminum 23 118

75 Surah As-Sajda 32 30

76 Surah At-Tur 52 49

77 Surah Al-Mulk 67 30

78 Surah Al-Haqqa 69 52

79 Surah Al-Ma’arij 70 44

80 Surah An-Nabaa 78 40

81 Surah An-Nazi’at 79 46

82 Surah Al-Infitar 82 19

83 Surah Al-Inshiqaq 84 25

84 Surah Ar-Rum 30 60

85 Surah Al-Ankabut 29 69

86 Surah Al-Mutaffifin 83 36

Note. Compiled from Nasr (2015).

The subject matter of these chapters include questions of belief, past Prophets,

people, Angels and Jinns, the origin of the universe, commandments, conduct,

morality, and worship. It also delves further into the concepts of the afterlife,

paradise, hellfire, and the consequences of committing murder and adultery.

279
4.1.3.5 Madinan Chapters

On the other hand, the Madinan revelations were verses and chapters revealed

after the migration of the Prophet (PBUH) to Madinah. The chapters are twenty-

eight. The first chapter likely revealed in Madinah is Surah Al-Baqarah.

Table 4.2

Madinan Chapters

Order of Chapter Chapter Verses

Revelation Number

87 Surah Al-Baqarah 2 286

88 Surah Al-Anfal 8 75

89 Surah Al-Imran 3 200

90 Sural Al-Ahzab 33 73

91 Surah Al-Mumtahana 60 13

92 Surah An-Nisaa 4 176

93 Surah Az-Zalzala 99 8

94 Surah Al-Hadid 57 29

95 Surah Muhammad 47 38

96 Surah Ar-Ra’d 13 43

97 Surah Ar-Rahman 55 78

98 Surah Al-Insan 76 31

99 Surah At-Talaq 65 12

100 Surah Al-Bayyina 98 8

101 Surah Al-Hashr 59 24

102 Surah An-Nur 24 64

280
 103 Surah Al-Hajj 22 78

104 Surah Al-Munafiqun 63 11

105 Surah Al-Mujadila 58 22

106 Surah Al-Hujurat 49 18

107 Surah At-Tahrim 66 12

108 Surah At-Taghabun 64 18

109 Surah As-Saf 61 14

110 Surah Al-Jumu’a 62 11

111 Surah Al-Fath 48 29

112 Surah Al-Maida 5 120

113 Surah At-Tauba 9 129

114 Surah An-Nasr 110 3

Note. Compiled from Nasr (2015).

There are verses revealed in Makkah during the conquest of Makkah and others

between Mina and Arafah after the Prophet (PBUH) settled in Madinah. Such

verses or chapters are regarded as Madinan verses or chapters. For example,

the following Madinan verse was revealed in Makkah on the day of the

conquest of Makkah:

O mankind! We have created you from a male and female, and

made you into nations and tribes, that you may know one

another. Verily, the most honourable of you in the sight of Allah

is that (believer) who has At-Taqwa [i.e., one of the Muttaqun:

i.e., pious and righteous persons who fear Allah much (abstain

from all kinds of sins and evil deeds which He has forbidden),

and love Allah much (perform all kinds of good deeds which He

281
 has ordained)]. Verily, Allah is All-Knowing, All-Aware (Qur’an

49:13).

Similarly, the following Madinan verse was revealed at Arafah in the last Hajj of

the Prophet (PBUH):

This day, I have perfected your religion for you, completed my

favour upon you, and have chosen for you Islam as your religion

(Qur’an 5:3).

Madinan chapters are basically concerned with establishing a society of

Muslims, providing laws to govern the conduct of public and private life, and

putting the final touch on the whole religion. Some of the chapters revealed in

Madinah deal with the same topics as Makkan but are presented at times in

different words and in various forms, with varying levels of detail. The same is

applicable to the Makkan chapters.

This categorisation was made after the death of the Prophet (PBUH) by his

Companions and the followers of the Companions in order to facilitate the

understanding of the Qur'an. Such a need did not exist in the time of the

Prophet (PBUH), for the Companions were living witnesses to everything that

was revealed and where it was revealed.

Knowing the places of revelation is important in understanding which verses or

chapters are earlier or later in the Qur'an. Some earlier verses might have been

abrogated by later verses. Still, some Makkan chapters contain few Madinan

verses, and vice versa. For example, Chapter Six (Suratul An'am) is a Makkan

chapter, but three verses in it are Madinan verses: (Quran 6: 20, 114, 159).

282
4.1.4 Recitation of the Qur’an

By the end of the 1st century Hijrah, the followers had constituted recitation of

the Qur'an (tilawah) as a distinct field of study, alongside other emerging

branches of knowledge (Al-Qattan 1987: 171). People began traveling to

scholars who had mastered the art of Qur'anic recitation. One of the first to

write on the subject was Abu Abid Al-Qasim bin Sallam (d. 224 A.H) from Kufah

(Al-Qattan 1987: 173; Al-Qari, 1410AH). He was followed by Ahmad bin Jabir

Alkufi, then Isma’il bin Ishaaq, followed by Abu Ja'afar bin Jarir At-Tabari

among others.

However, it was not until in the 4th century of Hijrah that the existing varieties

of Qur'anic recitation (not the seven dialects) were systematically organised.

Abubakar bin Mujahid Al-Baghdadi (d. 324H) played a pivotal role in this,

categorising them into seven authoritative readings. This effort laid the

foundation for subsequent studies on the seven readings. At the time, there

were more than seven varieties of Qur’anic recitation, all traceable to the

Prophet (PBUH) (Al-Jallad, 2018). However, Al-Baghdadi limited them to seven

due to their renown and the extensive reach of their students, ensuring their

teachings endured. Moreover, they were also representatives of the most

prominent centres of Islamic learning in their day (Ibn Al-Jazari, 1995; Al-Suyuti,

1996; Al-Azami, 2003; Neuwirth, 2006). The seven reciters (Al-Qari, 1410AH:

21-25) (followers of the Companions) were:

283
Table 4.3

The Seven Reciters

Scholar Location Birth-Death Notable Notable

Students Information

Nafi'u Bin Madinah 70-169 AH Qalun, His method of

Abdur Rahman Warsh reading was

bin Abi transmitted by

Nu'aim22 Qalun and

Warsh.

Abdullahi Bin Makkah 45-120 AH Al-Bazzi, Al-Bazzi and

Kathir Ad Qunbul Qunbul

Dari23 transmitted his

way of reciting.

Abu ‘Amr ibn Basrah 70-154 AH Al-Duri, Influenced by

al-‘Ala’ bin (CE 689–770) Al-Soussi the reading of

Ammar al- Nafi' al-Madani

Basri24 and Ibn Kathir

al-Makki.

Abdullahi Bin Damascus 118 AH-245 Hisham Hisham ibn

‘Aamir25 AH (CE 736- ibn Ammar and Ibn

859) Ammar, Dhakwan

transmitted his

22
He learnt the reading of the Qur'an from about seventy followers. He was originally from Isfahan. He died in
Madinah in 169A.H/785.
23
He studied from Abdullahi Bin As Saa'ib (a companion) and Mujahid Maula Ibn Abbas. He died in 120AH/737.
24
He studied from Anas Bin Malik and from many learners of the Qur'an. He died in 154 A.H. or 148AH/770.
25
He studied under Abu Ad Darda'i and Mughirah Bin Shihab. He died in Damascus in 118 AH/736.

284
 Ibn reciting

Dhakwan technique.

‘Aasim Bin Abi Kufah 127 AH/745 Hafs, His style of

an Najud26 CE Shu'bah Qur'anic

recitation was

passed down

through Hafs

and Shu'bah.

Hamzah Bin Kufah 80–156 AH Khalaf al- Khalaf al-Bazzar

Habib Az Bazzar, and Khallad

Zayyati Al- Khallad were the two

Kufi27 main disciples

who

disseminated his

reading.

Ali Bin Hamzah Kufah Al-Layth, Established the

Al-Asadi Al- Ad-Duri Kufi school of

Kisaa'i28 Arabic grammar.

Transmitted by

Al-Layth and Ad-

Duri.

Note. Compiled from the Official Website of the Islamic University of Madinah; Al-Jazari
(1995); Nelson (2010).

26
He was Imam of reciters in Kufah. He studied on the reading of Abdullahi Bin Mas'ud and Ali Bin Abi Talib. He
died in 127 AH/744.
27
His reading was on the parttan of Ibn Mas’ud and Ali Bin Abi Talib. He studied under Al-‘Amish who read on
the pattern of Ibn Mas’ud and also studied under Muhammad Bin Abdir Rahman Bin Abi Laila, who mastered the
reading of Ali Bin Abi Talib. He died in 156AH/772.
28
He was originally from Persia. He died in 189/804.

285
Scholars initially focused on the seven recitations until Muhammad bin Al-Jazri

expanded these by adding three more, thus totalling ten recognised

recitations. The reciters were Abu Ja'far Yazid bin Al-Ka'ka'i Al-Makhzumi, with

'Isa ibn Waddan and Ibn Jummaz as transmitters of his recitation; Ya'qub bin

Ishaq bin Zaid Al-Hadrami, whose recitation was transmitted by Ruways Rawh;

and Khalaf bin Hisham Al-Bazzar Al-Asadi (150–229AH), who not only

transmitted the Qur’anic recitation method of Hamzah az-Zaiyyat, one of the

original ten reciters, but was also distinguished by his unique recitation. The

two primary transmitters of his translation were Ishaq al-Maruzi and Idris al-

Haddad.

Al-Jazari became known as the leader of the reciters of the Qur'an (Al-Qari,

1410AH: 17). There are of course other recitations besides the ten, and it would

be wrong to say that only the seven or the ten are allowable (Al-Qattan,

1987:172-4), for the seven or the ten were selected from the existing recitations

not on the ground that they were the only genuine recitations or the only ones

traceable to the Prophet (PBUH), but rather they were selected due to their

popularity and to simplify the art of reading. Additionally, some scholars in the

past did recite other patterns outside the ten (Al-Qari, 1410AH: 21). These

other recitations were also considered valid, though they may not have been

as widely accepted or popular. Furthermore, the recitation of the Qur’an is an

art form and can be practiced according to the individual’s preference, as long

as the core meaning, and principles of the Qur’an are not compromised.

In brief, the recitations of the ten reciters were transmitted by the following:

286
Table 4.4

Transmission of the Ten Reciters

Quranic Transmission Notable Regions

Scholar

Hafs Asim, Hamzah Asia, Europe, Americas

Warsh Nafi, Ibn Kathir, Ibn 'Amir, Maghreb, Western and Central

Abu 'Amr Africa, Western Europe (France

and Spain)

Duri Abu 'Amr Al-Basri, Al-Kisa’i Sudan, East Africa

Qaloun Nafeh al-Madani Libya, Tunisia, Mauritania

Bazzi Abu Amr Al-Basri Yemen, and part of Yemeni

Communities else where

Shu'bah Asim al-Kufi Yemen

Al-Susi Abu Amr Al-Basri Part of Yemen, Sudan, West

Africa

Qunbul Abu Amr Al-Basri Libya, Tunisia, and parts of

Yemen

Ruwais Yaqoub al-Hadrami Parts of Yemen

Al-Warraq Khalaf Not as wide spread ass others.

Note. From Ibn Al-Jazari (1995).

In all this, three narrators seem to be prominent for different reasons and their

recitations became widespread. They are Hafs, Warsh, and Duri. However, both

Warsh and Duri are giving way to Hafs, which is increasingly becoming

widespread because of the support and recognition it has in the contemporary

centres of Islamic learning. In particular, Al-Azhar in Cairo, Egypt; Islamic

287
University in Madinah, Saudi Arabia; Islamic University in Islamabad, Pakistan;

Centre for Islamic Studies of Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria;

and other Islamic centres have played a major role in promoting and

popularising the Hafs recitation. Al-Azhar as one of the oldest and most

prestigious Islamic institutions has played a key role in the promotion of the

Hafs recitation. Many scholars and Qur’an reciters have graduated from this

institution and have gone to spread the Hafs reading worldwide. The Islamic

University in Madinah has also been instrumental in promotion the Hafs

recitation through its Qur’anic studies programmes (Al-Azami, 2003; Ghalayini,

2009). Similarly, Usmanu Danfodiyo University’s Centre for Islamic Studies has

been influential in promoting the Hafs recitation, particularly in West Africa.

Furthermore, the annual international Qur'anic recitation competitions in Saudi

Arabia, Kuwait, Dubai in the United Arab Emirates, Egypt, Iran, Malaysia,

Indonesia, Turkey, Pakistan, and national competition in Nigeria have also been

a major factor in the growing popularity of the Hafs recitation. Even though all

ten recognised vocal methods of Qur’anic recitation (Qira'at) are showcased in

such competitions, the Hafs reading consistently emerges as the most

influential and prominent. This competition attracts reciters from around the

world and provides a platform for them to showcase their skills, promote the

Hafs reading, and to further spread the recitation to a wider audience. As a

result, the study of Qur'anic recitation has become an increasingly important

field of study in the field of Islamic sciences. 29

29
Even today, in every Muslim society, memorisers of the Qur'an are found. This is further confirmed by the annual
international competition of recitation of the Qur'an in Makkah, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Dubai, Jordan, Cairo, and
other places.

288
4.1.5 Writing Down of the Qur’an

The Qur'an, as indicated earlier, was revealed in piecemeal; whenever a verse

or verses were revealed, the Prophet (PBUH) would instruct some of his

Companions who could write to write them down, first while he was in Makkah

and then when he settled in Madinah.

The writings were done on skin, palm leaves, shoulder blades of sheep and

camels, skin of dead animals, thin white stone, and on pieces of wood. Soot

was used to make the ink for this purpose (Burton, 1977). The Companions who

were entrusted with writing down the Qur’an for the Prophet (PBUH) include

the following among others:

Table 4.5

Companions Entrusted with Writing Down the Qur’an

S/N Companion

1 Abubakar Siddiq

2 Umar bin Khattab

3 Usman bin Affan

4 Ali bin Abi Talib

5 Zaid bin Thabit

6 Ubayyi bin Ka’ab

7 Mu’awiyah bin Abi Sufyan

8 Yazid bin Abi Sufyan

9 Khalid bin Sa’id Bin Al-Aas

10 Hanzalah bin Ar Rabi’i

11 Az Zubair ibn Al-Awwam

289
12 Amir bin Shu’ubah

13 Abdullahi bin Riwahah

14 Khalid bin Al-Walid

15 Thabit bin Qais

Note. Adapted from Ar Rumi (1413: 84)

This continued until the death of the Prophet (PBUH), without the Qur’an being

compiled into a single book. Although the revelation was complete and its

compiled pieces were kept in the Prophet’s (PBUH) house, individual fragments

also existed with the Companions, many of whom had memorised it by heart.

Among the Companions who had completely memorised the Qur'an during

the lifetime of the Prophet (PBUH) were:

Table 4.6

Companions who Memorised the Qur'an Completely by Group

Name Group

Abubakar Siddiq Muhajirun

Umar bin Khattab Muhajirun

Usman ibn Affan Muhajirun

Ali bin Abi Talib Muhajirun

Talhah ibn Ubaydullah Muhajirun

Sa’ad ibn Abi Waqqas Muhajirun

Abdullahi bin Mas’ud Muhajirun

Hudhaifah ibn Al-Yaman Muhajirun

Saalim Maula Abi Hudhaifa Muhajirun

Abu Hurairah Muhajirun

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 Abdullahi bin Umar Muhajirun

Abdullahi bin Abbas Muhajirun

Amr bin Al-Aas Muhajirun

Abdullahi (Amr bin Al-Aas’ son) Muhajirun

Mu’awiyah bin Abi Sufyan Muhajirun

Abdullahi bin Zubair Muhajirun

Abdullahi bin As Saa'ib Muhajirun

Aisha bint Abubakar Muhajireen

Hafsah bint Umar Muhajireen

Ummu Salmah Muhajireen

Ubadah bin As-Samit Ansar

Ubayyi bin Ka'ab Ansar

Mu'azu bin Jabal Ansar

Zaid bin Thabit Ansar

Fadalah bin Ubaid Ansar

Muslamah Bin Mukhlid Ansar

Abu Ad Darda'i Ansar

Anas bin Malik Ansar

Abu Zaid Bin As Sakan Ansar

Note. Adapted from Ar Rumi (1413); Ibn Sa’d (1907); Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani (n.d.).

However, famous among the Companions in reciting the Qur'an were seven:

Usman bin Affan, Ali bin Abi Talib, Ubayyi bin Ka’ab, Zaid bin Thabit, Abdullahi

bin Mas’ud, Abu Ad Darda'i and Abu Musa Al-Ash’ari. All their recitations were

traceable to the Prophet (PBUH) (Al-Qattan, 1987: 170).

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The lack of compiling the Qur'an in a form of a book during the time of the

Prophet (PBUH) might be because there was no necessity for doing so: first,

the Prophet (PBUH) was alive and was the custodian of the Qur'an in his

heart, for he was never to forget it, as Allah says:

We shall gradually teach you the Qur'an and you shall not forget

it: By degrees shall We teach you (the Message) so you shall not

forget. We will have you recite [the Qur’an, O Prophet], so you

will not forget [any of it] (Qur’an 87:6).

Thus, if there was any problem, misunderstanding or disagreement among the

Companions concerning the reading or meaning of some Qur'anic verses, they

would quickly refer the matter to him for solution without having to refer to

their written pieces of revelation (Ar Rumi, 1413: 87). Second, during the

twenty-three years of the revelation, the verses and the chapters were neither

revealed sequentially nor arranged chronologically; writing the Qur'an or

arranging it in a form of a book would have been very difficult (Al-Qattan, 1987:

124; Ar Rumi, 1413: 87; Al-Zarkashi, 2009) for it would have entailed continuous

changes and rewriting of the Qur'an. For example, Chapter One in the Qur'an

was not the first to be revealed so also the last chapter was not the last to be

revealed. Similarly, the first verses of the Qur'an are not in the first chapter of

the Qur'an, so also the last verses are not in the last chapter of the Qur'an. At

times the middle verses of a chapter were revealed and later the beginning

and ending verses were revealed to complete the chapter.

For example, the first verse to be revealed in Chapter Nine (Surah at-Taubah)

was: “A declaration of disassociation by Allah and His Messenger to those

polytheists with whom you have made a treaty (Qur’an 9:1).” Later, the middle

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and the end of the chapter were revealed. Another reason was that the Prophet

(PBUH) was expecting more of the revelations. Yet, it should be noted that the

placement of all the verses and chapters of the Qur’an was directed by Angel

Jibril whenever a verse or verses were revealed.

However, after the death of the Prophet (PBUH), and the subsequent death of

many of the Companions who had memorised the Qur'an, urgent need arose

for writing down the Qur'an as a book for fear of forgetfulness and hence losing

it (Ar Rumi, 1413: 86; Burton, 1977).

4.1.6 Compilation of the Qur'an

After the death of the Prophet (PBUH), some tribes refused to recognise the

new Muslim leader, Abubakar Siddiq, arguing that the death of the Prophet

(PBUH) marked the end of the Message. Other tribes maintained that if the

Prophet (PBUH) was a true Messenger of Allah, he would not have died.

Additionally, others claimed prophethood and refused to pay Zakat to the new

leader (Lapidus, 1988; Madelung, 1996). The aim of these groups was to

destabilise the Islamic State under the new leadership of the successor of the

Prophet (PBUH). Consequently, Abubakar had to fight various groups to

maintain the unity and security of the Muslim community. These wars are known

as the wars of apostasy (Ridda Wars).

In the 12th year of Hijrah, during the battle of Yamamah30, about seventy

Companions who had memorised the Qur’an were martyred. Fearing the

Qur'an might be lost in the absence of the Prophet (PBUH) and the subsequent

30
The battle of Yamamah was between the Muslims and Banu Hanifat under Musailamat, who claimed
prophethood. He became known as the false prophet. About 1000 Muslims were martyred in the fight, out of
which 450 were memorisers of the Qur’an, including Saalin Maula Abi Khuzaifi.

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death of many who had memorised the Qur’an, Umar bin Khattab advised

Caliph Abubakar Siddiq, to compile the Qur’an into a book. The Caliph invited

the chief scribe of the Prophet (PBUH), Zaid bin Thabit31, and entrusted him

with the responsibility of compiling the Qur’an into a book (Sahih Al-Bukhari,

61: 509). He also provided guidelines to Zaid and Umar on gathering the

required verses and chapters of the Qur'an from the people, instructing them

to stay at the door of the mosque, ask Muslims if they had heard anything of

the Qur'an directly from the Prophet (PBUH) himself, and if so, to bring two

witnesses (Burton, 1977; Al-Azami, 2003).

While narrating this event, Zaid bin Thabit stated:

Abubakar As Siddiq sent for me when the people of Yamamah

had been killed (i.e., a number of the Prophet’s (PBUH)

Companions who fought against Musailama). (I went to him) and

found ‘Umar bin Khattab sitting with him. Abubakar (RA) then

said (to me) ‘Umar has come to me and said, " Casualties were

heavy among the Qurra' of the Qur'an (i.e., those who knew the

Qur'an by heart) on the day of the Battle of Yamamah, and I am

afraid that more heavy casualties may take place among the

Qurra' on other battlefields, whereby a large part of the Qur'an

may be lost. Therefore, I suggested you (Abubakar) order that

the Qur'an be collected." I said to ‘Umar, "How can you do

something which the Allah's Apostle (PBUH) did not do?" Umar

said, "By Allah, that is a good project." Umar kept on urging me

31
Zaid was given the responsibility of compiling the Qur'an into a single book for he was the foremost in writing
down the revelation for the Prophet; he was a memorizer himself of the Qur'an; and had read the Qur'an to the
Prophet twice in the year the Prophet died. Besides, he was very sensible, trustworthy, and religious (See Sahih
Al-Bukhari, Vol. 6, Hadith No. 520. Zaid died in the year 45 A.H.

294
to accept his proposal till Allah opened my chest for it and I

began to realise the good in the idea which Umar had realised."

Then Abubakar said (to me), 'You are a wise young man and we

do not have any suspicion about you, and you used to write the

Divine Inspiration for Allah's Apostle. So, you should search for

(the fragmentary scripts of) the Qur'an and collect it in one

book)." By Allah If they had ordered me to shift one of the

mountains, it would not have been heavier for me than this

ordering me to collect the Qur'an. Then I said to Abubakar,

"How will you do something which Allah's Apostle did not do?"

Abubakar replied, "By Allah, it is a good project." Abubakar

kept on urging me to accept his idea until Allah opened my

chest for what He had opened the chests of Abubakar and

'Umar. So, I started looking for the Qur'an and collecting it from

(what was written on) palmed stalks, thin white stones and also

from the men who knew it by heart, till I found the last Verse of

Surat At-Taubah (Repentance) with Abi Khuzaima Al-Ansari, and

I did not find it with anybody other than him (Sahih Al-Buhari,

4986). The Verse is: “Verily there has come unto you an Apostle

(Muhammad) from amongst yourselves. It grieves him that you

should receive any injury or difficulty. (✶) But if they turn away,

say (O Muhammad): “Allah sufficient for me. La ilaha illa Huwa

(none has the right to be worshipped but He) in Him I put my

trust and He is the Lord of the Mighty Throne. (✶) (Qur’an 9:128-

129).

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The complete manuscript of the Qur'an remained with Abubakar until his death

in the 13th year of the Hijah. It then passed to his successor, Umar, and upon

his death, it was kept by Hafsah, his daughter and one of the Prophet’s (PBUH)

widows32 (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 509). While fragments of the Qur'an were present

in the Prophet’s (PBUH) house and Zaid bin Thabit had memorised the Qur'an,

having recited it twice to the Prophet (PBUH) during the year of his death - Zaid

was tasked with cross-verifying the written parts at the Prophet’s (PBUH) house

with the memorisations and written parts held by other Companions (Burton,

1977). This process highlighted that the preservation of the Qur’an was a

collective effort, not limited to a single individual.

The situation continued until the Qur'an was recompiled for the second time

during the time of Caliph Usman bin Affan, the successor of Umar. Two events

necessitated this comprehensive effort: one in Madinah, the capital of the

Caliphate, and another outside it. In Madinah, variations in the recitation of the

Qur’an, permitted under the seven accepted readings, led to

misunderstandings and disagreements that sometimes escalated into open

quarrels. The problem started with children, who, having been taught by

specific dialectical readings by different teachers, brought these variations into

stark conflict (Burton, 1977; Ibn Al-Jazari, 1995; Al-Suyuti, 1996; Al-Jallad,

2018).

On reading the Qur'an in seven different ways, Abdullahi bin Abbas narrated

that Allah's Apostle (PBUH) said:

32
The copy of the Qur'an came to Hafsah because Umar (RA) did not nominate his successor before his death let
alone to hand him the copy of the Qur'an; he instead constituted an electoral college to select among itself his
successor. After his death the copy came to his daughter. When the new Caliph was selected, he did not ask
Hafsah to return the copy to him neither did Hafsah on her own return the copy to him. It remained with her until
her death, in the time of Caliph Marwan Bin Al-Hakam (d.65/685), who collected it and tored it (Ar Rumi 1413:
93).

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 Gabriel recited the Qur'an to me in one way. Then I requested

him (to read it in another way) and continued asking him to recite

it in other ways, and he recited it in several ways till he ultimately

recited it in seven different ways (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 513).

The seven ways originally allowed in the Qur’an’s recitation refer to the seven

“qira’at” (manner of reciting the Qur’an), each corresponding to different

transmission accepted within Islamic tradition. These are not merely dialectal

variations but encompass authorised methods of pronunciation and

vocalisation rooted in the oral transmission of the Qur’an. The recitations

include slight differences in word choice and pronunciation that were

historically linked to the different regions or tribes of the Arabs: Quraish, Huzail,

Tamimi, Thaqif, Hawaazin, Kinanah and Yamen (Al-Qattan 1987: 158; Al-Jallad,

2018). While these differences sometimes involve variant words, the core

meanings remain the same. The allowance of these variations aimed to

facilitate easier recitation and memorisation of the Qur'an by accommodating

the linguistic preferences of various tribes (Al-Qattan, 1987: 162-64; Ibn Al-

Jazari, 1995; Al-Suyuti, 1996; Al-Jallad, 2018). In other words, the varying Arab

tribes with their varying dialects were allowed to recite the Qur’an in their

various dialects for simplicity.

Narrating his experience on this issue, Umar bin Khattab (RA) said:

I heard Hisham Bin Hakim Bin Hizam reciting Suratul-Furqan

(Chapter 25) during the lifetime of Allah's Apostle (PBUH), and I

listened to his recitation and noticed that he recited it in several

ways which Allah's Apostle (PBUH) had not taught me. So, I was

on the point of attacking him in the prayer, but I waited till he

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 finished his prayer, and then I seized him by the collar and said:

'Who taught you this Surah which I have heard you reciting?' He

replied, 'Allah's Apostle (PBUH) taught it to me.' I said, 'You are

telling a lie, By Allah! Allah's Apostle (PBUH) taught me (in a

different way) this very Surah which I have heard you reciting.'

So, I took him, leading him to Allah's Apostle (PBUH) and said,

'O Allah's Apostle! I heard this person reciting Suratul-Furqan in

a way that you did not teach me, and you have taught me

Suratul-Furqan.' The Prophet (PBUH) said, 'O Hisham, recite!'

So, he recited in the same way as I heard him recite it before.

On that Allah's Apostle (PBUH) said, 'It was revealed to be

recited in this way.' Then Allah's Apostle (PBUH) said, 'Recite O

Umar!' So, I recited it as he had taught me. Allah's Apostle

(PBUH) then said, 'It was revealed to be recited in this way.'

Allah's Apostle (PBUH) added, ' The Qur'an has been revealed

to be recited in seven different ways, so recite of it that which is

easier for you' (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 561).

Similarly, Salman read the following verses to the Prophet (PBUH), and both

were accepted: "dhaalika bi anna minhum qissisiina wa ruhbaana." And

"dhaalika bi anna minhum siddiqina wa ruhbaana." Both qissisiina and

siddiqiina are synonymous and hence allowed. The first was reflected in the

compiled Qur'an, 5:82 (Von Denffer 1983: 114). Other examples in the seven

readings are: "Kal ‘ihnil manfuush" or "Kas Suufil manfuush." Both kal `ihnil

and kas Suufil are synonymous, meaning "like carded wool." The first reading

is reflected in the compiled Qur'an, 101:5. Furthermore, ihdinaa and arshidnaa

are synonymous, but ihdinaa is reflected in Qur’an, 1:6.

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As mentioned earlier, the problem started with children in Madinah, who

having learned specific dialectical readings from their teachers,

condemned those who read differently. The news reached the Caliph, who

expressed his dissatisfaction with the emerging divisions. He warned the

disputed party on the issue and called on the Companions of the Prophet

(PBUH) to address the challenge. The second event took place during the

Muslim conquests of Armenia and Azerbaijan, where Muslim armies from Sham

and Iraq were found to be calling one another names, such as infidels, on

account of differences in their recitation of the Qur'an, as it happened in

Madinah (Ar Rumi, 1413AH: 93, Von Denffer, 1983; Al-Azami, 2003).33 For

example, while some Muslims recited ihdinaa-siratal-mustaqim in Surah Al-

Fatiha (Quran 1:6), others recited it as arshidnaa-siratal-mustaqim. Similarly, in

Surah Al-Ikhlas (Quran 112:3), variations were noted between lam yalid wa lam

yulad and lam yulad wa lam yulid. Furthermore, many errors were observed in

the Qur'anic recitation among the Muslim ranks.

On seeing this, Huzaifah Bin Al-Yamani, witnessing the disputes firsthand on

the battlefield, urgently returned to Madinah. He briefed the Caliph about the

serious divisions taking root and warned that without intervention, Muslims

would be divided as the People of the Book were divided (Sahih Al-Bukhari:

510).

Already, Usman (RA) had a similar problem at hand in Madinah. To this extent,

he invited some Companions and sought their opinions on what should be

33
Various reading of the Qur'an spread with the spread of the companions into other areas of Muslim Caliphate.
The companions taught their followers the reading of the Qur'an from the seven ways of reading the Qur'an
granted them by the Prophet. In this way, the people of Sham were reading the Qur'an from the reading of Ubayyi
Bin Ka`ab while the people of Iraq were reading on the reading of Abdullahi Bin Mas`ud. The followers of Ibn
Mas`ud would read something which the followers of Ibn Ka`ab did not hear at all and both began to call one
another names, such as infidels (Ar Rumi 1413: 93).

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done. His view was that people should be united on one language without any

division or disagreement in their reading. The Companions supported the idea

(Ar Rumi 1413: 96) and Usman appointed a committee to recompile the Qur'an

once more. The committee, under the chairmanship of Zaid bin Thabit,

included the following Companions: Abdullahi bin Zubair, Sa’eed bin Al–As,

Abdur–Rahman bin Harith bin Hisham. While Zaid was Al-Ansari (from

Madinah), the other three were Quraysh (from Makkah). The Caliph requested

Hafsah, the daughter of Umar to send him the copy of the Qur'an with her,

compiled during the time of Abubakar (RA) so that it could be copied by the

committee he had appointed. After the completion of the work in the 25th year

of Hijrah, her copy was returned to her (Burton, 1977; Von Denffer, 1983;

Esposito, 1999; Al-Azami, 2003).

In this compilation, only one mode of reading was written, although reflecting

the vocabularies of the seven various tribes. That is instead of reciting, for

example, ihdinas Siradal mustaqiim on one occasion and reading arshidinas

Siratal mustaqiim in another, only one was allowed, and in this case ihdinas

Siradal mustaqiim is accepted in the compilation of Usman. Yet, the word

arshada is also accepted in other context as opposed to other words. Although

all the seven dialects were reflected in this compilation, the Quraish dialects is

the most prominent for the Qur'an was first revealed in it (Sahih Al-Bukhari:

507). Whereas before this compilation, people were allowed to read the Qur'an

in several ways, now only one way was permitted. The new compiled Qur'an

was meant to serve as the standard reading.

The basic difference between the compilation of Usman and Abubakar is that

while the later incorporated all the seven dialectical readings to preserve the

Qur'an from getting lost, the former limited the seven dialectical reading to

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one, to avoid disunity among the Muslims (Burton, 1977; Al-Jallad, 2018). By

these actions of Abubakar and Usman (RA), the Qur'an has been preserved and

protected from corruption and alteration. Allah has already promised to protect

his book: “Verily We: It is We Who have sent down the Dhikr (i.e., the Qur'an)

and surely, We will guard it (from corruption)” Qur’an (15:9).34

Several copies were made and sent to the following cities: Makkah, Damascus

(Syria), Sanaa (Yemen), Kufa (Iraq), Basra (Iraq) and a copy remained in Madinah

(Abu Khalil, 2001).35 Along with each copy, the Caliph sent a suitable person to

read it to people. The purpose was to preserve uniformity in the reading of the

Qur'an. The Makkan copy to be read by Abdullahi Bin As Saa'ib Al-Makhzumi36;

Damascus copy by Al Mughirah Bin Shi'haab; Kufan copy by Abu Abdur

Rahman As Salami; Basran copy by ’Amr Bin Abdul Qais and Madinan copy by

Zaid Bin Thabit (Ar Rumi 1413AH: 102). The existing copies of the Qur'an were

burnt on the order of the Caliph. This way, the followers learnt the reading of

the Qur'an from the appointed reciters of their areas, and some became

specialists in the art of reading the Qur'an and made some contributions

towards learning it.

4.1.7 Development of Qur'anic Writing

The initial writings of the Qur'an were vowelless and dotless, lacking diacritical

mark. This aimed to preserve the language and its originality, as well as to

prevent misinterpretations. However, with the expansion of the Islamic state,

the mixing of Arabs with non-Arabs, and the consequent influence of other

34
This indeed is one of the greatest miracles of the Qur'an: for over 1,400 years since its revelation, nothing has
changed in it. No additions or subtractions, or edition or new or old versions.
35
Today, there are two original copies of the Qur'an left, since the time of Usman, while others are lost. The two
are available at Tashkent (Uzbekistan) and Istanbul (Turkey).
36
He had studied the reading of Ubayyi.

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languages on Arabic, reading of the Qur’an became prone to distortion, and

grammatical errors became inevitable. This was first noticed in Basrah, where

a Muslim read the Qur'an incorrectly, altering the intended meaning (Von

Denffer, 1983; Al-Jallad, 2018). Examples of verses without vowels and

diacritical marks demonstrate how easily misinterpretations can occur without

the proper marks. Therefore, it is essential that the Qur'an is read with the

appropriate vowels and diacritical marks to ensure the accurate transmission of

the divine message.

To preserve the accuracy of the Qur’an and prevent distortion, scholars added

diacritical marks (dots) and vowels to the existing copies of the Qur’an. Abul

Aswad Ad-Du’ali (d. 688AD) was the pioneer in this field, putting dots on the

alphabets to serve as vowels (Jeffery, 1938; Al-Jallad, 2018). This effort aimed

to facilitate proper pronunciation of the Qur'anic verses. The system was further

improved during the time of Caliph Abdul Malik Bin Marwan (65-85 AH/ 685-

705AD), when the Umayyad Governor Hajjaj Bin Yusuf instructed students of

Abul Aswad, Nasir Bin Aasim and Yahya Bin Ya ‘mur, to place dots on specific

letters to distinguish them from dots that served as vowels. The letters were

Ba, Ta, Tha; Ja, Ha and Kha; Da and Tha; Ra and Za; Sa and Sha; Sa and Dha;

Ta and Zha; A and gha; Fa and Qa. Subsequently, Khalil bin Ahmad invented

vowels to replace the existing dots used as vowels, which were also written in

colours to differentiate them from ordinary dots (Versteegh, 2014; Al-Jallad,

2018). This significantly improved the Qur’an’s writing and removed any

confusion surrounding the vocalisation. Subsequent scholars contributed to the

writing of the Qur’an, further developing it into its current form.

The Qur’an's writing has undergone enhancement and improvements, but its

recitation (reading) has not experienced any development or improvement

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since the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) received it, as the recitation is

considered sacred and forbidden to be changed. Changes and improvement

in the writing of the Qur’an do not affect its unchangeable nature, as it was

revealed orally to the Prophet (PBUH) and not in writing. The Prophet (PBUH)

himself did not know how to read or write. The Qur’an was both written and

memorised by heart by his Companions. It is worth noting that if a better way

of making people read the Qur’an arises, there is nothing wrong with updating

the existing writing, as there is no evidence to show that the way the Qur’an

was written during the time of Usman (RA) should be maintained for ever.

Today, there is a need for such a revision, as the number of people embracing

Islam worldwide is increasing, and Qur'anic spelling may differ from what

people typically read in other books, newspapers, and other written materials.

Some verses of the Qur'an have already been transliterated into many

languages, using Latinised letters to facilitate reading by new Muslims. As long

as the changes or improvements to the writing of the Qur’an do not contradict

its unchangeable nature and make it more accessible to new Muslims, there is

nothing wrong with making revisions. However, such revision would require

consensus among the Ulama worldwide, as there is no single Muslim leader for

all Muslims today. This would, among other things, help to build greater

consensus within a complex Muslim Ummah of today and further help to

improve on the study of the Arabic language.

4.1.8 Arrangement of the Qur’an

Qur’an has been revealed and organised into verses and chapters. Each

chapter has a title. It contains 330,733 letters, 77,845 words, and 6,236 verses

within 114 chapters as follows:

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Table 4.7

The 114 Chapters of the Glorious Qur’an

Chapter Name Place of Order of Verses

Revelation Revelation

1 Al-Fatiha Makkah 5 7

2 Al-Baqarah Madinah 87 286

3 Al-Imran Madinah 89 200

4 An-Nisa Madinah 92 176

5 Al-Ma'idah Madinah 112 120

6 Al-An'am Makkah 55 165

7 Al-A'raf Makkah 39 206

8 Al-Anfal Madinah 88 75

9 At-Tawbah Madinah 113 129

10 Yunus Makkah 51 109

11 Hud Makkah 52 123

12 Yusuf Makkah 53 111

13 Ar-Rad Madinah 96 43

14 Ibrahim Makkah 72 52

15 Al-Hijr Makkah 54 99

16 An-Nahl Makkah 70 128

17 Al-Isra Makkah 50 111

18 Al-Kahf Makkah 69 110

19 Maryam Makkah 44 98

20 Ta-Ha Makkah 45 135

304
21 Al-Anbiya Makkah 73 112

22 Al-Hajj Madinah 103 78

23 Al-Mu'minun Makkah 74 118

24 An-Nur Madinah 102 64

25 Al-Furqan Makkah 42 77

26 Ash-Shu'ara' Makkah 47 227

27 An-Naml Makkah 48 93

28 Al-Qasas Makkah 49 88

29 Al-Ankabut Makkah 85 69

30 Ar-Rum Makkah 84 60

31 Luqman Makkah 57 34

32 As-Sajda Makkah 75 30

33 Al-Ahzab Madinah 90 73

34 Saba' Makkah 58 54

35 Fatir Makkah 43 45

36 Ya-Sin Makkah 41 83

37 As-Saffat Makkah 56 182

38 Sad Makkah 38 88

39 Az-Zumar Makkah 59 75

40 Ghafir Makkah 60 85

41 Fussilat Makkah 61 54

42 Ash-Shura Makkah 62 53

43 Az-Zukhruf Makkah 63 89

44 Ad-Dukhan Makkah 64 59

45 Al-Jathiyah Makkah 65 37

305
46 Al-Ahqaf Makkah 66 35

47 Muhammad Madinah 91 38

48 Al-Fath Madinah 22 29

49 Al-Hujurat Madinah 109 18

50 Qaf Makkah 67 45

51 Adh-Dhariyat Makkah 76 60

52 At-Tur Makkah 23 49

53 An-Najm Makkah 37 62

54 Al-Qamar Makkah 97 55

55 Ar-Rahman Madinah 76 78

56 Al-Waqi'a Makkah 95 96

57 Al-Hadid Madinah 101 29

58 Al-Mujadila Madinah 92 22

59 Al-Hashr Madinah 100 24

60 Al-Mumtahanah Madinah 93 13

61 As-Saff Madinah 98 14

62 Al-Jumu'ah Madinah 64 11

63 Al-Munafiqun Madinah 62 11

64 At-Taghabun Madinah 66 18

65 At-Talaq Madinah 104 12

66 At-Tahrim Madinah 108 12

67 Al-Mulk Makkah 77 30

68 Al-Qalam Makkah 2 52

69 Al-Haqqah Makkah 78 52

70 Al-Ma'arij Makkah 79 44

306
71 Nuh Makkah 71 28

72 Al-Jinn Makkah 40 28

73 Al-Muzzammil Makkah 3 20

74 Al-Muddaththir Makkah 4 56

75 Al-Qiyamah Makkah 31 40

76 Al-Insan Madinah 32 31

77 Al-Mursalat Makkah 33 50

78 An-Naba Makkah 80 40

79 An-Nazi'at Makkah 81 46

80 Abasa Makkah 24 42

81 At-Takwir Makkah 7 29

82 Al-Infitar Makkah 82 19

83 Al-Mutaffifin Makkah 86 36

84 Al-Inshiqaq Makkah 83 25

85 Al-Buruj Makkah 27 22

86 At-Tariq Makkah 36 17

87 Al-A'la Makkah 8 19

88 Al-Ghashiyah Makkah 68 26

89 Al-Fajr Makkah 10 30

90 Al-Balad Makkah 35 20

91 Ash-Shams Makkah 26 15

92 Al-Lail Makkah 9 21

93 Ad-Duha Makkah 11 11

94 Ash-Sharh Makkah 12 8

95 At-Tin Makkah 28 8

307
 96 Al-Alaq Makkah 1 19

97 Al-Qadr Makkah 25 5

98 Al-Bayyinah Madinah 100 8

99 Al-Zalzalah Makkah 93 8

100 Al-Adiyat Makkah 14 11

101 Al-Qari'ah Makkah 30 11

102 At-Takathur Makkah 16 8

103 Al-Asr Makkah 13 3

104 Al-Humazah Makkah 17 9

105 Al-Fil Makkah 18 5

106 Quraysh Makkah 6 4

107 Al-Ma'un Makkah 15 7

108 Al-Kawthar Makkah 19 3

109 Al-Kafirun Makkah 20 6

110 An-Nasr Madinah 110 3

111 Al-Masad Makkah 21 5

112 Al-Ikhlas Makkah 14 4

113 Al-Falaq Makkah 25 5

114 An-Nas Makkah 27 6

Note. Compiled from Nasr (2015).

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Table 4.8

List of the Glorious Qur’an Chapters Organised by Topics

S/N Topic Chapter English

1 Al-Fatiha The Opening

2 The Two Bright Lights Al-Baqarah The Cow

3 Al-Imran The Family of Imran

4 The Law-Giving Chapters An-Nisa The Women

5 Al-Ma'idah The Table Spread

6 Al-An'am The Cattle

7 Al-A'raf The Heights

8 The Chapters of Struggle Al-Anfal The Spoils of War

9 At-Tawbah The Repentance

10 The Teaching Chapters Yunus Jonah

11 Hud Hud

12 Yusuf Joseph

13 Ar-Rad The Thunder

14 Ibrahim Abraham

15 Al-Hijr The Rocky Tract

16 An-Nahl The Bee

17 Spiritual Journey of the Al-Isra The Night Journey

Prophets

18 Al-Kahf The Cave

19 Maryam Mary

20 Ta-Ha Ta-Ha

21 Al-Anbiya The Prophets

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22 Learning to Worship Al-Hajj The Pilgrimage

Allah

23 Al-Mu'minun The Believers

24 An-Nur The Light

25 Al-Furqan The Criterion

26 Stories of the Past Ash-Shu'ara' The Poets

27 An-Naml The Ant

28 Al-Qasas The Stories

29 Al-Ankabut The Spider

30 What is the End Result? Ar-Rum The Romans

31 Luqman Luqman

32 As-Sajda The Prostration

33 Proving the Faith Al-Ahzab The Combined

Forces

34 Saba' Sheba

35 Fatir The Originator

36 Ya-Sin Ya-Sin

37 As-Saffat Those who set

Ranks

38 Sad The Letter Sad

39 Az-Zumar The Troops

40 The Family of the Seven Ghafir The Forgiver

Ha Meems

41 Fussilat Explained in Detail

42 Ash-Shura The Consultation

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43 Az-Zukhruf The Gold

Adornments

44 Ad-Dukhan The Smoke

45 Al-Jathiyah The Crouching

46 Al-Ahqaf The Wind-Curved

Sandhills

47 Prophetic Leadership Muhammad Muhammad

48 Al-Fath The Victory

49 Al-Hujurat The Rooms

50 Nature is the Proof of Qaf The Letter Qaf

Allah

51 Adh-Dhariyat The Winnowing

Winds

52 At-Tur The Mount

53 An-Najm The Star

54 Al-Qamar The Moon

55 Ar-Rahman The Beneficent

56 Al-Waqi'a The Inevitable

57 Practical Matters Al-Hadid The Iron

58 Al-Mujadila The Pleading

Woman

59 Al-Hashr The Exile

60 Al-Mumtahanah She that is to be

examined

61 As-Saff The Ranks

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62 Al-Jumu'ah The Congregation

63 Al-Munafiqun The Hypocrites

64 At-Taghabun Mutual Disillusion

65 At-Talaq The Divorce

66 At-Tahrim The Prohibition

67 The Beautiful Poems Al-Mulk The Sovereignty

68 Al-Qalam The Pen

69 Al-Haqqah The Reality

70 Al-Ma'arij The Ascending

Stairways

71 Nuh Noah

72 Al-Jinn The Jinn

73 Al-Muzzammil The Enshrouded

One

74 Al-Muddaththir The Cloaked One

75 Al-Qiyamah The Resurrection

76 Al-Insan Man

77 Al-Mursalat Those sent forth

78 An-Naba The Tidings

79 An-Nazi'at Those who drag

forth

80 Abasa He frowned

81 At-Takwir The Overthrowing

82 Al-Infitar The Cleaving

83 Al-Mutaffifin Defrauding

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84 Al-Inshiqaq The Splitting Open

85 Al-Buruj The Mansions

86 At-Tariq The Morning Star

87 Al-A'la The Most High

88 Al-Ghashiyah The Overwhelming

89 Al-Fajr The Dawn

90 Al-Balad The City

91 Ash-Shams The Sun

92 Al-Lail The Night

93 Ad-Duha The Morning Hours

94 Ash-Sharh The Relief

95 The Rhythmic Chapters At-Tin The Fig

96 Al-Alaq The Clot

97 Al-Qadr The Power

98 Al-Bayyinah The Clear Evidence

99 Al-Zalzalah The Earthquake

100 Al-Adiyat The Chargers

101 Al-Qari'ah The Striking Hour

102 At-Takathur The Piling Up

103 Al-Asr The Time

104 Al-Humazah The Slanderer

105 Al-Fil The Elephant

106 Quraysh Quraysh

107 Al-Ma'un Small Kindnesses

108 Al-Kawthar Abundance

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 109 Al-Kafirun The Disbelievers

110 An-Nasr The Help

111 Al-Masad The Palm Fiber

112 Al-Ikhlas The Sincerity

113 The Two Chapters of Al-Falaq The Daybreak

Protection

114 An-Nas The Mankind

Note. Adapted from Emerick (2011).

4.1.8.1 Long and Short Chapters

The Qur’an is a remarkable book composed of 114 Surahs (chapters) of various

lengths and styles. Each chapter, with the exception of Chapter Nine, begins

with the Basmala, “In the name of Allah, the Most Beneficent, the Most

Merciful.” The chapters range from the longest, Surah al-Baqarah (Chapter

Two), with 286 verses to the shortest, Surah al-Kauthar (Chapter 108),

containing only three verses. The long chapters were all revealed in Madinah

(Madinan Chapters), with the exception of a few Makkan chapters, notably

Surah al-An'am (Chapter Six) and Surah al-A'raf (Chapter Seven). The chapters

can be divided into three groups: long chapters (from Chapter Two to Chapter

Seventy-Eight); medium chapters (from Chapter Seventy-Eight to Chapter

Ninety-Three); and short chapters (from Chapter Ninety-Three to Chapter 114,

including Chapter One). Each chapter has unique themes, styles, and lessons,

making the Qur’an an incredible work that speaks to every age and situation.

Qur’anic verses revealed in Makkah and Madinah exhibit clear differences. In

Makkah, the Qur’anic verses tend to be short with similar rhythmic. This is due

to the short surahs that were revealed there. Longer surahs were also revealed,

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but they still had verses with similar rhythmic endings. In Madinah, the Qur’anic

verses were mostly longer, with a few exceptions of short verses. These longer

verses tended to be more detailed and explanatory, expounding upon the

verses revealed in Makkah, providing more depth and detail to the Qur’an’s

message.

For simplicity of reading and memorisation, the Qur’an has been further

divided into seven parts, known as Manazil, enabling readers to read the entire

Qur'an in seven days. The Manazil encompasses all 114 chapters of the Qur’an,

from Chapter 1 to Chapter 114, with each Manazil consisting of approximately

16 to 20 chapters. Additionally, the recitation of each one can be completed in

one day, allowing readers to gain a comprehensive understanding of the text

in a shorter amount of time. Beginning with Surah al-Fatihah, which is the

Introduction of the Qur’an, then the first Manzil consists of four surahs (Al-

Fatihah, Al-Baqarah, Al Imran, and Al-Nisa), the second Manzil (Al-Ma’idah to

Al-Tawbah) consists of five surahs, the third Manzil (Yunus to Al-Nahl) consists

of seven surahs, the fourth Manzil (Al-Isra to Al-Furqan) consists of nine surahs,

the fifth Manzil (Al-Shu’ara to Ya Sin) consists of eleven surahs, the sixth Manzil

(Al-Saffat to Al-Hujurat) consists of thirteen surahs and the seventh Manzil (Qaf

to Al-Nas) consists of sixty-five surahs. To further streamline its reading and to

make it easier for Muslims to read the whole Qur'an within a month, the Qur'an

has been divided into thirty segments, known as Juz'i. Each Juz’i is further

divided into two sections, called Hizb, and each Hizb is then divided into four

units. The Qur’an is thus divided into 240 units, or 60 Hizb or 30 Juz’i, or seven

Manazil.

The arrangement of the verses is not chronological. Whenever a verse or verses

were revealed, the Prophet (PBUH) would inform his Companions and the

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scribes of the chapter in which the verses should be placed. For example, the

first few verses of the Qur’an are in Chapter Ninety-six, while the last verses are

in Chapter Two.

4.1.8.2 Topics

The chapters of the Qur’an are not based on specific topics. Some chapters

contain a number of topics while others contain limited topics. The subject

matter of the Qur’an is guidance to human beings on how they would be

successful here in this world and the world after. It is not an academic book, a

book of science or a book of philosophy, but it contains the methodology for

academic research, scientific facts, and philosophical postulations. It is even

more than that; it is a Book of guidance in which nothing is neglected, and

everything is explained:

And We have sent down to you the Book explaining all things,

a guide a Mercy, and glad tidings to Muslims (Qur’an 16:89).

We have neglected nothing in the Book (Qur’an 6:38).

4.1.8.3 Style

The style of writing is distinct from all other styles of writing and is known as

the Qur’anic style. The Qur’an is the only book that has remained unchanged

for centuries, and its style of writing has been influential in many different

aspects of Islamic literature. This style of writing is meant to emphasise the

importance of the main message of the Qur’an and to ensure that it is easy to

understand and remember. Another unique feature of the Qur’an is that it

contains many stories and parables which are meant to illustrate a moral point.

These stories are often brief, but they are effective in conveying the message

of the Qur’an.

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The style of writing in the Qur’an is also very poetic and is often compared to

that of Arabic poetry. The Qur’an often uses metaphors, similes, and other

literary devices to convey its message. The language of the Qur’an is often very

beautiful and is filled with imagery and symbolism. The Qur’an also emphasises

the use of repetition to emphasise certain ideas and to make it easier to

remember the message. The Qur’an also contains many terms and concepts

which are unique to Islam. These terms and concepts are often difficult to

understand and are meant to be studied and meditated upon in order to get

a deeper understanding of their meaning and implications. This is why many

Muslims spend a great deal of time studying the Qur’an and its style of writing.

4.1.8.4 Prose and Rhythmics

Most of the verses of the Qur’an are of prose, with a few being rhythmical.

When these rhythmic verses are translated into another language, their

rhythmical beauty is mostly lost. The rhythmical verses were revealed in Makkah

–– the Makkan Chapters, corresponding to the nature of the people and their

circumstances; the Arabs were known for their eloquence, and this is

showcased in most of their poetry. The rhythmical verses of the Qur’an end in

a certain rhythm, further emphasising the poetic beauty.

4.1.8.5 Repetition

The repetition of certain verses within the Qur’an is a common practice, and it

serves to further explain the meaning of certain commands, to provide a

detailed account on the given issue, to remind believers of certain topics, or to

adhere to certain arrangements that are present in some chapters of the

Qur’an. In particular, the repetition of certain verses is often used for stylistic

reasons, or to conform with certain arrangements. By using repetition, the

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Qur’an is able to emphasise certain messages and ensure that readers are

repeatedly exposed to certain ideas. This repetition can also make certain

passages easier to remember, making it easier to recall important information.

In this way, repetition can be seen as an effective teaching tool that is used to

ensure that believers are able to grasp and retain important concepts and

ideas. The following chapters have a repetition of some verses: (Qur’an 55) Ar–

Rahman: “Then which of the favours of your Lord will you deny?” (Qur’an 77)

Al Mursalat: “Ah woe, that Day, to the Rejecters of Truth!” And (Qur’an 54)

Qamar: “But how (terrible) was My Penalty and My Warning?” Repetition is also

seen in some stories or on other matters transcending from chapter to chapter.

For example, the name of Prophet Musa appeared in 34 chapters of the

Qur’an.

4.1.8.6 Commentary of the Qur’an

In the time of the Prophet (PBUH), there was no written explanation (exegesis)

or commentary of the Qur’an. As the Qur’an was revealed in the language of

the Prophet’s (PBUH) people –– Arabic – the meaning of the verses was usually

clear to them. However, when there were verses that were not easily

understood, the Prophet (PBUH) would explain them to the people. In the time

of the Companions, there was still no written explanation of the Qur’an, but

they did their best to explain it orally to people and their students in the light

of what they had heard from the Prophet (PBUH) and their knowledge of the

causes of revelation and the location of the revelation (Burman, 1998; Dutton,

1999; Gilliot, 2010). Much of the effort of the Companions in this regard was

focused on the reasons and places of revelation, as well as on abrogation of

certain verses.

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Among the Companions of the Prophet (PBUH), four were renowned in the

knowledge of commentary and interpretation of the Qur’an: Ali bin Abi Talib,

Ibn Abbas, Ibn Mas’ood and Ubayyi Bin Ka’ab (Gilliot, 2010). Ali bin Abi Talib

used to say: "Ask me about the Book of Allah, and I swear there is no verse in

the Book of Allah which I do not know when it was revealed, whether at the

night or day time" (Al-Qattan 1987: 182). In the same vein, Abdullahi bin

Mas’ud used to say: “By Allah other than Whom none has the right to be

worshipped! There is no Sura revealed in Allah's Book but I know at what place

it was revealed; and there is no verse revealed in Allah's Book but I know about

whom it was revealed. And if I know that there is somebody who knows Allah's

Book better than me, and he is at a place that camels can reach, I will go to

him” (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 488).

The Companions transmitted the knowledge of commentary of the Qur’an to

their students (the successors) who also played a key role in preserving and

transmitting this knowledge. These successors not only served as teachers to

their own students, the jurists, but also wrote down their own commentaries,

thereby laying the foundations for the codification of Hadith in 99AH (Dutton,

1999; Gilliot, 2010). This marked the beginning of the written tradition of the

interpretation of the Qur’an, with notable works including those of Yazid bin

Haarun as Sulmi (d. 117 AH), Shu'ubah bin Alhajjaj (d. 160 AH), Wakii'u bin

Aljaraah (d. 197 AH), Sufyan bin Uyainah bin Hamaam As Sau'aaniyyu (d. 211

AH) and few others (Ar Rumi, 1413: 40-41).

However, it was not until in the beginning of the 2nd century of Hijrah, when

codification of different branches of knowledge were embarked upon that

study of Qur’an became independent subject of study, distinct from Hadith.

This period saw the emergence of major Qur’an commentators, each verse was

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explained and interpreted (Neuwirth, 2006), for the Islamic State was in dire

need of such guidance following the increasing number of non-Arabs in the

fold of Islam. Famous among those who have written commentaries of the

Qur'an in the period were:

Table 4.9

Notable Qur'an Commentators and Their Works

Scholar Death (AH) Notable Works

Ibn Majah 273

Muhammad ibn Jarir at Tabari 310 Jami’ al Bayan an Ta’wil

Aay al Qur’an

Abubakar Bin Al Mundhir An 318

Nasaaburiyyu

Ibn Abi Hatim 327

Ibn Habban 369

Hakim 405

Ibn Mardawayh 410

Jarullah Mahmud ibn Umar al 538

Zamarkhshir

Fakhr al-Din Muhammad ibn 606 Mafatih al Ghayb, Al-

Umar ibn Husayin al-Razi al- Tafsir al-Kabir

Tabarstani

Muhammad ibn Ahmad al- 671 Al-Jami’ li Ahkam al-

Qurdubi Qur’an

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 Nasir al-Din Abu Sa’id Abdullah 685 Anwar al-Tanzil wa Asrar

ibn Umar ibn Muhammad al- al-Ta’awil

Baydawi

Ismail Imad al-Din ibn Umar ibn 774 Tafsir al-Qur’an al-Azim

Kathir al-Dimashqi
Note. From Ar Rumi (1413: 14).

Of all these commentaries, that of at Tabari is widely regarded as the first to be

available to people and the main reference to the study of commentary of the

Qur'an (Burman, 1998). It is necessary for Muslims to try to understand the

meaning of the Qur’an and to reflect on its message. To this end, various

exegetes have developed sophisticated methods of Qur’anic interpretation

and hermeneutical tools for extracting the deeper message of the Qur’an.

Furthermore, the commentaries of the Qur’an have provided an invaluable

resource for the study of Islamic theology and jurisprudence:

(This is) a Book which We have revealed unto you (O

Muhammad PBUH) in order that you might lead mankind out of

darkness (of disbelief and polytheism) into light (of belief in the

Oneness of Allah and Islamic Monotheism) by their Lord's leave

to the Path of the All-Mighty, the Owner of all Praise (Qur’an

14:1).

This is a blessed Book that We have sent down to you [O

Prophet] so that they may reflect upon its verses, and so that

people of understanding may take heed (Qur’an 38:29).

It should also be noted that some Qur’anic verses require an understanding of

their context in order to be fully understood. This is especially true in verses

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which contain words with multiple meanings, depending on the context in

which they are used. In the same vein, there are some verses in the story of

Prophet Musa and the Jews which cannot be clearly understood without

knowing the context. For example, the verse in the story of Prophet Musa (AS)

and the Jews, where he was asked to place his palm beneath his armpit and to

bring it forth “without any harm or illness” (Qur’an 20:22), can only be

understood when one is familiar with the context of the verse. Without this

knowledge, the full meaning of the verse is lost. Thus, a deep and thorough

understanding of the Qur’an requires knowledge of the context in which its

verses were revealed.

Similarly, knowing the Arabic language is not enough to fully comprehend the

meaning or commentary of the Qur’an. It requires further understanding of

some basic rules which include knowledge about the reasons for revelation,

abrogated and abrogating verses, general and specific injunction, categorical

and uncategorical, what the Prophet (PBUH) said about the revelation of certain

chapters and verses, what are the interpretation of the Companions of the

Prophet (PBUH) about certain chapters and verses and knowing also that some

verses are explained by other verses.

However, understanding the message of the Qur'an is not necessarily

dependent on direct knowledge of the Arabic language. What is necessary is

understanding the message. Whereas some have endeavoured to understand

the message through learning the language, as is evident in all Muslim

societies, others have been content with the translation of the message, as it

has been translated into different languages. The King Fahad Printing Press has

published 55 different translations of the Qur'an in 76 languages. In addition

to translations, many Islamic scholars have provided commentaries and

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explanations of the Qur’an in different languages, allowing those without

access to Arabic to understand its message. These commentaries, along with

the other Qur’anic sciences, such as Usul al-Tafsir, provide an in-depth

understanding of the Qur’an, which is sometimes not attainable through

translation alone. Consequently, understanding the Qur’an does not

necessarily require knowledge of the Arabic language, but rather an

appreciation of its message.

4.1.8.6.1 Sources of Commentary of the Qur’an

In brief, the following are the sources of the commentary of the Qur’an:

1. The Qur’an itself, which provides self-explanatory verses and those which

explain other verses.

2. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), his life, provides explanations and

interpretations of the Qur’an, as Aisha (RA), the mother of the faithful

explains: his life serves as a living embodiment of the Qur’an.

3. The sayings and teachings of the companions of the Prophet (PBUH),

especially the learned among them, as they were the first to hear and

experience the revelations of the Qur’an.

4. The sayings of the followers of the Companions who inherited their

knowledge and understanding of the Qur’an.

5. The meanings of words as they relate to Arabic language and Islamic law,

with the latter being given precedence in cases of conflict, unless there

are strong reasons to support the meaning as it pertains to language

and not law, it then would override the law (Uthaymeen, n.d: 29).

In addition to these sources, there are other sources of commentary of the

Qur’an such as:

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1. Scholarly consensus (ijma), which is the agreement of all qualified scholars

on a particular issue based on the Qur’an and Sunnah.

2. Analogical deduction (Qiyas), which is the process of drawing a conclusion

from two similar cases.

3. Reasoning by analogy (Istihsan), which is the process of preferring a ruling

based on public interest or custom.

4. The process of juristic preference (Istislah), which is the process of choosing

the ruling which is in the best interest of the society.

5. The process of Istikharah, which is the process of seeking divine guidance

in making a decision.

4.1.9 Gradual Legislation in the Qur’an

The revelation of the Qur’an was gradual for various reasons and in the same

vein, the legislation in the Qur'an was gradual, beginning with the issues of the

belief system, morality, and setting the groundwork for the spiritual and ethical

development of the early Muslim community before the Hijrah of the Prophet

(PBUH) from Makkah to Madinah (Sahih Al-Bukhari). To further understand the

specifics of this gradual development, the following will provide some insight:

1. Monotheism (Tawheed): The affirmation of the oneness of Allah. Believers

were called to worship Allah alone and reject idolatry: Surah Al-Ikhlas

(Chapter 112), Surah Al-Falaq (Chapter 113), and Surah An-Nas

(Chapter 114).

2. Afterlife and Resurrection: The reality of the life after death, resurrection,

and the Day of Judgment. These teachings countered the prevalent

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 disbelief in the afterlife among the Quraysh of Makkah: Surah Al-Qari'ah

(Chapter 101) and Surah At-Takwir (Chapter 81).

3. Prophethood: The concept of Prophethood and the historical accounts of

previous Prophets who were sent to guide their people: Surah Yusuf

(Chapter 12) which details the story of Prophet Yusuf (Joseph) and Surah

An-Naml (Chapter 27) which touches upon Prophet Sulaiman (Solomon)

and others.

4. Morality and Ethics: The high moral and ethical standards. These verses

encouraged honesty, patience, kindness to parents, and charity while

condemning negative traits such as arrogance and lying: Surah Al-

Hujurat (Chapter 49) which focuses on social etiquettes and moral

standards.

5. Prayer (Salah): Even before the five daily prayers were made obligatory

during the Prophet's (PBUH) night journey (Isra and Mi'raj) which

happened before the Hijrah, Muslims were encouraged to pray and

remember Allah (prayer like in Surah Muzzammil (Chapter 73)).

6. Charity (Zakat): The concept of giving to the needy was emphasised, even

before the obligatory Zakat system was established in Madinah: Surah

Al-Ma'un (Chapter 107) condemns those who repel the orphan and do

not urge the feeding of the poor.

7. Patience and Perseverance (Sabr): Given the persecution that the early

Muslim community faced in Makkah, verses were revealed to encourage

patience and perseverance in the face of adversity: Surah Ash-Sharh

(Chapter 94) and Surah Ad-Duha (Chapter 93) provide consolation and

encouragement to the Prophet (PBUH).

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8. Rejection of Pagan Practices: The countering of various superstitious and

pagan practices of the Quraysh (Surah Al-Fil (Chapter 105)) which

recounts the event of the army of Abraha attempting to attack the

Ka’abah.

9. Tales of Ancient Civilisations: The mentioning of past nations and their

downfall due to their disobedience to Allah, serving as a warning to the

Quraysh (Stories of 'Ad and Thamud in Surah Al-A'raf (Chapter 7) and

Surah Al-Fajr (Chapter 89)).

10. Condemnation of Oppression: The early revelations admonished the

oppression, particularly of the weak and vulnerable, like the orphans

and needy (Surah Al-Balad (Chapter 90)) which highlights the struggles

of life and the injustices some commit.

These early verses, from 610 CE to 622 CE played a pivotal role in establishing

the faith of the believers and preparing them for the later, more detailed

legislative verses that would be revealed after the Hijrah (migration) in

Madinah.

After the Hijrah of Prophet (PBUH), a more detailed legislative process began

in the Qur'an to shape the new Muslim society in Madinah and guide mankind

to eternity:

1. The First Year: Building the Mosque (Masjid al-Nabawi): This was one of

the first actions of the Prophet (PBUH) upon arriving in Madinah in 622 CE.

While not a Qur'anic legislation per se, it laid the foundation for community

worship and gatherings. Furthermore, several Islamic injunctions were

legislated, such as the call for prayer (Adhan), the obligation of Jihad

(fighting in Allah’s cause), and the law of marriage.

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2. Second Year: Further laws were put into effect and include the following:

A. The Qiblah Change: Initially, Muslims prayed towards Jerusalem. Around

16-17 months after the Hijrah, the Qiblah was changed to the Ka’abah

in Makkah. This occurred in the 2nd year AH (623-624 CE) (Surah Al-

Baqarah (Chapter 2:142-144).

B. Fasting (Saum) during Ramadan: It was promulgated in the month of

Sha’ban just before the battle of Badr, which was in the month of

Ramadan (Shanqeedy, 1412: 32). It became obligatory in the 2nd year

AH (624 CE) (Surah Al-Baqarah (Chapter 2:183-187).

C. The two Eids: The two Eid prayers, the requirement of sacrificing animals.

D. Zakat (Obligatory Charity): Specific details and regulations were revealed

during the early years in Madinah, particularly around 2nd to 3rd year AH.

E. Laws of Warfare: Given the battles of Badr, Uhud, and the Trench

(Khandaq), several regulations regarding warfare, prisoners of war, and

related matters were revealed between the 2nd to 5th years AH (624-627 CE)

(Surah Al-Anfal (Chapter 8) and Surah Al-Ahzab (Chapter 33). It provided for

the allowance of the spoils of war for those who participated in Jihad (holy

war).

3. Third Year: The revelation of laws governing issues such as inheritance,

marriage, divorce, family laws, shortening of prayers while on journey and

in fear. Several regulations were introduced throughout the Madinan period

(Surah Al-Nisa (Chapter 4) and Surah Al-Talaq (Chapter 65)). Other laws

include:

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 F. Legislation on Alcohol and Intoxicants: The prohibition was gradual. The

final prohibition came around the 3rd year AH (625 CE) or slightly later (Surah

Al-Ma'idah (Chapter 5:90-91).

4. Fourth Year: Punishments for Crimes: Specific penalties for theft, adultery,

and false accusations, and dry ablution (Surah Al-Nur (Chapter 24)

5. Fifth Year: Laws Concerning Forbidden Foods: Detailed in the 5th or 6th

year AH (627-628 CE) (Surah Al-Ma'idah (Chapter 5:3-5).

6. Sixth Year: The introduction of further laws such as the conditions of

making peace agreement, Hajj and Umrah, and the prohibition of drinking

of intoxicants, gambling, ansab, and Azlam. On these prohibitions, Allah

says: “O you who believe! Intoxicants (all kinds of alcoholic drinks), and

gambling, and Al-Ansab, and al-azlam (arrows for seeking luck or decision)

are an abomination of Shaitan's (Satan) handiwork. So avoid (strictly all) that

(abomination) in order that you may be successful” (Qur’an 5:90). The

details of Hajj regulations came after the Treaty of Hudaybiyah, particularly

around the 6th to 9th years AH (628-631 CE) (Surah Al-Hajj (Chapter 22).

Allah Says: “And perform properly (i.e., all the ceremonies according to the

ways of the Prophet Muhammad), the Hajj and ’Umrah (i.e., the pilgrimage

to Makkah) for Allah” (Qur’an 2:196).

When the Prophet (PBUH) and his Companions wanted to perform Umrah, they

were met with resistance from the Makkan infidels. Despite this, the Prophet

(PBUH) negotiated a treaty known as Treaty of Hudaibiyah, which allowed the

Muslims to perform Umrah the following year. Soon after, the Divine command

to make Hajj compulsory was revealed in the 9th year of Hijrah. This command

was given to all Muslims, so that they may fulfil the fifth pillar of Islam. The Hajj

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was to be performed on the same route that the Prophet (PBUH) and his

companions had taken, as a symbol of their perseverance in the face of

adversity. The Treaty of Hudaibiyah and the Divine command to perform Hajj

became important milestones in the history of Islam, and a source of inspiration

to Muslims around the world.

Allah says:

And Hajj (pilgrimage to Makkah) to the House is a duty that

mankind owes to Allah, those who can afford the expenses (for

one’s conveyance, provision, and residence); and whoever

disbelieves [i.e., denies Hajj (Pilgrimage to Makkah), then he is

a disbeliever of Allah], then Allah stands not in need of any of

the creatures (Qur’an 3:97).

However, the Prophet (PBUH) was unable to perform Hajj until the 10th year of

Hijrah, and so he delegated Abubakar (RA) to lead the Muslims to perform Hajj

in the 9th year, where it was made obligatory. Ali (RA) was among those who

went with Abubakar on this journey (Shanqeedy, 1412 AH: 33). In the same

year, a verse in the Qur’an was revealed, prohibiting infidels from performing

any religious activity around the Ka’abah. This marked a significant moment in

Islamic history, as it established the Hajj as a sacred pilgrimage reserved only

for Muslims:

O you who believe! Truly the pagans are unclean; so, let them

not, after this year of theirs, approach the Sacred Mosque. And

if you fear poverty, soon will Allah enrich you, if He wills, out of

His bounty, for Allah is All – Knowing and All – Wise (Qur’an

9:28).

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7. Seventh Year: Laws on agricultural activities were legislated.

8. Eighth Year: Punishment on stealing was added to the laws.

Furthermore, Jizyah (Tax on Non-Muslims) was instituted around the time of

the conquest of Makkah or shortly after, around 8th to 9th year AH (Surah At-

Tawbah (Chapter 9:29).

9. Ninth Year: Kuffar (unbelievers) were prohibited from performing Hajj rites.

10. Tenth Year: Usury was categorically prohibited (interest/riba) (Surah Al-

Baqarah (Chapter 2:275-281). The Hajj of the Prophet (PBUH) was the first Hajj

in which the infidels did not participate as they used to annually (Shinqeedy,

1412 AH: 33).

To sum up, the Qur'an was revealed gradually, starting with topics related to

paradise and hell, followed by the laws of halal and haram, and then

progressing to laws related to marriage, divorce, inheritance, fasting, zakat, and

Hajj. Additionally, laws related to warfare, such as the division of spoils of war,

prisoners of war, and alliances, were also legislated. Thus, it can be concluded

that the legislation of the Qur'an was gradual, with new laws being revealed

over time to address the needs of the Muslims.

4.1.10 Touching the Qur’an

Muslims are encouraged to strive to maintain a state of purity before reading

the Qur’an, as it is highly recommended. However, children are exempt from

this requirement and are allowed to read the Qur’an without any purification.

Similarly, the exemption is extended to adults when they read for the purpose

of study.

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4.1.11 Categorisation of People in the Qur’an

The Qur’an categorises people into several distinct groups, each with its own

particular criteria for membership and rewards or punishments. Generally, the

Qur’an divides people into two main categories: believers and disbelievers.

Believers are those who follow the teachings of the Qur’an and strive to live

according to its guidance. Disbelievers are those who deny the truth of the

Qur’an and reject its teachings.

The Qur’an also divides people into different levels of faith, based on their

deeds and intentions. Those who strive to obey the Qur’an, who are sincere

and steadfast in their faith, and who demonstrate their commitment to the faith

through their actions are considered to be among the most righteous of

believers. Conversely, those who are lax in their faith and disobey the Qur’an’s

commands are considered to be among the worst of disbelievers. The Qur’an

also divides people into different levels of piety. Those who are humble,

charitable, and patient in the face of adversity are considered to be more pious

than those who are quick to anger and do not show mercy or kindness to those

in need.

The Qur’an also divides people into the categories of the ‘oppressed’ and the

‘oppressors. Those who are unjustly treated or denied their rights are

considered to be the ‘oppressed’, while those who take advantage of the

vulnerable or use their power to subjugate others are considered to be the

‘oppressors’.

4.1.12 Publishing of the Qur’an

The first printed edition of the Arabic Qur’an was published in Hamburg,

Germany, in 1694 under the supervision of Abraham Hinckleman.

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Subsequently, the first printed version of the Qur'an prepared by a Muslim was

published in St. Petersburg, Russia, in 1787. Later editions of the Qur’an were

published in Kazan (1828), Persia (1833) and in Istanbul (1877) (Von Denffer,

n.d.)

The first translation of the Qur’an into foreign language was undertaken in 1143

by Robert of Ketton and Hermann of Dalmatia, two European scholars. Their

Latin translation, published in Basel, Switzerland, in 1542 as was titled “The Lex

Saracenorum” (The Saracen Law) (Burman, 1998; Al-Jarf, 2014; Shamsi, n.d.;

Von Denffer, n.d.). In the modern era, the first English translation of the Qur’an

by a Muslim was undertaken in 1905 by Dr. Muhammad Abdul Hakim Khan of

Patalia. Following this, Muhammad Marmaduke Pickthall (a revert) published

the Qur’an in Arabic with English translation, titled The Meaning of the

Glorious Qur’an, in 1930 in London. Other notable English translations include

Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s translation in 1932, A. J. Arberry (1955), Muhammad Asad

(1980), and M.M. Khan & M.T. Al-Hilali (1988) (Al-Jarf, 2014; Shamsi, n.d.).

Table 4.10

Chronology of Printing and Translations of the Qur’an

Event Year Location

First translation of the Qur’an into a foreign 1143 Spain

language by Robert of Ketton

First printed French Qur’an by André du Ryer 1647 France

First printed English Qur’an by Alexander 1649 England

Ross based on the French translation

First printed edition of the Arabic Qur’an 1694 Hamburg,

Germany

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Second English Qur’an by George Sale after 1734 England

the first by Alexander Ross

First printed Russian Qur’an 1787 St. Petersburg,

Russia

First Printed Qur’an by Muslims 1787 Istanbul,

Turkey

Editions of the Qur’an published in

- Kazan 1828

- Persia 1833

English translation under British India by John 1861 India

Medows Rodwell

English translation under British India by 1880 India

Edward Henry Palmer.

First English translation of the Qur’an by a 1905 India

Muslim, Dr. Muhammad Abdul Hakim Khan of

Patalia

Qur’an published in Arabic with English 1930 London

translation by Muhammad Marmaduke

Pickthall

King Fuad of Egypt standardisation 1924 Cairo, Egypt

Abdullah Yusuf Ali English translation 1932 London

Arthur John Arberry English Translation 1955 London &

New York

Hausa Qur’an [First] by Abubakar Mahmood 1979 Madinah,

Gummi Saudi Arabia

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 Muhammad Asad English Translation 1980 Gibraltar

King Fahd Complex for the Printing of the 1984 Madinah,

Glorious Qur'an in Madinah since 1984 Saudi Arabia

M.M. Khan & M.T. Al-Hilali English Translation 1988 Saudi Arabia

The King Fahad Printing Press is the leading producer of copies of the Qur’an,

estimated to have produced over 128 million copies since 1985. It produces

an immense number of copies of the Qur’an each year, estimated to be around

10 million. It has published 55 different translations of the Qur'an spread in 76

languages, with the original copy written by renowned calligrapher Usman

Taha. Its website offers an array of services such as reading the Qur'an online,

listening to recitations, textual search, translations, images of early Qur'an

manuscripts, and exegetic commentaries. Furthermore, the Complex also

produces related Qur'anic literature and has made available a wide range of

materials, such as interpretations and commentaries, to help people

understand the message of the Qur'an.

4.2. Sunnah (Hadith)

Sunnah is the second source of Islamic legal rules and regulations of practices

and belief. It is derived from the sayings and actions of the Prophet (PBUH) and

any action he endorses or by his silence on it. Sunnah has the same legal

authority as the Qur'an, and it is seen as a supplement to the Qur'anic texts

(Juynboll, 1983: Siddiqui, 1993). The study and application of the Sunnah is

essential for a Muslim, as it provides guidance in living one's life according to

the Islamic faith. Sunnah is an important part of Islamic history, culture, and

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tradition, and it is essential for Muslims to learn, understand, and practice it. It

is also called Hadith. They are thus used interchangeably.

The Sunnah includes the rituals and practices that Prophet Muhammad (PBUH)

taught to his Companions and which they passed down to succeeding

generations. The Sunnah is the sayings, teachings, and actions of the Prophet

Muhammad (PBUH) as recorded by his Companions. They provide guidance

on matters of belief, practice, and morality. The Sunnah is a primary source of

Islamic law and is used to shape the practice and beliefs of Muslims worldwide.

It provides guidance on how to live a life of faith, as well as rules and regulations

for social, economic, and political matters. It is an essential part of Islam and

therefore an integral part of the culture and identity of Muslims around the

world. Collectively, the sources of Islamic law are the Qur’an, the Sunnah,

consensus of Islamic scholars (Ijma) and analogy (Qiyas, the application of a

principle governing parallel cases) (Siddiqui, 1993).

4.2.1 Purpose of Hadith

The Sunnah is an essential source of knowledge and understanding of the

Qur’an, as it provides the context and details for the teaching contained within

the Qur’an. Aisha (RA), the wife of the Prophet (PBUH) and the mother of the

faithful, explained the character of the Prophet (PBUH) as being the

embodiment of the Qur’an.

The Sunnah helps to explain the Qur’an by providing additional explanations

and details as the Qur’an does not provide minute details on everything.

Through the Sunnah, Allah provided the Prophet (PBUH) with additional

knowledge and details required to fully understand and apply the teachings of

the Qur’an, so as to enlighten the people:

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 [We sent them] with clear proofs and scriptures, and We have

sent down to you [O Prophet] the Reminder to explain to people

what has been sent down to them, and so that they may reflect

(Qur’an 16:44).

And whatsoever the Messenger (Muhammad PBUH) gives you,

take it and whatsoever he forbids you, abstain from it (Qur’an

59:7).

He who obeys the Messenger (Muhammad PBUH), has indeed

obeyed Allah (Qur’an 4:80). Say (O Muhammad to mankind): “If

you (men really) love Allah, then follow me" (Qur’an 3:31).

Hadith plays a crucial role in clarifying and elaborating on Qur'anic verses, as

well as providing guidance on specific actions and practices that may not be

explicitly detailed in the Qur’an. For instance, the five fundamental pillars of

Islam – Iman, Salat, Zakat, Saum and Hajj - are all mentioned in the Qur'an.

However, the Qur’an does not provide specific details about each of these

practices, such as the number and structure of the five daily prayers, the

amount of money to be paid in Zakat and its specific timings, the rules of

fasting, or the rituals of Hajj. The Sunnah of the Prophet (PBUH), as recorded in

the Hadith, complements these details, and serves as an example Muslims us

to follow.

In essence, the Hadith is essential for understanding and interpreting the

Qur'an, as it elaborates on the Qur'an’s principles, offers details where the

Qur’an is more general, clarifies the ambiguous verses, specifies the common,

and limits the absolute. Out of the over 6,000 verses in the Qur'an, only about

200 pertain to legal regulations, while approximately 4,000 Hadith are

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concerned with regulation (Juynboll, 1983; Siddiqui, 1993; Hasan, 1995).

Therefore, when the Qur’an does not provide a categorical injunction on a

specific legal issue, the Sunnah becomes the next source of reference. The

Hadith sheds light on many of essential rituals and obligations that are integral

to the faith, such as prayer, fasting, and Hajj.

4.2.2 Writing Down of Hadith

Hadith, unlike the Qur'an, was not fully recorded during the lifetime of the

Prophet (PBUH). Initially, the Prophet (PBUH) prevented his Companions from

writing down his Hadith to avoid confusion or mixing it with the Qur’an.

However, towards the end of his life, he permitted some of the companions to

record it to aid in memorisation (Juynboll, 1983). As a result, a few Hadith

collections were made during this period, such as Saheefah by Sa'ad bin

Ubaadah Al-Ansari, Saheefah by Abdullahi bin Abi Awfi, Kutub of Abu Hurairah

and As Sahiifah As Sadiqah by Abdullahi bin Amr Bin Al–As, which contains

1,000 Hadith (Al-Omary, 1984: 228).

In the Prophet’s (PBUH) time, Hadith writing was not prioritised, and it was

mainly transmitted orally. During the era of the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs,

more attention was given to the compilation and codification of the Qur'an.

Caliph Abubakar initiated this process, and Caliph Usman oversaw the creation

distribution of multiple copies of the Qur'an across Islamic states (Burton,

1977). Simultaneously, opportunities for reporting and discussing the Hadith of

the Prophet (PBUH) increased. Consequently, younger Companions travelled

to senior Companions to collect Hadith. Notably, Abu Hurairah, Jabir Al-Ansari,

Abdullahi bin Umar, Abdullahi bin Abbas, Anas bin Malik, and Aisha bint

Abubakar each reported more than 1000 Hadith (As-Saayees, n.d: 68). During

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the Tabi’een (Successors) era, many of the Companions of the Prophet (PBUH)

had passed away, and the Tabi’een took up the task of memorising and

preserving the Hadith. They made significant efforts to collect, verify, and

disseminate the Hadith of the Prophet (PBUH).

During the Umayyad period (661-750), Caliph Umar bin Abdul Azeez made the

Hadith recording process more systematic. He implemented various measures

to ensure the authenticity of Hadith, such as the establishment of the office of

Muhtasib to oversee the Hadith compilation and transmission and forming a

board of experts to review and validate the Hadith. He also introduced a

certification system for Hadith, where Hadith were examined by a group of

scholars and certified as authentic. This system was based on the principles of

Isnad, the chain of narrators through which a Hadith is transmitted. Later

scholars, such as Imam al-Bukhari and Imam Muslim, further developed this

certification system (Al-Azami, 2003; Brown, 2009; Hawting, 2010).

In addition to the development of the system of certification, Caliph Umar bin

Abdul Azeez promoted their compilation and preservation. He sent letters to

his representative in Madinah and then to others in other provinces, urging

them to collect and record the Hadith of the Prophet (PBUH) fearing the loss

of knowledge and spread of inauthentic Hadith with the passing of Hadith

scholars (Siddiqui, 1993; Hawting, 2010). The Ulama responded to this call,

even though much later, resulting in the compilation of several significant

Hadith books, such as Sahih Al-Bukhari, Sahih Muslim, Jami’ at-Tirmidhi,

Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Sunan al-Nasai and Sunan Abu Dawud.

Muhammad bin Shi’haab Az Zuhri (d. 124) was the first to systematically collect

and record Hadith, presenting his collection to Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz (Azami,

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1978; Al-Omary, 1984: 232). Following him, numerous Hadith scholars within

the second century such as Abu Muhammad Abdul Malik bin Abdul Aziz Bin

Jaraij (d. 150) in Makkah, Muhammad bin Ishaq (d. 151) in Madinah, Ma'amar

bin Raashid (d. 153) in Yamen, Sa’iid bin Abi Arubah (d. 156) in Basrah, Abu

Amr Abdur Rahman bin Amr Al-Awza’i (d .156) in Sham (Syria), Allaith bin Sa’ad

(d. 175) in Misr (Egypt), Al-Imam Malik bin Anas (d. 179) in Madinah, and

Abdullahi bin Al-Mubarak (d. 181) in Khurasan. All of them contributed

significantly to the development of Hadith literature (Azami, 1978; Siddiqui,

1993; Hasan, 1995). However, of all the collections of this period, Muwatta of

Imam Malik became the most famous, accessible, and authoritative, serving as

a foundation for subsequent Hadith literature studies. In this collection, Imam

Malik gathered what he believed to be authentic Hadith, their explanations,

jurisprudence, history, and the traditions of the Companions, their followers,

and others before him. Muwatta contains 1,852 Hadith (Al-Ashqar, 1989).

The Abbasid period (750-1258) also witnessed the emergence of prominent

Hadith scholars, such as Imam Bukhari, Imam Muslim, Imam Tirmidhi, Imam

Nasa’i, Imam Abu Dawud, and Imam Ibn Majah, who compiled some of the

most authoritative collections of Hadith (Siddiqui, 1993; Hasan, 1995).

Subsequent centuries saw further development in Hadith science, with scholars

like Imam al-Nawawi, Imam al-Suyuti, and Imam al-Subki introducing new

methods for evaluating and classifying Hadith and further codifying the science

of Hadith (Azami, 1978; Siddiqui, 1993). This period also saw the emergence

of new collections of Hadith, such as the Musannaf of Ibn Abi Shaybah, al-

Mustadrak of al-Hakim, and al-Kashshaf of al-Zamakhshari.

During the 3rd century, efforts to record Hadith continued, making a golden

period in Hadith literature. This period saw significant contributions to the

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study of Hadith with subsequent studies being based on the works of this era

(Hasan, 1995; Brown, 2009). Notable Hadith scholars of this period included

Abdullahi bin Az Zubair Al-Hameedi (d. 219), Ahmad bin Manee’i Al-Bagwi

(224), Ahmad bin Hanbal (240), Khalifah bin Khayyat (d. 240), Ishaq bin Mansur

(d. 251), Al-Imam Muhammad bin Isma’il Al-Bukhari (d. 256), Al-Imam Muslim

bin Al-Hajjaj An Naisaburi (d 261), Abu Dawud, Sulaiman bin Al-Ash’ath As

Sijistani (d. 275), Ibn Majah, Muhammad bin Yazid (d. 273), At Tirmidhi,

Muhammad bin Isa Bin Surah As Sulmi (d. 279), An Nasa'i, Abu Abdur Rahman

Ahmad bin Shu'aib bin Ali (d. 303) (Lucas, 2004). These scholars laid the

foundation of the Hadith corpus that is relied upon by Muslims today. They

employed rigorous criteria for authenticating Hadith, rejecting any that did not

meet their standards. They also classified Hadith into categories such as weak

and strong, with some even rejecting Hadith that was not transmitted through

multiple chains of transmission (Juynboll, 1983; Siddiqui, 1993). These efforts

ensured the Hadith corpus, reliability, and accuracy.

Of all the Hadith books written during this period, two are primarily regarded

as the most authentic by Ulama: the books of Bukhari and Muslim. Beyond

these two, four other books have been accepted as authoritative sources of

Hadith: Abu Dawud, At Tirmidhi, An Nasa'i and Ibn Majah.

It is worth noting that Hadith literature predates these six authentic collections,

notably the Muwatta of Imam Malik and the Musnad of Imam Ahmad. However,

they were not included among the six authentic collections due to their

composition - the Muwatta in the second century and the Musnad in the third

century – and their chapter arrangements, which differ significantly from the

approach adopted in the six collections, making them more accessible for

scholars and students (Juynboll, 1983; Siddiqui, 1993). Imam Ahmad based his

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chapters on the reporters of Hadith rather than on topics. Despite these

reasons, the authenticity of these works warrants their inclusion alongside the

six collections, as they are among the most authentic Hadith collections and

certainly the first known collection of Hadith. Imam As–Shafi’i reportedly said

that the best book after the Qur’an is Muwatta (Azami, 1978; Al-Ashqar, 1989:

110; Siddiqui, 1993). Of course, this statement was made before the works of

Bukhari and Muslim.

Thus, while the concept of “The Six Authentic Hadith Collections” is widely

known, there are actually eight reliable collections:

1. Al Jami’i As-Sahih of Imam Bukhari (194–256 AH; 810–870 AD): Commonly

known as Bukhari, is regarded as one of the most significant works of Hadith

literature. He is known to have set extremely stringent criteria for including

Hadiths in his collection. Of the approximately 600,000 Hadiths he came

across, he selected approximately 7,563 (with repetitions), and when the

repetitions are removed, the number stands at around 2,600 to 2,700

authentic Hadiths (Al-Ashqar, 1989: 102; Siddiqui, 1993). It took him sixteen

years to complete this monumental work (Al-Omary, 1984: 244), and all the

Hadith contained within it are considered to be authentic. His criteria

required each narrator in the chain to be trustworthy, honest, and possess

an excellent memory. Furthermore, the chain of narrators had to be

continuous, and the Hadith had to agree with what other narrators narrated.

2. Al Jami’i As-Sahih of Imam Muslim (204-261 AH; 821–875 AD): Known as

Sahih Muslim; out of an expansive evaluation of 300,000 Hadith, this

collection contains 12,000 Hadith (Al-Ashqar, 1989: 104), of which 4,000 are

distinct without repetition. This selection was based on rigorous criteria for

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 authenticity, ensuring the reliability of his compilation. Notably, each entry

in his collection may include multiple narrations or quotations within a single

Hadith. Like Sahih Al-Bukhari, all Hadith in this collection are considered

authoritative and authentic. It took Imam Muslim fifteen years to complete

his work (Al-Omary, 1984: 246), having travelled extensively across the

Islamic world, including regions such as Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and Egypt,

for the purpose of collecting Hadith. While his criteria were slightly less

stringent than Bukhari's, they were still rigorous. As a result, some Hadiths

are present in Sahih Muslim that are not in Sahih Bukhari, and vice versa.

3. As-Sunan of Abu Dawud (202-275 AH; 817–889 AD): This collection

contains 5,274 Hadith (Al-Ashqar, 1989: 105), some of which are considered

authentic, while others are deemed to be good or weak. Abu Dawud

indicated that about 500,000 Hadith have been written, out of these, he

highlighted four Hadith that he believed encapsulated the essence of Islam:

A. Innamal aa’mal bin niyyaat (actions are dependent upon their intentions).

B. Love for your brother what you want for yourself.

C. Leave what does not concern you.

D. Halal is known from Haram (Al-Ashqar, 1989: 137).

4. Al Jami’i As Sahih of Tirmidhi (209-279 AH; 824–892 AD): This collection

contains 3,957 Hadith (Al-Omary, 1984: 249). Some of the Hadith in this

collection are considered authentic, while others are regarded as weak

according to Islamic scholarship.

5. As-Sunan of Nasa’i (215-303AH; 829–915 AD): Compiled by Abu

Khaithamh Zahir bin Harb bin Shaddad An Nasa'i, a scholar from Khurasan,

this collection contains 5,761 Hadith, including authentic, good, and weak

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 Hadith. However, the number of weak Hadith is relatively fewer compared

to the other two Sunan collections (Al-Omary, 1984: 250).

6. As-Sunan of Ibn Majah (209-273 AH; 824–887 AD): This collection contains

4,341 Hadith, of which 3,002 were reported by the other five reporters

mentioned clearly and 1,140 are new Hadith. However, less than half of the

new Hadith are considered authentic (Al-Omary, 1984: 251-2).

7. Muwatta of Imam Malik (93-179 AH): As the first known book of Hadith,

Muwatta holds significant importance in the study of authentic Hadith. It

contains 1,852 Hadith, carefully selected by Imam Malik based on their

authenticity and their relevance to Islamic jurisprudence, history, and the

tradition of the Sahabah (Al-Ashqar, 1989: 99). Malik's reputation as a

meticulous scholar ensured that his collection was held in high regard. The

term "Muwatta" means "approved" or "agreed upon", implying that the

scholarly community of Madinah, a major centre of knowledge, approved

of its contents.

8. Al Musnad of Imam Ahmad (164 -241 AH; 780–855 CE): Is a comprehensive

collection of Hadith. The distinguishing feature of Imam Ahmad's Musnad

is its organization, where all the hadith are arranged according to their isnad

(chains of narration). Each hadith narrated by a specific Companion of the

Prophet is collected together under that Companion's name in one chapter,

while the hadith narrated by another Companion is compiled in the

following chapter (Azami, 1978; Siddiqui, 1993). This systematic

arrangement makes it easier for readers and scholars to trace the chain of

narration for each hadith and assess its authenticity. Imam Ahmad's Musnad

is considered an important and valuable compilation in the field of Hadith

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 studies due to its rigorous methodology and comprehensive collection of

narrations.

Among these eight collections of Hadith, Bukhari, Muslim, and Muwatta are

considered the most authentic and accurate. They are followed by the Sunan

of Abu Dawud, Sunan of Tirmidhi, Sunan of Nasa'i, Sunan of Ibn Majah and

Musnad of Imam Ahmad in terms of authenticity and accuracy.

These collections, apart from the Musnad of Imam Ahmad, follow a similar

pattern in organising Hadith based on the topics of jurisprudence, a method

first introduced by Imam Bukhari. He arranged Hadiths related to specific

subtopics, such as Prayers, Hajj, and Zakat, under corresponding chapters. This

organisational method was adopted by his contemporaries and subsequent

scholars (Al-Omary, 1984: 238; Azami, 1978). These collections serve as the

main reference sources for the Hadith of the Prophet (PBUH) and are used in

Islam as a complement to the Qur'an in all aspects of life.

It should be noted that the six major collections of Hadith were not designated

as the most authentic by a single event or decision made by a particular group

of scholars at one specific time. Instead, the recognition of these collections as

highly authentic evolved over time, based on the rigorous methodologies

employed by their compilers and the scholarly consensus that formed around

their work. Each of these scholars employed stringent criteria for the selection

and verification of Hadiths, focusing on the reliability and integrity of the chain

of narrators (isnad) and the content of the Hadith itself (matn). As these

collections were compiled, other contemporary scholars and Hadith experts

reviewed the works. The methodologies of the compilers were scrutinised,

debated, and ultimately respected for their thoroughness and adherence to

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strict principles of authentication. Over time, a consensus (ijma) formed among

Islamic scholars about the high authenticity and reliability of these collections.

This was not an overnight process, but a gradual recognition built through

scholarly discussions, studies, and the widespread acceptance and use of these

collections in Islamic jurisprudence and daily religious life (Azami, 1978;

Juynboll, 1983; Siddiqui, 1993). While all six books are highly respected, Sahih

Bukhari and Sahih Muslim are often considered the most authentic. Imam al-

Bukhari and Imam Muslim's methodologies were extraordinarily meticulous,

and they set very high standards for the acceptance of Hadiths.

Thus, the criteria for Hadith authenticity were established by early Hadith

scholars and were based on principles derived from the Quran, the Hadith

themselves, and the consensus of the companions of Prophet Muhammad

(PBUH). The scholars who compiled the six major collections each applied

these principles, though with some variations in their methodologies. The

recognition of their work was a collective, communal effort involving many

scholars over generations, rather than a decision made by a single individual

or a formal council.

Table 4.5

Authentic Hadith Collections and Their Specifications

Author Hadith Number of Number of

Collection Volumes Hadiths

Imam Bukhari Al Jami’i As- 9 7,56337

Sahih

It is generally agreed that Sahih al-Bukhari comprises 9 volumes with around 7,563 hadiths, including repetitions.
37

Without repetitions, the number is closer to 2,600–2,700 hadiths.

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 Imam Muslim Al Jami’i As- 7 7,19038

Sahih

Abu Dawud As-Sunan 5 5,27439

Tirmidhi Al Jami’i As 6 3,95640

Sahih

Nasa’i As-Sunan 6 5,76141

Ibn Majah As-Sunan 5 4,34142

Imam Malik Muwatta 1 1,85243

Imam Ahmad Al Musnad 30 27,64744

Note. Adapted from Hasan (1995).

4.2.3. Fabrication of Hadith

During the 2nd and 3rd centuries, the importance of laws, customs, and beliefs

rooted in the teachings of the Prophet (PBUH), his Companions, and Followers

(Successors) became increasingly clear. Individuals or groups seeking to justify

their actions or attitudes needed evidence that the Prophet (PBUH) had

authorised them (Guillaume 1954: 89; Lucas, 2004). This need led to a

proliferation of Hadith, some of which were likely forged to support or

challenge the status quo (Al-Omary, 1984).

Contradictory Hadith became evident, and the forging of Hadith appeared in

the last part of the Caliphate of Usman (RA) (the third Caliph) due to discontent

38
Sahih Muslim is usually compiled into 7 volumes. It contains around 7,190 hadiths, with some sources citing up
to 12,000 including repetitions.
39
This collection typically has 5 volumes with around 5,274 hadiths, with some variations in the number due to
different editions.
40
Often compiled into 6 volumes, it includes about 3,956 hadiths.
41
Usually organized into 6 volumes, it contains about 5,761 hadiths.
42
This collection has around 4,341 hadiths across 5 volumes.
43
The Muwatta is often found in a single volume with around 1,720 to 1,852 hadiths.
44
This extensive collection is one of the largest, with around 30 volumes and about 27,647 hadiths.

346
among some people. This phenomenon only became more pronounced in the

subsequent periods, particularly after the battle of the Camel (between Ali and

other Companions, including Aisha), the battle of Siffin (between Ali and

Mu'awiya), and the battle of Nahrwaan (between Ali and Kharajites), all within

the first half of the first century, and becoming more pronounced in the second

and the third centuries (Al-Omary, 1984: 22-3)

The primary reason for the fabrication of Hadith in the early centuries was

essentially political. The proclaimed followers of Ali (Shi’a) forged some Hadith

in favour of Ali against Mu’awiyah. In response, Mu'awiyah’s supporters forged

Hadith in favour of Abubakar, Umar, Usman, and Mu’awiyah against the Shi’a

(Lapidus, 1988; Lucas, 2004; Brown, 2009). When this became rampant, some

forged some Hadith in favour of all the Companions or some of them (Al-

Omary, 1984: 24). This resulted in a massive number of false Hadith circulating

throughout the first half of the first century and some from the second and third

centuries. In addition to political motivations, the emergence of various

theological schools in the second and the third centuries provided a platform

for the fabrication of Hadith. Debates between these theological schools,

notably the Qadarite and Jabarite and later Mu’tazilat, over matters of free will

and predestination created a need to justify their positions. Although they

attempted to find support in the Qur'an and Sunnah, they resorted to

fabrication if they could not find it (Al-Omary, 1984: 32; Lucas, 2004; Brown,

2009).

Some overzealous Muslims fabricated Hadith to encourage people to perform

good deeds and abstain from sin. This was done out of a sincere desire to

promote good and discourage evil but was done out of ignorance of the vast

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number of authentic Hadith on the same topics that were already available (Al-

Omary, 1984: 39-40).

The enemies of Islam saw this as a golden opportunity to spread chaos and

confusion among the Muslim Ummah and to sow the seeds of doubts in their

minds about their religion. They concocted several fabricated Hadith and

spread them among the masses, aiming to weaken the faith of the Muslims.

These individuals mostly came from the old, conquered Persian and Sassanid

empires, who harboured deep resentment towards Islam. They embraced Islam

and used their newfound acceptance within the community to spread false

Hadith (Juynboll, 1983; Lucas, 2004). Although some of them were found and

executed, they managed to spread a significant number of fabricated Hadith

before their capture (Al-Qattan, 1987: 217). In fact, many of publicly declared

the number of Hadith they had concocted before their execution.

Partisanship has also played a very important role in the fabrication of Hadith.

It was often in favour of towns, tribes, and nationalities of the fabricators, or the

founders of their schools of thoughts. As Islam spread outside Arabia, and the

intermingling of Arabs with non-Arabs, some fabricated Hadith in favour of

their nationalities, tribes, and towns. For example, some ignorant Arabs

concocted Hadith in support of their race against other races, and even

claiming that Arabic was the language of Paradise. Furthermore, among the

Arabs, some claimed to be more important than others. Some forged Hadith

in favour of their towns, notably Basrah (Iraq), Sham (Syria), Ordon (Jordan) and

Khurasan (Iran) were invented.

Additionally, Hadith were fabricated to support the founders of certain schools

of thought, while opposing other schools of thought. For Example, some

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individuals invented Hadith saying that the Prophet (PBUH) had predicted the

coming of their leader, notably Imam Abu Hanifa and Imam Ash-Shafi’i (Al-

Omary, 1984: 41-44; Al-Qattan, 1987: 217; Al-Jazari, 2009). On the other hand,

others invented Hadith to gain favours or comply with the wishes of leaders

(Al-Omary, 1984: 41-44; Tabbarah, 1988: 471), contributing to the difficulty of

determining the authenticity of Hadith.

These fabricated Hadith served to propagate the interests of the powerful and

to justify their actions, leading to the establishment of oppressive rules and

laws that subjugated the people to the whims of the rulers. This corruption of

Hadith ultimately weakened the Islamic tradition and undermined its spiritual

foundations.

The Ulama did not allow the situation to continue unchecked. By the 3rd

century, Ulama of Hadith, as forceful scholars, emerged with clearly marked

principles for Hadith criticisms. They categorised Hadith into “authentic,”

“good,” and “weak.” To achieve this, they introduced various methods to

detect false Hadith from true ones. First, they established a method called

Isnad or Sanad, which means an uninterrupted chain of reporters of Hadith

traceable to the Prophet (PBUH). The concept of Isnad existed since the time

of the Prophet (PBUH) due to availability of many Hadiths. It was not newly

established or found in the 3rd century of Hijrah, but was present in earlier works

like the Musnad of Imam Abu Hanifa from the 1st century, and the Muwatta of

Imam Malik from the 2nd century, as well as in the writings of Ibn Ishaq and

others. As for the emphasis on Isnad in the 3rd century, it was due to increased

attention to it, scrutiny of its narrators, and verification of its narrators.

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Thus, whoever reported Hadith would have to mention the names of the

authorities in the chain of transmission up to the source, the Prophet (PBUH). If

for example, person D reported a Hadith, they would have to mention C, B, up

to the source, A, the Prophet (PBUH) (Azami, 1978; Juynboll, 1983; Al-Omary,

1984: 53-6; Siddiqui, 1993; Hasan, 1995; Lucas, 2004).45

Second, in order to ascertain the authenticity of these chains of transmitters,

they improved on what is called the science of Rijal, a comprehensive

biography of early Muslims (the Companions of the Prophet (PBUH) and the

followers), indicating their date and place of birth and death, the areas they

had visited, scholars they had met and their characters. All these led to the

intensification of travelling for confirmation and authentication of Hadith. The

science of Rijal was not created in the 3rd century of the Hijrah by the scholars,

as some have alluded (Azami, 1978; Juynboll, 1983; Siddiqui, 1993), but rather,

scholars increased their efforts to research the biographies of Hadith narrators,

relying on what was previously written about them and what others reported

about them orally.

This is because most of the narrators of Hadith were famous scholars and

readers in their time, and their affairs were not hidden from their students and

the people of their land. Many of their students had already provided extensive

information about their lives and their biographies. The reporters travelled day

and night, sometimes for weeks or months, either on foot or on the camel back

just to collect one Hadith.

45
Concern for chain of Hadith started since the first haft of the first century of Islam in the time of Caliph Usman,
but it became more pronounced as an established method of Hadith literature since the first half of the second
century (Ikram Dhiya'u Al-Omary 1984. Buhuthun fi Taarikh As Sunnah Al-Mushrifah. Berit: publisher not specified.
pp 53-6.

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The relevance of all this is twofold. Firstly, it is to establish the authenticity of

any chain of Hadith by verifying whether the reporters had met one another in

person. This includes confirming if reporter D had actually heard from reporter

C, and C from B, in the chain of transition. This is verified by examining whether

D had met C, their age differences, and their places of settlement. If C had

died before D was born, if D was too young to have heard from C, or if there

was no possibility of D meeting C due to different places of residence, such

Hadith are rejected or considered unreliable.

Secondly, it is to establish the trustworthiness of the transmitters of Hadith. This

involves determining whether they were honest, sincere, trustworthy, reliable,

and had an upright conduct and strong memory to accurately remember and

communicate exactly what they had heard.

Apart from their concern with the chain of reporters, they were equally

concerned with the text of Hadith. By this, if a Hadith is found to go against

the Qur’an or contradicts some known historical events in the time of the

Prophet (PBUH), such Hadith were rejected (Al-Qattan, 1987: 220-221). Later,

the techniques of Hadith criticisms were developed and broaden. It was as a

result of all this that Hadith are categorised into genuine, good, and weak. As

for the fabricated Hadith, they were rejected outright. A Hadith was termed

fabricated, among other things, when there was uncertainty about the sincerity

of the reporter or when a falsehood was detected in the text of the Hadith,

even though the reporter had not been known to have forged lies before

(Tabbarah, 1988: 473).

On the other hand, a Hadith is considered weak when there was a slightest

doubt about the personal conduct of the transmitter, or when the transmitter

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was found to be weak in memorisation of Hadith. This is ascertained by

comparing his reports with those of other reporters, and with known historical

facts, even if his character is considered impeccable (Tabbarah, 1988: 473). In

this way, the Ulama sifted genuine Hadith from the weak ones, preserving the

Hadith of the Prophet (PBUH) that were reliable and authentic. Genuine and

good Hadith are then used to derive rulings in legal issues, while weak Hadith

are not.

Following all this, many books of Hadith were compiled, containing both

genuine and weak Hadith. Others compiled only weak or genuine Hadith. Out

of the genuine books of Hadith written, six collections were regarded as the

most reliable books of Hadith, as pointed out earlier in the Chapter. These

collections are known as the Sahih Sittah (the six authentic books), and they are

as follows: Sahih Al-Bukhari, Sahih Muslim, Sunan al-Tirmidhi, Sunan Abu

Dawud, Sunan al-Nasa'i, and Sunan Ibn Majah. Each of these collections

contains thousands of Hadith, which have been authenticated by various

methods of validation and confirmation. These collections are regarded as the

most reliable sources of Hadith, and they are used by scholars of Hadith to

ascertain the authenticity of a Hadith.

By the 7th century Hijrah, the demand for the collection of Hadith had become

more urgent due to the rapid spread of Islamic knowledge. In an effort to

facilitate study and research, the first house of Hadith was built in Damascus by

Nuruddeen bin Mohammad Zinki in the 6th century Hijrah, and an Ayyubi king,

Kamal Nasiruddeen established a house of Hadith in Cairo (626 HC) (Juynboll,

1983; Siddiqui, 1993; Hasan, 1995). These houses of Hadith provided a

centralised location for the preservation of Hadith and allowed scholars to

access them without the need for extensive travel. As a result, the demand for

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the collection of Hadith decreased, and travelling for the purpose minimised.

In this way, the preservation of Hadith was made easier and more efficient.

4.2.4 Translation of Hadith

The first attempts at translating Hadith into other languages were undertaken

by non-Arabic speakers in the 9th century, who sought to make the scriptures

accessible to a wider audience. This early period saw the use of literal or “word-

for-word” translations as well as expanded, or “interpretive” translations.

During the medieval period, Hadith was also translated into major European

languages, although these translations were often of poor quality (Azami, 1978;

Siddiqui, 1993; Hasan, 1995). In the modern period, translation of Hadith has

become increasingly important due to the growth of the Muslim diaspora and

the need to make the Hadith accessible to a global audience. This has led to

the development of various strategies and approaches to Hadith translation,

such as the use of “contextual” or “dynamic” translations.

Due to the importance of the Hadith to Islamic faith and practice, there are

several principles that guide its translation. The primary goal of Hadith

translation is to ensure that the original message and meaning of the Hadith is

preserved. This requires a close adherence to the original Arabic text and an

understanding of the linguistic and cultural context in which the Hadith was

revealed. Furthermore, Hadith translators must ensure that the translation is

accurate and faithful to the original. This means that the translator must have a

thorough knowledge of the language and culture of both the source and target

language.

It also requires an understanding of the various approaches to Hadith

interpretation, such as the principles of abrogation, analogy, and consensus. In

353
addition, the translator must be aware of the cultural and religious differences

between the source and target language. This includes an understanding of

how certain concepts and terms may be differently understood in different

contexts. For example, the term “jihad” has a very different meaning in an

Islamic context than it does in a Western context. Finally, the translator must

be mindful of the potential for misinterpretation or misunderstanding of the

Hadith. As such, they must take great care to ensure that their translation is

clear, accurate, and faithful to the original.

Table 4.12

Contemporary English Translations of Authentic Hadith Collections

Hadith Translator/ Number of Publisher Year

Collection Commentator Volumes

Sahih Al- Dr. Muhammad 9 Darussalam, 1997

Bukhari Muhsin Khan Riyadh-Saudi

Arabia

Sahih Nasiruddin al- 7 Darussalam, 2007

Muslim Khattab Riyadh-Saudi

Arabia

Sahih Imam al- - The Islamic 2019

Muslim Nawawi, Adil Foundation,

Salahi Leicestershire, UK

(Commentary)

Sunan Abu Yasir Qadhi 5 Darussalam, 2008

Dawud Riyadh-Saudi

Arabia

354
Jami’ At Abu Khaliyl 6 Darussalam, 2007

Tirmidhi Riyadh-Saudi

Arabia

Sunan An- Nasiruddin al- 6 Darussalam, 2007

Nasa’i Khattab Riyadh-Saudi

Arabia

Sunan Ibn Nasiruddin al- 5 Darussalam, 2007

Majah Khattab Riyadh-Saudi

Arabia

Al-Muwatta Aisha 1 Diwan Press 2014

of Imam Abdurrahman

Malik Bewley

Musnad Nasiruddin al- 3 Darussalam, 2012

Imam Ibn Khattab Riyadh-Saudi

Ahmad Arabia

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 CHAPTER FIVE
Ulama (The Scholars)

Revealed messages have been brought to mankind through the Messengers

of Allah, who in turn passed the messages to people:

It is He Who has sent among the unlettered a Messenger from

themselves reciting to them His verses and purifying them and

teaching them the Book and wisdom - although they were

before in clear error (Qur’an 62:2).

Among these people, some became very knowledgeable about the message

and taught others in the absence of the Messengers. This group of people,

known as Ulama (Islamic scholars), play a crucial role in explaining and

interpreting Islam. The Prophet (PBUH) stated that Ulama are the successors of

the Messengers, indicating the importance of Ulama in understanding the

religion (Al-Nawawi, 1977). Furthermore, without the interpretation and

explanation of Ulama, Islam cannot be adequately understood, making their

role vital in elucidating the religion.

The Ulama’s unique position in society has enabled them to serve as a bridge

between the secular and religious worlds, providing a valuable interface

between the two. They have also been able to provide a balance between the

traditional Islamic teachings and the demands of modern society. The Ulama

have been instrumental in preserving and ensuring the purity of Islamic

teachings and practices. Their extensive knowledge and expertise of Islamic

law, theology, and jurisprudence has been essential in the propagation and

dissemination of Islamic knowledge.

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The Ulama are responsible for providing guidance to the masses in the form of

education lectures, fatwas (legal opinions), religious advice, and spiritual

counselling (Al-Nawawi, 1977). They have also been responsible for

maintaining the continuity of Islamic knowledge through the writing and

publication of books, magazines, and journals in various languages such as

Arabic, Urdu, Persian, Hausa, Fulata, French, Yoruba, and English. These

publications not only contain a wealth of information on various aspects of

Islam, but they also provide a platform for debates and discussions on

controversial issues, which helps in the clarification of Islamic teachings and the

resolution of disputes.

The Ulama play an essential role in the implementation of Islamic laws and

principles in the modern world. By providing guidance and direction in the

development of Islamic finance, business, and other socioeconomic issues,

they have been instrumental in creating ethical banking systems that are

compliant with Islamic law. This has enabled a wider access to Islamic finance

and contributed to the growth of the industry. Additionally, the Ulama have

been actively engaged in the field of Islamic Da’awah (proselytisation),

ensuring the continuity of Islamic knowledge and teachings by teaching,

propagating, and preserving Islamic values and principles. The Qur’an

commands, "Let there be [arising] from you a nation inviting to [all that is] good,

enjoining what is right and forbidding what is wrong, and those will be the

successful" (Qur’an 3:104). This verse lays the foundation for the scholar's role

in guiding the community. "And cooperate in righteousness and piety, but do

not cooperate in sin and aggression." (Qur’an 5:2). This encourages scholars

to engage in communal welfare and avoid divisive actions. Ulama are widely

regarded as the torchbearers of the Islamic religion and foremost in helping to

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preserve the character of Islamic society. They are not only to be custodians of

religious knowledge but also moral exemplars, community leaders, and agents

of positive change. "There has certainly been for you in the Messenger of Allah

an excellent pattern for anyone whose hope is in Allah and the Last Day and

[who] remembers Allah often" (Qur’an 33:21).

Their roles are deeply rooted in Islamic teachings, emphasising knowledge,

conduct, humility, community service, continuous learning, and balanced

judgment. Scholars are expected to make judicious decisions, as the Qur’an

advises: "So judge between them by what Allah has revealed and do not follow

their inclinations away from what has come to you of the truth" (Qur’an 5:48).

This emphasises the need for scholars to base their judgments on Islamic

teachings. “Indeed, Allah is with those who fear Him and those who are doers

of good" (Qur’an 16:128). This reinforces the expectation of scholars to

embody righteous behaviour. "And lower your wing to those who follow you

of the believers" (Qur’an 26:215). This verse advises kindness and humility

towards fellow believers, a quality essential for scholars. Each of these aspects

is vital for their effectiveness in guiding the Muslim community towards spiritual

and moral growth.

The Ulama comprise those who lived with the Prophet (PBUH), his Companions

(Sahabah), and those who came after them and explained and interpreted the

teachings of Islam based on their knowledge and understanding of the sources

of the Islamic tenets. Among the Companions of the Prophet (PBUH), who

became renowned scholars were the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs (Abubakar

Siddiq, Umar bin Khattab, Usman bin Affan, and Ali bin Abi Talib), as well as

Zaid bin Thabit, Aisha bint Abubakar (the wife of the Prophet (PBUH) and the

358
mother of the faithful)46, Ubayyi bin Ka'ab, Abu Musa Al–Ash’ar, Anas bin Malik,

Abdullahi ibn Umar bin Khattab47, Abdullahi ibn Abbas48, Abdullahi ibn

Mas’ood,[60] Abdullahi bin Amr bin Al–Aas and Muazu bin Jabal (Brown, 2009).

These pioneers of Islamic scholarship contributed greatly to the preservation

and propagation of the Islamic faith. Their works and teachings serve as a

crucial source of guidance for Muslims in understanding and practising the

teachings of the Qur'an and Sunnah. Others who followed them, regarded as

Tabi’oon (the Followers of the Companions) include Sa‘id ibn al-Musayyib,

‘Urwah ibn az-Zubayr, Sa’id ibn Jubair, Hasan al-Basri, Mujahid ibn Jabr,

Ikrimah, Nafi’ and Oatadah (Al-Makki, 1991). Those who came after the

Tabi‘oon include people such as Ata ibn Abi Rabah, Alqama ibn Qays, Ibrahim

an-Nakhai, Muhammad ibn Sirin, Ath-Thawri, Malik, Rabi‘ah, Ibn Hormuz, Al-

Hasan ibn Salih, ‘Abdullah ibn al-Hasan, Ibn Abi Layla, Ibn Shubrumah and Al-

Awza’i, Imam Abu Hanifa, Imam Malik, Imam Shafi’ and Imam Ahmad.

5.1 Companions (Sahabah): The First Generation

The legacy of the Sahabah in the dissemination of Islam was immense.

Following the death of the Prophet (PBUH), his Companions, who succeeded

him, worked diligently to ensure that the teachings of Islam were spread far

and wide. They not only engaged in teaching and preaching, but also held

positions and played roles in the administrative, judicial, and legislative affairs

46
She was engaged with the Prophet when she was six or seven, but consummated the marriage when she was
nine after the migration of the Prophet to Madinah. She was eighteen when the Prophet died. She died on 17th
of Ramadan in the year 58 A.H and was buried at Baqiyyah.
47
He was born three years after the Message of the Prophet. He died after the Hajj of the year 73 A.H. after he
had lived for eighty four years.
48
Abdullahi Ibn Abbas was born three years before the Hijra to Madinah. He was thirteen when the Prophet died.
He had been with the Prophet most of his time. He had memorized 1,660 hadeeth as confirmed by Al-Buhari and
Muslims in their Books. Prophet had prayed Allah to give Ibn Abbas wisdom and understanding of the religion. He
died in 68 AH., after he had lived for seventy one years. see Abdul Rahman Ifit Al Basha, Suwar fi hayaati al sahaba,
vol.3, 1984.pp 42. Beirut: Dar Al Nafa’is 16th print.

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of the Islamic state. The Four Rightly Guided Caliphs (Abubakar, Umar, Usman,

and Ali), often consulted the senior Companions in all matters of state, and

highly respected their opinions. Umar bin Khattab (RA) established the first

Islamic court of law during his rule, with Zaid bin Thabit, one of the scribes of

the Qur’an and a senior Companions, presiding as head judge. He was assisted

by a group of the senior Companions who were present in Madinah (Nasr,

2003).

The Companions also established mosques in newly conquered lands to

facilitate congregational prayer and provide a space for learning and teaching

Islamic principles. These Islamic classes were attended to by the people of the

area. The Companions would also travel to these new areas to preach and

spread the message of Islam. Additionally, they participated in military

campaigns of the Islamic State to protect and expand the reach of the Islamic

faith, which saw to many of them getting martyred in the process. The

Companions also wrote letters to rulers of other Muslim States, offering advice

on the implementation of Islamic laws (Kennedy, 2007; Donner, 2010). The

efforts of the Companions in spreading the message of Islam and establishing

the Islamic faith were remarkable and have been an inspiration for generations

to come. They laid the foundations of the Islamic faith and the principles by

which it was to be governed. As a result, we can see the Islamic faith flourishing

in many parts of the world today.

The need for knowledgeable teachers to instruct the people of the newly

conquered Muslim territories in the ways of Islam became particularly apparent

during the reign of Caliph Usman (RA). To address this need, Usman issued a

decree that encouraged senior Companions to leave Madinah and settle in the

new territories. As a result, some Companions were appointed as judges in

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different parts of the Muslim State. Among such Companions were Abdullahi

bin Mas’ood who was sent to Kufa, Bilal bin Raba'a and Mu’azu bin Jabal to

Sham, Abdullahi bin Umar (son of Umar bin Khattab), and Zaid bin Thabit

remained in Madinah. Each of these influential figures was entrusted with the

task of ensuring that people in these regions had access to knowledgeable

teachers who could properly guide them in the Islamic faith. By entrusting

these prominent figures with this responsibility, Usman was able to ensure that

the people of newly conquered territories had access to the teachings of Islam

and could benefit from the wisdom and guidance of the Companions.

Caliph Usman (RA) recognised the importance of providing support and

resources to the Companions who were sent to the new territories in order to

ensure the successful propagation of the Islamic faith. He provided them with

essential provisions and financial assistance, which enabled them to begin their

new lives, as well as to build the necessary religious and educational

establishments, such as mosques, to properly spread the teachings of Islam.

Through the combined efforts of Caliph Usman and the senior Companions

sent to the new territories, the foundations of the Islamic faith were successfully

established in these territories, allowing for the teachings of Islam to spread

and take root and for the Islamic State to take shape and prosper.

In addition to the Companions mentioned earlier, the following were sent:

Abdullahi bin Abbas to Makkah, Abu Musa Al Asha'ri to Basrah, and Abdullahi

bin Amr bin Al–Aas to Misra. These Companions taught the people of the

regions they settled in, who in turn taught others and spread the message of

the religion. Those taught by the Companions were referred to as the followers

or successors of the Companions (Tabi’oon). From these followers and the

places they settled, knowledge of Islamic jurisprudence spread far and wide

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(As Sayees, n.d.: 67; Al-Ashqar 1989: 81). In this regard, Ibn Qayyim, a

renowned scholar of Islamic jurisprudence, noted that Islamic knowledge

spread to the Muslim Ummah from the following Companions of the Prophet

(PBUH) and their companions: the companions of Abdullahi ibn Mas’ood, the

companions of Zaid bin Thabit, the companions of Abdullahi bin Umar, and the

companions of Abdullahi Ibn Abbas (Al-Ashqar, 1989: 81).

At this juncture, it is important to note that the Companions in those areas were

not teaching the same thing, as their levels of understanding and knowledge

of the Qur’an and Sunnah varied. Additionally, the areas in which they settled

differed in terms of their cultural, economic, and social life, their customs and

standard of living. Some of the Companions settled in a highly intellectual

environment and hence had to face their challenge intellectually. The result of

all this was that each area relied on the legal opinion of their scholars. For

example, most of the people of Madinah at that time followed the legal

opinions of Abdullahi bin Umar (who was a Companion), and his students,

Sa’eed bin Al-Museeb (d. 94 AH), ‘Urwatu bin Al–Zubair (d. 94 AH) (among the

followers). In Makkah, the people relied on the opinions of Abdullahi bin Abbas

(a Companion), and his students, Mujahid bin Jabeer, ‘Adaa’a bin Abi Rab’ah,

Dawoos bin Keesaan (among the followers). In Kufa, the people followed the

legal views of Abdullahi bin Mas’ood (a Companion), and his students,

‘Alkamatu An-Nakh‘iy, AlAswad bin Yazid and Masruq. The people of Basrah,

meanwhile, relied on the opinions of Abu Musa Al-Ash’ar and Anas bin Malik

(Companions), and their students, Alhasan Albasry, Muhammad bin Seereen

(among the followers). As for the people of Sham, their views were based on

the opinions of Mu’azu bin Jabal, Ubadatu bin As-Saamit and Abu Ad-Darda’i

(Companions), and their students, Abu Idris Al-Khulaany, Makhool Ad-

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Damashqi, Umar bin Abdul Aziz, Rijaa’u bin Hayoot (among the followers). The

people of Egypt, took to the views of Abdullahi bin Amr bin Al-Aas (a

Companion) and his students (As Sayees, n.d.: 66-7).

5.2 Successors (Followers, Tabi’oon): The Second Generation

The Tabi’oon (the successors), are the generation that came after the time of

Prophet Muhammad’s (PBUH) Companions and did not have the opportunity

to meet the Prophet (PBUH) him directly. Instead, they had the privilege of

meeting and interacting with the Companions of the Prophet (PBUH) and

acquiring knowledge and wisdom from those who had been in the company of

the Messenger of Allah (PBUH).

The period of the followers (successors, or the second generation of Ulama) is

an important milestone in the history of the Muslim Ulama, as it marked the

formal beginning of the two most significant schools of Islamic thought: the

School of Hadith and the School of Interpretation. The period is said to have

started with the stepping down of Al-Hassan bin Ali bin Abi Talib from the

leadership of the Caliphate for Mu’awiyah Bin Abi Sufyan in the year 41 AH and

ended with the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate (Al-Ashqar, 1989: 80; Motzki,

2001), even though in the beginning of the period some Companions

coexisted with the followers, but most of the senior Companions had died.

The emergence of the Schools of Hadith and Interpretation (or Opinion) during

the followers period marked a major transition in the development of Islamic

jurisprudence. Under the leadership of Sa’eed Bin Al-Museeb, who was a

successor and a former student of Abdullahi bin Umar (a Companion), the

School of Hadith was established in Hijaz, and ended with Imam Malik (Al-

Ashqar, 1989: 86). In Kufa (Iraq), the School of Interpretation or Opinion was

363
founded under the leadership of Ibrahim bin An-Nakh‘iy. This school

maintained that Islamic law is based on reason, and thus sought to provide

rational explanations for Islamic legislation, as well as solutions to new issues

that emerged in the Islamic Caliphate. If no clear injunction could be found in

the Qur’an or Sunnah, the school relied on its own opinion and reasoning to

give judgement on the matter. The leadership of the school ended with Imam

Abu Hanifah (Al-Ashqar, 1989: 87; Nyaaze, 2000; Motzki, 2001; Philips, 2006).

This period of the followers is also significant in that it marked the end of the

era of the Companions, with many of the senior Companions having passed

away by this time. As such, the followers ushered in a new era of Islamic

scholarship, which laid the foundations for the two influential schools of

jurisprudence that remain influential to this day.

Travelling in search of knowledge and Hadith was a common practice for many

of the Companions of the Prophet (PBUH). This was due to the fact that some

areas possessed certain knowledge or Hadith which other areas did not, owing

to the different educational backgrounds of the Companions who had settled

in such areas (As Sayees, n.d.: 68). In other words, the reporters of Hadith did

not limit their search of Hadith to the first seat of the Islamic state, Madinah,

but they visited different places to find the Companions of the Prophet (PBUH)

who had spread out in different areas. This was done in order to obtain

authentic Hadith from the hands of the first generation of reporters of Hadith.

This practice of travelling in search of knowledge and Hadith continued until

the time of the jurists who studied under the followers that lived in their

respective areas. Notable jurists included Abu Hanifah, Sufyan Ath-Thawry, and

Ibn Abi Laila in Kufa; Ibn Jariij in Makkah; Malik, ibn Al-Jishun in Madinah;

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Usman Albaty and Suwaar in Basrah; Awzaa’y in Sham; and Al-Laith in Egypt

(Bin A’qeel Azhahiree, 1984: 105).

5.3 Muslim Jurists (Al-Mujtahidoon): The Third Generation

The 3rd century of the Islamic calendar marked a crucial point in the

development of Islamic scholarship. This period saw the emergence of the

Mujtahidoon (Jurists), such as As-Shafi’i in Egypt and Ahmad bin Hambal in

Iraq, who succeeded the earlier generations of the followers. The Mujtahidoon,

like the followers before them, became the dominant Ulama of the Muslims

and continued to teach and give judgement on issues brought to them.

Similarly, this period saw the distinction between people of Hadith and people

of Opinion or Interpretation (Schacht, 1964; Makdisi, 1981).

This period also saw the development of the Shari’ah, or Islamic law, which was

based on the Qur’an, the Sunnah of the Prophet (PBUH), and the consensus of

Islamic scholars. There was a need to establish reliable principles of laws,

custom, and belief that were in accordance with the teachings and practices of

the Prophet (PBUH), his Companions, and followers. This gave rise to the

development of Islamic jurisprudence, which sought to provide guidance on

how the Shari’ah should be applied in different contexts. To this end, renowned

Mujtahidoon such As-Shafi’i in Egypt and Ahmad bin Hambal in Iraq were

appointed to interpret and give judgement on the issues. These jurists became

the dominant Ulama of the Muslims and continued to teach while emphasising

the importance of following the Sunnah and the Hadith. This resulted in a

distinction being made between people of Hadith and people of Opinion or

Interpretation, known as the Usul al-Fiqh (Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence)

(Al-Shafi’i, 1961; Schacht, 1964; Kamali, 1991; Hallaq, 2009; Philips, 2009). This

365
system of jurisprudence has become the basis of Islamic law today and

continues to be the source of guidance for Islamic legal matters.

This period also saw great strides in the development of Islamic scholarship,

marked by an increase in the production of literature concerning the fields of

Hadith, Jurisprudence, Qur’an and Sunnah, the traditions of the Companions

and their followers, and jurisprudence of the existing schools and their

differences (Al-Ashqar, 1989: 93; Motzki, 2001). This period (period of the jurists

up to the end of the 4th century) saw scholars of Hadith, Qur’anic commentary,

jurisprudence, and fundamentals of the religion emerge. Travelling in search of

Hadith was greatly intensified, with conditions set to distinguish between

authentic and weak Hadith, as well as an increase in ijtihad (self-opinions and

interpretation) due to the emergence of new issues. This period also saw the

development of distinct schools of thoughts, with enunciations of their

underlying views (Hallaq, 1997). Moreover, distinctions were made between

the views of individual jurists and their students, which became known as

schools of jurisprudence. As a result, these schools of thought became firmly

established.

5.4 Islamic Jurisprudence (Fiqh)

Islamic jurisprudence, known as “Fiqh” in Arabic, is a body of Islamic law that

deals with the religious, moral, and legal aspects of life in accordance with

Islamic teachings (Campo, 2009; Philips, 2009). Fiqh, in its literal sense, means

understanding or comprehension, derived from the Arabic root "faqaha,"

which means to understand, comprehend, or discern. In its technical sense,

Fiqh refers to the science of Islamic law, which is derived from the Qur'an,

Sunnah (Prophetic traditions), Ijma' (consensus of scholars), Qiyas (analogical

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deduction), and other accepted sources (Al-Zuhayli, 1989; Hallaq, 1997;

Philips, 2009). It encompasses the knowledge and application of Islamic legal

principles and rulings to regulate the lives of Muslims, covering various aspects

of life, including worship, family matters, transactions, criminal law, and

international relations.

Fiqh governs the religious, social, and political lives of Muslims and is based

on the Qur’an and Sunnah. It is divided into two main categories: Fiqh and Usul

al-Fiqh. Fiqh refers to the science of Islamic jurisprudence and its practical

application, concerned with the rules, regulations, and legal decisions that

make up the Islamic legal system. Usul al-Fiqh, on the other hand, is a branch

of Islamic jurisprudence that deals with the methods and principles used to

derive Islamic legal rulings, servings as an analytical and interpretive tool for

studying and understand Islamic law (Kamali, 1991; 2003; Sabiq, 1991; Hallaq,

1997).

The development of Islamic jurisprudence took place over several centuries,

beginning with the Companions. As indicated earlier, whenever a case was

brought to them, they would first seek guidance from the Qur'an. If no

categorical injunction was found, they would look in the Sunnah of the Prophet

(PBUH). If still unable to find guidance, they would consult some of the most

learned among them for their interpretation. If the Companions reached a

consensus on an issue, it would be regarded as such. However, individual

Companions also provided their own views on certain issues, referred to as

analogy, based on their overall understanding of the Qur'an and the Sunnah.

Consequently, the sources of jurisprudence include the Qur'an, Sunnah,

Consensus and Analogy (Schacht, 1964; Kamali, 1991; Hallaq, 1997).

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As Islam expanded beyond Arabia, Muslims encountered new problems that

were not known in the time of the Prophet (PBUH), and the solution to these

problems were not categorically found in either the Qur'an or Sunnah,

requiring the Companions to provide their own interpretations based on their

overall understanding of Islam (Kamali, 1991; Hallaq, 1997). On some issues,

the Companions reached consensus, while on others, they differed in opinion,

as they were human beings with individual perspectives. For example, during

the Caliphate of Umar bin Khattab (RA), an incident occurred in Yemen where

a group of people, about five or seven, killed a child. The Caliph was unable

to find a specific Qur'anic text or Sunnah to judge on the case. Consequently,

he employed analogy and ordered for the execution of the individuals

involved. While most of the companions supported the Caliph’s decision, a few

others preferred payment of compensation rather than execution (Al-Qattan,

1987: 170). Despite their differences, their differences were not considered

fundamental in nature.

5.4.1 Categorisation of all Actions

During the time of the Prophet (PBUH), distinctions such as compulsory (fard),

optional (nafil) and Sunnah in ablution, Salat, Saum or Hajj were not explicitly

made. The Companions of the Prophet (PBUH) followed his example in

performing these religious obligations, as they observed him doing so (Al-

Zuhayli, 1989; Motzki, 2001). There was no need to differentiate between

compulsory and optional action in religious obligation. As the Prophet (PBUH)

once said, “Pray as you see me pray” (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 631). Furthermore, it

is essential to note that the religion of Islam was revealed gradually over time,

368
allowing the Companions to learn and adapt to the practices as they were

introduced.

Ulama, owing to necessity, to simplify the understanding of Islamic practices

for Muslims, made efforts to extract the following five principles from the

general Islamic knowledge: Obligatory (Fard); Recommended but not

obligatory (Mustahabbu); Indifferent (Mubahoon); Disapproved but not

forbidden (Makruh); and Prohibited (Haram). All these are efforts to make

Muslims understand their religion easier.

5.4.1.1 Categorisation of Actions in Worship

This categorisation extends to actions in worship as well, where actions are

categorised into Rookn (fard or wajib), Sunnah, and Mustahabb. However, in

the fourth century (Hijrah), disagreements emerged in jurisprudence and other

branches of knowledge due to the spread of controversial views by the

students of the various schools. This ultimately led to the emergence of four

major schools of jurisprudence led by Imam Abu Hanifah (Baghdad, Iraq), Imam

Malik (Madinah, Saudi Arabia), Imam Shafi’ (Makkah, Saudi Arabia); and Imam

Ahmad Hanbali (Baghdad, Iraq):

Table 5.1

Scholars of the Four Major Schools of Jurisprudence

Scholar Name Lifetime Islamic

Calendar

Nu’man ibn Thabit ibn Imam Abu 699 – 767 CE 80 – 150 AH

Zuta ibn Marzuban Hanifah

369
 Malik ibn Anas ibn Malik Imam Malik 711–795 CE 93–179 AH

ibn Abi 'Amir

Abdullah Muhammad Imam Shafii 767—820 CE 150- 204 AH

ibn Idris al-Shafi’i

Ahmad bin Muhammad Imam Ahmad 780–855 CE 164–241 AH

bin Hanbal Abu Abd Hanbali

Allah
Note. From Abu Zahra (2010).

As a result of these developments, scholars began to align themselves with a

particular school, defending their positions, and focusing their efforts on

writing, expounding the principles of their schools, and teaching them.49]

Despite the differences between these schools on certain issues, they share

common ground in terms of fundamentals beliefs and the core of Islamic

teachings: the belief system, the five pillars of Islam, and the main sources of

the religion – the Qur’an and Sunnah.

Each school reflects the interpretation and methodology of its founder and

evolved through the works of their students and later scholars. The formation

of these schools was a complex process influenced by various factors, including

regional practices, the availability of religious texts, and the socio-political

context of the time. They were not established through a single council or

assembly but rather emerged organically over time as the body of Islamic

scholarship grew and diversified.

49
For detailed discussion on this issue, see Abdullahi Bin Al–Muhsin At–Turky, 1977. Asbabu Ikhtilafi Al–Fuqahaai.
Riyad: Maktabatu Al–Riyad Al–Hadeethat.

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5.4.2 The Four Schools of Islamic Jurisprudence

Since their founding, the four schools of jurisprudence (Madhhab) have played

a significant role in the spread and globalisation of Islam:

Table 5.2

Schools of Jurisprudence and Prevalent Regions

School of Date of Establishment Prevalent Regions

Jurisprudence

Hanafi 8th century Turkey, Central Asia, Iraq, Syria,

1st and 2nd century AH Pakistan, India, United

Kingdom, Europe, Americas

Maliki 8th century North and West Africa,

2nd century AH Morocco, Spain, Sudan

Hanbali 8th century Saudi Arabia, Middle Eastern

2nd century AH countries

Shafi'i 9th century Egypt, East Africa, Southeast

3rd century AH Asia, Middle East

Note. Compiled from Haddad (1995); Makdisi (1981); Murata (1994); Nyazee (2000).

5.4.2.1 Hanafi School (Founded by Imam Abu Hanifa)

Imam Abu Hanifa (Nu'man ibn Thabit), born in 699 in Kufa, Iraq. The Hanafi

school is the oldest of the four schools and was developed in Iraq. It is known

for its use of reason and opinion in the absence of clear texts of Qur’an and

Hadith. Imam Abu Hanifa, along with his students Abu Yusuf and Muhammad

al-Shaybani, laid the foundational principles of this school. It gained

prominence in the Islamic Golden Age (750-1258 CE) and was later adopted

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by the Ottoman Empire (1299-1922 CE), contributing to its widespread

practice.

5.4.2.2 Maliki School (Founded by Imam Malik ibn Anas)

Imam Malik ibn Anas, born in 711 in Madinah, Hejaz (present-day Saudi Arabia).

The Maliki school was developed in Madinah, where Imam Malik spent most of

his life. This school is known for basing its judgments on the Qur’an, Hadith

and practices of the people of Madinah. His seminal work, Al-Muwatta, is

considered one of the earliest and most authentic collections of Hadith and the

practices of the people of Madinah.

5.4.2.3 Shafi’i School (Founded by Imam al-Shafi’i)

Imam al-Shafi'i (Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafi'i), born in 767 in Gaza, Palestine.

Imam al-Shafi'i travelled extensively, studying under prominent scholars in

Makkah, Madinah, and Baghdad. His establishment of the Shafi'i school is

notable for systematising the principles of Islamic jurisprudence in his book, Al-

Risala. He emphasised the use of the Quran, Hadith, consensus (ijma), and

analogical reasoning (qiyas) as sources of law. His work laid the foundations for

a more structured approach to jurisprudence.

5.4.2.4 Hanbali School (Founded by Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal)

Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal, born in 780 in Baghdad, Iraq. The Hanbali school is

known for its strict adherence to the Hadith and avoidance of using personal

opinion in the absence of clear texts. Imam Ahmad was a student of Imam al-

Shafi'i, but he developed his own approach, emphasising the primacy of the

traditions of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). His school gained prominence in

regions like Saudi Arabia and influenced movements such as Wahhabism.

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Below is a table that compares and contrasts the four major Sunni Schools of

Islamic Jurisprudence:

Table 5.3

The Four Schools Compared and Contrasted

Attribute Hanafi Maliki Shafi'i Hanbali

Founder Imam Abu Imam Malik Imam Imam

Hanifa ibn Anas Muhammad Ahmad ibn

ibn Idris al- Hanbal

Shafi'i

Methodology Relies on Emphasizes Established Stresses

ra'y the practice a systematic strict

(opinion) ('amal) of hierarchy of textualism,

and qiyas the people sources, emphasizing

(analogical of Madinah, strict Qur'an and

reasoning) reflects adherence Hadith

when practices to Hadith

Qur'an and from

Hadith are Prophet and

not clear companions

Sources Qur'an, Qur'an, Qur'an, Prefers

Hadith, ijma Hadith, ijma, Hadith, ijma, Qur'an and

(consensus), qiyas, qiyas, Hadith,

qiyas, practice established cautious

opinions of ('amal) of "Usul al- about qiyas

Prophet’s Fiqh"

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 companions, the people and later

Kufan of Madinah consensus

scholars

Distinctive Flexible and Emphasizes Systematic Strict and

Rulings pragmatic, community principles conservative,

expansive welfare, (usul al-fiqh), avoids

view of incorporates emphasis on speculative

public local authentic theology

interest customs Hadith

(maslaha) ('urf)

Characteristics More room Views Developed Strict

for personal consensus a adherence to

judgment in of the sophisticate the texts of

cases not people of d system for the Qur'an

explicitly Madinah as deriving and Hadith

covered by secondary legal rulings

Qur'an or source

Hadith
Note. Compiled from Schacht (1964); Al-Zuhayli (1989); Hallaq (1997; 2009); Kamali (1991).

This table summarises the primary differences among the four schools

regarding their methodologies, sources, distinctive rulings, and characteristics.

As indicated previously, while these schools have differences, they also share

many similarities and agree on the core tenets of Islam.

It is important to note that while each Madhhab has its unique methodology

and rulings, they all recognise the validity of each other. The differences are

not divisive but are instead reflective of the rich intellectual diversity within

374
Islamic jurisprudence. While the schools have their differences, they also have

vast areas of agreement. The differences arose out of diverse historical, cultural,

and intellectual contexts, and all Madhhabs aim to provide interpretations that

they believe are most faithful to the sources of Islam. For example, some of the

specific minor points of differences on various issues among the schools

include the following, as enunciated by Al-Zuhayli (1989); Sabiq (1991); Philips

(2006); Kandhlawi (2008) in Table 5.4:

Table 5.4

Minor Points of Differences on some Issues among the Schools

Issue Hanafi Maliki Shafi’i Hanbali

Prayer (Salat)

Raising Only at the Similar to At the Similar to

Hands in beginning Hanafi beginning, Shafi’i

Prayer before and

after ruku

Position of Below the Hang at the Above the Similar to

Hands navel sides navel, below Shafi’i

the chest

Saying Softly Out loud in Out loud in Out loud

Ameen congregation congregationa in

al prayers l prayers congregati

onal

prayers

Ablution

(Wudu)

375
Bleeding Breaks wudu Does not Does not Does not

break unless break unless break

profuse profuse unless

profuse

Touching the Does not Does not Breaks wudu Does not

Opposite break wudu break wudu break

Gender wudu

Fasting

(Saum)

Swallowing Does not Does not Does not Swallowin

Saliva/ break fast break fast break fast g thick

Mucus mucus

breaks fast

Tasting Food Permissible Permissible Disliked Disliked

without without (makruh) (makruh)

swallowing swallowing

Zakat

(Almsgiving)

Debts Not deducted Deducted Deducted Deducted

from wealth

Precious Zakat due if No Zakat No Zakat No Zakat

Stones they are for unless they unless they unless

trade are for trade are for trade they are

for trade

Marriage

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 Guardian's Not essential Essential Essential Essential

Approval for a mature

woman
Note. Compiled from Al-Zuhayli (1989); Sabiq (1991); Philips (2006); Kandhlawi (2008).

The emergence of these schools occurred during times of intense religious

division and political upheaval, which characterised the early development of

Islamic political thinking (Hallaq, 1997). This spread and influence of the

schools were largely facilitated by their students, who wrote extensively on

their respective schools and disseminated their teachings. Influential political

leaders and wealthy patrons often supported the dissemination of these

teachings, establishing schools to propagate the ideas of the school they

supported, while excluding competing views (Al-Ashqar, 1989: 160). As a

result, the teachings of the four schools spread and their ideas became

entrenched in Islamic societies. In addition, the dissemination of the ideas of

these schools was aided by the development of the madrasah system (Makdisi,

1981), which allowed for the education of the masses in the teachings of the

four schools.

The development and spread of the Islamic schools of jurisprudence were also

influenced by the various Islamic Caliphates that emerged throughout history.

The Abbasid Caliphate, which rose to power in the 8th century, supported the

Hanafi School and made it the official school of the Caliphate (Al-Ashqar 1989:

161; 189).50 When the Fatimids took control of Egypt in the 10th century, they

50
Caliph Al–Rasheed appointed Abu Yoosif as the chief justice of the Caliphate. One of his roles was ensuring
that judges follow the school of his teacher, Abu Hanifa, in their dispensation of justice. Before then, Caliph Abu
Ja'afar Al–Mansoor had wanted to make Maliki school as the official school in the Caliphate by using the Muwatta
of Imam Malik, but Malik advised against that pointing out that his book has not contained all the hadith of the
Prophet. Most of the Prophets Hadith were available with some people in different parts of the Caliphate. See
Umar Sulaiman Al Ashqar 1989; 161; 189.

377
abolished the Hanafi School and replaced it with the Ismaa’ilee School, but

allowed the spread of the Maliki, Shafi’i and Hanbali Schools (As Sayees, n.d.,

120; Al-Ashqar, 1989: 161).

The Ottoman Empire reinstated the Hanafi School as the official School for the

Caliphate when they took control of Egypt in the early 16th century. However,

ordinary people were allowed to follow any School they wished in the practice

of their religious obligations, as a policy of religious tolerance that was

embraced by many scholars to ensure fair and equitable justice (Al-Ashqar,

1989: 161, 191). The spread of the Islamic Schools was also evident in the

Iberian Peninsula (Spain), where the Umayyads promoted the Maliki School,

the Ayyubis supported the Shafi’i School, and the Saudis spread the Hanbali

School (Al-Ashqar, 1989: 161). These schools were endorsed by the orthodox

Muslim Ummah to maintain order and preserve the puritan nature of Islam from

interpolations.

In the present day, there is no need for Muslims to be divided along these same

lines. However, it is important to provide a clear scientific criterion for ijtihad

(analogy, judgement) through consensus of scholars, so that it is not left open

to individual desires. Doing so would ensure that Islamic jurisprudence is

applied consistently and equitably.

At the dawn of Islam, Muslims relied on the Prophet (PBUH) and his

Companions to address any issues that arose. After his death, issues were

referred to his living Companions, and later to the Tabi’oon (those who were

Muslims, lived with the Companions, and died as Muslims) (Siddiqui, 1993; Al-

Sibai, 2007). Subsequently, the Imams of the four schools emerged. While they

were closer to the generation of the Prophet (PBUH) than contemporary Ulama,

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Islam has spread significantly. Today, the religion is understood and practiced

as if people are living closer to the time of the Prophet (PBUH) and the

Companions.

Knowledge is more accessible today due to the availability of extensive

literature on Islam. This development has led to a greater appreciation for the

volume of knowledge at the disposal of Ulama today. It is now common to see

ordinary Islamic scholars with various Tafsir books, six collections of authentic

Hadith and numerous collections of Islamic literature. Islamic books are printed

almost daily in different languages and people are reading them. This makes it

possible to draw from this body of knowledge what is “the standard.” By this,

we are neither claiming that Muslims today are more knowledgeable about

Islam, nor are we assuming that they possess more faith, but rather that they

have better access to knowledge and are more exposed to challenges of

knowledge than before.

Prior to the invention of printing technology, only very few people had access

to copies of the Qur’an, let alone copies of the authentic Hadith. People relied

on the teachings and writings of the four Imams and their students, as they

were more accessible and less voluminous than the Qur’an with 114 chapters

and over 6,000 verses, in manuscript; apart from learning its meaning or the six

authentic Books of Hadith which came later.

People preferred to read simpler and smaller books on Islam than reading the

Qur’an and its meaning and Hadith directly from the source, which was

considered difficult and assumed to be the work of learned scholars.

Furthermore, some weak Hadith were used to discourage ordinary Muslims

from reading the Qur’an, indicating that Qur’an curses whoever reads it without

379
acting upon it, or that Qur’an cannot be touched without ablution. All these

factors contributed to Muslims following and remaining within their supposedly

predestined schools.

However, with the invention of printing machines and their widespread use,

access to Islamic knowledge began to change. More copies of the Qur’an

began to be published: the first complete Arabic text of the Qur’an was printed

and published in 1694 in Hamburg, Germany (Von Denffer, n.d.). The

production of authentic Hadith and the writings of the Imams of the four

schools, increased, making Islamic knowledge more accessible. Additionally,

electronic media further facilitated the spread of knowledge. The Qur’an is now

available through various mediums, such as video tapes, cassettes, computers,

tablets, mobile phones, and flash drives. This allows people to learn without

attending formal school, and as a result, the number of people who have

memorised the Qur’an has grown.

Some contemporary Ulama have drawn attention to the problems of blind

imitation (taqlid) and emphasised the importance of Hadith over the opinions

of the four Imams if their opinions contradict authentic Hadith. For instance, in

the Maliki School, if one forgets and eats food during the day in Ramadan, one

should compensate the fast after Ramadan. However, this position changed

when an authentic Hadith was found, which Abu Huraira reported: “The

Messenger of Allah (PBUH) said: if somebody eats or drinks forgetfully then he

should complete his Saum (fast), for what he has eaten or drank, has been given

to him by Allah" (Sahih Al-Buhari: 1933; Sahih Muslim: 1155). Since this Hadith

is available and accessible to Muslims, it overrides the previous ruling by Imam

Malik. Imam Malik once said, “There is only one truth; two contradictory views

380
cannot be both right; there is only one truth and one right” (Al-Ashqar, 1989:

163).

However, the schools have remained resistant to change and often refuse to

accept other opinions if they come from another school (Makdisi, 1981). They

also discourage followers from exploring alternative views or adopting issues

from other schools. If, for example, one belongs to the Maliki School of

Jurisprudence (Malikite), one should not venture into another school for

purposes of observing certain religious obligation. Certain schools allow eating

of a horse, but the Maliki School prevents that. So, a Malikite should not eat a

horse, even if so doing is not against the teaching of the Prophet (PBUH). As a

result, a situation emerged where it seemed as if the four schools were the main

sources of Islam. It should, however, be pointed out that the Imams did not

intend for this to happen, rather their students, in an attempt to preserve the

puritan status of Islam, did what they thought was necessary given the absence

of print media and the rise of free thinkers in Islam.

This has become the dominant approach to understanding Islam and has

persisted until today, with the methodologies of the Four Schools still being

taught in Islamic universities and centres for Islamic studies. Shari’ah systems

of the Four Schools continue to be applied in all Islamic societies. However, the

situation has changed, and it is now crucial to revive the original approach to

understanding Islam: upholding the Qur’an and the Sunnah, and, where there

is no clear injunction from the primary sources, referring to the views of the

Ulama, including the Four Imams and others. The Four Imams did not differ on

the fundamentals of Islam, and all the Schools promoted Islamic interests,

relying on the Qur’an, Sunnah, and the traditions of the Companions and their

followers.

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It is essential that the new generation of Muslims see Islam not from the

perspective of any particular School of Jurisprudence, but from the Qur'an and

Sunnah, especially for those with the required knowledge of Ijtihad. This does

not imply that the Book and Sunnah should be understood in isolation from

other works by Ulama or that the contributions of the Four Imams should be

disregarded. Rather, the aim is to enable the new generation of Muslims to

avoid identifying themselves as Malikites, Hanifites, Shafi’ites, Hanbalites, and

instead embrace being Muslims, as they are addressed in the Qur’an and

Sunnah:

He has chosen you (to convey His Message of Islamic

Monotheism to mankind by inviting them to His religion of Islam)

and has not laid upon you in religion any hardship: it is the

religion of your father Ibrahim (Abraham) (Islamic Monotheism).

It is He (Allah) Who has named you Muslims both before and in

this (the Qur’an), that the Messenger (Muhammad PBHU) may

be a witness over you, and you be witnesses over mankind! So,

perform As-Salat, give Zakat, and hold fast to Allah [i.e., have

confidence in Allah, and depend upon Him in all your affairs].

He is your Maula (Patron, Lord), what an Excellent Maula (Patron,

Lord) and what an Excellent Helper! (Qur’an 22:78).

Of course, Muslims may belong to different organisations or groups and may

accept viewpoints from any of the Four Schools on given issues, but they

should not see themselves as belonging to one particular school. Islam is a

straight path, and there is no room for unnecessary divisions among Muslims.

Neither the Qur’an nor the Sunnah mentions the Four Schools, let alone

institutionalising them. While the Four Imams have made significant

382
contributions to the spread of Da’awah and Islamic knowledge, it is essential

to move beyond the boundaries of these schools and view Islam from the

perspectives of individual scholars, including the Imams of the Four Schools.

The Four Imams relied on the Qur’an and Sunnah to justify their actions, and

where there were no categorical statements in both, they used their

judgements within the limits of overall Islamic injunctions. The Imams used their

judgement on many issues, not knowing that a Hadith existed on those issues.

There are, however, instances where the Imams used the same verses or Hadith

but arrived at different interpretations of the issue at hand (Schacht, 1964;

Kamali, 1991; Hallaq, 2009), which is understandable due to their backgrounds,

experiences, and the Hadith available to them at the time.

There is nothing wrong with acknowledging and appreciating the views of the

Imams on various issues. However, it is crucial to discourage the division of

Muslims along the lines of the Four Schools of Jurisprudence, as this division

has persisted for centuries without any explicit sanctions from the Qur’an or

Sunnah.

As stated earlier, some Ulama have called for discarding blind attachment to

the schools in favour of better opinion or clear injunctions from the Qur'an and

the Sunnah since the 7th century (Kamali, 1991). One reason for the

continuation of this phenomenon is the use of a Hadith by some Ulama to

justify the differences of opinion among Muslim Scholars: “Difference of

opinion among my people is a blessing.” However, this Hadith has been found

by scholars to be baseless, without any foundation (Al-Zuhayli, 1989). Thus, it

is wrong for any Muslim to cling tenaciously to a view of any school if they know

that such a view conflicts with the Qur’anic injunction or Hadith of the Prophet

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(PBUH). Emphasising unity and focusing on the Qur’an and Sunnah as primary

sources of guidance is essential for the Muslim community’s growth and

understanding of Islam.

5.4.3 Various Interpretations

The difference in interpretation among Ulama today is not a new phenomenon;

differences existed even among the Companions, but on a limited scale and

more controllable. At the time of the Prophet (PBUH), such differences were

quickly referred to him and resolved immediately. For example, Ibn Umar

narrated an instance where the Prophet (PBUH) did not berate either of the two

groups with differing opinions on when to offer ‘Asr prayer during the day of

Al-Ahzab: “On the day of Al-Ahzab (i.e., Clans) the Prophet (PBUH) said, "None

of you Muslims should offer the 'Asr prayer but at Banu Quraiza's place." The

'Asr prayer became due for some of them on the way. Some of those said, "We

will not offer it till we reach it, the place of Banu Quraiza," while some others

said, "No, we will pray at this spot, for the Prophet (PBUH) did not mean that

for us." Later on, it was mentioned to the Prophet (PBUH), and he did not

berate any of the two groups” (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 445).

In a similar narration, the Prophet (PBUH) authorised his Companions

immediately after the battle of the trench not to pray Asr but at Banu Quraizha

(a Jewish tribe living in Madinah): Whosoever believes in Allah and the Day of

Judgement, he should not pray Asr but at Banu Quraizha. On their way, before

reaching Banu Quraizha, some Companions said that since it was time for Asr

they should pray on time for Prophet’s (PBUH) instruction was for them to reach

their destination in time and not necessarily to delay Asr. Other Companions

disagreed arguing that they should not pray Asr until at Banu Qurayza as the

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Prophet (PBUH) had instructed. Here, it could be seen that while the first group

was concerned with the aim of the Prophet (PBUH)’s instruction, the second

group was concerned with the actual wording of the Prophet (PBUH)

instruction. In the end, when the Prophet (PBUH) was informed of what had

happened, he did not fault any of the groups (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 946; Al-Ashqar:

1989).

During the time of the orthodox Caliphs, when faced with an issue without clear

guidance from the Qur’an or Hadith, they would consult their Companions for

any relevant injunctions. If no such injunction existed, they would use their own

analogy in light of other injunctions and make judgements accordingly (Bin

A’qeel Azhahiree, 1984:103). The Companions occasionally differed in their

explanations, reporting, and interpretations of the Prophet’s (PBUH) Hadith.

Their varying experiences and proximity to the Prophet (PBUH) likely

contributed to these differences. Some Companions joined Islam early, while

others did so later, and not all were consistently in the Prophet’s (PBUH)

presence; some might have been in the markets for trading or other

businesses, particularly the immigrants (Muhajirun), while others might have

been in their farms such as the helpers (Ansar) when the Prophet (PBUH) was

explaining a given Qur’anic verse, or giving a ruling on an issue, or approving

or disapproving certain actions or answering questions of some of the

Companions. Those who were around took note and memorised whatever they

learned; some of those who were not present, might have learned from other

Companions (Bin A’qeel Azhahiree, 1984:103).

In other words, it was impossible for all Companions to be present to hear or

observe the actions of the Prophet (PBUH) or his approval and disapproval of

certain actions at the same time and place during the 23 years of revelation (13

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in Makkah and 10 in Madinah). Additionally, some sayings and actions of the

Prophet (PBUH) might have been abrogated over time, but not all Companions

would have been aware of such changes. For example, Prophet (PBUH) initially

prevented people from visiting graves and later permitted it, as reported by

Ibn Mas’ud: “The Messenger of Allah (PBUH), said, “I had prohibited you from

visiting graves, but you may visit them now. Verily, they will weaken your

attachment to the world and remind you of the Hereafter” (Sunan Ibn Majah:

1571). Similarly, temporary marriage was initially allowed but later abrogated

before the Prophet's (PBUH) death, as reported by Sabrah al-Juhanni that the

Messenger of Allah (PBUH) had prohibited temporary marriage where he said,

“Behold, it is forbidden from this day of yours until the Day of Resurrection”

(Sahih Muslim: 1406).

Thus, some Companions might be knowledgeable about certain injunctions

while others might not. For instance, Aisha, Ibn Umar, and Abu Hurairah were

not aware of the injunction of rubbing on slippers during ablution, while Ali,

Huzaifa and others were aware (Bin A’qeel Azhahiree, 1984: 104). Some

Companions might even forget what they had learnt from the Prophet (PBUH)

in the course of time. For example, when the Prophet (PBUH) died, Umar bin

Khattab was so confused, disturbed, and said that the Prophet (PHUB) did not

die, he should be the last to die among them. However, he was quickly

reminded that it was not strange for the Prophet (PBUH) to die for Allah had

said to the Prophet (PBUH): “Verily you (O Muhammad, PBUH) will die, and

verily they (too) will die” (Qur’an 39:30).

Another verse elaborates further:

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 Muhammad (PBUH) is no more than a Messenger, and indeed

(many) Messengers have passed away before him. If he dies or

is killed, will you then turn back on your heels (as disbelievers)?

And he who turns back on his heels, not the least harm will he

do to Allah; and Allah will give reward to those who are grateful

(Qur’an 3:144).

Umar (RA) could not believe what he had heard, for he knew the verse, but had

forgotten about it completely. Thus, this arose because of forgetfulness.

As a result of all this, at times the Companions would use their own personal

views not knowing or forgetting about the existence of Hadith on the issue until

they were reminded. For example, Ibn Umar used to order women to undo

their hair when they had purification bath. However, when Aisha (RA) heard

about it, she was surprised and said to Ibn Umar that: “I used to bath together

with the Prophet (PBUH) in the same bath and I did not stop putting water three

times on my head” and, regarding this, Umm Salama reported: I said:

Messenger of Allah (PBUH), I am a woman who has closely plaited hair on my

head; should I undo it for taking a bath, because of sexual intercourse? He (the

Prophet (PBUH)) said: No, it is enough for you to throw three handfuls of water

on your head and then pour water over yourself, and you shall be purified

(Sahih Muslim: 643).

This is not only in the area of Hadith, but also in the interpretation and

commentary on Qur’anic verses. Some words may have several meanings while

some verses may apparently look contradictory. In this context Abdullah Ibn

Umar made unlawful marrying women of the Book because of the following

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Qur’anic verse: “And do not marry idolatresses till they believe” (i.e., worship

Allah Alone) (Qur’an 2:221).

A Companion of the Prophet (PBUH), Naafi, reported:

Whenever Ibn Umar was asked about marrying a Christian lady

or a Jewess, he would say: “Allah has made it unlawful for the

believers to marry ladies who ascribe partners in worship to

Allah, and I do not know of a greater thing, as regards to

ascribing partners in worship, etc. to Allah, than that a lady

should say that Jesus is her Lord although he is just a slave from

the slaves of Allah” (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 209).

However, majority of the Sahabah did not agree with him on the ground of the

following verse:

(Lawful to you in marriage) are chaste women from the believers

and chaste women from those who were given the Scripture

(Jews and Christians) before your time, when you have given

them their due Mahr (bridal money given by the husband to his

wife at the time of marriage), desiring chastity (i.e., taking them

in legal wedlock) not committing illegal sexual intercourse, nor

taking them as girl – friends (Qur’an 5:5).

They argued that while the verse Ibn Umar was relying on was specifically

talking about the idolatresses, the above verse is talking about the people of

the Book, who although had element of Shirk (disbelief) in their distorted belief

system, Allah had distinguished them from those who were completely

idolators. It was not surprising; therefore, some Companions married some

Christian women and there was no hustle about it (Al-Qattan, 1987: 158).

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Furthermore, the Prophet (PBUH) said: “If not for hardship, I would have

prescribed for my Ummah to use chewing stick at each prayer” (Sunan Ibn

Majah: 289) Some Ulama interpreted this to mean using chewing stick at

ablution before prayer. They argued that the Prophet (PBUH) was concerned

with cleanliness and hence should be done not during prayer. Other Ulama

said that the Prophet (PBUH) was referring to using chewing stick a moment

before Salat. That is chewing the stick during iqamat or before prayer not at

ablution as others have contended.

Similarly, during the Caliphate of Umar bin Khattab (RA) of the Prophet (PBUH)

drank alcohol, using the following verse as his justification:

There is no blame on those who believe and do righteous deeds

for what they consumed before [its prohibition], so long as they

fear Allah, believe and do righteous deeds, then they fear Allah

[more] and believe, then they fear Allah and do good, for Allah

loves those who do good (Qur’an 5: 93).

He thought that faith and righteous deeds could change the injunction on

drinking of alcohol. However, Caliph Umar and other Companions of the

Prophet (PBUH) who were around explained to him that the verse was revealed

after injunction on drinking of alcohol was promulgated and it was to remove

any feeling of guilt in the minds of those who were drinking before it was

prohibited. He was thus advised to change his view on the subject and

accordingly punished for drinking alcohol (Al-Omary, 1984: 97-8).

Furthermore, in the absence of clear injunction in the Qur’an or Sunnah, the

Companions relied on their personal opinions. When it comes to personal

opinions, people are more likely to differ in their judgement. In spite of all this,

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the difference among the Companions was little and not basic for they stuck to

consultation and consensus wherever possible (As Sayees, n.d.: 50-1). That is,

whenever there was difference of opinion among themselves on a given

religious injunction, they would return to the Qur’an and the Sunnah to identify

the truth, without any rancour. It should be remembered that the Companions

were the closest to the Prophet (PBUH), most knowledgeable about his

message and were able to spread the message in the light of the Qur’an and

Sunnah. Allah, the Almighty has praised them:

And the first to embrace Islam of the Muhajirin (those who

migrated from Makkah to Al – Madinah) and Ansar (the citizen

of Al – Madinah who helped and gave aid to the Muhajirin) and

those who followed them exactly (in faith). Allah is well pleased

with them as they are well – pleased with Him. He has prepared

for them Gardens under which rivers flow, to dwell therein for

ever. That is the supreme success (Paradise) (Qur’an 9:100).

Those who believed, migrated, and fought with their wealth and

their lives in the cause of Allah, and those who provided

[migrants] with shelter and help – they are allies of one another.

As for those who believed but did not migrate, you have no

obligation to protect them until they migrate. But if they seek

your help in religion, it is your obligation to help, except against

people with whom you have a treaty. And Allah is All-Seeing of

what you do (Qur’an 8:72)

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5.4.4 Effect of Interpretation

The understanding of Islam is influenced by the accessibility and source of

interpretation, including religious scholars, books, and the society in which one

lives. It is important to note, however, that Islamic scholarship encompasses

multiple schools of jurisprudence and interpretations of the Qur’an and Hadith,

which may vary depending on theological beliefs, cultural context, or historical

understanding. For example, Sunni, Sufi (though most Sufis are Sunni), Shi’a,

and Kharijite scholars may interpret the Qur’anic verses differently. However,

regardless of these factors, Muslims should seek to understand the Qur'an as

a whole, using it as a reference point in disagreements and allowing it to guide

their decisions, rather than relying solely on their own personal interpretations:

O you who believe! Obey Allah and obey the Messenger

(Muhammad PBUH)), and those of you (Muslims) who are in

authority. (And) if you differ in anything amongst yourselves,

refer it to Allah and His Messenger (PBUH), if you believe in Allah

and in the Last Day. That is better and more suitable for final

determination (Qur’an 4:59).

The problem, however, is when people use different interpretations of the

Qur’an, and where some commentators of the Qur’an do not share the view of

some Companions of the Prophet (PBUH) and hence reject their Hadith, it

becomes difficult to resolve such problems. However, if both parties approach

the issue with sincerity, as Allah instructs in the Qur’an, and work together in

good faith to understand the truth, they can find a resolution. This is because

the Qur’an explains itself (some verses explain other verses) and the Sunnah of

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the Prophet (PBUH) provides a comprehensive explanation of the whole

Qur’an.

The problem of sectarianism has been a part of the Muslim community since

the conflict between Ali and Mu’awiyah in 657 AD, and it continues to this day.

The Prophet (PBUH) was reported to have said that the Muslim community

would divide into 73 sects, of which only one group would be on the right path

(Sunan Ibn Majah: 3992). Although several Muslim groups had come and gone

since the Battle of Siffin (657 AD), there are still several that remain, including

Ahlus-Sunnah, Shi’a and Kharijites. Each group claims to be on the right path,

basing its beliefs on a combination of the Qur’an and Sunnah (Lapidus, 1988;

Madelung, 1996). While sectarianism may be unavoidable, it is important to

remember that we are all united under the same religion and should strive to

maintain respect and understanding for the beliefs of others.

5.5 Importance of the Ulama

Ulama, in their role of explaining the Qur’an, are performing a very important

function, conforming with what the Prophet (PBUH) has said, that the Ulama

are successors of Prophets. They explain and show people the right way. They

have an important position in society, as Allah asks can you compare those who

know with those who do not? They also fear Allah most: “Say, ‘Are those who

know equal to those who do not know?’ It is only the people of understanding

who will take heed” (Qur’an 39:9).

5.6 Relevance of Knowledge

Knowledge of Islam is crucial, as it is only through understanding Islam that

one can truly appreciate the wisdom of Allah and fear Him most. Allah says:

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“Only the people of knowledge among His slaves fear Allah. Indeed, Allah is

All-Mighty, All-Forgiving” (Qur’an 35:28).

It is important to note that while knowledge of the religion is highly

encouraged, not every Muslim is required to become a scholar. It is sufficient

for some to specialise in Islamic jurisprudence to teach others and provide

guidance and answers about the religion:

It is not right for the believers to march forth all at once; a group

should go forth to acquire deeper knowledge of the religion, in

order to admonish their people when they return to them, so

that they may be cautious (Qur’an 9:122).

In the light of the above Qur’anic verse, it should be understood that while

some acquire knowledge of Islamic sciences (such as Qur’anic exegesis, Hadith

studies, Islamic jurisprudence, and theology), others would be required to

pursue knowledge in other domains of human endeavour such as in the fields

of natural and applied sciences, agriculture, commerce, technology, and social

sciences. Allah alluded to this in the following verses of the Qur’an:

1. Sciences:

A. Astronomy: "It is He Who created the night and the day, and the sun

and the moon. They swim along, each in an orbit" (Qur'an, 21:33).

B. Biology/Embryology: "Then We made the sperm-drop into a clinging

clot, and We made the clot into a lump [of flesh], and We made [from]

the lump, bones, and We covered the bones with flesh; then We

developed him into another creation. So blessed is Allah, the best of

creators" (Qur'an, 23:14).

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 C. Geology: "And among His Signs is this, that He created you (Adam) from

dust, and then [Hawwa' (Eve) from Adam's rib, and then his offspring

from the semen, and], - behold you are human beings scattered!"

(Qur'an, 30:20).51

2. Agriculture:

"Do you not see that Allah sends down rain from the sky, and

We produce thereby fruits of varying colours? And in the

mountains are tracts, white and red of varying shades and

[some] extremely black" (Qur'an, 35:27).

"And He it is who produces gardens trellised and untrellised,

and date palms, and crops of different shape and taste (its fruits

and its seeds) and olives, and pomegranates, similar (in kind)

and different (in taste). Eat of their fruit when they ripen..."

(Qur'an, 6:99).

3. Commerce:

A. Honesty in Trade: "Woe to those who give less [than due], Who, when

they take a measure from people, take in full. But if they give by measure

or by weight to them, they cause loss." (Qur'an, 83:1-3)

B. Prohibition of Usury (Riba): "Those who consume interest cannot stand

[on the Day of Resurrection] except as one stands who is being beaten

by Satan into insanity..." (Qur'an, 2:275).

51
Abu Musa al-Ashari reported: The Messenger of Allah (PBUH), said, “Verily, Allah Almighty created Adam
from a handful which He took from the earth, so the children of Adam come in accordance with the earth.
Some come with red skin, white skin, or black skin, and whatever is in between: smooth and rough, bad, and
good.” Source: Jami al-Tirmidhi: 2955.

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4. Other Fields:

A. Reflection on Creation: "Do they not look at the camels, how they are

created? And at the sky, how it is raised? And at the mountains, how they

are erected? And at the earth, how it is spread out?" (Qur'an, 88:17-20).

B. Oceanography: "Or [they are] like darknesses within an unfathomable

sea which is covered by waves, upon which are waves, over which are

clouds - darknesses, some of them upon others..." (Qur'an, 24:40).

These verses, among others, are understood by many scholars and thinkers to

indicate the Qur'an's encouragement of the study of the natural world and

human society. While the Qur'an is not a science textbook, its references to

various natural phenomena invite reflection on the wonders of the universe and

the signs of the Divine.

5.7 Navigating Challenges in Contemporary Islamic Scholarship

In the field of contemporary Islamic scholarship, a significant challenge arises

when some scholars, particularly among the younger generation, attempt to

interpret the Qur’an and Sunnah in addressing complex issues without a

thorough grasp of the foundational aspects of Islamic jurisprudence, the

concept of abrogation in the Qur’an, and the authenticity and contextualisation

of Hadith. It is essential to recognise that some Hadith, despite seeming to

possess general applications, were originally intended for specific contexts.

The proper interpretation of Islamic matters necessitates a comprehensive

understanding of the subject matter and its relevant Islamic principles.

Furthermore, in the contemporary landscape, presenting new Islamic

interpretations requires the consensus of Ulama who specialise in religious

affairs.

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Historically, even during the time of the Prophet (PBUH), the Companions who

were present during the revelation of the Qur’an and the explanation of the

Sunnah did not individually engage in Islamic interpretation. Instead, a smaller

group of approximately 130 Companions, with seven primary interpreters,

assumed the responsibility, while others relied on these experts for guidance

(Al-Omary, 1984: 96-7; Siddiqui, 1993). Muslims were instructed to consult

knowledgeable individuals if they were uncertain about an issue, as stated in

the Qur’an: “We did not send before you except men to whom We sent

revelation. Ask the people of knowledge if you do not know” (Qur’an 16:43).

Today, many Muslim youth condemn and castigate older Ulama without

appreciating their circumstances, conditions, and their level of exposure to

Islamic knowledge. Many past Ulama focused primarily on Fiqh (Islamic

Jurisprudence) with limited emphasis on Hadith and Tafsir (Interpretation of the

Qur’an) (Hallaq, 1997; Philips, 2006). This focus on Fiqh can be attributed to

the establishment of the Four Schools of Jurisprudence, each founded by an

Islamic jurist aiming to develop a comprehensive legal system based on the

Qur’an, Hadith, and their understanding of Islamic principles. This led to a

focus on Fiqh as the primary means of understanding and applying Islamic

teachings (Al-Zuhayli, 1989). Therefore, it is essential to acknowledge and

appreciate that many older Ulama in some societies might not have had

exposure to extensive Qur’anic interpretation or voluminous Hadith, given their

limited scope of knowledge in Islam.

Today, modern students of Islamic studies benefit from access to collections of

authentic Hadith, original works of Tafsir, and essential texts from the Four

Schools of Jurisprudence. This enhanced accessibility and streamlined learning

396
enabling a deeper and more comprehensive understanding of Islamic

teachings.

5.8 Role of Ulama in Science and Technological Development

Muslim scholars began attempting to acquire and master various sciences

within the 1st century of the Hijrah. However, it was not until the introduction of

papermaking during the Umayyad period that their efforts gained widespread

recognition (Bloom, 2001). The increased availability of paper, coupled with the

patronage of rulers who provided resources and supported scholars,

significantly contributed to the development of Islamic sciences. The copying

of books flourished, and the advent of paper facilitated the establishment of

libraries, which granted scholars access to a wide range of books and

manuscripts (Bloom, 2001; Sardar, 2011), enabling them to learn and develop

various sciences.

Muslim scholars not only continued the tradition of copying and editing

manuscripts and commentaries but also improved upon them by adding their

own interpretations and explanations. This created a rich Islamic scholarly

tradition that evolved throughout the centuries. This tradition facilitated

knowledge sharing and transmission, enabling Islamic sciences to flourish.

Additionally, early Muslim scholars took it upon themselves to collect, organise,

and preserve the knowledge from their predecessors’ books and manuscripts,

ensuring its passage from one generation to the next (Saliba, 2007; Sardar,

2011).

Muslims also established libraries and educational and research institutions to

preserve and disseminate knowledge, further promoting the development of

Islamic sciences (Makdisi, 1981). They produced crucial scientific works during

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the Islamic Golden Age by translating existing knowledge into Arabic, studying

it, and contributing original ideas. The progress of Islamic sciences was

supported by the establishment of pioneering institutions such as the Baitul

Hikmah (House of Wisdom), Zaitoonah, and Nizamiyyah Universities in

Baghdad, Al-Azhar and Fustat in Cairo, the University of Cordoba in Spain, Al-

Qarawiyyin in Fez, Morocco, and Sankore University in the Empire of Mali

(oldest in sub-Saharan Africa) (Makdisi, 1981; Saliba, 2007). Consequently, they

attained a dominance in the sciences that persisted for the next 600 years

(Sardar, 2011). Al-Azhar University has been operating for over two centuries,

since 970 CE before the establishment of pioneering European universities

such as Oxford University in Britain, established in the 10th century, the

University of Paris in the 12th century, and the University of Cambridge, England

in 1209 (Makdisi, 1981; Al-Khalili, 2011). The University of Cordoba in Spain

was a particularly prominent centre of enlightenment in Europe. Students from

across the continent travelled there to study disciplines such as astronomy,

mathematics, medicine, geography, psychology, Islamic philosophy, and other

sciences (Saliba, 2007; Sardar, 2011). Scholars at these institutions were heavily

involved translating scientific works from Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit into Arabic

granting them access to knowledge from other civilisations and preserving

much of the classical world’s knowledge during the Middle Ages (Saliba, 2007;

Al-Khalili, 2011).

It is important to note that many of these institutions were comprehensive

centres of learning, incorporating religious studies with various other

disciplines like medicine, astronomy, mathematics, and philosophy. Their

impact can be seen in the preservation and propagation of knowledge during

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times when Europe was experiencing its Dark Ages, and they were instrumental

in the subsequent European Renaissance (Saliba, 2007; Al-Khalili, 2011).

Table 5.5

Pioneering Muslim Universities

University Established Location

Az-Zaytuna University 737 CE Tunis, Tunisia

Al-Qarawiyyin University 859 CE Fez, Morocco

Al-Azhar University 970 CE Cairo, Egypt

Al-Qadi al-Fadil University 1065 CE Cairo, Egypt

Al-Nizamiyya of Baghdad 1065 CE Baghdad, Iraq

University of Sankore 11th century CE Timbuktu, Mali

Al-Nizamiyya of Nishapur 11th century CE Nishapur, Iran

Al-Nizamiyya of Herat 12th century CE Herat, Afghanistan

Al-Mustansiriya University 1227 CE Baghdad, Iraq

Al-Madrasa al-Mustansiriyya 1233 CE Cairo, Egypt

Darul Uloom Deoband 1866 CE Deoband, India

Dar al-Ulum 1872 CE Cairo, Egypt

Jamia Millia Islamia 1920 New Delhi, India

University of Islamic Sciences 1951 Karachi, Pakistan

Islamic University of Madinah 1961 Madinah, Saudi

Arabia

International Islamic 1983 Kuala Lumpur,

University Malaysia (IIUM) Malaysia

Note. Compiled from Makdisi (1981).

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Muslim scientists developed their own scientific methods and techniques,

making original contributions to scientific knowledge. For instance,

Muhammad bin Musa Al Khwarizmi (d. 835) from Iran is considered the Father

of Algebra, having developed the concept of zero and algebraic equations in

his book, De Numero Indorum: On the Hindu Art of Reckoning (Freely, 2011),

which laid out the principles of algebra. The word algebra is derived from the

title of his book, Kitab al Jabr.

Al-Biruni (d. 1048) from Central Asia was a polymath who wrote extensively on

mathematics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, and geography. He was the first

to explain the spherical shape of the earth and to calculate its circumference.

He authored the first book on mineralogy, explaining the process of

crystallisation, which was translated into Latin and widely read in Europe (Nasr,

1993; Al-Khalili, 2011; Sardar, 2011). His book on astronomy detailed the

principles of celestial mechanics, enabling him to accurately predict planetary

movements. Additionally, he also wrote a book on optics, which includes the

first description of the telescope (Saliba, 2007).

Ibn Haytham (d. 1040) from Iraq is regarded as the Father of Optics, as he was

the first to explain the process of refraction. He was also the first to propose

that sunlight is composed of different coloured rays (Nasr, 1993). He wrote the

Book of Optics, which laid out the principles of light and vision, establishing

the foundations for the modern optics. He also wrote a book on astronomy that

outlined the principles of celestial mechanics, enabling him to accurately

planetary movements (Saliba, 2007).

Muslim scientists have also made significant contributions to chemistry. Jabir

ibn Hayyan (d. 815) from Iraq is considered to be the Father of Modern

400
Chemistry. He wrote on alchemy, which laid out the foundations for the modern

science of chemistry. He wrote over two hundred books on alchemy, which laid

out the principles of elements, compounds, and reactions. He was the first to

describe the process of distillation and the production of alcohol. He also wrote

on the composition of various substances, such as metals, oils, and perfumes

(Saliba, 2007; Al-Khalili, 2011; Sardar, 2011). His books were widely read in

Europe, and helped to lay the foundations for modern chemistry.

Muslim scientists, such as Ibn Sina (d. 1037) from Iran, have made significant

contributions to the field of medicine. Ibn Sina, often regarded as the Father

of Modern Medicine, authored the renowned book, The Canon of Medicine

(al-Qanun Fi’l-tibb: The Law of Natural Healing), which established the

principles of modern medicine (Nasr, 1998). It became a crucial reference in

medicine, published in Italian sixteen times in the 15th century and twenty times

in the 16th century, and was taught in European universities until the end of the

15th century (Nasr, 1998; Saliba, 2007; Sardar, 2011).

Another notable work by Ibn Sina is The Remedy, an eighteen-volume series

discussing logic and psychology. He wrote extensively on anatomy, physiology,

and pharmacology, including the first book on the anatomy of the eye and a

book on pharmacology, which was widely read in Europe. Ibn Sina was also the

first to describe the process of digestion and the role of enzymes in digestion.

His book on pharmacology was the first to describe the action of various drugs

and how they interact with the body (Nasr, 1998; Saliba 2007).

Ibn Sina pioneered the technique of anaesthetising a wound and the first to

discover the human parasite Ancylostoma. His research spanned medicine,

psychology, philosophy, logic, astronomy, and music. His works, translated into

401
numerous languages, including Italian, influenced the Renaissance in

contemporary European society (Nasr,1998; Saliba, 2007).

His other contributions include research on stomach ulcers, cancer, diabetes,

and blood flow from a mother’s womb to the child (Nasr, 1998). He also wrote

on general medicine, drugs, anatomy, and nutrition. Some philosophers refer

to him as the Aristotle and Socrates of Islam. His books, translated into Latin

and widely read in Europe, helped lay the foundations for modern medicine

(Sardar, 2011). Building on these discoveries, Syrian physician Ibn An-Nafis (d.

1289) first described the circulation of blood through the lungs for the purpose

of oxygenation (Ahmad, 2012).52

Highlighting the contribution of Muslims to science, Sarton (1927) states: "The

main, as well as the least obvious, achievement of the Middle Ages was the

creation of the experimental spirit, and this was primarily due to the Muslims

down to the 12th century.”53

In his seminal work on the history of science, Sarton (1927) delineates various

eras, each spanning fifty years and marked by one central figure, in order to

narrate the pinnacle of scientific achievements. Starting with the Age of Plato

from 500 to 450 BC, this chronology is followed by the Ages of Aristotle, Euclid,

Archimedes, and others. However, between 750 to 1100 AD, the ages of Jabir,

Khwarizmi, Razi, Masudi, Abu’l-Wafa, Biruni, and Omar Khayam emerge in

succession. Over the course of these 350 years, Muslims held the reins of the

global scientific stage, propelling knowledge in chemistry, algebra, clinical

medicine, geography, mathematics, physics, and astronomy to new heights.

52
New Age Encyclopaedia, Vol. 15, p. 24.
53
Quoted in Abdus Salam 1983, “The Gulf University and Science in the Arab – Islamic Commonwealth”,
Proceedings of the Symposium on the Arab Gulf University: future outlook, papers, studies and trends, p 96.

402
Muslim scholars not only preserved the knowledge of the ancient world but

also advanced it, playing an indispensable role in shaping science and

technology during the Middle Ages. They laid the groundwork for Western

culture, transmitting invaluable knowledge and fostering a vibrant intellectual

environment that facilitated the growth of various scientific disciplines (Turner;

1995; Nasr, 1998; Al-Khalili, 2011; Ahmad, 2012). This Golden Era of Islamic

science left an indelible mark on history, highlighting the significant

contributions of Muslim scholars to the development and evolution of human

understanding.

According to Sarton's (1927) classification, it was not until after 1100 AD that

the first Western names began to emerge in the history of scientific

advancements. However, for an additional 250 years, these Western scholars

shared recognition with prominent Islamic figures such as Ibn Rushd (known in

the West as Averroes) (1126–1198), Nasir-ud-din Tusi, and Ibn Nafis (d. 1289)

(Sardar, 2011; Ahmad, 2012).

Table 5.6

Eras of Scientific Achievements according to Sarton (1927)

Era Time Period Central Figure(s)

Age of Plato 500-450 BC Plato

Age of Aristotle 450-400 BC Aristotle

Age of Euclid 300-250 BC Euclid

Age of 250-200 BC Archimedes

Archimedes

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Islamic Golden 750-1100 AD Jabir, Khwarizmi, Razi, Masudi, Abu’l-

Era Wafa, Biruni, Omar Khayam

Western After 1100 AD Western scholars, shared recognition

Emergence with Islamic figures: Ibn

Rushd (Averroes), Nasir-ud-din Tusi,

and Ibn Nafis

Table 5.7

Pioneering Muslim Scholars and their Fields of Expertise

Scholar Place of Century of Pioneering

Origin Achievements Work

Ibn Sina (Avicenna) Persia (Iran) 10th-11th century Medicine

Al-Farabi Persia (Iran) 9th-10th century Philosophy

Al-Khwarizmi Persia (Iran) 9th century Mathematics

Ibn Rushd (Averroes) Andalusia 12th century Philosophy

(Spain)

Al-Biruni Persia (Iran) 10th-11th century Mathematics,

Astronomy

Al-Zahrawi Andalusia 10th century Medicine

(Spain)

Al-Kindi Iraq 9th century Philosophy,

Mathematics,

Music

Ibn al-Haytham Iraq 10th-11th century Optics

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 Jabir ibn Hayyan Persia 8th-9th century Alchemy,

Chemistry,

Medicine

Al-Idrisi Andalusia 12th century Geography

(Spain)

Al-Jazari Iraq 12th-13th century Engineering

Ibn An-Nafis Syria 13th Anatomy,

Circulatory

System

Razi (Rhazes) Persia 9th-10th century Medicine,

Alchemy

Masudi Persia 9th-10th century Geography,

History
Note. Compiled from Nasr (1993); Saliba (2007); Ahmad (2012).

Given the significant contributions of Muslim scholars during the Middle Ages,

it is not surprising that they have been dubbed "the standard-bearers of

learning" (Turner, 1995). Their ground-breaking achievements in various

scientific fields laid the foundation for future generations and highlighted the

essential role of Islamic civilisation in shaping the course of human knowledge.

The motivating factor for the pre-eminence of Muslims in science in the 8th, 9th,

10th, and 11th centuries was their following the repeated injunctions of the

Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Prophet (PBUH) on the question of knowledge

(Abdus Salam, 1983: 105; Al-Khalili, 2011). In this context, it could be seen that

“in contrast to 250 verses which are legislative, some 750 verses of the Glorious

Qur’an –– almost one eighth of it –– exhort believers to study Nature –– to

405
reflect, to make the best use of reason and to make scientific enterprise an

integral part of the community’s life” (Abdus Salam, 1983: 105).

Muslims were encouraged in the early centuries of Islam to travel to distant

lands in search of knowledge and to acquire new skills and techniques (Makdisi,

1981). These efforts were essential in the spread of Islamic science and

knowledge around the world. During this period, the Islamic world became a

hub of progress and innovation in the scientific and technological fields, and

its legacy continues to be felt today. This spirit of exploration and curiosity was

further supported by Islamic scholars, who encouraged the exchange of ideas

and the development of new technologies (Makdisi, 1981; Al-Khalili, 2011).

During this era, Islamic scholars developed innovative methods of transmitting

knowledge and established new networks of intellectual exchange (Dallal,

2010). This allowed for the rapid dissemination of new ideas and the cross-

fertilisation of knowledge between different cultures.

The encouragement of knowledge and science by the Islamic faith, along with

the esteemed status of the Ulama in Islam (Abdus Salam 1983: 105), played a

significant role in the development of science in the Islamic world. The Islamic

faith provided a theological foundation for the pursuit of knowledge and

science, as evidenced by several verses in the Qur’an that emphasise the

importance of learning and seeking knowledge (Al-Attas, 1991). The status of

the men of knowledge and science (Ulama) within the religion provided

scholars with motivation and recognition, further promoting scientific

endeavours. This environment led to the emergence of various scientific fields,

such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and chemistry, among many others

(Al-Attas, 1991; Huff, 2003). The Qur'an emphasises the superiority of the men

of knowledge and science (Ulama), drawing attention to the importance of their

406
position in society: “Allah will raise in ranks those who believed from among

you and those who are given knowledge. And Allah is All-Aware of what you

do” (58: 11). “Just as humans, animals and livestock are of various colours. Only

the people of knowledge among His slaves fear Allah. Indeed, Allah is All-

Mighty, All-Forgiving” (Qur’an 35:28). This emphasis on the importance of

knowledge and scholarship contributed to the flourishing of science during the

Islamic Golden Age.

Furthermore, the Prophet (PBUH) emphasised the importance of pursuing

knowledge and science for both men and women. This is illustrated in his

Hadith), in which he said: “Seeking knowledge is a duty for every Muslim, male

and female” (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 100). This indicates that men and women are

equally responsible for seeking knowledge and science, with no distinction

made between the two. The significance of seeking knowledge and science is

also emphasised in the Qur'an: “Verily, in the creation of the heavens and the

earth and the alternation of night and day, there are signs for men of

understanding” (Qur’an 3:190).

The Qur'an emphasises the importance of understanding the signs of Allah in

the creation of the universe, which requires knowledge and science. Therefore,

it is evident that knowledge and science are essential components of the

Islamic faith and necessary for understanding the Will of God. It is clear that

both men and women are expected to pursue knowledge and science

according to Islamic teachings. This is further supported by a Hadith of the

Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) which states that “The ink of a scholar is holier

than the blood of a martyr” (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 109). This suggests that the

pursuit of knowledge and science holds greater importance than physical acts

407
of bravery or sacrifice. Thus, it is evident that the pursuit of knowledge and

science is highly valued and encouraged in Islam.

The early period of Islamic history (632-1100AD) saw the flourishing of Islamic

sciences and the acceptance of other branches of knowledge (Dallal, 2010).

This period of intellectual openness and acceptance of diverse ideas was

facilitated by the religious and political tolerance of the early Muslim rulers

(Lapidus, 1988; Al-Attas, 1991; Nasr, 1992; Turner, 1995; Al-Khalili, 2011;

Sardar, 2011; Cleveland & Bunton, 2016). Some examples include:

1. The Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258 AD): The Abbasid Caliphate was known

for its support of scholarship and learning. One of the most famous

Abbasid Caliphs, Al-Ma'mun (813-833 AD), established the House of

Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikma) in Baghdad, which became a centre for the

translation of Greek, Persian, and Indian texts into Arabic. This institution

attracted scholars from various religious and cultural backgrounds,

promoting intellectual exchange and collaboration.

2. The Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba (929-1031 AD): The Umayyad

Caliphate in Spain was a centre of learning and culture during the Islamic

Golden Age. Caliphs like Abdul-Rahman III (912-961 AD) and Al-Hakam II

(961-976 AD) were patrons of the arts and sciences, supporting the

development of libraries, schools, and research centres. Under their rule,

Islamic Spain saw significant advancements in fields like mathematics,

astronomy, medicine, and agriculture. The city of Cordoba became a

melting pot of Islamic, Christian, and Jewish cultures, leading to a rich

exchange of ideas and knowledge.

408
3. The Fatimid Caliphate (909-1171 CE): The Fatimid Caliphate, based in

North Africa and later in Egypt, was known for its religious tolerance and

support for scholarship. The Fatimid Caliph Al-Aziz (975-996 AD) founded

the famous Al-Azhar University in Cairo, which became a centre for learning

in various fields, including Islamic theology, jurisprudence, and sciences.

The university attracted scholars from different religious and cultural

backgrounds, fostering a spirit of intellectual curiosity and openness.

The Muslim world experienced a period of intellectual dynamism and

openness, which allowed for the flourishing of a vibrant and diverse intellectual

culture, which included the absorption and synthesis of foreign knowledge,

including Greek and Indian sciences (Abdus Salam, 1983: 106; Nasr, 1992). This

included the absorption and synthesis of foreign knowledge, such as Greek

and Indian sciences, leading to significant advancements in various fields like

mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy (Saliba, 2007). However,

this period of intellectual dynamism gradually declined in the post-classical

period (1100 -1350 AD) (Al-Khalili, 2011; Cleveland & Bunton, 2016). This

decline has been attributed to various factors, both external and internal, such

as political fragmentation, economic decline, and the rise of more conservative

theological perspectives that stifled intellectual inquiry (Hodgson, 1974). It is

important to recognise that this is a complex issue with a range of underlying

causes, many of which are beyond the scope of this study.

It is worth noting that the Nobel Laureate Abdus Salam (1926-1996)

emphasised the importance of science, stating that “Science is important

because of the underlying understanding it provides of the world around us

and of Allah’s design; it is important because of the material benefits its

discoveries can give us and because of its universality” (Abdus Salam, 1983:

409
137). This highlights the need for a renewed focus on scientific inquiry and

education in the Muslim world, as it can contribute to a deeper understanding

of the natural world and promote human development.

In recent years, several Muslim-majority countries have been making efforts to

improve their educational institutions and infrastructure in order to promote

scientific and technological advancements, which were once a hallmark of the

Islamic Golden Age. Some examples include:

1. Malaysia: Malaysia has been investing heavily in education and has

established several top-ranking universities, such as the University of

Malaya and Universiti Putra Malaysia. The government has also launched

initiatives like the National Higher Education Strategic Plan and the

Malaysia Education Blueprint, aimed at enhancing the quality of education

and producing a highly skilled workforce.

2. Turkey: Turkey has been focusing on improving its education system and

increasing investment in research and development. The Scientific and

Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) supports research

projects and provides funding for innovation. Turkey has also expanded its

network of universities, and institutions like Middle East Technical

University and Bilkent University have gained international recognition.

3. United Arab Emirates: The UAE has been investing heavily in education

and research, with a focus on science and technology. The government has

established several renowned universities, such as the American University

of Sharjah, Khalifa University, and the Masdar Institute of Science and

Technology. The UAE has also launched initiatives like the National

410
 Innovation Strategy, which aims to foster innovation and make the country

a global leader in various sectors.

4. Qatar: Qatar has been investing in education as part of its national vision,

Qatar National Vision 2030. The Qatar Foundation for Education, Science,

and Community Development has established Education City, a hub for

learning and research that hosts branch campuses of renowned

international universities like Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown

University, and Northwestern University.

5. Saudi Arabia: Saudi Arabia has been focusing on education and research

as part of its Vision 2030 plan. The King Abdullah University of Science and

Technology (KAUST) is a top research university that attracts international

scholars and researchers. The country has also been investing in other

universities, such as King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals and

King Saud University, to promote scientific and technological

advancements.

In addition, organisations such as the Islamic Development Bank (IsDB), the

Organisation of the Islamic Corporation (OIC), and the Islamic Educational,

Scientific, and Cultural Organisation (ISESCO) have supported efforts to

promote scientific and technological advancements in the Muslim world. This

has led to an increase in the number of Muslim scientists and the establishment

of initiatives such as the International Islamic Science and Technology

Conference (IISTC) in 2012 and the Muslim World Science Initiative (MWSI) in

2019.

However, the Muslim world still lags behind in scientific and technological

advancements. To address this, fostering a culture of science and technology

411
is crucial, which may include promoting STEM education, providing access to

modern educational institutions, and encouraging collaboration among

Muslim scholars. Recognising and rewarding the contributions of Muslim

scientists is also vital in this process.

Instruments for social development, such as telephones, microphones, video

recorders, televisions, and radios have facilitated the progress of Islamic

societies. These advancements have enabled Muslims to synchronise religious

practices, such as starting Ramadan or observing Eid prayers on the same day.

Furthermore, advances in transportation and amenities have it easier for large

numbers of Muslims to perform the Hajj, with air-conditioned vehicles,

accommodations, and well-carpeted mosques providing a more comfortable

experience for worshippers. Overall, these technological advancements have

had a positive impact on the Islamic world, allowing Muslims to observe their

religious practices more conveniently and efficiently.

Table 5.8

Timeline of Key Figures in Islamic Scholarship

Figure Time Country of Contribution

Period Origin

Prophet 570-632 CE Saudi Arabia Final Prophet and

Muhammad founder of Islam

(PBUH)

Abubakar Siddiq 573-634 CE Saudi Arabia First Caliph,

(RA) preservation of the

Qur'an

412
Umar bin Khattab 584-644 CE Saudi Arabia Second Caliph,

(RA) administrative reforms

Usman bin Affan 576-656 CE Saudi Arabia Third Caliph,

(RA) standardized Qur'an

compilation

Ali bin Abi Talib 599-661 CE Saudi Arabia Fourth Caliph,

contributions to

jurisprudence and

spirituality

Imam Abu Hanifa 699-767 CE Iraq Hanafi school of

jurisprudence, rational

approach to

interpretation

Imam Malik ibn 711-795 CE Saudi Arabia Maliki school of

Anas jurisprudence,

compilation of the

Muwatta

Imam Shafi’i 767-820 CE Palestine Shafi'i school of

jurisprudence, legal

principles, and

methodology

Imam Ahmad ibn 780-855 CE Iraq Hanbali school of

Hambal jurisprudence,

emphasis on

Hadith and orthodoxy

413
Imam Al-Ghazali 1058-1111 Iran Scholar, philosopher,

CE and theologian,

spirituality and

purifying the soul

Ibn Rushd 1126-1198 Spain Averroes, integration of

CE reason and philosophy

with Islamic teachings

Imam Al-Nawawi 1233-1277 Syria Hadith

CE

Shaykhul Islam, 1263-1328 Syria Scholar, theologian,

Imam Ibn CE legal writing, revival of

Taymiyyah orthodox Islamic

thought

Ibn Kathir 1300-1373 Syria Exegesis of the Qur'an,

CE "Tafsir Ibn Kathir"

Ibn Hajar Al- 1372-1449 Egypt Commentary on

Asqalani CE Hadith, "Fath al-Bari"

Imam Jalal ad-Din 1445-1505 Egypt Contributions to

As-Suyuti CE Hadith literature and

Islamic sciences

Sheikh Usman 1754-1817 Nigeria Jihad and Revivalist

Danfodiyo Teachings

Sheikh Abdullahi 1766-1828 Nigeria Law and Administration

bin Fodiyo

414
Muhammad Bello 1781-1837 Nigeria Governance and

bin Fodiyo Administration

Ibrahim Niass 1900-1975 Senegal Revival and spread of

(Inyass) the Tijaniyyah Sufi

order, emphasis on

spiritual dimensions of

Islam

Abul A’la Maududi 1903-1979 India/Pakista Islamic Revivalism and

n Political Thought

Sayyid Qutb 1906-1966 Egypt Islamic Revivalism and

Social Commentary

Sheikh Shanqeety 1907-1973 Mauritania Tafsir (Quranic

Exegesis)

Sheikh bin Baz 1910-1999 Saudi Arabia Fiqh (Islamic

Jurisprudence)

Sheikh Albani 1914-1999 Albania Muhaddith:

Hadith literature

Sayyid Sabiq 1915-2000 Egypt Fiqh

Sheikh Adamu Ilori 1917-1992 Nigeria Islamic Education

Ahmed Deedat 1918-2005 South Africa Comparative Religion

Sheikh Abubakar 1922-1992 Nigeria Tafsir (Quranic

Mahmud Gumi exegesis) and Islamic

Da'wah

Sheikh Uthaymeen 1925-2001 Saudi Arabia Fiqh and 'Aqeedah

(Creed)

415
 Sheikh Qardawi 1926-2022 Egypt Fiqh and Modern

Islamic Thought

Sheikh Nasiru 1924-1996 Nigeria Tafsir and Hadith

Kabara

Sheikh Dahiru 1927 Nigeria Fiqh and Tafsir

Bauchi

Sheikh Tantawi 1928-2010 Syria Fiqh and Tafsir

Sheikh Ahmad 1929-2020 Nigeria Islamic Jurisprudence

Lemu and Education

These scholars, and more others have left indelible marks in their respective

fields, and their works continue to be referenced and studied across the Muslim

world.

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 CHAPTER SIX
The Muslim Society

Muslims are those who adhere to Islam, the way of life prescribed by Allah:

It is He (Allah) Who has named you Muslims both before and in

this (the Qur'an), that the Messenger (Muhammad PBUH) may

be a witness over you, and you be witnesses over mankind!

(Qur’an 22:78).

Muslims are further described as believers:

The believers, both men and women, are allies of one another;

they enjoin what is good and forbid what is evil, they establish

prayer, give zakat, and obey Allah and His Messenger. It is they

who will receive Allah’s mercy, for Allah is All-Mighty, All-Wise

(Qur’an 9:71).

Muslim men and women, believing men and women, obedient

men and women, truthful men and women, patient men and

women, humble men and women, charitable men, and women,

fasting men and women, and the men and women who guard

their chastity, and men and women who remember Allah much

– Allah has prepared for them forgiveness and a great reward

(Qur’an 33: 35).

The extent to which each Muslim practices his religious obligations vary,

depending on factors such as their background and the society in which they

live. Nonetheless, all Muslims share a common belief in the core teachings of

417
Islam as outlined in the Qur’an and Sunnah. Approximately 26 years after the

death of the Prophet (PBUH) (after Caliphs Abubakar Siddiq, Caliph Umar bin

Khattab, and Caliph Usman bin Affan), and following religious-political disputes

among the Muslims, the Muslim Ummah became divided in terms of creed,

producing four main branches: Sunni, Shi’a, Khawarij, and Sufi (Al-Ashqar,

1989; Philips, 2006). Each of these groups has its interpretation of Islamic

teachings, but they are all considered Muslims. A Hadith of the Prophet (PBUH)

asserts that only one of these groups is on the right path:

It was narrated from ‘Awf bin Malik that the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) said:

The Jews split into seventy-one sects, one of which will be in

Paradise and seventy in Hell. The Christians split into seventy-

two sects, seventy-one of which will be in Hell and one in

Paradise. I swear by the One in Whose Hand is the soul of

Muhammad (PBUH), my nation will split into seventy-three sects,

one of which will be in Paradise and seventy-two in Hell.” It was

said: “O Messenger of Allah, who are they?” He said: “Who

does as what I and my companions do” (Sunan Ibn Majah: 3992).

Verily, he among you who lives long will see great controversy,

so you must keep to my Sunnah and to the sunnah of the Khulafa

Ar-Rashidin (The Rightly Guided Caliphs), those who guide to

the right way. Cling to it stubbornly literally: with your molar

teeth. Beware of newly invented matters [in the religion], for

verily every bid’ah (innovation) is misguidance (Musnad Imam

Ahmad: 17144).

418
The practice of Islam in each society is determined by a combination of factors,

including historical experiences, religious pluralism, presence of religious

minorities, exposure to particular Islamic scholars, and general social,

economic, and political development. Some societies adopted Islam from the

Middle East, while others were exposed to it from Asia, North Africa, the

Sudan, or Europe (Lapidus, 1989). The way each society implements and

practices Islam is further shaped by interpretations of Islamic law, schools of

jurisprudence, and a particular interpretation of the Qur’an and Sunnah that is

dominant in that society. Cultural norms, local customs, and contemporary

values also influence the practice of Islam in any given society.

6.1 Muslim Societies

Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) founded the first Muslim community in Makkah,

then in Ethiopia when, upon his instruction, some Muslims migrated and

settled there due to the persecution of Muslims in Makkah, and finally in

Madinah following the Hijrah (migration) of the Prophet (PBUH) and his

companions in 622 AD (Lings, 1983). In Madinah, the Prophet (PBUH) created

a strong sense of brotherhood between the Muslims who migrated to Madinah

from Makkah due to religious persecution and the people of Madinah (Watt,

1956).54 He was sent to guide mankind and to judge between them, thus

assuming not only religious but political leadership:

Surely, We have sent down to you (O Muhammad PBUH), this

Book (this Qur'an) in truth that you might judge between men

A Scottish historian, Watt wrote several books on the history of Islamic civilization and the life of the Prophet
54

Muhammad. His works are particularly known for their academic rigor.

419
 by that which Allah shows you (teaches you through Divine

inspiration) (Qur’an 4:105).

The Prophet (PBUH) set up the first Islamic government in Madinah, introducing

laws and regulations to promote justice and fairness (Lings, 1983). He

encouraged trade and commerce, brought peace to the region, and strived to

establish unity among the people of Madinah. He also set up social welfare and

charity systems to help the needy and the poor. In addition, the Prophet (PBUH)

established a strong military system to defend the Muslim community from

external threats (Haykal, 1976). Under his leadership, the Muslim society

flourished, experiencing unprecedented growth and prosperity. As Watt (1956)

aptly observed, “Before his death, ... it had become clear that Islam was not

simply a body of private religious beliefs but involved the setting – up of an

independent community, with its own system of government, laws, and

institutions.”

The election of Abubakar Siddiq (RA), a Companion of the Prophet (PBUH), as

the first Caliph of the Muslims was a momentous event in Islamic history. He

was elected by senior Companions of the Prophet (PBUH), and he was

unanimously endorsed by the people. He served for 2 years. Subsequently,

another Companion of the Prophet (PBUH), Umar bin Khattab was nominated

by Abubakar Siddiq in his last days and endorsed by the senior Companions

of the Prophet (PBUH) and the people (Kennedy, 2004). He was the second

Caliph of Islam and served for a period of 10 years. Usman bin Affan succeeded

Umar bin Khattab as the third Caliph of Islam 23 AH (643-4 CE). He was

unanimously elected by Shura (the electoral college), established by Caliph

Umar bin Khattab on his death bed.

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The Committee comprised six Companions of the Prophet (PBUH), namely Ali

bin Abi Talib, Usman bin Affan, Talha ibn Ubaydullah, Zubayr bin Al-Awwam,

Abdur Rahman bin Auf and Saad bin Abi Waqqas. Abdullahi bin Umar was

added to observe, not to be voted for but to only cast his vote in the event of

a tie. Usman bin Affan was subsequently endorsed by Muslim community. He

served for a period of 12 years. Ali bin Abi Talib was the fourth Caliph of Islam

and was elected in the year 35 AH by the survivors among the Muslims who

participated in the Battle of Badr (Madelung, 1996). He ruled for four years and

nine months, before he was assassinated by Abdur Rahman bin Muljim, a

member of the Kharijite sect, on the 27th of Ramadan, 40 A.H. These four

Caliphs, who were also among the Prophet’s (PBUH) closest Companions, were

chosen by the community of believers to serve as the political and spiritual

leaders of the Islamic community. They held the title of “Amirul Mu’mineen”

and they constituted the Rashidun Caliphate (Rightly Guided Caliphs), which

was the first of the Islamic caliphates and dynasties, and it was during this

period that the Qur’an was compiled and transmitted, the boundaries of the

Islamic State were set, and the Islamic faith spread throughout the world

(Madelung, 1996; Cleveland & Bunton, 2016). The Rashidun Caliphate was the

foundation of the Islamic world, and its legacy is still felt today.

The Muslim rulers allowed the practice of other religions, granting people the

freedom to keep their own beliefs and traditions. This tolerance was grounded

in the teachings of the Qur’an: “There is no compulsion in religion; the truth

has been made distinct from falsehood. Whoever rejects Taghoot [false gods]

and believes in Allah, has indeed grasped the strong handhold that never

breaks. And Allah is All-Hearing, All-Knowing” (Quran 2:256). This approach

421
facilitated a peaceful transition from the existing social structures to those of

the Muslims.

Non-Muslims who chose not to revert were subjected to a special tax called

jizya (Al-Turtushi, 2002). Those who paid the jizya were allowed to practice their

own religion and were exempt from military service. The jizya provided

essential financial resources for the Muslim rulers, enabling them to fund their

socioeconomic, political, and religious activities. Moreover, Muslim rulers

encouraged non-Muslims to take up certain roles in the civil administration,

such as officers, tax collectors, medical doctors, and tutors at courts (Lapidus,

1988). Not only did they permit religious freedom, but they also promoted

cultural exchange and learning. Scholars from various countries, including

India, Persia, and Syria, were invited to share knowledge and ideas at the courts

of the Muslim rulers (Hitti, 2002; Al-Maqrizi, 2004). These scholars brought with

them a wealth of philosophical, scientific, and literary works, which were

studied and absorbed by Islamic scholars. This intellectual exchange led to the

Islamic scientific and intellectual tradition, culminating in the development of

the Golden Age of Islamic culture.

This demonstrates that each civilisation borrows aspects from the civilisation it

replaces, such as words, behaviour, and technology. For instance, after

conquering Persia and Rome, the Arabs adopted many words from their

languages (Lapidus, 1988). Islamic civilisation had also made significant

contributions to art and architecture, as evidenced by the Great Mosque of

Damascus (Syria) and the Dome of the Rock at Jerusalem (Palestine) (built

between 685–691, the site from which the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH)

ascended to heaven) (Kennedy, 2007). Their contributions resulted in

interactions with older civilisations such as Rome and Persia. The Islamic

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contributions to architecture had been particularly influential, with the

development of the pointed arch, the minaret, and the dome. The use of the

pointed arch, employed in the construction of the Dome of the Rock, was later

adopted in Gothic architecture, profoundly influencing Western architecture.

Islamic calligraphy, renowned for its intricate and delicate designs, had also

significantly influenced the development of Western calligraphy (Kennedy,

2007).

Moreover, Islamic civilisation influenced the development of Western literature.

The Golden Age of Islamic culture saw the production of renowned works of

literature, poetry, and the visual arts. The works of the great Muslim poets such

as Hafez and Rumi were translated into European languages and played a role

in the development of Romanticism in Western literature (Kennedy, 2007).

This religious tolerance allowed for a peaceful coexistence between Muslims

and non-Muslims and gradually, over time, the social structure in these areas

began to reflect the values of Islam. By the end of the 10th century, the

geographical area of Islam had expanded significantly from what it had been

in 750 AD. Islam had reached Morocco in North Africa; Spain, France, and

Constantinople in Europe; India in Asia; and other areas in Central Asia. In

many areas where Muslim armies arrived, they were accepted as liberators

(Lapidus, 1988; Abu Khalil, 2001). This period witnessed some of the most

influential events in human history, introducing a new set of values and beliefs.

It also witnessed the growth of a powerful and unified Islamic civilisation,

characterised by its intellectual brilliance, economic wealth, and a well-defined

legal system that served to unify the spiritual and temporal might of Islam.

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Rose (1911) observed:

It is an amazing circumstance that the Turks, who on several

occasions let loose their Central Asian hordes over India, and

the Middle East, though irresistible in the onslaught of their

arms, were all conquered in their turn by the Faith of Islam and

founded Islamic dynasties.

The Mongols of the thirteenth century did their best to wipe out

all traces of Islam when they sacked Baghdad, but though the

Caliphate was relegated to obscurity in Egypt the newly

founded Empires quickly became Islamic states, until finally it

was a Turk who took the title of Caliph which has been held by

the house of Othman ever since.

Islam does not exist or operate in isolation from other systems. Before its

advent, there were other systems in existence. It emerged and interacted with

the existing systems, challenging them, and will continue to exist alongside

other systems, providing the best solutions to human problems. Of course, in

its interaction with other systems, Islam had benefited from them in certain

ways and vice versa. For example, when Madinah was about to be attacked by

pagan Arab tribes during the time of the Prophet (PBUH), Salman Al-Farsi, a

Companion of the Prophet (PBUH) advised him to dig a trench around Madinah

to prevent the unbelievers from attacking it. The Prophet (PBUH) accepted the

idea, and a trench was dug, saving the Muslims from the attack of the

unbelievers. Salman knew about the idea of a trench in his home country,

Persia before he embraced Islam (Watt, 1956).

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Similarly, when the Prophet (PBUH) wanted to send some letters to the kings

and leaders under the Persian and Roman empires inviting them to Islam, he

was informed that such kings and leaders would not accept letters unless they

were sealed. He accepted the advice and ordered that a stamp be used for

such purposes (Ibn Sa’d, 1907). In this context, Muslim leaders who came after

the Prophet (PBUH) introduced many things they learned from the Byzantine

and Persian empires, provided such things did not contravene Islamic

principles. Umar bin Khattab, for example, introduced a register of names for

the purpose of paying Muslims allowances and postal services, the ministry of

finance (Baitul Mal), divided the Islamic state into provinces, and other things,

including the introduction of Muslim currency by Abdul Malik Bin Marwan

(Kennedy, 2007). The architecture of Muslim mosques was learned from the

churches and synagogues of Christians and Jews, respectively.

Many existing systems and philosophies have also benefited from the Islamic

system. For example, the Qur’an and Hadith provide ethical and moral

guidance that is timeless and applicable to all societies. The Qur’an and Hadith

inspired many people to think critically and to practice virtue in the pursuit of

justice and truth. Furthermore, the Islamic system provided the basis for the

development of many sciences, including mathematics, philosophy, and

medicine (Kennedy, 2007). Islamic law has also served as the basis for many

legal systems around the world.

Additionally, Islamic civilisation has profoundly impacted the development of

our modern scientific knowledge and technology. Islamic scholars made

ground-breaking discoveries in numerous scientific fields, such as mathematics,

astronomy, medicine, chemistry, physics, and optics. The development of

algebra, advanced trigonometry, Islamic numerals, and the astrolabe, all of

425
which significantly impacted the development of Western science, are all

results of Islamic civilisation (Turner, 1995; Saliba, 2007; Ahmad, 2012). They

also developed an efficient system of irrigation and water management,

fostering agricultural growth in the Middle East and North Africa. Islamic

scholars also developed a sophisticated banking system, providing a stable

financial infrastructure for the region (Usman, 2002). Overall, Islamic civilisation

has immensely influenced the development of modern world. Its contributions

in terms of religion, science, art, architecture, and literature have been

immense and have shaped and continue to shape the world we live in today.

From the 7th century AD, the world has seen the rise and spread of Islamic

civilisation, which has been more influential than any other civilisation in the

last 1,400 years (Kennedy, 2007). This civilisation has not only been influential

in the Middle East and North Africa, where it originated, but has spread far and

wide, from Damascus to Iraq, from Cairo to Istanbul, from Cordoba to India,

and from Sokoto to Masina. In other words, the world has witnessed 1,400

years of consecutive Islamic civilisation, although in different parts of the world

and different periods, which served as the backbone of the subsequent

technological revolution in Europe and other important social developments

throughout the world.

Recent years have seen a significant rise in the recognition of Islamic

civilisation's impact on global history, particularly in the arts, sciences, and

culture. This acknowledgment is evident in historical re-enactments and

exhibitions that highlight the achievements and importance of early Islamic

civilisation, including its art, artifacts, and architecture. These events and

displays help deepen understanding of the cultural and scientific exchanges

between Islamic and Western civilisations.

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In academia, there is a growing awareness of the substantial influence of Islamic

civilisation on Western culture, especially during the Middle Ages. This includes

the critical transfer of knowledge in areas such as mathematics, medicine,

astronomy, and philosophy from the Islamic world to Europe, which was vital

to the European Renaissance. Muslim scholars were instrumental in preserving

and expanding upon Greek and Roman knowledge (Kennedy, 2007; Saliba,

2007).

The Islamic Golden Age is particularly admired for its advancements in arts,

culture, and science under Islamic patronage. Innovations from this era,

including developments in mathematics, medicine, astronomy, and philosophy,

had a widespread influence, affecting life and thought in Europe and beyond

(Kennedy, 2007). This re-evaluation and celebration of Islamic civilisation

highlight its crucial role in shaping world history, illustrating the interconnected

nature of human civilizations and the shared legacies that have shaped the

modern world.

The strong influence of Islam in the Middle East, North Africa and the Iberian

Peninsula has been responsible for the spread of the Arabic language. Apart

from the Arabian Peninsula, all the other Arabic speaking countries today speak

Arabic as a result of Islamic civilisation. The spread of Islam in the 7th century

led to the introduction of the Arabic language in these regions, replacing local

languages, such as Berber and Coptic (Kennedy, 2007; Van Putten, 2017).

Morocco, Tunisia, Libya, and Algeria were all Berber-speaking but became

Arabised due to the spread of Islamic culture. Similarly, Egyptians, who spoke

Coptic, adopted Arabic as their primary language. Syria, Iraq, and Yemen all

adopted Arabic as their language of communication as Islamic civilisation

swept across the region. In some cases, elements of the local language were

427
retained, with words in the local dialect being adapted to the Arabic language

(Kennedy, 2007).

Today, Arabic is spoken in many countries by millions of people, making it the

most widely spoken language of the Semitic languages. It is also the fifth most

widely spoken language in the world, after mandarin Chinese, English, Hindi,

and Spanish. It is one of the most widely spoken languages as a home language

in more than ten countries (Ethnologue, 2021). Arabic is still the official

language of the Arab League, and it is also one of the six official languages of

the United Nations. English, while the most internationally recognised

language, is only native to Britain, America, and Canada. Therefore, Arabic

stands out as one of the most widely spoken languages in the world, with its

rich history and culture continuing to influence the lives of many.

Allah created the world for people to live and interact in. There are good

people everywhere, in every religion, and in every system of life. Some people

are good at passing on knowledge; others are good at doing their jobs,

whether private or public; and still others are good at ensuring that justice is

carried out in societies by advising or criticising government. These categories

may not necessarily be mutually exclusive, but it is just to highlight that in every

society, people perform certain different roles in order to keep the society

going. In the process, some are or will be Muslims; others are not and will not

be. Non-Muslims or the other systems would have benefited if only they

understood Islam. All the same, those who do good things but do not believe

in Allah and the hereafter would be rewarded here in this world but would have

nothing in the hereafter:

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 Anyone who seeks a religion other than Islam, never will it be

accepted from him; and in the Hereafter he will be among the

losers (Qur’an 3: 86).

Whoever seeks the harvest of the Hereafter, We will increase for

him his harvest; and whoever seeks the harvest of this world, We

will give him thereof, but in the Hereafter he will have no share

(Qur’an 42:20).

6.2 Classification of Muslim Societies

The Muslim World consists of 53 countries out of the 193 countries of the

United Nations, with a population of about 1.6 billion people, as of 2009,

located in six regions:

Table 6.1

Distribution of the Muslim Population Worldwide by Region (2009)

Region Population Percentage of Percentage of

Regional World Muslim

Population Population

Asia-Pacific 972,537,000 24.1% 61.9%

Middle East- 315,322,000 91.2% 20.1%

North Africa

Sub-Saharan 240,632,000 30.1% 15.3%

Africa

Europe 38,112,000 5.2% 2.4%

Americas 4,596,000 0.5% 0.3%

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 World Total 1,571,199,000 22.9% (of the world

population)
Note. Data from Pew Research Centre (2009), cited in Wali et al. (2010).

The 53 countries where Muslims make up 50% or more of the population

include: Mauritania, Somalia, Tunisia, Afghanistan, Iran, Turkey, Yemen, Algeria,

Morocco, Maldives, Niger, Comoros, Palestine, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan,

Libya, Djibouti, Mayotte, Azerbaijan, Tajikistan, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Senegal,

Iraq, Gambia, Mali, Turkmenistan, Syria, Egypt, Bangladesh, Guinea, Indonesia,

Oman, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Brunei, Sierra Leone, Qatar, United Arab

Emirates, Kuwait, Bahrain, Burkina Faso, Malaysia, Albania, Chad, Lebanon,

Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, and Nigeria (Pew Research Centre, 2009: 12-

34). However, Muslim minorities are found in all the regions of the World, and

they constitute more than 300 million, including:

Table 6.2

Countries with Significant Muslim Minorities (2009)

Country Muslim Population

India 161 million

Ethiopia 28 million

China 22 million

Russia 16 million

Tanzania 13 million

Germany 4 million

France 4 million

United Kingdom (UK) 2 million

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 United States (USA) 2 million
Note. Data from Pew Research Centre (2009), cited in Wali et al. (2010).

Muslim societies can generally be categorised into two types:

1. Societies in which most citizens are Muslim, and the government proclaims

itself to be Islamic.

2. Societies in which Muslims constitute the majority but the state is not

Islamic.

In the latter type of society, Muslims are allowed to practice the five pillars of

Islam, but they are often not permitted to implement other components of

Islam, such as criminal and social justice system. These societies tend to

experience various problems, such as conflicts between the government and

the Muslims, where governments tend to deny the Muslims the right to be

judged according to Islamic injunctions, even though they constitute a

majority; tensions between non-Muslims and Muslims, where non-Muslims,

even though they constitute a minority, tend to cause problems for the

majority; and internal strife among the Muslims themselves, attacking one

another, using such names as infidels and what have you.

Moreover, Muslim societies face challenges due to unnecessary

misrepresentations, misunderstandings, and distortions, as well as

inappropriate assaults and hostility against Islam and Muslims (Wali, et al,

2010). Such issues have increased since the end of the Cold War and have been

exacerbated by events like the September 11 attacks. Examples of this hostility

include derogatory portrayals of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and the

defaming of Islamic texts (Balogun, 2011 as cited in Wali et al., 2010:3-4).

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Wali et al. (2010) drew attention to certain theories which seem to undermine

religion, such as Samuel Huntington's Clash of Civilisations (between Islam and

the West), Francis Fukuyama's End of History, where only one ideology

(Western ideology) would win, or the modernisation thesis (which would bring

a decline in religion as propounded by leading scholars of religion and society),

aimed to marginalise religion in international affairs. However, these theories

have been contradicted by the observable growth in the number of devotees

of the world’s main faiths and increased religiosity among followers (Barton et

al., 2007:1, cited in Wali et al. 2010: 4-5).

Various countries have experienced growth in religious adherence and

engagement in recent decades. For instance, in Brazil, there has been a surge

in the number of Evangelical Christians, resulting in significant social and

political influence (Americas Quarterly, 2012; Pew Research Centre, 2013;

Pollack & Rosta, 2017). In Indonesia, the world's largest Muslim-majority

country, Islam has become increasingly influential in both personal and political

spheres (Vivekanada International Foundation, 2020). In India, the rise of Hindu

nationalism has been accompanied by an increased emphasis on Hindu

religious practices and beliefs, with political parties like the Bharatiya Janata

Party (BJP) promoting a Hindu-centric agenda (Politics Today, 2019; Pew

Research Centre, 2021). In sub-Saharan Africa, countries like Nigeria and Kenya

have experienced rapid growth in both Christianity and Islam, as well as a

heightened role for religious organisations in providing social services and

influencing political decisions (Pew Research Centre, 2010; 2019).

There is also a resurgence of religious interest and adherence in Europe, the

cradle of the modern civilisation. This resurgence manifests in various ways,

including increased religious observance, political influence, or public

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presence. In Poland, for example, the Catholic Church saw a strong revival in

the late 20th century, especially during the Solidarity Movement's struggle

against Communist rule. Pope John Paul II, a Pole, played a significant role in

inspiring this resurgence (Perrone, 2012). In Russia, following the fall of the

Soviet Union, which promoted state atheism, the Russian Orthodox Church

experienced a revival in terms of worship, influence, and public presence. The

Church has become a significant institution in Russian public life, often aligning

with the state on various issues and enjoying considerable influence (Kolstø &

Blakkisrud, 2016). Furthermore, while traditional Protestant churches have seen

declining memberships in many European countries, Evangelical and

Pentecostal movements have grown, especially among immigrant

communities. These movements have introduced a more vibrant and

charismatic form of Christianity in various parts of Europe (Maghadam, 2003;

The European Academy of Religion and Society, 2020). On the other hand,

Europe has seen a growing Muslim population due to immigration, conversion,

and higher birth rates. This has led to a more visible Islamic presence, with the

construction of mosques, Islamic cultural centres, and observance of Islamic

practices (Özyürek, 2014). The increased visibility of Islam has led to various

societal and political reactions, from efforts to integrate Muslim communities

to debates on issues like the wearing of headscarves or burqas.

In some countries, religion has made a political comeback. For instance, parties

emphasising Christian values or opposing immigration from Muslim-majority

countries have gained prominence in several European nations. The role of

religion in public policy, education, and societal norms has become a

significant topic of debate in many European countries (Góra & Zielińska,

2023). It is worth noting that while there are instances of religious resurgence,

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Europe also continues to experience significant secular trends, with many

people identifying as non-religious or even atheist (Pew Research Centre,

2018). The dynamics between religious resurgence and secularism create a

complex religious landscape in contemporary Europe.

These examples demonstrate that contrary to the predictions of some theories,

religion has not declined in the face of modernisation or the spread of Western

ideologies. Instead, it continues to play a significant role in the personal lives

and political landscapes of various countries.

6.3 Muslim Names

Names have nothing to do with the religiosity of an individual. All languages

are created by Allah for people to know one another, and as such, one may be

called any name as long as it does not go against the teachings of Islam, such

as calling a person the wife of Allah, the daughter of Allah, the son of Allah, or

the brother of Allah.

O mankind, indeed, We have created you from male and female

and made you people and tribes that you may know one

another. Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is

the most righteous of you. Indeed, Allah is Knowing and

Acquainted (Qur’an 49:13).

When Islam first emerged, the Companions of the Prophet (PBUH) did not

change their names when they embraced their faith. However, as the number

of Muslims increased, and Muslims became a minority in some societies, the

issue of identity became increasingly important. To assert their identity, many

Muslims began to name their children after the Prophet (PBUH), his

Companions, and the names of previous Prophets, such as "servant of Allah"

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and later "Arabic" names without any religious connotation (As-Suyuti, 1990;

Ibn Hajar, n.d).

Certain names have gained popularity in specific historical periods and

geographical locations. For instance, names such as Shamsuddeen and

Jamaluddeen emerged during the Abbasid period in the Middle East but were

not common during the time of the Prophet (PBUH), his Companions, and their

followers (Kennedy, 2007). In Nigeria, up until the 1970s, Muslim names were

primarily derived from the Prophet’s (PBUH) name, the names of his

Companions, the previous Prophets, servants of Allah (e.g., Abdullah,

Abdulrahman), and the names of Angels. However, in the early 1980s, new

names emerged, mostly Arabic names with no religious connotation, such as

Sakeenah, Amjad and Hikal.

Regional preferences for certain names also exist. In the western part of

Nigeria, Muslims are mostly named after Allah's servants, such as Abdulazeez,

Abdulfatah, and Abdulrazak, while in the northern part, names are primarily

based on the names of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), his Companions, and

previous Prophets, most notably Muhammad, Ahmad, Abubakar, Umar,

Usman, Ali, Adam, Nuhu, Ibrahim, Musa, Isa, Yusuf, and Ya'qub. In contrast, the

Arab world has seen little change in naming conventions, focusing on meaning

and nicknames such as "father of Ahmad" (Abu Ahmad).

6.4 Social Norms

Different Ulama (Islamic scholars) in different societies and at different historical

epochs have placed emphasis on one Islamic issue or the other. In Egypt, for

example, the Ulama do not pay attention to the issue of beards and short

trousers because they consider them settled issues, unlike in Saudi Arabia,

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where they are being emphasised. Similarly, university education in Egypt is

mixed, unlike in Saudi Arabia, which conforms to the segregated nature of

Islam when it comes to man-woman relationships. Furthermore, in the past,

Ulama were generally unaware of the health risks of smoking and thus

considered it Makrooh (disliked). However, with an understanding of the

dangers and wastage involved in smoking, Ulama began to show that it is

unlawful on the following grounds: it is extravagant, dangerous to health, an

inconvenience, and harmful to smokers' perceptions (Zaman, 2002). Ulama

explain and interpret the Qur’an for the generality of the people. “Indeed, the

wasteful are Satan’s brothers, and Satan is ever ungrateful to his Lord” (Qur’an

17: 27).

6.5 Leadership

After the leadership of the Four Orthodox Caliphs (The Rashidun), Mu’awiya

bin Abi Sufyan established the first Islamic dynasty and became the first Caliph

of the Umayyad Dynasty (Hawting, 2010). Before his death, Mu’awiyah sent a

letter to his representative in Madinah, Marwan bin Al-Hakam, to secure

support for his son, Yazid, to succeed him. To this end, Marwan read the letter

of Mu’awiyah in the Prophet’s (PBUH) mosque. In a report recorded by An-

Nasa’i, Muhammad bin Ziyad reported that when Mu’awiyah was soliciting

people to pledge allegiance to his son, and Marwan declared: “This follows

the tradition of Abubakar and ‘Umar.” On hearing this, ‘Abdur-Rahman bin Abi

Bakr said: “Rather, this is the tradition of Heraclius and Caesar. In the same vein,

Alhasan bin Ali bin Abi Talib (the grandson of the Prophet (PBUH) stood up and

opposed the move, as did Abdullahi bin Zubair (Tabari & Tabari, 1990).

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In spite of this opposition, Mu’awiyah succeeded in his move, and his son,

Yazid, became the Caliph after his death. This dynastic monarchy was

established and lasted for about ninety years (661–750) until they were

overthrown by the Abbasids (750-1258), another dynasty that ruled for 500

years before being overthrown, with the eastern Muslim world (except Egypt,

Arabia, and Syria) coming under the vast Mongol Empire (Kennedy, 2007;

Cleveland & Bunton, 2016). Meanwhile, the Mamluks (the military caste of

Turkish and Kipchak ‘slaves’) seized political power in Egypt, where the old

Arabic Muslim civilisation continued for two and a half centuries, and material

arts, especially architecture and metal work flourished (Gibb, 1962; Lapidus,

1988; Kennedy, 2007). Monarchies have been an integral part of the Muslim

Ummah, as seen in India's Mogul Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the Sokoto

Caliphate, and contemporary Arab countries, notably Saudi Arabia, Jordan,

Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Oman, and Morocco.

The Ottoman Empire ruled from 1300 to 1922, significantly impacting the

history of the Middle East. They put an end to the Byzantine Empire in 1453

and captured Egypt in 1517. During the Crusader Wars, European Christians

captured and conquered Syria and Palestine, and Jerusalem in 1099. However,

the city was recaptured by Salahuddeen for the Abbasids in 1187. The

Crusaders eventually retreated from Syria in 1291. There was a total of eight

Crusades during this period (Gibb, 1962; Maalouf, 1984; Kennedy, 2007). This

period of eight Crusades was key in shaping the history of the Middle East and

left a legacy.

The collapse of these dynasties was due to different and varying reasons as

recounted by historians. The point to note is that the Umayyads (661–750) were

overthrown by the Abbasids; the Abbasids (750–1258) were overthrown by the

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Mongols; the Mongols and Fatimids (who controlled North Africa, Egypt, Syria,

Palestine, and Hijaz from 909–1171) were overthrown by the Ottomans; and

the Ottomans (1300–1922) were overthrown by the communists in Turkey.

Similarly, in Sokoto, the Caliphate (1804–1903) was overthrown by the British

colonial forces (Gibb, 1962; Cleveland & Bunton, 2016). These historical events

serve as a reminder of the transient nature of power, where empires rise and

fall, each epoch witnessing the inevitable succession of one dominant force by

another:

If a wound (and killing) has touched you, be sure a similar wound

(and killing) has touched the others. And so are the days (good

and not so good), We give to men by turns, that Allah may test

those who believe, and that He may take martyrs from among

you. And Allah likes not the Zalimun (polytheists and wrong-

doers) (Qur’an 3:140).

Besides: Were it not for Allah to repel some people by others, the earth would

be filled with corruption, but Allah is All-Gracious to the worlds (Qur’an 2: 251).

Table 6.3

Islamic Empires and Dynasties

Dynasty Years Region

Umayyad Caliphate 661-750 Syria

Abbasid Caliphate 750-1258 Iraq

Spanish Umayyads 756-1031 Spain (Al-Andalus)

Samanid Empire 819-999 Persia (Iran)

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 Fatimid Caliphate 909-1171 North Africa and parts of the

Levant

Seljuk Empire 1037-1194 Central Asia, Persia, and parts of

the Middle East

Almoravid Dynasty 1040-1147 Morocco and South Spain

Almohad Caliphate 1121-1269 Morocco and Southern Spain

Ayyubid Sultanate 1171-1250 Egypt, Syria, and parts of the

Middle East

Nasrid Kingdom 1238-1492 Granada, Spain

Mamluk Sultanate 1250-1517 Egypt and Syria

Ottoman Empire 1299-1923 Turkey, parts of the Middle East,

North Africa, and South-eastern

Europe

Safavid Empire 1501-1736 Iran

Mughal Empire 1526-1858 South Asia (India, Pakistan, and

Bangladesh)

Sokoto Caliphate 1804-1903 Nigeria

Note. Compiled from Kennedy (2007); Ansary (2009); Lapidus (1988).

6.6 Social Transformation

6.6.1 Improvement in Sacrifice During Hajj

During Hajj, many rams are slaughtered without a corresponding number of

people to use them. Consequently, the meat, which is meant to be consumed,

is left untouched year after year. To address this issue, the Islamic Development

Bank (IsDB) devised a novel solution. Pilgrims intending to buy rams for

slaughter during Hajj are encouraged to purchase them from the Islamic

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Development Bank. They are required to pay charges for slaughtering the rams

and other associated costs. Once slaughtered, the meat is refrigerated until

after the Hajj for distribution to needy Islamic societies. This initiative, known

as the Adahi Project (established in 1983) ensures that the sacrificial meat

benefits millions of poor and needy individuals worldwide. According to the

Islamic Development Bank, more than 12 million carcasses have been

distributed globally through this project (Islamic Development Bank, 2009).

This process was never done in either the time of the Prophet (PBUH) or his

Companions, and yet the majority of contemporary Islamic scholars have

supported this improvement due to the rationale behind it, which is to feed

people in Makkah and not waste the meat. It is important to note that this

innovation would not have been possible or contemplated without the

development of technology in refrigeration. This demonstrates that

advancements in technology and the willingness of Muslims to explore new

ways of using them can help to continue to fulfil the Prophet’s (PBUH)

commandments in the most effective and efficient manner.

6.6.2 Reforms

Umar bin Khattab, also known as Amir al-Mu’minin (Leader of the Faithful), was

a prime example of how Islamic principles can be adapted to address the

needs of an ever-changing world. His innovative reforms were rooted in Islamic

teachings, yet flexible enough to accommodate new situations and civilisations

without compromising core Islamic values.

Some of Umar’s (RA) notable reforms include:

1. Establishing registers for soldiers (the national army) and people paying

taxes on land (the conquered people) to maintain order and organisation.

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2. Founding the Baitul-Mal, an early Islamic institution equivalent to the

Ministry or Department of Finance, responsible for managing state revenue

and expenditures.

3. Instituting the Islamic calendar, which dates back to the Hijrah, the

migration of the Prophet (PBUH) from Makkah to Madinah in 622 AD.

4. Abolishing the practice of confiscating land from conquered people and

replacing it with Kharaj, a land tax to be paid by the landowners.

5. Establishing states and appointing governors to administer them, thereby

promoting efficient governance (Gibb, 1962; Lapidus, 1988; Kennedy,

2004).

Umar bin Khattab's pragmatic approach to governance and his ability to adapt

Islamic principles to novel circumstances set a precedent for future Muslim

leaders and demonstrate the flexibility and resilience of Islamic teachings. His

reforms emphasised the importance of adapting to the changing world. This

applicability can also be seen in the broader extent of Islam. For instance,

without modern medicine, certain Qur'anic verses may not be fully understood.

This highlights the idea that Islam provides an outline of life, but some details

of world affairs require learning and adaptation. Umar bin Khattab's reforms

serve as a great example for Muslims on how to apply the teachings of Islam in

a modern context while ensuring that core principles remain intact.

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 CHAPTER SEVEN
Challenges
As Muslims engage with other systems, they have faced many challenges and

criticisms against Islam. While some of these criticisms and questions posed by

other systems are undoubtedly devilish, others have proven to be beneficial in

helping Muslims better understand their religion and deepen their faith.

Among the arguments and questions posed against Islam are the following:

Islam is violent and oppressive; it is incompatible with democracy and modern

technology; it oppresses women; it is backward and outdated; and it is

incompatible with scientific progress.

In response to these criticisms, Muslims have sought to explain the true

meaning of Islam and its principles. Islam is a peaceful and progressive religion

that encourages learning, knowledge, and respect for human rights. It not only

allows for democracy and modern technology, but also encourages them.

Furthermore, Islam does not oppress women; rather it recognises and respects

their rights and dignity. Lastly, Islam does not reject scientific progress, but

instead supports it by encouraging Muslims to explore the world and seek

knowledge.

7.1 External Challenges

Non-Muslims have sought to challenge and criticise Muslims and Islamic

practices using a variety of intellectual approaches, such as logic and moral

reasoning. The external challenges faced by Muslims come from a range of

sources, including Christians, Jews, atheists, Orientalists, and disbelievers.

These people have their own unique worldviews, cultural assumptions, and

values, which often differ from those of Muslims and Islam. Their scholars have

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employed various logic, including the principles of natural law, human rights,

and modern science, as well as their own moral standards to challenge and

criticise Muslims and Islamic practices where appropriate.

In response to the challenges posed by external sources, prominent Muslim

scholars have diligently addressed the criticisms and engaged in intellectual

debates with non-Muslims. Their efforts have contributed to fostering interfaith

dialogue and dispelling misconceptions about Islam. One such distinguished

scholar is the late Dr Ahmad Deedat, renowned for his exceptional ability to

engage in interfaith dialogues and effectively responded to non-Muslim

criticisms of Islam. His book, The Choice: Islam and Christianity (Deedat, 1993)

stands as a testament to his comprehensive knowledge and articulate

arguments. In this book, he addresses various misconceptions about Islam and

engages in constructive dialogue with non-Muslims.

Dr Jamal Badawi, another prominent Muslim scholar, has also taken up the

mantle of addressing misconceptions and promoting interfaith dialogue. In his

book, Gender Equity in Islam: Basic Principles (Badawi, 1995), he responds to

the common criticisms regarding women's rights in Islam and presents a

balanced understanding of gender equity based on Islamic teachings. These

scholars, along with many others such as Dr Yusuf Qardawi and Dr Zakir Naik,

have played a significant role in advancing the understanding of Islam and

promoting meaningful dialogue between Muslims and non-Muslims. Their

contributions have helped bridge gaps and promote a more accurate

understanding of the Islamic faith.

They exemplify the importance of familiarising oneself with the sources and

methods of non-Muslim critics to develop knowledgeable and balanced

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responses, as well as the necessity of engaging in self-reflection, critical

thinking, and constructive dialogue with non-Muslims. By following their

example, Muslims can better understand and address the challenges they face

from external sources and foster productive conversations that promote mutual

understanding and respect:

Invite to the way of your Lord with wisdom and good instruction

and argue with them in a way that is best. Indeed, your Lord is

most knowing of who has strayed from His way, and He is most

knowing of who is [rightly] guided (Qur’an 16:125).

Christianity and Islam have long held beliefs on a number of issues. From

polygamy and inherent rights to divorce, adultery, and the punishment of

offenders.

7.1.1 Polygamy

Polygamy, the practice of marrying more than one wife, is often seen as a

source of gender inequality, with some accusing Islam of exacerbating this

disparity in society. However, polygamy can be viewed as a solution to certain

social problems. It addresses the issue of artificial monogamy to accommodate

the millions of single women and guarantee that all children have legitimate

fathers. Islam recognises the importance of allowing for more than one wife to

protect the women who may have lost their husbands and ensure their safety.

The Qur’an states:

If you fear you will not be fair to (your) orphan (prospective

wives), then marry (instead) whoever you like of women: two,

three and four. But if you fear that you will not be fair (in your

treatment of all your wives) then one (is enough) or those that

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 your right hands possess — this is prescribed lest you commit

injustice (Qur’an 4:3).

Polygamy in Islam is allowed under certain conditions, as it serves to protect

vulnerable women in times of war when the number of men decreases

significantly. This allowance is made in the interest of social welfare and the

protection of women from destitution. In contrast, Islam strictly prohibits the

practice of prostitution, adultery, and polyandry: “And do not approach

unlawful sexual intercourse. Indeed, it is ever an immorality and is evil as a way”

(Qur’an 17:32).

Polyandry, on the other hand, where women have multiple husbands, is not

allowed in Islam, as it goes against the teachings of the Qur’an and is

considered morally unacceptable. In some societies, such as those in Tibet and

the Himalayas, women are shared by men within a family (Goldstein, 1987).

Such practices are strictly prohibited in Islam, which emphasises the

importance of treating women with dignity and respect. Men and women have

different qualities and capabilities in Islam, with each possessing their own

unique strengths. Women, for instance, are generally gentler and more patient,

while men are often considered more assertive and aggressive. Additionally,

women bear the significant responsibility of carrying and birthing children,

which requires great endurance and commitment.

In Islam, mothers hold immense importance, with the saying that “paradise is

under the feet of mothers” (Al-Tabari, 1987). Mothers are considered to be of

higher status than fathers, emphasising the importance of treating women with

kindness and respect. Men should strive to be generous and compassionate to

their wives, recognising the burdens of raising children and fulfilling spousal

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duties. Husbands should remember that kindness, respect and understanding

towards their wives are acts of worship and will be rewarded by Allah.

And one of His signs is that He created for you spouses from

among yourselves so that you may find comfort in them. And

He has placed between you compassion and mercy. Surely in

this are signs for people who reflect (Qur’an 30:21).

Islam has aimed to improve the conditions of women since its inception. In

times when women were treated as second-class citizens, Islam granted them

rights and privileges never seen in other societies. It abolished the heinous

crime of burying girls, granted women the right to inheritance, and allowed

them to choose their marital partners (Lapidus,1988). Through these measures,

Islam has sought to empower women, protect their rights, and ensure their

dignity:

When news is brought to one of them, of (the birth of) a female

(child), his face darkens, and he is filled with inward grief! (✶)

With shame does he hide himself from his people, because of

the bad news he has had! Shall he retain it on (sufferance and)

contempt, or bury it in the dust? Ah! what an evil (choice) they

decide on? (✶) Qur’an 16:58–59).

When the female (infant), buried alive, is questioned –– (✶) For

what crime she was killed (✶) (Qur’an 81:8-9).

The adage “what a man can do, a woman can do as well” holds true across

various aspects of life, including leadership. Women have demonstrated their

capabilities in many roles, notably in positions of power and governance. The

Qur’an highlights the story of Balkis, Queen Saba’ (Sheba), as an example of a

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powerful female ruler. “I found a woman ruling over them: she has been given

all things that could be possessed by any ruler of the earth, and she has a great

throne…” (see Qur’an 27:23-44). In contemporary history, some notable

Muslim women leaders have emerged either as Presidents or Prime Ministers

of their countries at different times.

Table 7.1

Chronology of Notable Muslim Women Leaders in Contemporary History

Leader Position Years in Office

Benazir Bhutto Prime Minister of Pakistan 1988-1990

1993-1996

Khaleda Zia Prime Minister of Bangladesh 1991–1996

2001–2006

Tansu Ciller Prime Minister of Turkey 1993–1996

Sheikh Hasina Wajed Prime Minister of Bangladesh 1996–2001

2009–present

Masoumeh Ebtekar Vice President of Iran 1997–2005

Megawati Sukarnoputri President of Indonesia 2001–2004

Mame Madior Boye Prime Minister of Senegal 2001–2002

Roza Otunbayeva President of Kyrgyzstan 2010-2011

Cissé Mariam Kaïdama Prime Minister of Mali 2011–2012

Sidibé

Atifete Jahjaga President of Kosovo 2011–2016

Aminata Toure Prime Minister of Senegal 2013-2014

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 Sibel Siber Prime Minister of Northern 2013

Cyprus

Ameenah Gurib-Fakim President of Mauritius 2015–2018

Halimah Yacob President of Singapore 2017–present

Samia Suluhu Hassan President of Tanzania 2021–present

Najla Bouden Prime Minister of Tunisia 2021-present

Note. Compiled from Bennett (2010;2021); Almontaser (2017).

Muslim women also serve in military roles, fight in wars, and participate in

various branches of the armed forced. Despite these accomplishments, Islam

emphasises the complementary roles and responsibilities of men and women

in the family and society, rather than focusing on absolute equality. Islam

acknowledges the distinct roles of men and women and values their unique

contributions in various contexts. Within the family structure, the man is

considered the head of the family, supported by his wife or wives. He has a

religious obligation to provide for his family’s needs to the best of his ability.

7.1.2 Divorce

Critics argue that Islamic provisions allowing men to divorce women at will and

permitting up to three divorces do not promote marital stability. They believe

that such practices undermine the sanctity of marriage and can lead to a

breakdown of the family unity. Furthermore, these critics claim that these

provisions can result in higher divorce rates and the suffering of women who

are left without any support after being divorced. However, the divorce rate

seems to be higher in the non-Muslim societies.

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Women, on the other hand, have the right to seek divorce if they no longer

wish to live with their husbands, although they may be required to return some

or all the dowry they received (Al-Ashqar, 1989). On this issue Allah says:

And it is not lawful for you (men) to take back any gifts (Mahr)

(from your wives) which you have given them except when both

parties fear that they would be unable to keep the limits

ordained by Allah (i.e., to deal with each other on fair basis).

Then if you know that they would not be able to keep the limits

ordained by Allah, then there is no sin for either of them if she

gives back (mahr or a part of it) for her freedom. These are the

limits ordained by Allah, so do not transgress them. And

whoever transgresses the limits ordained by Allah, then such are

the wrong – doers (Qur’an 2:229).

A Hadith narrated by Ibn Abbas, a Companion of the Prophet (PBUH), further

illustrated this point: “The wife of Thaabit bin Qais came to the Prophet (PBUH)

and said, “O Allah’s Messenger! I do not blame Thaabit for defects in his

character or his religion, but I, being a Muslim, dislike to behave in un-Islamic

manner (if I remain with him).” On that Allah’s Messenger (PBUH) said (to her),

“Will you give back the garden which your husband has given you (as Mahr)?”

She said, “Yes.” Then the Prophet (PBUH) said to Thaabit, “O Thaabit! Accept

your garden and divorce her once” (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 5273).

O you who believe, it is not lawful for you to forcibly inherit

women, nor to hinder them from marriage, in order to take back

some of what you have given them, unless they commit a clear

adultery. Treat them kindly. If you dislike them, it may be that

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 you dislike something which Allah has put much good in it

(Qur’an 4:19).

7.1.3 Inequality between Men and Women on Inheritance

The issue of inheritance in Islam, particularly the differing shares allocated to

men and women, is a topic that has been subject to various interpretations and

debates. Some of the arguments against this practice include, first, gender

inequality, that the Islamic inheritance laws perpetuate gender inequality,

where males inherit twice as much as females. Critics argue that this is

inherently unfair and reflects a patriarchal society. Second, the practice is

outdated, the laws were relevant in the historical context in which they were

revealed, where men were primarily responsible for the financial wellbeing of

the family. However, in modern societies where women often contribute

equally to the family's finances, this reasoning may seem outdated. Third, the

laws are sometimes seen as reinforcing the idea that women must be

economically dependent on male relatives, which goes against the modern

principles of gender equality and financial independence.

On the contrary, the Qur'an allocates inheritance based on the financial

responsibilities assigned to each gender. Prior to Islam, women often had no

share in inheritance. The Qur'anic laws were revolutionary at the time as they

guaranteed women a specific share, which was a significant step towards

protecting their financial rights. Besides, Islamic inheritance is part of a broader

socio-economic system. It includes not just inheritance laws but also mandatory

alms (Zakat), voluntary charity (Sadaqah), and the dowry (Mahr) to be paid to a

woman at the time of marriage. This holistic approach aims to ensure financial

security for all, including women. Furthermore, Qur'an emphasises the moral

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and spiritual reasons behind these laws. They are not just legal mandates but

also spiritual tests for believers, emphasising fairness, compassion, and the fear

of God.

The Qur’an states that a male should receive twice the amount of what a female

should receive in a given inheritance distribution:

Allah instructs you concerning [the inheritance of] your children:

the share of a male is equal to that of two females. If there are

only daughters, two or more, they get two-thirds of the estate,

but if there is only one daughter, she gets half. Each parent is

entitled to one-sixth if he left offspring, but if he left no offspring

and the parents are the only heirs, the mother gets one-third,

but if he has siblings, the mother gets one-sixth, after settling

any bequests or debts. Your parents and your children, you do

not know which of them will benefit you more. [These shares are]

ordained by Allah; and Allah is All-Knowing, All-Wise. (✶) Your

share is half of your wives’ estate, if they leave no child; but if

they leave a child, you get one-fourth, after settling the

bequests or debts. Your wives’ share is one-fourth of your estate,

if you leave no child, but if you leave a child, they get one-

eighth, after settling the bequests or debts. If a man or a woman

leaves neither parents nor offspring, but has a brother or a sister,

each one gets one-sixth; but if they are more than two, they

share in one-third, after settling the bequests or debts, without

causing harm to the heirs. This is an instruction from Allah; and

Allah is All-Knowing, Most Forbearing (✶) These are the limits

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 (set by) Allah (or ordainments as regards laws of inheritance),

and whosoever obeys Allah and His Messenger (PBUH) will be

admitted to Gardens under which rivers flow (in Paradise), to

abide therein, and that will be the great success (✶) (Qur’an

4:11-13).

These sharers are male and female. Males include husband, son, full brother,

half-brother, father, and paternal grandfather. Females include wife, daughter,

son’s daughter, mother, grandmother, full sister, maternal sister, and paternal

sister. The law prioritises relatives in a specific order, with children, spouses,

and parents usually having the primary claim. The shares of some heirs (like

daughters and sisters) are affected by the presence of others (like sons and

brothers). In the absence of direct heirs, extended family members like uncles,

aunts, and cousins may inherit, as simplified in the table below:

Table 7.2

Share of Inheritance

Heir Relationship Share of Conditions

Inheritance

Husband Spouse 1/2 if no children; -

1/4 if children

Wife Spouse 1/4 if no children; -

1/8 if children

Daughter Child 1/2 if only child; 2/3 If no sons,

split if multiple daughter(s)

daughters; share receive a fixed

share; if sons are

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 reduced if sons are present, they

present inherit twice the

share of daughters

Son Child Double the share of Residuary heir: his

daughter; takes the share is adjusted

remainder after based on

other shares are remaining estate

distributed

Father Parent 1/6 if children are Can be a residuary

present; Majority or heir in absence of

all if no children or children/grandchil

siblings dren

Mother Parent 1/6 if children or -

siblings are present;

1/3 if no children

and no siblings

Grandfather Grandparent Takes the place of Can be a residuary

(Paternal) father if deceased heir in absence of

father and

children

Grandmother Grandparent 1/6 if no mother Share can be

(Paternal) present affected by the

presence of

mother and other

grandmothers

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Full Sister Sibling 1/2 if no children or Inherits as a

parents; share varies residuary heir or a

in presence of other secondary heir

heirs depending on the

presence of other

heirs

Full Brother Sibling Takes the place of Inherits as a

son if no sons; share residuary heir or a

varies in presence secondary heir

of other heirs depending on the

presence of other

heirs

Half-Sister Sibling Share varies; Inherit in the

(Paternal) generally, inherits if absence of full

no full sister siblings or

children

Half-Brother Sibling Share varies; Inherit in the

(Paternal) generally, inherits if absence of full

no full brother siblings or

children

Maternal Sibling 1/6 for one; 1/3 Only inherit in the

Siblings (Maternal) split if more than absence of

one primary heirs

(children, parents)

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 Paternal Extended Can inherit in the -

Uncles/Aunts Family absence of closer

male relatives
Note. From Qur’an (4:4:11-13); Al Jaziri (2009).

Although the table provides an overview of the Islamic inheritance system, it is

not exhaustive. The actual implementation of these rules may require detailed

knowledge of Islamic jurisprudence. The point, in essence, is to ensure that

women are not deprived of their rightful share, as they too have other

commitments to address. In Islamic tradition, men are responsible, as an

obligation, for financially support their families, which includes their wives,

children, and sometimes even extended family. The larger share of inheritance

is thus seen as a means to fulfil this responsibility. They are responsible for

providing the dowry and meeting other financial needs. Women, on the other

hand, are not required to spend their inheritance or personal wealth on their

families, even though they may have the means to do so. Men are expected to

provide for their families, while women can choose to contribute financially if

they wish, but it is not an obligation.

The distribution of inheritance acknowledges the different financial

responsibilities of men and women. Prior to the arrival of Islam in the Arabian

Peninsula, women were sometimes considered as part of the inheritance,

allowing men to inherit them. Islam, however, introduced rules to ensure

financial security for women, even though they do not inherit on an equal basis

with men. This is due to the different financial obligations and roles of men and

women within the family.

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It is interesting to observe the wisdom in these Qur'anic verses on inheritance

in Surah An-Nisa (Qur’an 4:11-13), which reflect a complex system designed to

ensure fair and equitable distribution of wealth among heirs according to their

familial responsibilities and needs. Some of the key aspects of this wisdom

include (Al-Zuhayli, 1989; Sabiq, 1991):

1. Proportional Distribution: The system takes into account the varying

financial responsibilities and needs of different family members. Males,

traditionally responsible for financially supporting a family, receive a larger

share. This is not merely a matter of favouritism but a reflection of the

economic roles and responsibilities in a traditional Islamic society.

2. Guaranteed Shares for Females: Before Islam, women often did not inherit

at all. The Qur'anic injunctions ensure that females (daughters, wives,

mothers, sisters) have a guaranteed share in the inheritance. This was

revolutionary in its historical context and provided financial security to

women.

3. Prevention of Monopoly: The system prevents the concentration of wealth

by distributing it among a wider circle of relatives. This approach aligns with

the Islamic principle of reducing wealth disparity in society.

4. Flexibility and Comprehensiveness: The Qur'anic verses cover a wide

range of familial scenarios, from simple to complex. The system is designed

to be flexible enough to accommodate different family structures while

ensuring that all eligible relatives receive their due share. It is, in a word, a

consolidation of the family system as the social unit of an Islamic society.

5. Debt Settlement Before Distribution: The instructions prioritise the

settlement of any debts and bequests before the distribution of the

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 inheritance. This ensures that the rights of creditors and the wishes of the

deceased are honoured, maintaining social and financial ethics.

6. Fractional Shares and Their Combinations: The inheritance shares are

defined in fractions (half, one-fourth, one-eighth, two-thirds, one-third,

one-sixth). This fractional system facilitates the division of any estate,

regardless of its size, in a precise and clear manner.

7. Equilibrium in Financial Duties and Rights: The system aims to balance

the financial duties and rights among family members. While men might

receive a larger share, they also have the duty to financially support their

families, including female relatives like mothers, wives, and daughters.

8. Social Welfare Aspect: Inheritance laws in Islam also have a social welfare

aspect. By ensuring women receive a share, the system provides a form of

financial security and independence, reducing their potential economic

vulnerability.

On the whole, the wisdom in these Qur'anic verses lies in their ability to create

a balanced, fair, and comprehensive system that considers the socio-economic

dynamics of family life. This system was designed not only for the equitable

distribution of wealth but also to uphold social justice and reduce economic

disparities within the community.

7.1.4 Women are Maltreated and Regarded as Property

Islam recognises women as equal to men in terms of their right to inheritance:

“For men is a share of what the parents and close relatives leave, and for

women is a share of what the parents and close relatives leave, be it little or

much - an obligatory share” (Quran 4:7). Further rights in education, worship,

457
and economic opportunities. Islam provides a more progressive view of

women's rights compared to many other prevalent ideologies. It respects

women as individuals and not just as property, and it grants women many rights

that were not previously enjoyed in pre-Islam Arabia. Before the advent of

Islam, women were subjected to various forms of discrimination and abuse,

such as being buried alive for fear of poverty, being denied inheritance, and

being considered part of one's property. Islam also encourages men to treat

women with kindness, respect, and fairness.

The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) said: "The best of you is the one who is best

to his wife, and I am the best of you to my wives" (Jami’ at-Tirmidhi: 278). While

some people in the contemporary world view Islam as restricting women’s

rights to participate in the national development of their countries, it is

important to acknowledge that Islam does set some guidelines for women's

participation in various aspects of life. However, these guidelines aim to protect

women's dignity and honour, rather than restrict their potential. In fact, there

are numerous examples of Muslim women throughout history who have made

significant contributions to society, including in the fields of education, politics,

and social reform.

7.1.5 Adultery

Adultery and fornication are not allowed. The punishment for adultery is death

while fornication is 100 lashes. Non-Muslims argue that stoning an adulterer to

death is too harsh and does not allow for people to change. However, it is

important to understand that punishment in Islamic law is not meant to take

away the possibility of change. Instead, it serves as a stern warning and

reminder of the gravity of the situation:

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 The woman and the man guilty of illegal sexual intercourse, flog

each of them with a hundred stripes. Let not pity withhold you

in their case, in a punishment prescribed by Allah, if you believe

in Allah and the Last Day. And let a party of the believers witness

their punishment” (Qur'an 24:2).

At the same time, Muslims are allowed, as indicated in the previous chapter, to

marry more than one wife if they can maintain justice among them:

And if you fear that you shall not be able to deal justly with the

orphan-girls, then marry (other) women of your choice, two or

three, or four; but if you fear that you shall not be able to deal

justly (with them), then only one or (the captives and the slaves)

that your right hands possess. That is nearer to prevent you from

doing injustice (Qur’an 4:3).

But if they fear that they cannot be fair, they are encouraged to marry only one

spouse. This is done to ensure that all parties involved are treated fairly and

that there is no injustice done in marriage:

And you will never be able to be equal (in feeling) between

wives, even if you should strive (to do so). So do not incline

completely (toward one) and leave another hanging. And if you

amend (your affairs) and fear Allah, then indeed, Allah is ever

Forgiving and Merciful (Qur’an 4:129).

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7.1.6 Cutting of Hands of Thieves or Burglars and Execution of Murderers

and Killers

The punishment for thieves or burglars is chopping of the hand and the

punishment for murderers and killers is death by execution. On these, some

argue that executing individuals for a crime is dangerous, as no one should be

deprived of their life as a result of their actions. Instead of execution, these

people advocate for imprisonment to allow for reform and reflection.

Undoubtedly, some laws are harsh, but they may be a response to even harsher

criminal offences. Parents discipline their children in various ways, attempting

to prevent them from repeating their unacceptable behaviour. Similarly,

governments worldwide maintain strong defences as a deterrent against

potential attacks, not necessarily for aggression. The harsh laws are thus

intended to serve as a deterrent for potential criminals.

Although some laws were promulgated during the medieval period, they

remain relevant and appropriate for all times. For example, capital punishment

is still applied in some U.S. states today (Gramlich, 2021). Likewise, in Britain,

many citizens continue to call for the reintroduction of capital punishment

(Gallup, 2004). In Nigeria, under General Muhammadu Buhari (1983-1985),

armed robbers and cocaine pushers were publicly executed, but problems

persisted, mainly due to inadequate implementation or abandonment of the

law. As for Islamic law, partial application is unlikely to be successful. The

effectiveness of Islamic laws lies in their holistic approach to justice. These laws

must be applied in their entirety, ensuring effectiveness in tackling crime and

corruption. This involves not only implementing punishments but also

promoting positive values and moral behaviour, such as encouraging charity,

460
honesty, and compassion. In this way, Islamic laws can effectively deal with the

underlying causes of crime and bringing about lasting change.

Islam is a complete way of life, and its principles and teachings contain the

legal framework necessary to create a just and equitable society. The Islamic

legal system, known as Shari’ah, provides a comprehensive set of laws and

regulations governing all aspects of life, from the individual to the collective.

These laws provide guidance on how to live and interact with each other while

also protecting people's rights and freedoms. The Shari’ah is based on the

Qur'an and the Sunnah and is focused on justice, fairness, and compassion. It

provides a broad framework for a functioning society, including laws related to

economic and social issues, such as trade, marriage, divorce, and inheritance.

Constitutions and parliamentary enactments are all attempts to guide people

on how to live and be governed. Law, therefore, is necessary in order to guide

and protect people in a society.

7.1.7 Hostility Towards Religion

Some political and social systems present many challenges to religion,

including Islam, with the argument that religion is created by the powerful to

oppress the powerless. Marx is famously known to have said, "Die Religion ...

ist das Opium des Volkes" which is often rendered as “religion…is the opiate

of the masses” (Marx, 1848). In other words, Marx believed that when the

workers could not afford real opium, those in power used religion not only to

oppress them but also to make them feel better about it.

Islam disagrees with the assertion that religion is created by the powerful to

oppress the powerless. Instead, Islam teaches that religion is divinely revealed

for the benefit and guidance of mankind. In the Qur’an, Allah says:

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 Verily, this is in the former scriptures, (✶) the scriptures of

Abraham and Moses (✶) (Qur’an 87:18-19).

This verse indicates that the same religion was revealed to all Prophets, and

each Prophet had a different role to play in bringing people back to the worship

of Allah (SWT). Furthermore, Allah states:

We have not sent you but as a mercy to the worlds (Qur’an

21:107).

This verse clearly shows that Allah sent Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) as a mercy

to mankind, not to oppress them. The Prophet’s (PBUH) life exemplifies this, as

he strived to protect the weak and bring justice.

Islam is a religion that includes all people, regardless of gender, race, religion,

or socioeconomic status. It is a religion to guide mankind. Religion should not

be used to divide people as it is being used, playing one group against

another. While socialism criticises the rich, Islam provides a different

perspective and solutions to problems in society involving wealth and power

dynamics. Islam recognises the existence of the rich and poor and calls on the

wealthy to use their resources for the betterment of society. Instead of

advocating for the abolishment of private property, like socialism, Islam

encourages the rich to use their wealth to purify their souls and benefit the less

fortunate. The degree of poverty may vary from region to region, but the need

for compassion and charity remains the same. Ultimately, religion should be

used to strengthen our bonds and create a more equitable society. By

providing support to those in need and giving back to our communities, we

can ensure that everyone has access to the resources they need to flourish.

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7.1.8 Secularism

Secularism is the separation of church and state. This entails the state’s

commitment to a principle of neutrality towards matters involving religion in

public life. Thus, the state cannot favour or disfavour any religion or belief over

another, as is the case in capitalist states. However, in socialist states, religion

is not allowed to play a significant role in the public affairs. In contrast to both

capitalism and socialism, Islam is a unique religion that integrates both religious

and political aspects, recognising the importance of both in providing

guidance and direction in life. Islam is not only a religion in the spiritual sense,

but also a comprehensive way of life that addresses various aspects of human

existence in this world. While Islam can be understood independently, it is

worth noting that some Qur’anic verses were revealed in response to questions

and challenges posed by unbelievers, Jews, and Christians (Al-Azami, 2003).

Thus, exploring the answers and solutions Islam provides to these challenges

can further enhance our understanding of the religion.

It is essential to recognise that not everything from other systems is inherently

bad. Even the Qur’an acknowledges that there are some benefits in intoxicants,

but the associated evils ultimately outweigh these benefits. However, the

Qur’an, in the end, has completely prohibited it:

They ask you [O Prophet] about intoxicants and gambling. Say,

“There is great evil in both, as well as some benefit for people—

but the evil outweighs the benefit.” They [also] ask you [O

Prophet] what they should donate. Say, “Whatever you can

spare.” This is how Allah makes His revelations clear to you

[believers], so perhaps you may reflect (Qur’an 2:219).

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A system with only negative aspects would not survive for long or be

implemented by governments or individuals. For instance, capitalism, whose

drive for maximising profit, has driven numerous technological inventions that

have significantly impacted the course of human history and the socio-

economic development of the world. Under socialism, the world has been

exposed to the drawbacks of capitalism and its inherent exploitation. Socialism

provides an alternative system of distributive justice and challenges existing

assumptions about human relations.

As for Christianity and Judaism, the Qur’an acknowledges the presence of

godly men and women who still uphold some of the teachings of Musa and Isa

(AS):

Yet all are not alike: there are some among the People of the

Book who are upright: they recite the verses of Allah during the

night and they prostrate. (✶) They believe in Allah and the Last

Day; enjoin what is right and forbid what is wrong; and hasten

in doing good deeds. They are among the righteous (✶) (Qur’an

3:113-114).

Similarly, in both Buddhism and Hinduism, there are some undoubtedly good

and morally upright people. Hinduism, for instance, is the third largest religion

globally, with approximately 1.2 billion followers, mostly concentrated in India

(Pew Research Centre, 2012). Its status as the third largest religion is primarily

due to India’s vast population, the second most populous country after China.

However, it is essential to recognise that other systems are incomplete ways of

life in comparison to Islam. For instance, capitalism and socialism are

secularistic ways of life and essentially concerned with material well-being,

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although in different ways, Christianity and Judaism are concerned with

worshipping God without ensuring the implementation of God's

commandments. This is, of course, an oversimplification of reality. It is only

Islam that combines the positive aspects of these systems. It incorporates the

ethical values present in earlier religions while adding a unique dimension that

is absent in other belief systems. Islam provides a comprehensive way of life

that guides individuals and nations towards happiness in this world, as

demonstrated during the time of the Prophet (PBUH) and his Companions, as

well as in the hereafter.

7.1.9 Antagonism

In some countries, particularly where there is a Muslim minority or where Islamic

law is not practiced, Muslims can face challenges in fully practicing their

religion. Governments or organisations may oppose the implementation of

Islamic law, leading to persecution or limited opportunities for Muslims to

express and practice their beliefs. It is important to note, however, that this is

not the case in all countries; there are numerous examples of Muslims thriving

and contributing positively to various societies across the world. These

individuals and communities often excel in various fields such as science,

technology, education, arts, sports, and public service. Some examples

include:

1. United States: In the U.S., Muslims have made significant contributions in

various fields, including public service, with notable figures like Ilhan Omar

and Rashida Tlaib, who became the first Muslim women elected to the U.S.

Congress. Additionally, there are many successful Muslim entrepreneurs,

such as Shahid Khan, owner of the Jacksonville Jaguars and Fulham F.C.

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2. Europe: In Europe, Muslims have made considerable contributions to their

respective societies. For example, in the United Kingdom, Sadiq Khan

serves as the Mayor of London, and in Germany, footballer Mesut Özil has

represented the national team with great success. In France, Muslims have

made significant contributions in the fields of sports, arts and culture, with

well-known personalities like Zinedine Zidane and Leïla Slimani.

3. Canada: Muslims in Canada have been successful in various fields, such as

politics, where Maryam Monsef served as Minister of Status of Women and

Minister of International Development in the Canadian government.

Additionally, successful entrepreneurs like Tariq Fancy, the founder of

Rumie Initiative, have made a positive impact on education and technology.

4. Southeast Asia: In countries like Malaysia and Indonesia, Muslims are well-

represented in various sectors, including politics, with figures like Mahathir

Mohammad, who served as the Prime Minister of Malaysia, and Joko

Widodo, the President of Indonesia.

5. Australia: Muslims in Australia have made significant contributions to

society, with examples such as Mehreen Faruqi, who serves as an Australian

senator, and Waleed Aly, a prominent journalist and television presenter.

These examples highlight the success and contributions of Muslims in various

societies around the world, demonstrating their ability to integrate and

positively influence their communities. However, Muslims face the following

challenges on the global scale:

1. Legal Restrictions: In certain countries, the implementation of Islamic law

may be met with resistance or outright opposition from the government or

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 other organisations. This can result in limited opportunities for Muslims to

practice their religion fully and may even lead to persecution in some cases.

2. Visa Limitations: On a global scale, the movement of individuals is often

restricted by visa requirements. While this impacts people of all faiths,

Muslims may face particular challenges due to ongoing political conflicts,

security concerns, or negative stereotypes.

3. Economic Disparities: Muslims in certain regions or countries may

experience economic hardship, although this varies significantly depending

on the country. For example, while countries like the Arab Gulf States, Iran,

and Turkey have relatively higher standards of living, Muslims in other areas

may face challenges such as poverty and limited access to resources.

4. Cultural Erosion: The proliferation of technology, mass media, and

electronic media has led to the globalisation of culture, which can

sometimes result in the erosion or dilution of traditional values and

practices. While this affects all communities to some extent, Muslim

populations in certain areas may feel particularly threatened by the loss of

their cultural identity.

It is crucial to emphasise that these challenges do not apply to all Muslims

globally and that there are countless examples of Muslim communities thriving

and contributing positively to the societies in which they live. Furthermore,

many countries and organisations actively work to promote interfaith dialogue,

religious freedom, and cultural understanding, demonstrating that it is possible

to foster an environment of tolerance and inclusivity for people of all faiths,

including Muslims.

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7.2 Internal Challenges within Islam Itself

7.2.1 Grouping

During the time of the Prophet (PBUH), Muslims were united as one group.

They continued to maintain their unity under the leadership of his successors,

Abubakar, Umar and Usman, until the time of Ali, when Muslims for the first

time became divided, leading to the formation of three groups (Gibb, 1962;

Lapidus, 1988). The first group were the supporters of Ali (RA), later known as

the Shi’a, who emerged after the battle of Siffin in 657 AD between Ali bin Abi

Talib (Ameerul Mu’mineen) and Mu’awiyah bin Abi Sufyan (Governor of Syria).

This group supported Ali and members of the Prophet’s (PBUH) household,

condemning the first three Caliphs of Islam, Abubakar, Umar, and Usman, as

usurpers of Ali's leadership after the death of the Prophet (PBUH). The second

group were the supporters of Mu'awiyah, who were loyal to the Caliphate of

Usman. They believed the legitimacy of the first three Caliphs and opposed

the rule of Ali. The third group were the Kharijites, who rejected the Caliphate

of Ali and opposed the rule of the first three Caliphs. They believed in a strict

interpretation of the Qur’an and Sunnah and sought a leader who adhered to

their uncompromising views (Gibb, 1962; Madelung, 1996; Al-Mawardi, 2000;

Cleveland & Bunton, 2016). Today, Muslims can be broadly categorised into

four primary groups: Sunni (Ahli As-Sunnah), Shia, Ibadis (Kharijites) and

Qadiyanis (Ahmadiyya). Additionally, there is a distinct yet pervasive mystical

sub-group, the Sufi’s which can be found across all four primary groups.

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7.2.1.1 Sunni

Ahlus-Sunnah (the People of the Sunnah), derived from the Arabic Language,

is the largest sect within Islam, representing approximately 87-90% of all

Muslims worldwide (Pew Research Centre, 2009). Sunni Muslims consists of

Four Schools of Jurisprudence: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, and Hanbali, each

founded by a prominent Islamic scholar, as indicated in other chapters: Imam

Abu Hanifa, Imam Malik, Imam Shafi'i, and Imam Hanbali, respectively.

Sunni Muslims believe that the Qur’an and the Sunnah serve as the primary

sources of guidance in their faith. They also believe that the Companions of

the Prophet (PBUH) provided additional help in understanding the Qur’an and

the Sunnah (Al-Jazari, 2009). Sunni Muslims emphasise the importance of

Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) and recognise the legitimacy of differences among

the various schools of jurisprudence. They promote a consensus-based

approach (ijma) among the scholars in interpreting Islamic law. They reject

innovations (bid’ah) in religious practices that are not based on the Qur’an or

the Sunnah, and they oppose Shi'a beliefs, such as the infallibility of the Imams

(Esposito 1999; Al-Jazari, 2009). Ahlus-Sunnah supports all the Companions of

the Prophet (PBUH), following their teachings and holding them in high

esteem. They believe that the Companions provide the best example of how

to follow the teachings of the Prophet (PBUH).

7.2.1.2 Shi’a

The Shi’a sect emerged in the first half of the first century of Islam, stemming

from disagreements over the succession of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH).

They reject the first three Caliphs - Abubakar Siddiq, Umar bin Khattab, and

Usman bin Affan - and recognise only Ali bin Abi Talib, the fourth Caliph, as

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Prophet Muhammad (PBUH)'s first and only legitimate successor (Gibb, 1962).

They also hold a different view of the Companions, condemning all but five: Ali

bin Abi Talib, Salman al-Farsi, ‘Ammar ibn Yasir, Miqdad ibn al-Aswad, and Abu

Dhar al-Ghaffari (Al-Islam.org). They reject the two most renowned collection

of Hadith, Sahih Al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim, which the majority of Muslims

regard as the most authentic after the Qur’an (Esposito, 2002).

Shi’ism gained significant influence under the Fatimid dynasty in Egypt, during

which Al-Azhar University was established. This dynasty not only spread Shi’ism

throughout the Islamic state, including Makkah and Madinah, but also

introduced various innovations into Islam that have undeniably caused and

continue to cause harm to puritan Islam (Lapidus, 1988; Cleveland & Bunton,

2016). Subsequent dynasties shifted the Caliphate away from Shi’ism, leading

to the emergence of a Sunni majority. Despite this, Iran has become the seat

of the Shi'ite movement, and in Iraq, approximately 3/4 of the Muslim

population is Shi’a (Pew Research Centre, 2009). It is important to note that

Shi'ism is not a monolithic sect; there are various divisions within Shi'a Islam,

each with its unique doctrinal interpretations.

7.2.1.3 Kharijites

The Khawarij, also known as the “People of Exclusion”, or “Kharajites” (derived

from the Arabic term “Kharaj” which means “those who leave”), are an ultra-

conservative sect of Islam that emerged around the same period as Shi’a

(Lapidus 1988; Al-Mawardi, 2000), after the Battle of Siffin between Ali bin Abi

Talib, the Fourth Caliph, and Mu’awiyah I, the Governor of Syria, which took

place in 657 CE (37 AH). The group believed that the Islamic community should

be ruled strictly according to their interpretation of the Qur’an and the Sunnah.

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They are known for their strict interpretation of the Qur'an and their refusal to

widen their scope (Al-Baghdadi, 1993). They rejected the idea of appointing a

Caliph or any other leader not in strict compliance with the Qur’an and the

Sunnah. They also rejected the practice of Taqiyya (dissimulation), which

allowed Muslims to conceal their beliefs in order to protect themselves from

harm, a practice favoured by Shi’a (Al-Qurtubi, 1967). The Kharajites believed

that any Muslim who strayed from the true path of Islam should be declared an

apostate and be subject to a harsh punishment, often death. They were known

for their extreme views and their willingness to use violence in order to enforce

their beliefs (Ibn Abi Shaiba, 1989).

It is noteworthy, however, that this category of Muslims impacted lives more in

the early days of Islam. Today, there are no countries where Kharijites, as a

historical group, can be found as a significant or recognised community.

However, the Ibadiyya sect, which has some historical links to the Kharijites, is

predominant in Oman and also has smaller communities in parts of Algeria,

Tunisia, Libya, and Zanzibar (Pew Research Centre, 2009). The Ibadis, though,

differ significantly in beliefs and practices from the original Kharijites and are

not considered extremist.

7.2.1.4 Qadiyanis (Ahmadiyya)

The Qadiyanis, also known as Ahmadiyya, is a religious movement that

emerged in India in the late 19th century. Founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad

(1835-1908) in Qadian, Punjab, the movement sought to revive and reform

Islamic beliefs and practices (Friedmann, 2003). The Ahmadiyya community has

faced significant controversy and opposition from mainstream Muslims due to

its distinctive theological and doctrinal interpretations of Islam.

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Mirza Ghulam Ahmad claimed to be the promised Messiah and the Mahdi,

which has been a point of contention among mainstream Muslims, who believe

that Jesus (Isa) will return as the Messiah and that the Mahdi is a separate

individual who will appear before the Day of Judgment (Friedmann, 2003).

Furthermore, the Ahmadiyya community holds that prophethood did not end

with Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), asserting that Mirza Ghulam Ahmad was a

prophet in the Islamic tradition (Hughes, 2017). This belief contradicts the

mainstream Islamic view that Muhammad (PBUH) was the final prophet.

The Ahmadiyya movement promotes the peaceful propagation of Islam and

emphasises the importance of interfaith dialogue and tolerance (Friedmann,

2003; Hughes, 2017). Despite facing persecution and opposition in many

countries, the Ahmadiyya community has grown and established itself in

various parts of the world, with millions of adherents globally.

7.2.1.5 Sufis

Sufis are a group of Islamic mystics who emerged in the 8th and 9th centuries,

who are inspired by the life and teachings of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH).

They sought to merge the spiritual and the worldly aspects of their lives by

pursing a personal, intimate relationship with Allah. Consequently, they

developed a form of mysticism that involved an inner journey of self-discovery

to comprehend the divine (Fadiman & Frager, 1991; Ernst, 2011). This journey

was encompassed various spiritual exercises, such as contemplation,

meditation, fasting, and spiritual retreats, all aimed at understanding Allah’s

inner workings and their true connection with the divine (Ernst, 2011).

Sufis contend that there are hidden meanings within the Qur’an that only Sufis

can decipher. Often, they use weak Hadith to justify their actions or arguments.

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Sufis also hold their scholars in high esteem, citing Hadith to justify this by

stating that ulama are the inheritors of the Prophets. Consequently, scholars

are considered intermediaries between Allah and believers, warranting a

special status. Sufis believe that if one intends to supplicate, they should go

through the scholars before reaching Allah (Fadiman & Frager, 1991; Nasr,

1996; Ernst, 2011). However, this practice lacks justification, as neither Prophet

Muhammad (PBUH) nor his companions engaged in such behaviour.

Sufism has been present in nearly every Islamic nation since the early days of

Islam (Trimingham, 1998). Undoubtedly, Sufis have played a significant role in

spreading Islam across various regions of the world through teaching,

providing Qur’anic medicine, and engaging people in dhikr. However, they

have also introduced several beliefs and practices that contradict the teachings

of Islam. As knowledge advances and resources like tafsir and Hadith books

become more accessible, many Muslims are questioning the Sufi stance on

certain matters. For instance, some criticise the veneration of saints, rituals at

their shrines, and the belief in intermediaries between the individual and Allah,

which are considered contrary to the Islamic principles of monotheism

(Tawheed) and direct connection with God.

Although these groups differ on some issues with the mainstream of Muslim

Sunnis, they share a deep reverence for the teachings of Prophet Muhammad

(PBUH). Each of the main groups of Muslims has not changed its position since

their emergence.

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7.3 Some Issues of Concern

7.3.1 Maulid

The celebration of Maulid, also known as Mawlid, commemorates the birth of

the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Maulid is celebrated annually in the month of

Rabiul Awwal, which is both the month of the Prophet’s (PBUH) birth and

passing (Abdul-Wahid, 2020). It is important to note that this practice was not

observed by the Prophet (PBUH) in all the 23 years of his prophethood (610-

632 CE). His Four Rightly Guided Companions, Abubakar, Umar, Usman and

Ali who ruled for about 30 years (632–661 CE) or the followers (Tabi’oon) did

not observe it either. Similarly, the Umayyads who ruled for about 90 years

(661–750 CE) and Abbasid who ruled for over 500 years (750–1258 CE) did not

observe the celebration of the birth of the Prophet. The authentic books of

Hadith, notably Sahih Al-Bukhari, Sahih Muslim and the rest did not record it.

Imam Malik, the Imam of Madinah for about 40 years did not report it, for it

was not observed by the people of Madinah. However, some scholars maintain

that celebrating the birthday of the Prophet (PBUH), even though not practiced

by the Companions and successors, it is acceptable and does not contradict

the principles of the religion.

The origins of the first celebration of the Prophet’s (PBUH) birthday, or its

establishment as an official holiday, are unclear. Some scholars believe it

occurred during the rule of Wazir al-Afdal (487-515 AH/1095-1121 CE) of the

Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt (Ibn Hajar, n.d.; Brill, 1993). Others argue that it was

King Muzaffar Abu Sa'eed Kaukabouri, the ruler of Irbil (present day Kurdistan)

at the end of the 6th century of Hijrah, or the beginning of the 7th century, as

documented by historians like Ibn Kathir, Ibn Khallikan and others. In particular,

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Ibn Khallikan's historical report states that according to Ahly as-Sunnah, the

Prophet’s (PUBH) birthday celebration was introduced in Egypt by Al-Malik

Muzaffar Ad-Din Kaukabouri in 604 AH/1207 CE, who was the brother of

Salahuddin al-Ayyubi (Ibn Khallikan, 1996; Abdul-Wahid, 2020).

The celebration quickly spread throughout the Muslim world and has since

become a religious practice among large number of Muslims. This celebration,

unfortunately, is an innovation that has no basis in the teachings of the Prophet

(PBUH), for whom the celebration is made, and should not be treated as an

Islamic religious obligation. Strangely enough, Qur’anic verses are quoted to

justify and even make celebrating Maulid as obligatory. The argument for

Maulid is that it is an occasion to remember and think about the Prophet

(PBUH), read the Qur'an, and listen to his sayings. However, it can be argued

that Muslims already think about and remember the Prophet (PBUH) multiple

times daily, such as during the five daily prayers, the call to prayer (Adhan),

supplicatory prayers, and whenever his name is mentioned:

Indeed, Allah sends His blessings upon the Prophet, and His

angels pray for him. O you who believe, invoke Allah’s blessings

upon him, and send him greetings of peace (Qur’an 33:56).

Most of the Sufis acknowledge that celebrating the birthday of the Prophet

(PBUH) is an aberration, but they contend that it is a good innovation (bid’ah

hasanah) because it serves as an occasion for Muslims to remember the

Prophet (PBUH) and the message he brought to mankind; the Qur’an is read,

and his life story and Sunnah are narrated to people (Abdul-Wahid, 2020).

Some scholars cite examples of innovations introduced by the Companions of

the Prophet (PBUH), such as the compilation of the Qur’an into a single book

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by Usman (RA), organising Taraweeh prayers under one Imam, and establishing

the Islamic calendar by Umar (RA). They also argue that, according to a Hadith,

the Ulama (scholars) are the successors of the Prophets, therefore, they have

the authority to introduce practices for the betterment of Islam when needed

(Ibn Hajar, n.d.).

Refuting these arguments one by one, the Companions did not introduce

innovations, but rather acted upon the guidance of the Prophet (PBUH). The

Qur’an was already written down during the Prophet’s (PBUH) lifetime, though

written on different materials and memorised by the Companions. Abubakar

(RA) combined them into a single volume, and Usman (RA) later made six

copies of the Qur’an and distributed them throughout the Islamic Caliphate to

standardise the text and avoid different readings (Al-Suyuty, 1990). On

Taraweeh, Umar (RA) did not start it under one Imam. The Prophet (PBUH)

initiated it; he led Muslims in Taraweeh but did not do so consecutively for fear

of making it mandatory. After his death, the Companions continued to pray

individually. One day, Umar (RA) came to the mosque and found Companions

praying Taraweeh separately, so he asked two Companions to lead the rest in

the prayer.

The celebration of Maulid has been compared to the Christian celebration of

Christmas, as it is a commemoration of a religious figure's birth. Regarding this,

Umar (RA) narrated: ‘I heard the Prophet (PBUH) saying, "Do not exaggerate in

praising me as the Christians praised the son of Mary, for I am only a Slave. So,

call me the Slave of Allah and His Apostle”’ (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 3445). Some

argue that the practice of Maulid may have been introduced due to ignorance

or as a way to mislead Muslims. It gained widespread acceptance with the

support of some Ulama (scholars) and governments, even after the downfall of

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the Fatimids (Abdul-Wahid, 2020). It is essential to recognise that opinions on

the celebration of Maulid differ among Muslims. While some celebrate it as a

way to express love and devotion to the Prophet (PBUH), others believe it to

be an aberration, innovation that deviates from the original teachings and

practices of Islam.

To celebrate the birthday of the Prophet (PBUH) is certainly a consequential

issue and yet, introducing innovations in a religious matter is not acceptable. If

celebrating the birthday of the Prophet (PBUH) were appropriate, the Prophet

(PBUH) himself would have instructed Muslims to do so. As an example, the

Prophet (PBUH), told Muslims that whoever sends salutations upon him, Allah

will send salutations upon the person ten times (Sahih Muslim: 408). The fact

that most Muslims worldwide celebrate the Prophet‘s (PBUH) birthday does not

make it right; religious matters are determined not by the majority view but by

what Allah and his Prophet (PBUH) have sanctioned. In cases where a clear

directive from Allah or the Prophet (PBUH) is not available, Muslims should refer

to the traditions of the Companions, their followers, and the teachings of

scholars who adhere to the Sunnah.

The Prophet (PBUH) said “The most truthful of speech is the book of Allah and

the best of guidance is the guidance of Muhammad, and the most evil of things

are those which are newly invented.” And he said “Whoever innovates

anything in this matter of ours (i.e., Islam), that is not part of it will have it

rejected (Sahih Muslim 4:1885).

Allah's Messenger (PBUH) said, “Stick to my Sunnah and the Sunnah of my

Rightly Guided Caliphs, cling to it firmly with your molar teeth. Beware of

newly invented matters, for every new matter is an innovation and every

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innovation is misleading" (Musnad Ahmad, 4:126; Jami’ at-Tirmidhi: 2676). The

Prophet (PBUH) had warned, "And beware of going to extremes in religious

matters, for those who came before you were destroyed because of going to

extremes in religious matters" (Sunan An Nasa’i: 3059).

Remembering the Prophet (PBUH) is an integral part of a Muslim’s life. In their

five daily prayers, Muslims remember the Prophet (PBUH) through their actions

and interactions. The religion of Islam is a comprehensive way of life, not just

limited to worship, and was revealed through the Prophet (PBUH); thus,

understanding and practicing the religion necessitates remembering the

Prophet (PBUH) at all times.

7.3.2 Celebrating Completion of the Qur’an

The completion of reciting the entire Qur’an is indeed a significant milestone

for any Muslims, as it reflects his commitment to understanding and engaging

with the sacred text. To honour and celebrate this achievement, several

practices can be observed:

1. Khatm Al-Qur'an (Completion Ceremony): Organising a Khatm al-Qur'an

ceremony is a common way to celebrate the completion of the Qur'an

recitation. This event typically includes a gathering of family, friends, and

community members, often held at the home or local mosque of the person

who has completed the recitation. The ceremony may involve the reciter

reading the final verses of the Qur'an, followed by a collective supplication

(du'a) to ask for Allah's blessings and guidance.

2. Sharing Experiences and Insights: During the celebratory gathering, the

person who has completed reciting the Qur'an can share their experiences,

challenges, and insights gained throughout the process. This can be an

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 opportunity for them to reflect on their spiritual journey and discuss the

impact of the Qur'an on their lives.

3. Offering Gratitude and Prayer: It is customary for the person who has

completed the recitation to offer gratitude and perform additional prayers

(Salat) to thank Allah for the opportunity and ability to complete the

recitation. This can be done individually or as a group prayer with the

attendees.

4. Sadaqah (Charitable Giving): Donating to charity in the name of the

person who has completed the recitation is a meaningful way to express

gratitude and share the blessings of the Qur'an with those in need. The act

of giving Sadaqah is highly encouraged in Islam and serves as a reminder

of the importance of social responsibility and generosity: “O believers!

Donate from the best of what you have earned and of what We have

produced for you from the earth. Do not pick out worthless things for

donation, which you yourselves would only accept with closed eyes. And

know that Allah is Self-Sufficient, Praiseworthy” (Qur'an, 2:267).

5. Feeding the Community: Hosting a meal or distributing food to the

community is another way to celebrate the completion of the Qur'an

recitation. This practice is rooted in the Islamic tradition of hospitality and

sharing blessings with others.

By engaging in these practices, Muslims can celebrate the completion of

reciting the Qur'an in a way that emphasises gratitude, reflection, and

community engagement.

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7.3.3 Competition in the Reading of the Qur’an

Competition in the reading of the Qur’an is a highly valued and respected

tradition in the Islamic faith. Across many Islamic nations and communities

around the world, this tradition manifests in the form of organised competitions

and informal, local gatherings. Participants strive to excel in reciting and

understanding the words of the Qur’an, honouring, and respecting its

teachings and enhancing their knowledge and understanding of the sacred

text.

There are two primary types of Qur’an competitions. The first is a formal

competition, often referred to as a “Qira’at” competition. Participants are

assessed on a range of tasks, such as reciting specific verses, interpreting words

or phrases, answering questions about the text, demonstrating their

knowledge of Arabic grammar and syntax. A panel of judges evaluates each

recitation and awards points based on accuracy and memorisation. The

participant with the highest score is declared the winner.

Informal Qur’an competitions are more relaxed and typically take place in

mosques and Islamic schools. Individuals recite passages for their peers and

family members, with assessments based on accuracy, speed, and

memorisation. Friendly competitions might occur within families or among

friends, such as challenges to read the Qur’an in the shortest amount of time

or memorise the most verses.

Qira’at competitions are held in various countries, including Nigeria. One

example is the National Qur’anic Recitation Competition in Nigeria, an annual

event where participants from different states compete in reciting the Qur’an.

Another prominent event is the International Qur’an Recitation Competition

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held in Malaysia, which attracts participants from around the world. Such

competitions not only foster a deeper understanding of the Qur’an but also

serve to strengthen the bonds of the Islamic community and celebrate the

beauty of its teachings.

7.3.4 Hijab

Hijab refers to the modest dress code for Muslim women, which includes

covering their body. There is a difference of opinion among scholars regarding

the obligation to cover the face completely. Some scholars argue that it is

compulsory, while others maintain that it is not mandatory but rather

recommended. Both groups cite various Hadith and Qur’anic verses to support

their positions:

Tell the believing women to lower their gazes and guard their

private parts, and not to reveal their beauty except what

appears. And let them draw their veils over their chests, and not

to reveal their beauty except to their husbands, their fathers,

their fathers-in-law, their sons, their stepsons, their brothers,

their brothers’ sons or sisters’ sons, their fellow women, slaves

whom they own, male attendants who have no [sexual] desire,

or children who are still unaware of private aspects of women.

Nor let them stamp their feet in order to draw attention to their

hidden charm. And turn to Allah in repentance all together, O

believers, so that you may be successful (Qur’an 24:31).

In a Hadith narrated by Aisha (RA), the Prophet (PBUH) said: "O Asma, when a

woman reaches the age of puberty, nothing should be seen of her except this

and this," and he pointed to his face and hands” (Sunan Abu Dawud: 4104).

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While the debate over covering the face continues, it is essential to emphasise

the importance of educating men about their roles and responsibilities in man-

woman relationships within the Muslim community. It is worth noting that in

societies where socialisation from childhood supports the practice of covering

the face, it can be considered relevant and appropriate. Ultimately, the decision

to cover one's face should be made based on an individual's understanding of

Islamic teachings and their cultural context.

7.3.5 Environment

The geographical conditions in which people live are diverse, and these

variations are part of Allah’s creation. Allah created not just the people in the

universe but also the land on which they live and the geographical conditions

in which they find themselves. Some are made to live in hot climates, others in

cold climates, and still others in temperate climates with corresponding

vegetative conditions. The differences in the geographical conditions are the

will of Allah, as are the differences in the colour of human beings:

It is He Who spread out the earth and placed therein firm

mountains and rivers and created therein fruits of every kind in

pairs. He causes the night to cover the day. Indeed, there are

signs in this for people who reflect” (Qur'an 13:3).

The diverse geographical conditions are not assigned to specific religious

groups, and it is not accurate to say that Muslims are destined to live in harsh

climates because Islam originated from the deserts of Arabia. Muslims can be

found in various regions of the world, from the hot deserts of the Middle East

and Africa to the temperate climates of Europe and North America. Islamic

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civilisation once flourished in Europe (Spain) which has a temperate climate, for

eight centuries.

Thus, it does not mean that the better geographical conditions are meant for

non-Muslims to enjoy this life but to suffer in the hereafter. Both Christianity

and Islam originated in the Middle East, and most of the Prophets originated

from there, a region characterised by its harsh climate conditions. The spread

of Christianity to Europe and its adaptation by Europeans led to its association

as the religion of the West, but this does not preclude Europeans from adhering

to other faiths, including Islam. Each geographical condition has its own unique

characteristics, with various advantages and disadvantages. In some cases,

certain geographical conditions may not appear to have any evident benefits.

It is crucial to recognise that geographical conditions do not determine the

religious beliefs of the people who live there, nor should they be used as a

basis for judgment in matters of faith.

Similarly, the differences in the colour and appearance of human beings are

part of Allah's creation:

O mankind, indeed, We have created you from male and female

and made you peoples and tribes that you may know one

another. Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is

the most righteous of you. Indeed, Allah is Knowing and

Acquainted (Qur'an 49:13).

It is essential to recognise that diversity in geographical conditions, as well as

in the appearance of people, is part of Allah's divine plan. These differences

should not be used as a basis for discrimination or prejudice, but rather as an

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opportunity to learn from one another and appreciate the richness and beauty

of Allah's creation.

7.3.6 Prevalence of Injustices and Suffering

The question of suffering and divine justice in Islam is a complex and enduring

one, which scholars and theologians have approached by drawing on the

Quran, Hadith, and a rich tradition of Islamic thought. The human condition

with its trials and tribulations is interpreted within Islamic teachings as a test

from Allah—a divine assessment of faith and resilience. The Quran presents

this concept in various verses, which affirm that life's hardships are meant to

test belief and patience, such as when it states:

We will surely test you with something of fear and hunger and a

loss of wealth and lives and fruits but give good tidings to the

patient (✶) Who, when disaster strikes them, say, 'Indeed we

belong to Allah, and indeed to Him we will return.' (✶) Those

are the ones upon whom are blessings from their Lord and

mercy. And it is those who are the [rightly] guided (✶) (Quran

2:155-157).

The emphasis on patience is reiterated in the face of life's unexpected events,

where it is mentioned: "And We will surely test you until We make evident

those who strive among you [for the cause of Allah] and the patient, and We

will test your affairs" (Quran 47:31).

The principle of divine justice ('Adl) and wisdom (Hikmah) suggests that Allah's

understanding and justice are beyond human comprehension. This belief is

supported by the Quran's counsel to remain patient and trust in Allah's plan,

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even when the wisdom behind certain events is not apparent to humans, as it

is said: "And it may be that you dislike a thing which is good for you and that

you like a thing which is bad for you. Allah knows but you do not know" (Quran

2:216). Furthermore, the assurance of ultimate justice in the afterlife is a

cornerstone of Islamic belief, as conveyed by the verse: "So whoever does an

atom's weight of good will see it, (✶) and whoever does an atom's weight of

evil will see it" (✶) (Quran 99:7-8).

The concept of free will in Islam plays a crucial role in understanding the

presence of suffering and injustice in the world. While Allah permits human

actions, including their negative consequences, such allowance is key to the

concept of moral choice in Islam. This understanding is reflected in the Quran:

"Corruption has appeared throughout the land and sea by [reason of] what the

hands of people have earned" (Quran 30:41), highlighting the human

contribution to the world's discord and the imperative for righteousness and

reform.

Islamic teachings also place great emphasis on social justice and the

responsibility of the community (Ummah) to alleviate inequality and support

the less fortunate. This is operationalised through religious obligations like

Zakat (almsgiving) and Sadaqah (voluntary charity), designed to mitigate

economic disparity and foster communal welfare, underscoring the social

conscience integral to the faith.

In response to hardship, Islam promotes patience and trust in Allah’s wisdom.

Such patience is not passive resignation but is considered actively meritorious

and key to spiritual growth, as the Quran encourages: "O you who have

believed, seek help through patience and prayer. Indeed, Allah is with the

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patient" (Quran 2:153). This approach is balanced by the continuous

remembrance of Allah's encompassing mercy, even during difficulties, to

cultivate resilience and hope.

Scholars have often contextualised Qur'anic verses and Hadith to better

understand their application to current circumstances. This historical lens can

aid believers in appreciating the broader implications of Islamic teachings

during times of social or personal upheaval.

Islamic scholarship does not shy away from intellectual challenges but rather

embraces the pursuit of knowledge and understanding as essential to a robust

faith. Reflecting upon the creation and studying religious texts are seen as vital

processes for strengthening belief and resolving doubts.

The Qur’an also balances its message by recognising the cycles of life and the

inherent tests within, as seen in the verse:

If you have suffered a blow, they too have suffered a blow like

it. And such days [of varying fortunes] We give to men by turns

that Allah may know those who believe and may take to Himself

from your ranks martyr-witnesses (Quran 3:140).

This passage reflects the oscillation between trial and reward, elucidating the

transient nature of worldly afflictions in contrast to the eternal nature of divine

judgment.

Overall, Islamic discourse on divine justice, mercy, and the problem of human

suffering presents a subtle understanding that reconciles faith with the realities

of the human experience. Through divine revelation, ethical principles, and

social responsibility, Islam provides a comprehensive framework for grappling

with and ultimately transcending life's trials and injustices.

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 CHAPTER EIGHT
Strategies for Calling People to Allah (Da’awah)
Da’awah, or the act of inviting people to Islam, holds profound significance in

the Islamic faith. It encompasses more than mere propagation of religious

doctrines; it is a holistic approach to engaging with individuals and

communities on spiritual, moral, and intellectual levels. Effective strategies for

Da'awah necessitate a deep understanding of Islamic teachings, coupled with

a keen awareness of diverse cultural and social contexts.

Central to successful Da'awah is the adherence to the principles of Hikmah

(wisdom), Mawaddah (compassion), and understanding. This involves

presenting the message of Islam in a manner that is not only informative but

also empathetic and respectful of the beliefs and traditions of others. Da'awah

is not about coercion or confrontation but rather about opening doors to

meaningful dialogue and mutual understanding.

In today’s globalised world, where misconceptions and distortion about Islam

are prevalent, Da'awah plays a pivotal role in bridging gaps and fostering a

climate of tolerance and respect. From one-on-one interactions to the use of

digital media, the methods of Da'awah are diverse, each requiring a tailored

approach that resonates with the target audience. This field, therefore,

demands continuous learning, adaptability, and a commitment to the ethical

and respectful representation of Islamic values. In this regard, Allah said:

Let there arise out of you a group of people inviting to all that is

good (Islam), enjoining Al-Ma‘ruf (i.e. Islamic Monotheism and

all that Islam orders one to do) and forbidding Al-Munkar

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 (polytheism and disbelief and all that Islam has forbidden). And

it is they who are the successful (Qur’an 3:104).

Invite (all) to the Way of your Lord with wisdom and beautiful

preaching; and argue with them in ways that are best and most

gracious: for your Lord knows best, who have strayed from His

Path, and who receive guidance (Qur’an 16:125).

Say (O Muhammad, PBUH): "This is my way; I invite unto Allah

(i.e., to the Oneness of Allah - Islamic Monotheism) with sure

knowledge, I and whosoever follows me (also must invite others

to Allah i.e., to the Oneness of Allah - Islamic Monotheism with

sure knowledge). And Glorified and Exalted be Allah (above all

that they associate as partners with Him). And I am not of the

Mushrikun (polytheists, pagans, idolaters, and disbelievers in

the Oneness of Allah; those who worship others along with Allah

or set up rivals or partners to Allah)" (Qur’an 12:108).

Who is better in speech than one who calls to Allah, does

righteous deeds, and says, “I am one of the Muslims [submitting

to Allah]”? (Qur’an 41:33).

8.1 The Prophet's (PBUH) Approach to Inviting People to Islam

The Prophet (PBUH) began calling members of his family to Islam first. Hence

his wife, Khadijah, was the first to embrace Islam. Then his cousin, Ali bin Abi

Talib, and then his friend, Abubakar Siddiq. The focus of the call was for people

to believe in the Oneness of Allah, the Creator and Sustainer of the universe;

the Only One who deserves to be worshipped and should not be associated

with any being in worship. The Prophet (PBUH) also encouraged people to

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abstain from evil and do good. He reminded people of the consequences of

their actions in this life and the hereafter. He preached this message for thirteen

years in Makkah, with the hope that it would lead people to the truth and have

faith in Allah.

After migrating to Madinah, the Prophet (PBUH) set about establishing the first

ever Islamic State. He implemented new laws and regulations which could not

be done in Makkah. This enabled the Muslims to live peacefully and free from

persecution, with the Prophet (PBUH) recognised as both their religious and

political leader. He outlined a just and equitable structure of governance,

creating a constitution, also known as the Charter of Madinah. It was drafted in

622 CE after the Prophet (PBUH) and his followers migrated from Makkah to

Madinah (Watt, 1956; Hamidullah, 1975; Siddiqui, 1995; Lecker, 2004; Balzani,

2012).

The Charter of Madinah consists of 47 clauses (Appendix I) that outlines the

political, social, and religious rights and responsibilities of the citizens in the

newly established Islamic State. This constitution was based on principles of

justice, equality, and mutual consultation (Watt, 1956; Hamidullah, 1975;

Lecker, 2004). As part of the new legislation, Jihad was made mandatory, and

punishments were imposed on certain offences such as murder, adultery,

fornication, drinking intoxicants, stealing, and other vices. He also provided a

detailed code of conduct for the citizens of Madinah and established the basic

laws of inheritance, marriage, divorce, and slavery according to Islam. In

addition, he organised community events such as Jumu’ah (Friday prayer), and

festivals such as Eid. He established the Zakat system; a taxation system

designed to redistribute wealth and empower the poor (Siddiqui, 1995; Lecker,

2004). All these could only be implemented under an Islamic State.

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Additionally, the Prophet (PBUH) and his Companions shifted their approach in

calling people to Islam by utilising the new socio-political structure to spread

the message of monotheism, justice, and equality. By creating a unified and

organised political structure, the Prophet (PBUH) was able to bring about a new

era of religious, social, and political reform.

The reforms introduced by the Prophet (PBUH) in Madinah had a significant

impact on the lives of the citizens of Madinah and laid the foundation for the

Islamic way of life that continues to benefit Muslims all over the world. Some

of these reforms include (Watt, 1956; Hamidullah, 1975; Siddiqui, 1995; Lecker,

2004; Balzani, 2012):

1. The Constitution of Madinah: Also known as the Charter of Madinah, this

document established a framework for governance and the rights and

responsibilities of the various communities living in Madinah. It promoted

social cohesion, religious tolerance, and cooperation among Muslims,

Jews, and other tribes. The Constitution of Madinah serves as an early

example of a pluralistic society and has inspired Muslim-majority countries

to adopt similar principles of tolerance and inclusiveness.

2. Economic Reforms: The Prophet (PBUH) introduced several economic

reforms, including the institution of Zakat (almsgiving), which Allah made

obligatory on the rich. This mandatory charitable contribution helps

redistribute wealth, alleviate poverty, and promote social justice. These

principles continue to inspire Muslims today and form the basis of Islamic

financial systems and charity organisations worldwide.

3. Judicial Reforms: The Prophet (PBUH) established a fair and impartial

system of justice in Madinah. He emphasised the importance of upholding

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 justice for all, regardless of their social status or background. These

principles of justice and fairness have been incorporated into Islamic

jurisprudence (fiqh) and have influenced legal systems in Muslim-majority

countries.

4. Social Reforms: The Prophet (PBUH) introduced reforms aimed at

promoting equality, social harmony, and the protection of vulnerable

groups, including women, orphans, and slaves. He abolished practices such

as female infanticide and improved the rights and status of women in

society. The teachings of the Prophet (PBUH) on social issues continue to

guide Muslims today in their pursuit of a just and equitable society.

5. Religious Reforms: The Prophet (PBUH) unified the various tribes of

Madinah under the banner of Islam, fostering a sense of brotherhood and

unity among Muslims. He established the five daily prayers, which Allah

made compulsory for Muslim, and which serve as a constant reminder of

one's submission to Allah and help strengthen the bonds of the Muslim

community. These religious practices and rituals have become an integral

part of the daily lives of Muslims worldwide.

6. Education and Knowledge: The Prophet (PBUH) emphasised the

importance of seeking knowledge and education, declaring it an obligation

for every Muslim. He encouraged the establishment of schools and learning

centres, which laid the foundation for the rich tradition of Islamic

scholarship that has produced countless scholars, scientists, and

philosophers throughout history.

By establishing a well-governed and just Islamic polity in Madinah, the Prophet

(PBUH) provided a model for all Muslim states to follow. His reforms have

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endured over time and are still regarded as a blueprint for establishing

governments that are in line with Islamic principles and values.

In the light of the experiences of the Prophet (PBUH) and his Companions in

spreading the call to Islam, contemporary societies can be categorised into

four groups for the purpose of calling people to Islam: those who have never

heard of Islam, those who have heard of Islam but have not yet embraced it,

those who have embraced Islam, and those who have left Islam. Accordingly,

the strategy for calling people to Allah will vary depending on who is involved:

1. For those who have never heard of Islam, it is important to start by

introducing the basic tenets of the faith, and to provide evidence for its

validity. It is also important to emphasise the beauty and wisdom of the

Islamic teachings. Efforts should be made to explain the concept of Allah

clearly and comprehensively, as well as to refute any misconception that

may exist about the concept of Allah. “Ali bin Abi Talib (RA) said: ‘Speak to

the people according to their level of understanding. Do you wish that Allah

and His Messenger be denied?" (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 127). The Prophet

(PBUH) should be presented as a role model of good and righteous

conduct and the Qur’an should be explained in a way that is relevant and

understandable to the people: “Indeed, in the Messenger of Allah you have

an excellent example for whoever has hope in Allah and the Last Day, and

remembers Allah often” (Qur’an 33:21).

2. For those who have heard of Islam but have not yet embraced it, it is

important to address any misconceptions they may have about the faith,

and to provide more detailed information about the teachings and

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 practices of Islam. It is also important to emphasise the benefits of living

according to the Islamic values.

3. For those who have embraced Islam, it is important to provide a clear

understanding of the fundamentals of the faith, as well as guidance on how

to practice the religion in a meaningful way. It is also important to continue

to emphasise the importance of learning more about Islam and to

encourage continuing education in the faith: “But (continue to) remind. For

certainly reminders benefit the believers” (Qur’an 51:55). Islamic values and

principles should be highlighted, such as humility, patience, kindness,

justice, mercy, forgiveness, and honesty. Emphasising education,

knowledge, good morals, and social relations is also essential.

4. For those who have left Islam, it is important to show them the value of

returning to the faith. It is important to address any doubts or questions

they may have, and to emphasise the mercy and forgiveness of Allah.

Additionally, it is important to emphasise the beauty and wisdom of the

Islamic teachings and to provide guidance on how to practice the religion

in a meaningful.

Similarly, contemporary societies can be classified based on the population of

Muslims, as different countries require different approaches to calling people

to Islam due to varying religious and cultural background, as well as different

levels of acceptance for a new religion. These classifications include:

1. Islamic State: Societies governed by Islamic law, where the majority of the

population is Muslim and follows Islamic teachings and practices.

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2. State with Muslim Majority: Societies in which the majority of the

population is Muslim, although they may not necessarily be governed by

Islamic Law.

3. State with Muslim Minority: Societies in which the Muslim population is a

minority, not necessarily governed by Islamic law, and may face

discrimination in various forms.

4. State with no Muslim Presence: Societies in which there is no significant

Muslim population, and the practice of Islam is largely unknown. In such

societies, it is crucial to focus on education and awareness-raising about

Islam, to create an understanding of the religion and its teachings. It is also

important to recognise the cultural, political, and economic differences

between these countries and those with a significant Muslim presence, and

to tailor the approach in calling people to Islam.

In all this, the difference lies not just in the subject matter but also in the

approach, emphasising good creed, and education, good conduct, and good

social relations are a foundation for a good Islamic society.

Finally, it should be made clear that Islam is a religion of peace, and that it does

not promote violence or hatred:

That is why We ordained for the Children of Israel that whoever

takes a life—unless as a punishment for murder or mischief in

the land—it will be as if they killed all of humanity; and whoever

saves a life, it will be as if they saved all of humanity. (Although)

Our messengers already came to them with clear proofs, many

of them still transgressed afterwards through the land (Qur’an

5:32).

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8.2 Da’awah

Da’awah originates from the Arabic term “da’awa” meaning “invitation” or

“call,” which refers to the acts of inviting or calling people to embrace Islam. It

is an essential aspect of Islamic practice, as it seeks to spread the message of

Islam through peaceful means, focusing on education and dialogue:

Invite (all) to the Way of your Lord with wisdom and beautiful

preaching; and argue with them in ways that are best and most

gracious: for your Lord knows best, who have strayed from His

Path, and who receive guidance (Qur’an 16:125).

Calling people to Islam is a crucial responsibility that should be carried out with

wisdom. This entails informing or demonstrating what Islam is at the

appropriate time, place, and approach on a relevant topic. If, after all this,

people are not willing to accept or agree with the arguments presented, then

they should be engaged with in the best way possible:

Do not argue with the People of the Book except in the best

manner, unless with those of them who transgress [against you].

And say, “We believe in what is sent down to us and what was

sent down to you, and our God and your God is One, and to

Him we submit (Qur’an 29:46).

They should not be condemned, castigated, or molested; rather, they should

be given room to think, and perhaps Allah may guide them.

There has been some discussion about prioritising Aqeedah (creed) or politics

when engaging in Da’awah (Al-Qardawi, 1999). The point is that both positions

are relevant in different situations and environments. For instance, where a

society is ignorant about Islam, it would be naive to emphasise politics; the

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emphasis should be on Aqeedah. In contrast, where people have a basic

knowledge of Islam, the focus should be on politics, as politics concerns

leadership, which ensures the implementation of Allah’s commandments and

maintains justice in society.

In order to call people to Islam, it is important to appreciate the differences in

cultures and customs and consider the local environment. Sensitivity to the

feelings of those unfamiliar with Islam and patience with them must be

observed. Respect and humility must be maintained, and proper etiquette

must be observed. Explaining the teachings of Islam in an easily

understandable way and approaching the subject with understanding and an

open heart are vital. Furthermore, it is important to recognise that some people

may have difficulty accepting the teachings of Islam and must be allowed to

come to their own conclusions.

It is important to remember that the ultimate goal is to invite people to the

truth in a peaceful and respectful manner, and to strive to create an

environment where people can learn about Islam without any fear or judgment.

By creating such an atmosphere, people may come to understand the

teachings of Islam for themselves and come to accept it of their own volition.

8.2.1 Conditions of Da’awah

8.2.1.1 Knowledge of the Religion

The first and most important condition for giving da’wah is having a thorough

knowledge of Islam (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 3461). The da’ee (inviter, caller) must

possess good knowledge of the religion before effectively spreading the

message of Islam. This includes knowledge of the Qur’an, the Sunnah, the

teachings of the Four Schools of Islamic Jurisprudence and any other relevant

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information about the faith (Al-Mawardi, 2000; Zargar, 2014). Having basic

knowledge is not enough; the da’ee must also know how to apply these

teachings to the modern-day context:

Invite [all] to the Way of your Lord with wisdom and kind advice,

and only debate with them in the best manner. Surely your Lord

[alone] knows best who has strayed from His Way and who is

[rightly] guided (Qur’an 16:125).

8.2.1.2 Knowing Where to Begin

When giving Da'wah, it is important to consider the existing knowledge and

level of religious understanding of the people you are addressing. If the people

are completely ignorant about Islam, it is important to start at a basic level,

introducing the core beliefs and practices of the faith. If, on the other hand, the

people are conversant with Islam, but their level of faith and practice is low, it

is crucial to focus on inspiring them to take their faith more seriously,

emphasising the importance of prayer, charity, and other core Islamic practices.

It is also important to consider the cultural and social context in which the

Da'awah is taking place, so as to ensure that the message is communicated in

an appropriate and effective way. Finally, it is important to be patient and to

demonstrate the beauty and mercy of Islam, so as to make it an attractive

option for those who are considering adopting it.

8.2.1.3 Approach with Hikmah (Wisdom)

Putting things in the right place calls for the da’ee (preacher) to know the age

group of the people he is calling, their history, their culture, their level of

exposure to national and international issues and whether to be harsh or

gentle:

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 It is out of Allah’s mercy that you (O Prophet) have been lenient

with them. Had you been cruel or hard-hearted, they would

have certainly abandoned you. So, pardon them, ask Allah’s

forgiveness for them, and consult with them in ˹conducting˺

matters. Once you make a decision, put your trust in Allah.

Surely Allah loves those who trust in Him (Qur’an 3:159).

8.2.1.4 Patience and Steadfastness

Patience and steadfastness are key components of effectively delivering

Da’awah. A person must be able to remain calm and patient when faced with

questions, criticisms or opposition while giving Da’wah, but it is essential that

one remains steadfast in their efforts:

"O my dear son! Establish prayer, encourage what is good and

forbid what is evil, and endure patiently whatever befalls you.

Surely this is a resolve to aspire to” (Qur’an 31:17).

8.2.1.5 Open-Mindedness

It is also important to be open-minded while giving Da'wah. One should be

willing to listen to the views of others and take them into consideration, even

if they do not agree with them. This open-mindedness allows one to find

common ground with the people they are engaging with, which can be

beneficial in the long run.

8.2.2 Places of Making Da’awah

Da’awah, or Islamic preaching, is an essential part of a Muslim’s faith:

Invite (all) to the Way of your Lord with wisdom and kind advice,

and only debate with them in the best manner. Surely your Lord

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 (alone) knows best who has strayed from His Way and who is

(rightly) guided (Qur’an 16:125).

It is through Da’awah that new Muslims are brought into the faith, and current

Muslims are reminded of their duties and responsibilities as believers. It is a

highly rewarding endeavour, and yet it can often be difficult to find the right

places to make Da’awah. The following are some of the places where it is

possible to make Da’awah:

1. Mosques: Mosques are the ideal place for making Da’awah, as they are

places of worship for Muslims and serve as a place of gathering for

members of the Muslim community. During the five daily prayers and Friday

sermons, the Imam (leader of prayer) often preaches about religious topics,

and this can provide an opportunity to reach out and spread the message

of Islam.

2. Workplace: Many Muslims are employed in various industries and work

environments. This provides a great opportunity to make Da’awah, as it

allows one to reach out to those who may not have access to mosques or

other places of worship. It also allows one to build relationships with non-

Muslims, as well as other Muslim colleagues, in order to share the message

of Islam.

3. Community: Da’awah can also be done in the community, such as by

organising lectures and seminars about Islam, or by distributing Islamic

literature at local events. One can also take part in interfaith dialogues and

activities in order to promote a better understanding of Islam: “Say, (O

Prophet), "O People of the Book! Let us come to common terms: that we

will worship none but Allah, associate none with Him, nor take one another

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 as lords instead of Allah." But if they turn away, then say, "Bear witness that

we have submitted ˹to Allah alone˺" (Qur’an 3:64).

4. Schools: Many schools, especially those in areas with large Muslim

populations, provide an excellent opportunity to make Da’awah. It is

possible to hold lectures and seminars about Islam in school settings, as

well as distribute Islamic literature notes or offer Islamic classes to students.

These are just a few of the places that can be used to make Da’awah. No matter

where one chooses to make Da’awah, it is important to remember that the

primary focus should be on conveying the message of Islam with knowledge

and wisdom.

8.2.3 Approach to Da’awah

The approach to Da’awah today has changed significantly due to the nature of

the contemporary international system. The focus has shifted from external

Da’awah, which involved inviting people from other countries to preach and

convert, to internal Da’awah, emphasising the education of the local

population and engaging them in discussion and debate about religion.

Countries have established embassies or high commissions that monitor the

entry and exit of visitors, requiring visitors to obtain visas before entering any

country.

Moreover, the international system has rendered physical jihad in the form of

fighting largely obsolete, and it has been replaced by Da'awah and other non-

violent means of propagation. Muslims are encouraged to spread the message

of Islam through writing, speaking, and engaging in meaningful dialogue with

people of other faiths and cultures. For example, interfaith conferences and

dialogue sessions can facilitate understanding and cooperation between

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Muslims and non-Muslims. In addition, social media platforms and websites

can be used to share information about Islam and address misconceptions.

Muslims are also encouraged to lead by example, living according to the

teachings of the Qur’an and Sunnah, and demonstrating to others how to lead

a life based on the principles of peace, justice, and mercy. Acts of charity,

community service, and upholding moral values serve as practical examples of

Islamic principles in action. By embodying these principles, Muslims can

effectively convey the message of Islam and foster greater understanding and

respect among people from different religious and cultural backgrounds.

8.2.4 Social Media and Da’awah

Social media has become an essential tool in the modern world for

communication, networking, and the sharing of ideas. For Muslims, social

media platforms offer an opportunity to engage in Da’wah, the act of inviting

people to Islam and educating them about the religion. Social media has

transformed the way Islamic teachings and knowledge are shared, allowing

scholars and Islamic institutions to reach a wider audience, both Muslim and

non-Muslim alike, across the globe.

Social media for Da'wah has allowed scholars to deliver their message to a vast

audience in real-time, transcending geographic boundaries. This means that

people from various cultures and backgrounds can access Islamic knowledge

and teachings with ease. Platforms, such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and

Instagram, enable scholars to post videos, articles, and updates to engage their

followers in discussions about Islam and its teachings.

Several prominent scholars and Islamic figures have embraced social media as

a means of Da'awah. For example, scholars such as Dr. Yasir Qadhi, Mufti Ismail

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Menk, Dr. Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips, Dr. Omar Suleiman, Professor Mansur

Ibrahim, Nouman Ali Khan and many others frequently share Islamic teachings

and advice through their social media accounts. They post videos, articles, and

updates about various topics, such as Tafsir (exegesis of the Quran), Fatawah

(Islamic legal rulings), and discussions on current social and political issues from

an Islamic perspective.

Mosques and Islamic institutions have also adopted social media to

communicate with their congregations and the broader Muslim community.

The two Holy Mosques, Masjid al-Haram in Makkah and Masjid al-Nabawi in

Madinah, have official social media accounts - @HaramainInfo

and @theholymosques on Twitter where they share important announcements,

such as the Imams leading prayers, extracts of prayers, and Taraweeh

timetables during Ramadan. This enables Muslims around the world to feel

connected to these sacred sites and stay informed about significant events.

In addition to sharing religious knowledge and information, social media allows

for interfaith dialogue and mutual understanding between Muslims and non-

Muslims. It provides a platform where people can ask questions about Islam

and engage in respectful discussions, fostering a sense of unity and

tolerance. However, while social media offers numerous benefits for Da'awah,

it also presents certain challenges. The spread of misinformation and the

potential for the message of Islam to be distorted or misrepresented are

concerns that need to be addressed. Furthermore, Muslims engaged in

Da'awah must navigate the delicate balance between sharing their faith and

respecting the diverse beliefs and opinions present on social media platforms.

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8.2.4.1 Benefits of Social Media on Da’awah

1. Wider Reach: Social media allows Da'awah to reach a much larger

audience than traditional methods. It enables Muslims to connect with

people from diverse backgrounds, irrespective of geographical boundaries.

Consequently, the message of Islam can be disseminated to remote corners

of the world, engaging individuals who may have limited exposure to

Islamic teachings.

2. Instant Communication: Social media platforms facilitate real-time

communication, allowing for rapid dissemination of information and

enabling Da'awah practitioners to respond promptly to questions or

misconceptions about Islam. This immediacy fosters better understanding

and promotes positive dialogue between Muslims and non-Muslims.

3. Multimedia Content: Social media platforms support a variety of content

formats, such as text, images, audio, and video. This versatility allows

Da'awah practitioners to convey complex Islamic concepts in creative and

engaging ways, enhancing the learning experience, and increasing the

likelihood of their message being shared.

4. Personalised Approach: Social media enables Muslims involved in

Da'awah to tailor their content to specific audiences, accommodating

individual preferences and needs. This personalised approach can be

instrumental in fostering a better understanding of Islam and addressing

the unique concerns or questions that individuals may have.

To this extent, social media has significantly impacted the field of Da'awah,

becoming a vital tool for Muslims to share the message of Islam, engage with

a global audience, and enable Islamic scholars and institutions to share

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knowledge, teachings, and announcements. It fosters interfaith dialogue and

understanding, promoting a sense of unity and tolerance. However, it is

essential for Muslims involved in Da'awah to be mindful of the potential

challenges associated with social media, ensuring that their efforts remain

respectful and accurate. As long as these challenges are managed carefully,

social media will continue to be a valuable asset for da'awah and the Muslim

community at large.

8.3 Challenges

Islam, as one of the major world religions, faces numerous challenges in the

contemporary world. These challenges can be categorised into two main

groups: internal and external. The internal challenges relate to the social and

economic aspects of the Muslim community, while the external challenges stem

from political factors and global events.

8.3.1 Internal Challenges

8.3.1.1 Social Challenges

One of the significant social challenges faced by the Muslim community is the

growing influence of Western culture and values, which can lead to a clash

between established Islamic values and emerging modern values. This cultural

conflict may result in a struggle for identity, particularly among Muslim youth

who are trying to navigate between their religious beliefs and the values of the

secular society they live in.

Another social challenge is the rise of sectarianism and extremism within the

Muslim community. This phenomenon can lead to division and conflict among

Muslims and may affect their unity of purpose.

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Adapting to changing social contexts has been a fundamental aspect of Islamic

history, as every system must adjust over time through learning and adaptation.

This adaptation does not occur in a vacuum, as it arises due to both internal

developments and external events. For example, the behaviour of Muslims

during the time of the Prophet (PBUH) changed as Islam expanded and

interacted with other systems. Consequently, the companions of the Prophet

(PBUH) introduced new practices and customs, as long as they did not

contradict Islamic teachings.

Establishing a system takes time, and dismantling it entirely is even more

challenging. For instance, it took Western Europe around 70 years to dismantle

communism in Russia (Brown, 2009), while Islam lasted for eight centuries in

Spain, eight centuries in India (Lapidus, 1988), and a century in the Sokoto

Caliphate, Nigeria (Last, 1967). Similarly, calling people to Allah and ensuring

they understand and follow Islam's dos and don'ts is a long-term endeavour.

To effectively spread the message of Islam, it is essential that Muslims learn,

understand, and embody the teachings of Islam before sharing them with

others. Through this approach, individuals can be educated about Islamic

values and principles and appreciate their significance in contemporary society.

8.3.1.2 Economic Challenges

Economic challenges faced by the Muslim community include poverty,

unemployment, and income inequality. These issues can lead to social unrest

and may hamper the overall development and progress of Muslim-majority

countries. Moreover, the lack of access to Islamic financial services and the

growing gap between the rich and the poor may exacerbate these challenges.

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8.3.2 External Challenges

8.3.2.1 Political Challenges

The Muslim community faces numerous political challenges, including

Islamophobia and discrimination. The rise of far-right political movements and

anti-Islam rhetoric in various parts of the world has led to an increased sense

of vulnerability and marginalisation among Muslims (Bleich, 2012).

Another significant political challenge is the ongoing conflicts and wars in many

Muslim-majority countries, such as Syria, Iraq, Libya, Yemen, and Sudan. These

conflicts have led to immense human suffering, including the loss of lives,

displacement of millions of people, and the destruction of infrastructure.

8.3.2.2 Global Challenges

Global challenges faced by the Muslim community include issues such as

climate change, migration, and the rise of transnational terrorism. Climate

change has disproportionately affected Muslim-majority countries, particularly

in the Middle East and North Africa, causing water scarcity, food insecurity, and

environmental degradation. Migration and the refugee crisis have also put a

strain on Muslim communities, both in the countries of origin and the host

countries. Transnational crimes, particularly in the form of extremist groups like

ISIS and Al-Qaeda, has led to the association of Islam with violence and

terrorism, further fuelling Islamophobia and discrimination against Muslims.

The challenges faced by Islam and the Muslim community are multifaceted,

encompassing both internal and external factors. Addressing these challenges

requires collective efforts from the Muslim community, as well as cooperation

and understanding from the broader society. By tackling these challenges,

Islam can continue to thrive and contribute positively to the global community.

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On the whole, Muslim Ulama have a vital role in guiding the Muslim community

by emphasising exemplary and timely conduct, reinforcing the importance of

Islamic teachings, and fostering a sense of unity and purpose among believers.

To achieve this, they should:

1. Highlight contemporary examples of good behaviour, character, and the

achievements of present-day Muslims, in addition to drawing inspiration

from the past. By showcasing the positive contributions of Muslims in

various fields, they can inspire the younger generation and bridge the gap

between the generations, by connecting contemporary Muslims to the

great examples of Muslim history.

2. Emphasise the importance of learning from the Prophet’s (PBUH) example

following the Qur'an and the Sunnah in daily life. By connecting Muslims to

the core teachings of their faith in a contemporary context, Ulama can help

strengthen their commitment and understanding of Islam.

3. Educate Muslims on how to interpret and apply Islamic teachings in a

contemporary context. By providing guidance on practical applications of

Islam in daily life, Ulama can help Muslims navigate the challenges of

modern society while maintaining their faith.

4. Encourage Muslims to engage in meaningful dialogue with non-Muslims,

fostering mutual understanding and respect. building bridges between

different faiths and cultures can promote tolerance, cooperating, and

peaceful coexistence.

5. Inspire Muslims to actively contribute to society and promote justice,

fairness, and peace in their communities. By encouraging Muslims to be

507
 active citizens, Ulama and da'iya can help create a positive image of Islam

and demonstrate the transformative power of Islamic values in society.

By focusing on these key areas, Muslim Ulama can effectively guide the Muslim

community towards a more profound understanding of their faith, strengthen

their commitment to Islamic values, and foster a sense of unity and purpose in

an increasingly complex world. This is a responsibility to spread the message

in line with the Farewell Sermon of the Prophet, delivered on the ninth day of

Dhul-Hijjah, 10 A.H. ( 623AD) in the Uranah valley of Mount Arafah in Makkah.

It was the occasion of annual rites of Hajj. It is also known as the Farewell

Pilgrimage. After praising and thanking Allah the Prophet (PBUH) began with

the words:

"O People! Lend me an attentive ear, for I know not whether

after this year I shall ever be amongst you again. Therefore,

listen carefully to what I am saying and take these words to those

who could not be present here today."

"O People! just as you regard this month, this day ,this city as

sacred, so regard the life and property of every Muslim a sacred

trust. Return the goods entrusted to you to their rightful owners.

Hurt no one so that no one may hurt you. Remember that you

will indeed meet your Lord, and that he will indeed reckon your

deeds."

"Allah has forbidden you to take usury, therefore all interest

obligation shall henceforth be waived. Your capital is yours to

keep .You will neither inflict nor suffer any inequality. Allah has

508
judged that there shall be no interest and that all interest due to

Abbas Ibn 'Aal-Muttalib be waived."

"Every right arising out of homicide in pre-Islamic days is

henceforth waived and the first such right that I waive is that

arising from the murder of Rabiah ibni al-Harithiah."

"O men! the unbelievers indulge in tampering with the calendar

in order to make permissible that which Allah forbade, and to

prohibit what Allah has made permissible. With Allah the

months are twelve in number. Four of them are holy, they are

successive, and one occurs singly between the months of

Jumada and Shaban.”

"Beware of Satan, for the safety of your religion. He has lost all

hope that he will be able to lead you astray in big things so

beware of following him in small things."

"O People it is true that you have certain rights with regard to

your women, but they also have rights over you. Remember that

you have taken them as your wives only under Allah's trust and

with His permission. If they abide by your right then to them

belongs the right to be fed and clothed in kindness. Do treat

your women well and be kind to them for they are your partners

and committed helpers. And it is your right that they do not

make friends with any one of whom you do not approve, as well

never to be unchaste."

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"O People! listen to me in earnest, worship Allah, say your five

daily prayers, fast during month of Ramadan, and give your

wealth in Zakat .Perform Haj if you can afford it."

"All mankind is from Adam and Eve, an Arab has no superiority

over a non-Arab nor a non-Arab has any superiority over an

Arab; also, a White has no superiority over a Black nor a Black

has any superiority over a White except by piety and good

action. Learn that every Muslim is a brother to every Muslim and

that the Muslims constitute one brotherhood. Nothing shall be

legitimate to a Muslim which belongs to a fellow Muslim unless

it was given freely and willingly."

"Do not therefore do injustice to yourselves. Remember one

day you will meet Allah and answer your deeds. So beware, do

not astray from the path of righteousness after I am gone."

"O People! No Prophet or apostle will come after me and no

new faith will be born. Reason well, therefore O People! and

understand words that I convey to you. I leave behind me two

things, the Quran and the Sunnah and if you follow these you

will never go astray."

"All those who listen to me shall pass on my words to others and

those to others again; and may the last ones understand my

words better than those who listen to me directly."

"O Allah, be my witness, that I have conveyed your message to

Your people."

510
As part of this sermon, the Prophet (PBUH) recited to them a revelation from

Allah, which he had just received, and which completed the Quran, for it was

the last passage to be revealed:

Today the disbelievers have lost all hope in [eliminating] your

religion, so do not fear them but fear Me. Today I have perfected

your religion for you, completed My favour upon you, and have

chosen Islam as your religion (Qur’an 5:3).

During the sermon, at Prophet Muhammad's (PBUH) request, Rabiah (RA), the

brother of Safwan, who was known for his resonant voice, echoed the Prophet's

(PBUH) words, ensuring that the message reached all the over ten thousand

attendees. As the sermon neared its conclusion, the Prophet (PBUH) inquired,

"O people, have I conveyed the message to you in its entirety?" A thunderous

affirmation, "By Allah, yes!" reverberated through the gathering, with the

words "Allahumma Na'm" filling the valley. The Prophet (PBUH), pointing

upwards, declared: "O Allah, be my witness that I have delivered Your message

to Your people” (International Islamic University Malaysia [IIUM], n.d).

511
 CHAPTER NINE
Conclusion
In our journey through "Understanding Islam: An Exploration," we have

undertaken an explorative path to understanding one of the world's most

influential religions, drawing insights from the venerable Qur’an and the

enlightening Sunnah of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Our exploration into the

teachings of the Qur'an and the Sunnah of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH),

through the interpretation of Islamic scholars and its application that span

across centuries, has revealed the holistic vision of Islam, rooted in the

profound principles of faith, ethics, and community.

It is evident from our discussions, especially in the first chapter, that Islam is not

an isolated faith but a continuation of the message revealed to previous

prophets. It stands as a confirmation of the universal message of divine

guidance, steering mankind towards a life of purpose, harmony, and eternal

happiness. Such understanding emphasises the interconnectedness of

humanity's spiritual journey, the emergence of figures of knowledge, be it

prophets, philosophers, or scientists, each contributing to guiding humanity

towards enlightenment and felicity, demonstrating Allah's continuous guidance

for humanity to attain true happiness and fulfilment.

Chapter Two and Three highlight the foundational beliefs of Islam and its

commandments. At the heart of these chapters was the quintessential balance

between faith and deeds. The belief system illuminates the pillars that sustain

the faith: from belief in the oneness of Allah to the acknowledgment of the

prophethood of Muhammad (PBUH). While deeds provide a clear distinction

between worship and social ethics, reinforcing the idea that Islam is not merely

512
a spiritual endeavour but encompasses every facet of human existence. It does

not merely demand blind faith but emphasises its manifestation in daily life,

through actions that reflect submission to Allah's will, enjoining good, and

forbidding evil.

The discussions in Chapters Four and Five brought forth the pivotal role of the

Qur'an and Sunnah as the religion's foundational sources. The Qur’an, timeless

in its wisdom, coupled with the Sunnah of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH),

provides a comprehensive roadmap for adherents. Yet, Islam's dynamism is

evident in its evolution, as the Ulama, generation after generation, worked

diligently to interpret these texts, ensuring that Islam remains relevant and

practical in varying socio-cultural contexts. The role of the Ulama has been

indispensable. From the Prophet's (PBUH) Companions to contemporary

jurists, these learned scholars ensure that the dynamic interpretations of the

religion remain rooted in its original teachings while addressing the ever-

evolving challenges of society.

By observing Muslim societies through the lens of Chapter Six and Seven, we

recognise the diversity of experiences within the Muslim world. From thriving

Muslim-majority societies to minority communities facing unique challenges,

the underlying unity remains their shared faith. Nevertheless, external, and

internal challenges continue to test the resilience and adaptability of the

Muslim community.

Chapter Eight's focus on Da’awah, the call to Allah, emphasises the duty of

Muslims to invite humanity towards the Divine Truth. This call is not merely

about conversion but extends to promoting mutual understanding, dispelling

myths, and fostering environments of coexistence and respect. Thus, it is a

513
testimony of Islam's universal appeal and the commitment of its followers to

share its teachings. However, like every mission, it comes with challenges, both

internal and external. Yet, the resolve to persevere stems from the

understanding that Allah chose Islam for humanity.

It is essential to recognise that Islam preaches respect for all of humanity,

regardless of their choice of faith. In the grand scheme of human existence,

every thread – whether Muslim or Non-Muslim – adds value, uniqueness, and

richness. It is our collective responsibility to seek understanding, nurture

compassion, and cherish the shared values that bind us as one human family.

Indeed, as we culminate our exploration in this chapter, we are reminded that

life is full of choices. The choice one makes in terms of religious beliefs is

influenced by various factors, including one’s home background, school, and

overall environment. If an individual comes from a Muslim home, there is a

higher likelihood they will identify as a Muslim, whereas someone who comes

from a non-Muslim background, will likely not. The same applies to specific

Islamic creeds (Sunni, Shi’a or Kharijites); if the society predominantly follows a

particular creed, there is a greater tendency for the individual to adopt that

creed. The Prophet (PBUH) is reported to have said, "every child is born in a

state of fitrah (natural disposition to monotheism); it is his parents who make

him a Jew, a Christian, or a Zoroastrian” (Sahih Al-Bukhari, 2: 1358; Sahih

Muslim, 33: 6426). That is why:

The funeral prayer should be offered for every child even if he

were the son of a prostitute as he was born with a true faith of

Islam (i.e. to worship none but Allah Alone). If his parents are

Muslims, particularly the father, even if his mother were a non-

514
 Muslim, and if he after the delivery cries (even once) before his

death (i.e. born alive) then the funeral prayer must be offered.

And if the child does not cry after his delivery (i.e. born dead)

then his funeral prayer should not be offered, and he will be

considered as a miscarriage. Abu Huraira narrated that the

Prophet (PBUH) said, "Every child is born with a true faith (i.e. to

worship none but Allah Alone) but his parents convert him to

Judaism or to Christianity or to Magainism, as an animal delivers

a perfect baby animal. Do you find it mutilated?" Then Abu

Huraira recited the verses: 'The pure Allah's Islamic nature (true

faith i.e. to worship none but Allah Alone), with which He has

created human beings.' (Sahih Al-Bukhari: 1358).

This saying emphasises the impact of one's upbringing on their religious beliefs

and practices.

In various religions across the world, the dominant tradition or sect within Islam

often influences one’s religious practices and beliefs. In Saudi Arabia, the Sunni

tradition is prevalent; in Iran, the Shi’a tradition is dominant; in Turkey,

secularism took its root from the days of Kemal Ataturk, but the situation is

reversing; in Mauritania, Sufism is widely practiced, and in Oman, it is Ibadism,

an offshoot of Kharijite movement. Nonetheless, one’s geographical location

or upbringing should not be used as an excuse for not exploring or embracing

Islam. It is not sufficient for individuals to argue that they are not Muslims simply

because their parents are not, or because they were born in a non-Islamic

environment. Nor can they claim that if Allah had intended for them to be

Muslim, they would have been born in an Islamic environment, echoing the

sentiments of the pagans of Makkah. Such justifications do not absolve

515
individuals of the responsibility to seek knowledge and make informed choices

about their faith:

Those who take partners (in worship) with Allah will say: “If Allah

had willed, we would not have taken partners (in worship) with

Him nor would our fathers, and we would not have had

forbidden anything (against His Will).” Likewise belied those

who were before them, (they argued falsely with Allah’s

Messengers), till they tasted of Our Wrath. Say: “Have you any

knowledge (proof) that you can produce before us. You follow

nothing but guess and you do nothing but lie” (Qur’an 6:148).

Islam encourages its followers to pursue knowledge and understanding, not

only of their faith but also of the world around them. The Qur'an emphasises

the importance of contemplation, reasoning, and reflection:

Indeed, in the creation of the heavens and the earth; the

alternation of the day and the night; the ships that sail the sea

for the benefit of humanity; the rain sent down by Allah from the

skies, reviving the earth after its death; the scattering of all kinds

of creatures throughout; the shifting of the winds; and the

clouds drifting between the heavens and the earth—(in all of

this) are surely signs for people of understanding (Qur’an 2:164).

(They are) those who remember Allah while standing, sitting,

and lying on their sides, and reflect on the creation of the

heavens and the earth (and pray), "Our Lord! You have not

created (all of) this without purpose. Glory be to You! Protect us

from the torment of the Fire (Qur’an 3:191).

516
 (This is) a blessed Book which We have revealed to you (O

Prophet) so that they may contemplate its verses, and people of

reason may be mindful (Qur’an 38:29).

It is the individual's responsibility to explore different belief systems, including

Islam, and make an informed decision based on their understanding. One

should strive hard to find the truth for Allah may guide those who seek the

truth.

While individual choice might have some limitations due to various factors, it

is still essential for those who choose to be Muslims to express gratitude to

Allah for guiding them to Islam and to pray for continued guidance and for

Non–Muslims to see the truth and embrace the truth. An individual’s

perception of truth is influenced by their perspective and the lens through

which they view the world. What you see as the truth depends on where you

are standing and what lenses you are looking through.

Among Muslims, there is a spectrum of devotion, with some being more

righteous, others less so, and some in between. Consequently, Islamic societies

face a range of challenges. To address these issues, Allah has legislated basic

laws to guide the conduct of Muslims, both within and outside Islamic societies.

These laws include prescribed punishments for certain offences, such as 80

lashes for consuming alcohol, stoning to death for adultery, 100 lashes for

fornication, amputation of the hand for theft, and execution for murder

(Nyazee, 2009).

There is nothing difficult about being a Muslim, it involves a set of core beliefs

and practices: faith in Allah and His Messenger, Muhammad (PBUH); praying

five times daily, giving a portion of one’s wealth as alms to the needy once a

517
year; fasting for twenty-nine or thirty days during the month of Ramadan;

performing Hajj once in one’s life if financially and physically able; showing

kindness to parents and others, and abstaining from evil deeds.

It is true that one can be good and engage in positive actions without

necessarily being a Muslim, as other religions also advocate for goodness, and

even individuals without any religious affiliation can lead good and moral lives.

Some people may argue that they can worship Allah through other religions

without having to follow specific Islamic practices like praying multiple times a

day, fasting, or performing Hajj. However, in Islam, these practices are

considered essential components of one's faith, contributing to a deeper

spiritual connection and a better understanding of the religion.

All these observations are relevant; however, it is the choice one makes that is

most important. It should be reiterated again that Islam is not a difficult religion,

as Allah does not want hardship for His servants. There is nothing in Islam that

goes against the interests of individuals, society, or humanity as a whole. Islam

requires people to believe in Allah and His Prophet (PBUH). There is nothing

difficult about believing in the existence of the unseen and unperceived Allah.

If one does not believe in Allah, one must believe in something else. It is part

of human nature to believe in something. We see or hear about hero-

worshipers, idol-worshipers, or worshippers of ideas. One either follows Allah

or adopts to other peoples’ ideas. There are those who follow and worship the

constitution, the communist manifesto, and so on. Furthermore, all five daily

prayers combined take no more than one hour out of the twenty-four hours in

a day. The prayers are spread out in the day, ensuring that one always feels

closer to his Creator and has the propensity to avoid evil deeds. The fact is, if

one finds praying five times daily challenging, there are many more difficult

518
tasks one performs daily, such as playing sports. Even warming up can be more

strenuous than prayers. Some may object to this comparison, but when

examining other religions, we find Christian monks or priests and rabbis

frequently engaged in prayer:

They are not [all] the same; among the People of the Scripture

is a community standing [in obedience], reciting the verses of

Allah during periods of the night and prostrating [in prayer]

(Qur’an 3:113).

In Islam, what is obligatory applies to all. There is no other way around it: one

is either a Muslim or non-Muslim; one either promotes an Islamic way of life or

a non-Islamic way of life. Based on historical and contemporary evidence, Islam

offers the best way of life. While the system is perfect, its implementation may

not necessarily be perfect. It is not an idealistic system where everything is

perfect. It has never been so. Conversely, Islam is revealed to mankind, who

are created with various characteristics and tendencies as Allah has described

them. “Allah wants to lighten your burdens, for man was created weak.”

(Qur’an 3:28). As a result, humans are fallible and may make mistakes, either

deliberately or inadvertently, leading them to be either good Muslims or

otherwise.

People, due to their unique reasoning abilities, may choose to be Muslims or

non-Muslims. The issue is not about which religion is the most widespread or

has the largest number of followers, as these aspects can change over time.

Christianity and Islam are currently the two dominant religions with followers

on every continent, but the fundamental question is: which religion is the most

appropriate in the sight of Allah and relevant for mankind?

519
To this extent, faith, in its purest form, is an act of volition. While external factors

may influence one's religious inclinations, such as upbringing, society, or

personal revelation, the final decision rests with the individual. To be a Muslim

or a non-Muslim is a choice that defines one's worldview, moral compass, and

life's purpose. As stated in the Qur'an:

Indeed, the religion in the sight of Allah is Islam. And those who

were given the Scripture did not differ except after knowledge

had come to them - out of jealous animosity between

themselves. And whoever disbelieves in the verses of Allah, then

indeed, Allah is swift in [taking] account (Qur'an 3:19).

The choice of faith, while influenced by several factors, is deeply personal and

profound. As the Qur'an states:

There is no compulsion in religion; the truth has been made

distinct from falsehood. Whoever rejects Taghoot [false gods]

and believes in Allah, has indeed grasped the strong handhold

that never breaks. And Allah is All-Hearing, All-Knowing (Qur’an

2:256).

The decision to follow Islam, or any faith, should be one of personal conviction,

not coercion. While Allah has chosen Islam as the complete way of life for

humanity, the essence of choice lies in the hands of each individual.

It is essential to recognise that Islam preaches respect for all of humanity,

regardless of their choice of faith. In the grand scheme of human existence,

every thread – whether Muslim or non-Muslim – adds value, uniqueness, and

richness. It is our collective responsibility to seek understanding, nurture

compassion, and cherish the shared values that bind us as one human family.

520
On the whole, "Understanding Islam: An Exploration" hopes to serve as a

guide to knowledge, shedding light on a religion often feared, misunderstood,

or distorted. Through its teachings, traditions, and tenets, Islam offers a

pathway to peace, purpose, and piety. The journey of understanding is

continuous, and as we conclude, we hope this book has made that path clearer

and the destination closer, fostering a world where knowledge lights the path,

dispelling ignorance, misconceptions, and distortion.

They wish to extinguish the light of Allah with their mouths, but

Allah will complete His light, even though the disbelievers

dislike it (✶) It is He Who has sent His Messenger with guidance

and the religion of truth, so that He may make it prevail over all

religions, even though the polytheists may dislike

it (✶) (Qur’an 61:8-9).

We will show them Our signs in the universe and in their own

selves, until it becomes clear to them that this [Qur’an] is the

truth. Is it not enough that your Lord is a Witness over all things?

(Qur’an 41: 53).

This day, I have perfected your religion for you, completed My

Favour upon you, and have chosen for you Islam as your religion

(Qur’an 5:3).

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Zaman, M. Q. (2002). The Ulama in Contemporary Islam: Custodians of
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Zargar, N. A. (2014) Islamic Da’wah: Discourse and Method. ABC Publishers

537
 APPENDIX
Appendix I: Constitution of Madinah

In the name of God, the Beneficent and the Merciful

(1) This is a prescript of Muhammad (PBUH)), the Prophet and Messenger of

God (to operate) between the faithful and the followers of Islam from among

the Quraish and the people of Madinah and those who may be under them,

may join them and take part in wars in their company.

(2) They shall constitute a separate political unit (Ummat) as distinguished from

all the people (of the world).

(3) The emigrants from the Quraish shall be (responsible) for own their ward;

and shall pay their blood money in mutual collaboration and shall secure the

release of their own prisoners by paying their ransom from themselves so that

the mutual dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles

of goodness and justice.

(4) And Banu ‘Awf shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their

blood money in mutual collaboration, and every group shall secure the release

of its own prisoners by paying their ransom from themselves so that the

dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of

goodness and justice.

(5) And Banu Al-Harith-ibn-Khazraj shall be responsible for their own ward and

shall pay their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall

secure the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom from themselves,

so that the dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles

of goodness and justice.

538
(6) And Banu Sa‘ida shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their

blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the release

of its own prisoners by paying their ransom from themselves, so that the

dealings between the believers be in accordance with the principles of

goodness and justice.

(7) And Banu Jusham shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their

blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the release

of its own prisoners by paying their ransom so that the dealings between the

believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.

(8) And Banu an-Najjar shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay

their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the

release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom so that the dealings

between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and

justice.

(9) And Banu ‘Amr-ibn-‘Awf shall be responsible for their own ward and shall

pay their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure

the release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom, so that the dealings

between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and

justice.

(10) And Banu-al-Nabit shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay

their blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the

release of its own prisoners by paying their ransom so that the dealings

between the believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and

justice.

539
(11) And Banu-al-Aws shall be responsible for their own ward and shall pay their

blood-money in mutual collaboration and every group shall secure the release

of its own prisoners by paying their ransom, so that the dealings between the

believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice.

(12) (a) And the believers shall not leave any one, hard-pressed with debts,

without affording him some relief, in order that the dealings between the

believers be in accordance with the principles of goodness and justice. (b) Also,

no believer shall enter into a contract of clientage with one who is already in

such a contract with another believer.

(13) And the hands of pious believers shall be raised against every such person

as rises in rebellion or attempts to acquire anything by force or is guilty of any

sin or excess or attempts to spread mischief among the believers ; their hands

shall be raised all together against such a person, even if he be a son to any

one of them.

(14) A Believer will not kill a Believer [in retaliation] for a non-Believer and will

not aid a non-Believer against a Believer.

(15) The protection (dhimmah) of Allah is one, the least of them [i.e., the

Believers] is entitled to grant protection (yujīr) that is binding for all of them.

The Believers are each other’s allies (mawālī) to the exclusion of other people.

(16) And that those who will obey us among the Jews, will have help and

equality. Neither shall they be oppressed, nor will any help be given against

them.

(17) And the peace of the believers shall be one. If there be any war in the way

of God, no believer shall be under any peace (with the enemy) apart from other

believers, unless it (this peace) be the same and equally binding on all.

540
(18) And all those detachments that will fight on our side will be relieved by

turns.

(19) And the believers as a body shall take blood vengeance in the way of God.

(20) (a) And undoubtedly pious believers are the best and in the rightest course.

(b) And that no associator (non-Muslim subject) shall give any protection to the

life and property of a Quraishite, nor shall he come in the way of any believer

in this matter.

(21) And if any one intentionally murders a believer, and it is proved, he shall

be killed in retaliation, unless the heir of the murdered person be satisfied with

blood-money. And all believers shall actually stand for this ordinance and

nothing else shall be proper for them to do.

(22) And it shall not be lawful for any one, who has agreed to carry out the

provisions laid down in this code and has affixed his faith in God and the Day

of Judgment, to give help or protection to any murderer, and if he gives any

help or protection to such a person, God‟s curse and wrath shall be on him on

the Day of Resurrection, and no money or compensation shall be accepted

from such a person.

(23) And that whenever you differ about anything, refer it to Allah and to

Muhammad (PBUH).

(24) And the Jews shall share with the believers the expenses of war so long as

they fight in conjunction,

(25) And the Jews of Banu ‘Awf shall be considered as one community (Ummat)

along with the believers—for the Jews their religion, and for the Muslims theirs,

541
be one client or patron. But whoever does wrong or commits treachery brings

evil only on himself and his household.

(26) And the Jews of Banu-an-Najjar shall have the same rights as the Jews of

Banu ‘Awf.

(27) And the Jews of Banu-al-Harith shall have the same rights as the Jews of

Banu ‘Awf.

(28) And the Jews of Banu Sa‘ida shall have the same rights as the Jews of Banu

‘Awf

(29) And the Jews of Banu Jusham shall have the same rights as the Jews of

Banu ‘Awf.

(30) And the Jews of Banu al-Aws shall have the same rights as the Jews of

Banu ‘Awf.

(31) And the Jews of Banu Tha‘laba shall have the same rights as the Jews of

Banu ‘Awf. But whoever does wrong or commits treachery brings evil only on

himself and his household.

(32) And Jafna, who are a branch of the Tha’laba tribe, shall have the same

rights as the mother tribes.

(33) And Banu-ash-Shutaiba shall have the same rights as the Jews of Banu

‘Awf; and they shall be faithful to, and not violators of, treaty.

(34) And the mawlas (clients) of Tha'laba shall have the same rights as those of

the original members of it.

(35) And the sub-branches of the Jewish tribes shall have the same rights as

the mother tribes.

542
(36) (a) And that none of them shall go out to fight as a soldier of the Muslim

army, without the per-mission of Muhammad (PBUH). (b) And no obstruction

shall be placed in the way of any one’s retaliation for beating or injuries; and

whoever sheds blood brings it upon himself and his household, except he who

has been wronged, and Allah demands the most righteous fulfilment of this

[treaty].

(37) (a) And the Jews shall bear the burden of their expenses and the Muslims

theirs.

(b) And if any one fights against the people of this code, their (i.e., of the Jews

and Muslims) mutual help shall come into operation, and there shall be friendly

counsel and sincere behaviour between them, and faithfulness and no breach

of covenant.

(38) And the Jews shall be bearing their own expenses so long as they shall be

fighting in conjunction with the believers.

(39) And the Valley of Yathrib (Madina) shall be a Haram (sacred place) for the

people of this code.

(40) The clients (mawla) shall have the same treatment as the original persons

(i.e., persons accepting clientage). He shall neither be harmed nor shall he

himself break the covenant.

(41) And no refuge shall be given to anyone without the permission of the

people of the place (i.e., the refugee shall have no right of giving refuge to

others).

(42) And that if any murder or quarrel takes place among the people of this

code, from which any trouble may be feared, it shall be referred to God and

543
God’s Messenger, Muhammad (PBUH); and God will be with him who will be

most particular about what is written in this code and act on it most faithfully.

(43) The Quraish shall be given no protection nor shall they who help them.

(44) And they (i.e., Jews and Muslims) shall have each other’s help in the event

of any one invading Yathrib.

(45) (a) And if they (i.e., the Jews) are invited to any peace, they also shall offer

peace and shall be a party to it; and if they invite the believers to some such

affairs, it shall be their (Muslims) duty as well to reciprocate the dealings,

excepting that any one makes a religious war. (b) On every group shall rest the

responsibility of (repulsing) the enemy from the place which faces its part of the

city.

(46) And the Jews of the tribe of al-Aws, clients as well as original members,

shall have the same rights as the people of this code: and shall behave sincerely

and faithfully towards the latter, not perpetrating any breach of covenant. As

one shall sow so shall he reap. And God is with him who will most sincerely and

faithfully carry out the provisions of this code.

(47) And this prescript shall not be of any avail to any oppressor or breaker of

covenant. And one shall have security whether one goes out to a campaign or

remains in Madina, or else it will be an oppression and breach of covenant. And

God is the Protector of him who performs the obligations with faithfulness and

care, as also His Messenger Muhammad (PBUH) [29].

Sources:

1. Hamidullah, M. (1941). The First Written Constitution of the World. (pp. 31–

42).

544
2. Lecker, M. (2004). The "Constitution of Medina": Muhammad's First Legal

Document. Princeton, N.J.: Darwin.

3. Constitution of Madinah.

545
 Appendix II: Prophets Mentioned in the Qur’an and the Chapters of

Mentions

S/N Name Chapters

1. Adam (AS) Qur’an 2: 31, 33, 34, 35, 37. Qur’an 3: 33,59. Qur’an 5:

27. Qur’an 7: 11, 19, 26, 27, 31, 35, 172. Qur’an 17: 61,

70. Qur’an 18: 50. Qur’an 19: 58. Qur’an 20: 115, 116,

117, 120, 121. Qur’an 36: 60.

2. Idris (AS) (Qur'an 19: 56, 57. Qur'an 21: 85, 86)

3. Nuh (AS) Qur’an 3: 22. 4: 163. 6: 84. 7: 59, 69. 9: 70. 10: 71. 11:

25, 32, 36, 42, 45, 46, 48, 89. 14: 9. 17: 17, 3. 19: 58.

21: 86. 22: 42. 23: 23. 25: 37. 26: l05, 106, 116. 29: 14.

33: 7. 37: 75, 79. 38: 12. 40: 5, 31. 42: 13. 50: 12. 51:

46. 53: 52. 54: 9. 57: 26. 66: 10. 71: I, 21, 16

4. Hud (AS) Qur’an 7: 65; Qur’an 11: 50, 53, 58, 60, 89; Qur’an 26:

124

5. Saleh (AS) Qur’an 7: 73, 75, 77; Qur’an 11: 61, 62, 66, 89; Qur’an

26: 142; Qur’an 27: 45

6. Lut (AS) Qur’an 6: 86. Qur’an 7: 80. Qur’an 11: 70, 74, 77, 81,

89. Qur’an 15: 59, 61. Qur’an 21: 71, 74. Qur’an 22: 43.

Qur’an 26: 160, 161, 167. Qur’an 27: 54, 56. Qur’an 29:

26, 28, 32, 33 Qur’an 37: 133. Qur’an 38: 13. Qur’an

50: 13. Qur’an 54: 33, 34. Qur’an 66: 10.

7. Ibrahim (AS) Qur’an 2: 124, 125 (twice), 126, 127, 130, 132, 133,

135, 136, 140, 258 (twice), 260. Qur’an 3: 33, 65, 67,

546
 84, 95, 97. Qur’an 4: 54, 125 (twice), 163. Qur’an 6: 74,

75, 83, 161. Qur’an 9: 70, 114 (twice). Qur’an 11: 69,

74, 75, 76. Qur’an 12: 6, 38. Qur’an 14: 35. Qur’an 15:

51. Qur’an 16: 120, 123. Qur’an 19: 41, 46, 58. Qur’an

21: 51, 60, 62, 69. Qur’an 22: 26, 43, 78. Qur’an 26: 69.

Qur’an 29: 16, 31. Qur’an 33: 7. Qur’an 37: 83, 104,

109. Qur’an 38: 45. Qur’an 42: 13. Qur’an 43: 26.

Qur’an 51: 24. Qur’an 53: 37. Qur’an 57: 26. Qur’an 60:

4 (twice). Qur’an 87: 19

8. Isma’il (AS) Qur’an 2: 125, 127, 133, 136, 140. Qur’an 3: 84. Qur’an

4: 163. Qur’an 6: 86. Qur’an 14: 39. Qur’an 19: 54.

Qur’an 21: 85. Qur’an 38: 48

9. Ishaq (AS) Qur’an 2: 133, 136, 140. Qur’an 3: 84. Qur’an 4: 163.

Qur’an 6: 84. Qur’an 11: 71 (twice). Qur’an 12: 6, 38.

Qur’an 14: 39. Qur’an 19: 49. Qur’an 21: 72. Qur’an 29:

29. Qur’an 37: 112, 113. Qur’an 38: 48

10. Yaqub (AS) Qur’an 2: 132, 133, 136, 140. Qur’an 3: 84. Qur’an 4:

163. Qur’an 6: 84. Qur’an 11: 71. Qur’an 12: 6, 38, 68.

Qur’an 19: 6, 49. Qur’an 21: 72. Qur’an 29: 27. Qur’an

38: 45

11. Yusuf (AS) Qur’an 6: 84. Qur’an 12: 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 17, 21, 29,

46, 51, 56, 58, 69, 76, 77, 80, 84, 85, 87, 89, 90 (twice),

94, 99. Qur’an 40: 34

547
12. Shu’aib (AS) Qur’an 7: 85, 88, 90, 92 (twice). Qur’an 11: 84, 87, 91,

94. Qur’an 26: 177. Qur’an 29: 36

13. Ayyub (AS) Quran 2: 163; Qur’an 6: 84; Qur’an 21: 83; Qur’an 37:

41

14. Dhul Kifl (AS) Qur’an 21:85; Qur’an 38:48

15. Musa (AS) Qur’an 2: 51, 53, 54, 55, 60, 61, 67, 87, 92, 108, 136,

246, 248. Qur’an 3: 8Qur’an 4: 153 (twice), 164. 5: 20,

22, 24. Qur’an 6: 84, 91, 154. Qur’an 7: 103, 104, 115,

117, 122, 127, 128, 131, 134, 138, 142 (twice), 143

(twice), 144, 148, 150, 154, 155, 159, 160. Qur’an 10:

75, 77, 80, 81, 83, 84, 87, 88. Qur’an 11: 17, 96, 110.

Qur’an 14: 5,6,8. Qur’an 17: 2, 101 (twice). Qur’an 18:

60, 66. Qur’an 29: 51. Qur’an 20: 9, 11, 17, 19, 36, 40,

49, 57, 61, 65, 67, 70, 77, 83, 86, 88, 91. Qur’an 21: 48.

Qur’an 22: 44. Qur’an 23: 45, 49. Qur’an 25: 35. Qur’an

26: 10, 43, 45, 48, 52, 61, 63, 65. Qur’an 27: 7,9,10.

Qur’an 28: 3, 7, 10, 15, 18, 19, 20, 29, 30, 31, 36, 37,

38, 43, 44, 48 (twice), 76. Qur’an 29: 39. Qur’an 32: 23.

Qur’an 33: 7, 69. Qur’an 37: 114, 120. Qur’an 40: 23,

26, 27, 37, 53. Qur’an 41: 45. Qur’an 42: 13. Qur’an 43:

46. Qur’an 46: 12, 30. Qur’an 51: 38. Qur’an 53: 36.

Qur’an 61: 5. Qur’an 79: 15. Qur’an 87: 19

16. Harun (AS) Qur’an 2: 248; Qur’an 4: 163; Qur’an 6: 84; Qur’an 7:

122, 142; Qur’an 10: 75; Qur’an 19: 28, 53; Qur’an 20:

30, 70, 90, 92; Qur’an 21: 48; Qur’an 23: 45; Qur’an 25:

548
 35; Qur’an 26: 13, 48; Qur’an 28: 34; Qur’an 37: 114,

120

17. Dawood (AS) Qur’an 2: 25; Qur’an 4: 163; Qur’an 5: 78; Qur’an

6: 84; Qur’an 17: 55; Qur’an 21: 78, 79; Qur’an 27: 15,

16; Qur’an 34: 10, 13; Qur’an 38: 17, 22, 24, 26, 30

18. Sulaiman (AS) Qur’an 2:102 (twice); Qur’an 4: 163; Qur’an 6: 84;

Qur’an 21: 78, 79, 81; Qur’an 27: 15, 16, 17, 18, 3D,

36, 44; Qur’an 34: 12; Qur’an 38: 30, 34.

19. Ilyas (AS) Qur’an 6:85; Qur’an 37:123

20. Alyasa (AS) Qur’an 6: 38; Qur’an 86: 48

21. Yunus (AS) Qur’an 4: 163; Qur’an 6: 86; Qur’an 10: 98; Qur’an 37:

139.

22. Zakariya (AS) Qur’an 3: 37 (twice), 38; Qur’an 6: 85; Qur’an 19: 2, 7;

Qur’an 21: 89

23. Yahya (AS) Qur’an 3: 39; Qur’an 6: 85; Qur’an 19: 7, 12; Qur’an 21:

90.

24. Isa (AS) Qur’an 2: 87, 136, 253. Qur’an 3: 45, 52, 55, 59, 84.

Qur’an 4: 157, 163, 171. Qur’an 5: 46, 78, 110, 112,

114, 116. Qur’an 6: 85. Qur’an 19: 34. Qur’an 33: 7.

Qur’an 42: 13. Qur’an 43: 63. Qur’an 57: 27. Qur’an 61:

6, 14

25. Muhammad Qur’an 3:144; Qur’an 47:2; Qur’an 48:29; Qur’an

(PBUH) 33:40.

Note. Adapted from Abu Khalil (2003).

549
 Appendix III: Thirty New Testament Verses Affirming Jesus as a

Messenger, not God.

Prepared by: Dr. K. Solomon

Verse Verse NIV

1 No one has ever seen God... John 1:18

Yet a time is coming and has now come when

the true worshipers will worship the Father in

2 the Spirit and in truth... John 4:23

"My food," said Jesus, "is to do the will of him

3 who sent me and to finish his work. John 4:34

Jesus gave them this answer: "Very truly I tell

you, the Son can do nothing by himself; he can

4 do only what he sees his Father doing,... John 5:19

By myself I can do nothing; I judge only as I

hear, and my judgment is just, for I seek not to

5 please myself but him who sent me. John 5:30

For I have come down from heaven not to do

6 my will but to do the will of him who sent me. John 6:38

Jesus answered, "My teaching is not my own. It

7 comes from the one who sent me. John 7:16

"I have much to say in judgment of you. But he

who sent me is trustworthy, and what I have

8 heard from him I tell the world." John 8:26

The one who sent me is with me; he has not left

9 me alone, for I always do what pleases him." John 8:29

550
 As it is, you are looking for a way to kill me, a

man who has told you the truth that I heard from

10 God... John 8:40

...Then Jesus looked up and said, "Father, I

thank you that you have heard me. I knew that

you always hear me, but I said this for the

benefit of the people standing here, that they

11 may believe that you sent me." John 11:41-42

For I did not speak on my own, but the Father

who sent me commanded me to say all that I

12 have spoken. John 12:49

Very truly I tell you, no servant is greater than

his master, nor is a messenger greater than the

13 one who sent him. John 13:16

14 ...for the Father is greater than I. John 14:28

but he comes so that the world may learn that I

love the Father and do exactly what my Father

15 has commanded me... John 14:31

Now this is eternal life: that they know you, the

only true God, and Jesus Christ, whom you

16 have sent. John 17:3

Jesus said, "Do not hold on to me, for I have

not yet ascended to the Father. Go instead to

17 my brothers and tell them, 'I am ascending to John 20:17

551
 my Father and your Father, to my God and your

God.'"

Not everyone who says to me, 'Lord, Lord,' will

enter the kingdom of heaven, but only the one

18 who does the will of my Father who is in heaven. Matthew 7:21

At that time Jesus said, "I praise you, Father, Matthew

19 Lord of heaven and earth, 11:25

He answered, "I was sent only to the lost sheep Matthew

20 of Israel." 15:24

Matthew

21 ...And they praised the God of Israel. 15:31

Going a little farther, he fell with his face to the

ground and prayed, "My Father, if it is possible,

may this cup be taken from me. Yet not as I will, Matthew

22 but as you will." 26:39

He went away a second time and prayed, "My

Father, if it is not possible for this cup to be

taken away unless I drink it, may your will be Matthew

23 done." 26:42

About three in the afternoon Jesus cried out in

a loud voice, "Eli, Eli, lema sabachthani?"

(which means "My God, my God, why have you Matthew

24 forsaken me?"). 27:46

"Why do you call me good?" Jesus answered.

25 "No one is good--except God alone. Mark 10:18

552
 "The most important one," answered Jesus, "is

this: 'Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord

26 is one. Mark 12:29

"But about that day or hour no one knows, not

even the angels in heaven, nor the Son, but only

27 the Father. Mark 13:32

Jesus answered, "It is written: 'Worship the

28 Lord your God and serve him only.'" Luke 4:8

He said to them, "When you pray, say: "'Father,

29 hallowed be your name, your kingdom come. Luke 11:2

He withdrew about a stone's throw beyond

them, knelt down and prayed, "Father, if you

are willing, take this cup from me; yet not my

will, but yours be done." An angel from heaven

appeared to him and strengthened him. And

being in anguish, he prayed more earnestly,

and his sweat was like drops of blood falling to

30 the ground. Luke 22:41-44

553
 INDEX
A B
Abbasid, 182, 339, 377, 408, 435,
438, 474
Abu Dawud, 6, 39, 178, 232, 234, 240,
254, 338, 339, 340, 342, 344, 346,
352, 354, 481, 534
Abu Huraira, 380, 515
Abubakar Siddiq, 182, 185, 188, 293,
294, 358, 418, 420, 469, 488
Adam, 14, 17, 20, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64,
65, 66, 70, 71, 79, 89, 96, 98, 100,
101, 105, 164, 248, 394, 435, 510,
523, 546
Ahmadiyya, 468, 471, 472
Ahmed Deedat, 415
Aisha, 6, 237, 271, 273, 291, 323, 335,
337, 347, 355, 358, 386, 387, 481
Al Khwarizmi, 400
Al-Biruni, 400, 404
Ali ibn Abi Talib, 185, 421, 469, 470
Alyasa, 99, 101, 105, 549
Ameerul Mu’mineen, 468
Ansar, 182, 291, 385, 390
Arabic, 43, 93, 121, 266, 267, 268,
273, 285, 302, 303, 304, 317, 318,
322, 323, 331, 332, 333, 348, 353,
357, 366, 380, 398, 408, 427, 428,
435, 437, 469, 470, 480, 495, 523,
526, 536
Archimedes, 8, 10, 402, 535
Aristotle, 8, 9, 402, 525
As-Suyuti, 414, 435
Averroes, 137, 403, 404, 414, 531
Avicenna, 404, 532
Ayyub, 99, 101, 105, 548
Banking, 208, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215,
357, 426
Battle, 170, 192, 293, 327, 347, 384,
468
Belief, 4, 18, 22, 38, 39, 43, 44, 45, 46,
47, 53, 69, 89, 91, 135, 136, 142,
149, 151, 155, 157, 160, 169, 173,
178, 210, 261, 266, 271, 279, 321,
324, 334, 335, 365, 370, 388, 417,
463, 465, 472, 473, 484, 486, 512,
517
C
Caliph, 182, 185, 188, 294, 296, 299,
300, 301, 302, 337, 338, 346, 350,
360, 361, 368, 377, 389, 409, 418,
420, 424, 436, 437, 469, 470
Caliphate, 185, 296, 346, 363, 364,
368, 377, 389, 408, 409, 421, 424,
437, 438, 439, 468, 470, 474, 476,
505, 529, 532
Christianity, 4, 7, 20, 29, 30, 432, 433,
443, 444, 464, 465, 483, 515, 519
Confucius, 8, 11
D
Da’awah, 176, 178, 357, 487, 495,
496, 498, 499, 500, 501, 503, 513
Damascus, 100, 284, 301, 352, 422,
426, 524
Danfodiyo, XII, 288, 414, 536
Dawud, 39, 101, 105, 166, 549
Deedat, 443
Dhul Kifl, 99, 101, 548
Divorce, IX, 226, 228, 229, 327, 330,
444, 448, 449, 461, 489
554
 E Hausa, 333, 357
Euclid, 8, 10, 402 Hell, 43, 60, 91, 330
Europe, 238, 243, 287, 371, 398, 399, Hijrah, VII, 106, 107, 160, 164, 283,
400, 401, 402, 419, 423, 426, 427, 293, 300, 319, 324, 325, 326, 327,
429, 432, 434, 439, 466, 482, 483, 328, 329, 349, 352, 369, 397, 419,
505, 533 441, 474
Exegesis, 245, 318, 415, 502 Hippocrates, 8, 10, 530
Homer, 8, 11
F Hud, 79, 95, 97, 98, 101, 128, 129,
133, 278, 304, 309, 546
Fatimid, 182, 409, 439, 470, 474
Fiqh, 365, 366, 367, 373, 396, 524, I
526, 528, 532, 533, 534
Ibn al-Haytham, 404
G Ibn Hajar Al-Asqalani, 414, 529
Ibn Kathir, 2, 17, 49, 61, 71, 100, 106,
Golden Age, 371, 398, 407, 408, 410,
284, 287, 414, 474, 523, 530
422, 423, 427
Ibn Majah, 320, 339, 340, 343, 344,
H 346
Ibn Rushd, 137, 138, 403, 404, 414,
Hadith, 2, 4, 5, 6, 36, 39, 43, 88, 90,
531
125, 183, 188, 204, 215, 216, 218,
Ibn Sina, 401, 404, 532
223, 226, 230, 235, 236, 240, 245,
Ibn Taymiyyah, 39, 414
252, 261, 294, 319, 334, 335, 336,
Ibrahim, 40, 93, 98, 100, 105, 273,
337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343,
279, 304, 309, 359, 364, 382, 435,
344, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350,
502, 546
351, 352, 353, 354, 363, 364, 365,
Ibrahim Niass, 415
366, 371, 372, 373, 374, 377, 379,
Idris, 96, 97, 98, 101, 286, 362, 370,
380, 383, 385, 387, 391, 395, 396,
372, 373, 546
407, 418, 425, 449, 470, 472, 473,
Ilyas, 99, 101, 105, 549
474, 476, 478, 481, 484, 486, 525,
Imam Abu Hanifa, 349, 359, 371, 373,
526, 529, 531, 535
469
Hafs, 285, 287, 288, 524
Imam Ahmad, 340, 343, 344, 346,
Hafsah, 291, 296, 300
359, 369, 370, 372, 373, 418
Hajj, 2, 22, 36, 158, 159, 160, 161,
Imam Al-Ghazali, 414
166, 167, 168, 169, 217, 231, 251,
Imam Al-Nawawi, 414
259, 279, 281, 282, 305, 310, 328,
Imam Bukhari, 339, 341, 344, 345
329, 330, 336, 337, 344, 359, 368,
Imam Malik, 6, 78, 222, 339, 340, 343,
412, 439, 508, 518, 523
346, 349, 355, 359, 363, 369, 370,
Hanafi, 371, 373, 375, 377, 378, 469
372, 373, 377, 380, 469, 474
Hanbali, 369, 370, 371, 372, 373, 375,
Imam Muslim, 338, 339, 340, 341,
378, 469
345, 346
Harun, 99, 100, 105, 548
Iman, 43, 44, 336, 535

555
Immanuel Kant, 8, 11
Inheritance, IX, 205, 274, 327, 330,
446, 450, 451, 455, 456, 457, 461,
489
Injeel, 22, 93
Interest, VIII, 184, 190, 209, 211, 214,
324, 374, 381, 394, 432, 445, 508
Isa, IX, 30, 66, 93, 100, 105, 286, 340,
435, 472, 549
Ishaq, 98, 101, 105, 286, 339, 340,
349, 530, 547
Islamic State, 179, 293, 320, 360, 361,
421, 489, 493, 535
Islamic University of Madinah, 285,
399
Isma’il, 98, 101, 105, 547
Isnad, 343, 344, 349
J
Jabir ibn Hayyan, 400, 405
Jesus, 14, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 25, 27,
28, 29, 30, 34, 43, 44, 66, 94, 96,
102, 105, 110, 388, 464, 472, 527,
550, 551, 552, 553
Jihad, 174, 176, 177, 179, 180, 354,
500
Jinns, 48, 104, 122, 150, 259
Judaism, 4, 7, 20, 31, 464, 465, 515
Jurisprudence, XI, 4, 251, 254, 321,
339, 343, 344, 345, 356, 361, 363,
365, 366, 367, 369, 371, 372, 373,
375, 377, 378, 381, 382, 383, 391,
393, 395, 396, 409, 419, 455, 469,
491, 496, 524
K 21, 23, 24, 25, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38,
Kharajites, 347, 470
Kufa, 283, 285, 301, 361, 362, 363,
364, 371
L 267, 280, 285, 286, 295, 306, 311,
Lauhul Mahfuz, 268
Lut, 98, 100, 132, 546
M
Madhahib, 4
Madhhabs, 375
Madinah, 5, 44, 106, 107, 121, 153,
182, 268, 275, 280, 281, 282, 284,
288, 289, 296, 299, 301, 304, 305,
306, 307, 308, 314, 324, 325, 326,
327, 333, 334, 338, 339, 343, 360,
362, 364, 372, 373, 374, 384, 386,
390, 419, 420, 424, 436, 441, 470,
474, 489, 490, 491, 502, 524, 535,
538, 545
Madinan Chapters, 275, 282
Makkah, 38, 44, 45, 50, 98, 100, 106,
113, 115, 120, 132, 135, 158, 159,
160, 166, 182, 185, 216, 231, 244,
253, 268, 271, 273, 275, 281, 284,
289, 300, 301, 304, 305, 306, 307,
308, 314, 317, 324, 325, 327, 328,
329, 330, 339, 361, 362, 364, 372,
386, 390, 419,440, 441, 470, 489,
502, 508, 515
Makkan Chapters, 275, 282, 314
Maliki, 371, 372, 373, 375, 377, 378,
380, 381, 469
Mamluk, 182, 439
Maududi, 415
Mu’awiyah, 182, 291, 347, 363, 392,
436, 437, 468, 470
Mughal, 439
Muhajireen, 290, 291
Muhajiroon, 182, 385
Muhammad, 2, 5, 6, 14, 16, 18, 20,
43, 44, 75, 78, 79, 95, 97, 100, 101,
105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 114, 115,
116, 117, 119, 122, 123, 127, 159,
171, 188, 214, 239, 254, 265, 266,
321, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 338,
556
 340, 354, 359, 362, 370, 371, 372,
373, 382, 386, 387, 391, 400, 417,
418, 419, 435, 436, 470, 472, 477,
488, 512, 517, 526, 527, 529, 530,
531, 532, 537, 538, 541, 543, 544,
545, 549
Muhammad Bello bin Fodiyo, 415
Muqaddimah, 136, 530
Musa, 93, 99, 100, 105, 134, 291, 318,
359, 361, 362, 394, 400, 435, 548
Muwatta, 6, 78, 339, 340, 343, 344,
346, 349, 355, 372, 377, 413
N
Nasa'i, 6, 230, 339, 340, 342, 344,
346, 352, 355, 436, 478, 523
Nigeria, XII, 243, 288, 414, 415, 416,
430, 432, 435, 439, 460, 480, 505,
536
Nuh, 98, 100, 128, 279, 307, 312, 546
O
Ottoman Empire, 182, 372, 378, 437,
439
P 393, 406, 418, 421, 422, 426, 428,
Paradise, 43, 69, 91, 145, 279, 330,
445
Plato, 8, 9, 402, 534
polygamy, 444
Prophet Muhammad, X, 2, 17, 20, 21,
22, 23, 25, 31, 34, 36, 43, 44, 69,
93, 95, 106, 107, 113, 142, 160,
171, 180, 183, 187, 216, 220, 229,
230, 234, 237, 239, 240, 261, 263,
265, 267, 270, 303, 323, 328, 335,
345, 363, 372, 407, 419, 422, 431,
435, 458, 462, 469, 472, 473, 474,
511, 512, 513, 525
Prophets, 4, 14, 15, 16, 18, 34, 39, 96,
103, 123, 127, 135, 169, 192, 203,
325, 512
Prophets, 4, 7, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 20,
21, 22, 27, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 43,
75, 78, 79, 81, 91, 92, 93, 94, 96,
97, 100, 105, 151, 167, 274, 279,
309, 377, 392, 434, 435, 462, 473,
476, 483, 524, 530, 546
Ptolemy, 8, 10, 535
Q
Qadar, 41, 43, 75, 149, 272
Qardawi, 38, 39, 40, 157, 416, 443,
524
Qira'at, 288, 480, 527, 529
R
Ramadan, 22, 38, 41, 158, 159, 163,
164, 165, 166, 251, 271, 272, 327,
380, 412, 421, 502, 510, 518
Rashidun Caliphate, 421
Religion, XI, XII, 2, 7, 12, 17, 18, 20,
24, 28, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 44, 68,
105, 110, 114, 133, 135, 175, 176,
183, 197, 198, 218, 220, 227, 251,
259, 282, 348, 356, 357, 361, 366,
368, 369, 370, 379, 382, 390, 392,
429, 432, 433, 434, 442, 449, 461,
462, 463, 464, 465, 467, 474, 478,
483, 493, 494, 496, 500, 501, 509,
511, 513, 518, 519, 520, 521, 541
Riba, 206, 209, 211
Ridda Wars, 293
Rightly Guided Caliphs, 182, 337, 360,
418
S
Safavid, 439
Sahabah, 4, 182, 339, 343, 358, 359,
360, 361, 362, 364, 365, 366, 384,
385, 387, 388, 389
Sahih Al-Bukhari, 6, 28, 35, 36, 38, 57,
88, 153, 159, 160, 164, 176, 186,
557
 188, 217, 218, 223, 231, 232, 237,
240, 251, 271, 272, 273, 294, 296,
297, 298, 299, 300, 319, 338, 342,
352, 354, 368, 384, 407, 476, 496,
515, 531
Sahih Al–Bukhari, 84, 254, 388
Sahih Muslim, 6, 36, 44, 164, 181, 183,
185, 186, 187, 217, 225, 237, 239,
240, 250, 253, 338, 341, 345, 346,
352, 354, 380, 386, 387, 470, 477,
523, 534
Salat, 41, 157, 159, 160, 161, 176,
231, 236, 251, 271, 336, 368, 375,
382, 389
Saleh, 98, 546
Saudi Arabia, 98, 100, 166, 182, 288,
333, 334, 342, 354, 355, 369, 371,
372, 399, 411, 412, 413, 415, 430,
435, 437, 515, 530
Sayyid Qutb, 415
Sayyid Sabiq, 415
Scholars, VIII, IX, X, XI, 2, 4, 5, 38, 39,
44, 148, 203, 211, 214, 218, 283,
286, 288, 302, 322, 324, 332, 335,
338, 339, 340, 343, 344, 345, 349,
350, 352, 356, 357, 358, 362, 365,
366, 370, 372, 373, 378, 379, 383,
391, 395, 397, 403, 405, 406, 408,
409, 411, 412, 416, 419, 422, 425,
427, 432, 435, 440, 442, 443, 469,
474, 475, 476, 477, 481, 484, 491,
501, 503, 512, 513
Seljuk, 439
Shafi'i, 341, 349, 365, 370, 371, 372,
373, 375, 378, 469, 524
Shari’ah, 204, 212, 213, 365, 381
Sheikh Abdullahi bin Fodiyo, 414
Sheikh Abubakar Mahmud Gumi, 415
Sheikh Adamu Ilori, 415
Sheikh Ahmad Lemu, 416
Sheikh Albani, 415
Sheikh bin Baz, 415
Sheikh Dahiru Bauchi, 416
Sheikh Nasiru Kabara, 416
Sheikh Tantawi, 416
Shi’a, 347, 391, 392, 418, 468, 469,
470, 514, 515
Shanqeety, 36, 171, 197, 203, 204,
327, 329, 330, 415, 535
Shu’aib, 16, 99, 105, 132, 133, 134,
548
Socrates, 8, 9, 402, 536
Sokoto, XII, 288, 426, 437, 438, 439,
505, 536
Sufism, 473, 515, 527, 532
Suhuf, 43, 93
Sulaiman, 99, 101, 105, 340, 377, 549
Sun Tzu, 8, 11
Sunan Ibn Majah, 6, 217, 234, 352,
355, 386, 418, 523
Sunnah, X, XI, 2, 6, 37, 38, 39, 78,
123, 157, 165, 166, 181, 184, 230,
239, 252, 253, 261, 324, 334, 335,
336, 337, 347, 359, 362, 364, 365,
366, 367, 368, 370, 381, 382, 383,
389, 391, 392, 395, 396, 405, 418,
419, 461, 468, 469, 470, 475, 477,
496, 501, 507, 510, 512, 513, 523,
524
Sunni, 373, 391, 418, 468, 469, 470,
514, 515, 523, 528, 531
T
Tabari, 17, 45, 182, 283, 320, 321,
436, 445, 524, 535
Tabi’oon, 359, 361, 363, 378, 474
Tafsir, 36, 245, 320, 321, 323, 379,
396, 414, 415, 416, 502, 524, 526,
536
Tawheed, 38, 324, 473
Taurah, 93
Tirmidhi, 6, 216, 237, 239, 244, 338,
339, 340, 342, 344, 346, 352, 355,
458, 478, 522
558
 U Warsh, 284, 287
Ulama, X, XI, 2, 4, 38, 39, 303, 338,
340, 349, 352, 356, 357, 358, 363,
365, 369, 378, 379, 380, 381, 382,
383, 384, 389, 392, 395, 396, 397,
406, 435, 507, 508, 513
Umar bin Khattab, 153, 182, 185, 294,
297, 358, 389, 413, 420, 440, 441,
469
Umayyad, 182, 302, 338, 363, 397,
408, 436, 438, 529
Usman bin Affan, 182, 185, 291, 296,
358, 413, 418, 420, 469
Usury, 125, 206, 209, 210, 213, 508
Uthaymeen, 323, 415, 536
W 183, 192, 208, 210, 251, 293, 325,
Wali, I, III, VII, VIII, IX, X, 102, 155,
184, 430, 431, 432, 536
Y
Yahya, 100, 105, 302, 549
Yaqub, 99, 101, 105, 547
Yunus, 100, 101, 105, 278, 304, 309,
315, 549
Yusuf, 5, 19, 99, 100, 102, 105, 132,
222, 278, 302, 304, 309, 325, 332,
333, 371, 435, 443, 547
Z
Zabur, 93
Zaid Bin Thabit, 291, 294, 300, 301
Zakariya, 100, 105, 549
Zakat, 22, 38, 41, 157, 159, 162, 181,
327, 336, 344, 376, 382, 450, 485,
489, 510
559
560