Antti Räisänen

High Voltage Accumulator System

for a Formula Student Vehicle

Metropolia University of Applied Sciences

Bachelor of Engineering
Automotive Engineering
Bachelor’s Thesis
11 December 2023
Abstract

Author: Antti Räisänen

Title: High Voltage Accumulator System for a Formula Student
Vehicle
Number of Pages: 87 pages + 2 appendices
Date: 11 December 2023

Degree: Bachelor of Engineering

Degree Programme: Automotive Engineering
Professional Major: Automotive Electrics
Supervisor: Pasi Kovanen, Senior Lecturer

The objective of this thesis is to document the approval and development process of
Metropolia Motorsport Formula Engineering team’s high voltage accumulator system
for their HPF023 vehicle.

The thesis will detail the author's original design of the HPF023 vehicle's battery
system. It will cover design aspects such as the safety systems, aluminium module,
composite container, and CFD optimized air-cooling. Additionally, it will go through
the materials and manufacturing processes used in the producing of the battery
system, along with the testing procedures conducted before the accumulator is
commissioned to the HPF023 vehicle.

To pass the accumulator scrutineering in the Formula Student competitions, the team
needs to design the battery system in accordance with the Formula Student rules.
These rules provide a solid foundation for manufacturing a safe system. Preliminary
acceptance to participate in the Formula Student competitions requires approval from
the Electrical System Form and Structural Equivalency Spreadsheet.

The HPF023 accumulator was built in accordance with the document, it passed the
preliminary acceptance forms and the accumulator scrutineering in the Formula
Student Germany 2023 -event. It can also be used for the season 2024 of Formula
Student, where further testing and validation can be carried out to learn and optimize
the overall accumulator system of the future vehicles.

The goal of producing the design and manufacturing guide for Metropolia Motorsport
Formula Engineering team was successful. This thesis will be used for educational
purposes and the next accumulator system will be designed using it as a reference
guide.

Keywords: Formula Student, HPF023, accumulator, battery

___________________________________________________________

The originality of this thesis has been checked using Turnitin Originality Check
service.
Tiivistelmä

Tekijä: Antti Räisänen

Otsikko: Formula Student -ajoneuvon
korkeajänniteakkujärjestelmä
Sivumäärä: 87 sivua + 2 liitettä
Aika: 11.12.2023

Tutkinto: Insinööri (AMK)

Tutkinto-ohjelma: Ajoneuvotekniikka
Ammatillinen pääaine: Autosähkötekniikka
Ohjaaja: Lehtori Pasi Kovanen

Tämän opinnäytetyön tarkoituksena on dokumentoida Metropolia Motorsport

Formula Engineering -tiimin akkujärjestelmän hyväksyntä- ja kehitysprosessi
tiimin HPF023-ajoneuvolle.

Opinnäytetyössä esitellään kirjoittajan alkuperäinen suunnitelma HPF023-

ajoneuvon energiavarastosta. Työssä käydään läpi ajoneuvon turvajärjestelmät,
alumiinimoduulin suunnittelu, komposiittilaatikon suunnittelu sekä CFD-
optimoitu ilmajäähdytys. Lisäksi kuvataan materiaalit ja valmistusprosessit, joita
on käytetty korkeajänniteakkujärjestelmän valmistuksessa sekä siihen liittyvät
testausmenetelmät ennen akun käyttöönottoa HPF023-ajoneuvossa.

Akun katsastuksen läpäisemiseksi Formula Student -kilpailuissa

akkujärjestelmän suunnittelu on tehtävä kilpailun sääntöjen mukaisesti. Nämä
säännöt ovat pohja turvallisen järjestelmän luomiselle. Alustava hyväksyntä
osallistumiselle FS-kilpailuihin on saatava sähköjärjestelmän lomakkeen ja
rakenteellisen vastaavuustaulukon avulla.

HPF023-akku rakennettiin dokumentin mukaisesti, se läpäisi alustavan

hyväksynnän kaavakkeet sekä Formula Student Germany 2023 -kilpailun
akkukatsastuksen. Sitä voidaan myös käyttää kaudella 2024 FS-kilpailuissa,
joissa lisää testejä ja validointia voidaan suorittaa seuraavien FS-ajoneuvojen
akkujärjestelmien optimoimiseksi.

Metropolia Motorsport Formula Engineering -tiimille syntyi suunnittelu- ja

valmistusohje. Opinnäytetyötä käytetään opetustarkoituksiin ja seuraava
akkujärjestelmä suunnitellaan käyttäen sitä suunnittelun pohjana.

Avainsanat: Formula Student, HPF023, akku

Contents

List of Abbreviations

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Formula Student 1

1.2 Metropolia Motorsport Formula Engineering 1
1.3 HPF023 Accumulator 3
1.4 Results 4

2 Safety Systems 6

2.1 Accumulator Management System 6

2.1.1 Safe state 7
2.1.2 Voltage measurement 8
2.1.3 Current measurement 9
2.1.4 Temperature measurement 10
2.2 Insulation monitoring 14
2.3 Overcurrent protection 15
2.3.1 Average current 17
2.3.2 Peak current 18
2.3.3 Fuse re-ratings 20
2.3.4 Charging 22
2.4 Pre-charge circuitry 23
2.5 Shutdown circuit 24

3 Stack 25

3.1 Cell selection 26

3.2 Cell expansion 30
3.2.1 Reversible expansion 31
3.2.2 Irreversible expansion 31
3.3 Pouch cell mounting 34
3.3.1 Preload 34
3.3.2 Insulation materials 35
3.4 Cell tab connection 36
3.4.1 Compression contact 36
3.4.2 Laser welding 37
 3.4.3 Ultrasonic welding 38
3.5 Slave board 39
3.6 Failure cases 43
3.7 Manufacturing 47
3.7.1 Annealing & re-aging 47
3.7.2 3D-Printing 51

4 Component rack 52

5 Cooling 54

5.1 Design targets 54

5.2 Thermal & flow simulation 56
5.2.1 Static pressure 57
5.2.2 Static temperature 58

6 Container 60

6.1 Alternative materials 61

6.2 Failure cases 64
6.3 Manufacturing 67

7 Testing and validating 70

7.1 Pouch material insulation test 70

7.2 Reversible cell thickness test 71
7.3 Friction test 72
7.4 Temperature sensor test 73
7.5 Cell connection temperature test 74
7.6 Internal resistance test 76
7.7 Alternative material tests 77
7.7.1 3-point-bending test 78
7.7.2 Shear perimeter test 79
7.8 Laser welding test 81

8 Conclusions 83

References 85

Appendices
Appendix 1: Accumulator schematic
Appendix 2: Temperature circuitry error calculator
List of Abbreviations

AMS: Accumulator Management System

CAN: Controller Area Network

CAD: Computer Aided Design

CFD: Computational Fluid Dynamics

CV: Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle

EV: Electrical Vehicle

ENIG: Electroless Nickel Immersion Gold

ESF: Electrical System Form

FEA: Finite Element Analysis

FEM: Finite Element Method

FS: Formula Student

FSG: Formula Student Germany

HV: High Voltage

IMD: Insulation Monitoring Device

LV: Low Voltage

PI: Polyimide

PP: Polypropylene
PCB: Printed Circuit Board

SEI: Solid Electrolyte Interphase

SES: Structural Equivalency Spreadsheet

SDC: Shutdown Circuit

SOC: State-of-Charge

TGF: Thermal Gap Filler

TGP: Thermal Gap Pad

TSAC: Tractive System Accumulator Container

TS: Tractive System

 1

1 Introduction

Goal of this thesis is to be an informative design, manufacturing, and testing

guide of a Formula Student 2023 rules [1] compliant accumulator system for
Metropolia Motorsport Formula Engineering -team. The thesis will examine the
author’s original design of HPF023 vehicle’s accumulator, electrical drawings,
competition documents such as Electrical System Form (ESF), Structural
Equivalency Spreadsheet (SES), design parameters dictated by rules as well as
the testing process of a battery system before it is commissioned to the HPF023
vehicle.

1.1 Formula Student

Formula Student competitions are held internationally across the world. The
competitions consist of dynamic and static events. The dynamic events
measure the capabilities of the vehicle with an endurance event, an autocross
event, a skid pad event, and an acceleration event. The static events measure
the capabilities of the students in the form of a design event, a cost &
manufacturing event, and a business plan presentation event.

FS is sponsored by various companies from different industries and thus acts

as a recruitment channel for new employees. FSG is the main European
competition in the Formula Student category. FSG is also the organization
behind the main rules document that is implemented by other organizations.
ESF and SES are documents that are used by FSG to validate rule compliant
designs from the event participating teams before the event scrutineering itself.

1.2 Metropolia Motorsport Formula Engineering

Metropolia Motorsport is a FS team from Vantaa, Finland. The team was

founded in 2001 and manufactured internal combustion engine vehicles (CV)
from 2001 until 2011.
 2

Metropolia Motorsport’s first electrical vehicle (EV) was introduced in 2013, the
first all-wheel-drive vehicle was HPF021, and the newest vehicle at the time of
writing is an electric all-wheel-drive HPF023 (figure 1). The team has over 10
years of experience in making FS battery systems. Metropolia Motorsport is
referred to later in the text as “the team”.

Figure 1. HPF023 in FS Austria.

 3

1.3 HPF023 Accumulator

Accumulator is an energy storage unit for vehicle electrics. HPF023

accumulator consists of 8 similar 75 V modules that, when connected in series,
have a maximum voltage of 600 V. The accumulator supplies current to the
Tractive System (TS) via DC-link and Low Voltage (LV) system via DC/DC
converter. High Voltage (HV) and LV are separated by a voltage boundary of 60
VDC. Figure 2 is a rendering image of the electrical system in HPF023.

Figure 2. Rendering image of the HPF023 Electrical system.

HPF023 uses regulated 24 V for all its LV components as it is heavily

standardized low voltage level, and it is easy to find and buy components for it,
while having half of the current demand for the same power output as 12 V
system.

TS includes all systems that are operated with HV. Maximum TS voltage is 600
V, because it is the highest allowed voltage in FS rules. Higher voltage equals
less current that allows the usage of lighter conductors and smaller connectors
for the same power output.
 4

Figure 3 is a top view of HPF023 accumulator, the TS parts highlighted are

battery stacks (green), DC-link and DC/DC converter (both orange). LV system
components, such as PCBs and cooling fans, are marked with blue colour.

Figure 3. Rendering image of HPF023 Accumulator sections.

1.4 Results

By following the information and practices used in this thesis, HPF023 passed
preliminary acceptance forms and the accumulator scrutineering in the FSG-
event. This means that the accumulator was proven to be manufactured safely
and according to the FS rules. This document and its conclusions underlie a
good foundation for the future revisions.

The design of the system considers details that are important for the system to
be rule compliant such as a measurement accuracy in the management
electronics and a sufficient overcurrent protection in the high voltage path.
Structural decisions are made with operational safety in mind and the
accumulator is designed to be valid for competition use for several seasons of
 5

FS competitions. The container is calculated to withstand impact forces

estimated by the FS rules [1].
 6

2 Safety Systems

2.1 Accumulator Management System

The Accumulator Management System (AMS) monitors all the cell voltages,
majority of the cell temperatures and the current flowing through the battery.
HPF023’s battery configuration is 144s1p, which means that there are 144 cells
in series and 1 cell in parallel.

AMS consists of one master board, eight slave boards and a current sensor
called IVT (figure 4). The master board communicates through a CAN-bus with
a vehicle or a charger. CAN (Controller Area Network) is a digital
communication protocol based on robust differential signals and it is designed
specifically for the automotive environment.

The master board can interrupt shutdown circuit (SDC, section 2.5) by
activating a safe state and opening a safety contact in a relay board. The relay
board is considered as a part of the AMS.

Figure 4. CAD model of AMS components.

 7

2.1.1 Safe state

Safe state is switched on when the operation conditions have been exceeded.
These operation conditions consist of:

• voltage limits
• temperature limits
• current limits
• critical data transmission failure
• high voltage isolation failure
• open SDC safety contact.

The activation of the safe state opens main contactors and isolates HV to be
present only inside of the accumulator container. The high voltage potential
remaining in the vehicle or charger is dissipated as heat using a discharge
circuit (section 2.3.4 Charging).

AMS components communicate with the master board through differential

signals. The slave boards use isolated SPI-bus in a daisy chain configuration.
The IVT communicates via CAN-bus.

The AMS master has 10 hz sampling rate and a cyclic redundancy check. It
goes into a safe state after three consecutive events of the following:

• value out of range

• Packet-Error Checking
• SPI communication error
• CAN-bus transmission error from IVT.
 8

Total time it takes from a malfunction event to the contactors opening is less
than 315 ms, the formation of which is shown in table 1:

Table 1. Safe state activation time.

Reason Maximum execution time

3 fault cycles 300 ms

SDC relay opening 4 ms

main contactor opening 10 ms

electrical circuit losses <1 ms

2.1.2 Voltage measurement

The maximum allowed voltage for TS is 600 V according to the rules. To ensure
that the battery stays under the maximum, the measurement accuracy needs to
be considered.

Theoretical maximum cell voltage with 144 battery cells in series is 4166.6 mV.
However, as the maximum voltage measurement error according to the
component manufacturer is +-3.8 mV, the upper limit for voltage measurement
is 4162.8 mV. Thereby the maximum measured voltage for the AMS is 599.44
V.

When the battery is charged, all the cell voltages are balanced to the upper cell
voltage limit and the maximum TS voltage is kept under 600 V. This process is
known as passive cell balancing, and it maintains uniform cell voltages by
preventing a voltage gap from developing between cells with the highest and
lowest capacities. It works by dissipating excess energy from the cells that
reach upper cell voltage limit while the charging process is still ongoing. The
charging process stops when the lowest voltage level cell reaches the upper
cell voltage limit.
 9

The lower voltage limit is defined in a cell datasheet. Usually Li-ion cells should
not be operated under 3 Volts. HPF023 has a lower limit at 3.1 V to ensure that
the cells are not degraded by a too low voltage level.

2.1.3 Current measurement

Electrical current is measured with off-the-shelf IVT module (black component in

figure 4). IVT [2] has shunt-based measurement method and CAN-bus
communication. Isabellenhütte IVT module offers a current measurement
accuracy of 0.4 % and the AMS has a voltage measurement accuracy of 0.09
%. Power is calculated by multiplying a voltage with a current.

The total accuracy for power calculation is thereby 99.5% and the maximum
power that can be safely drawn from the system without exceeding the 80.0 kW
limit is 79.6 kW. IVT has also inbuilt energy calculator that can be used to define
State-of-Charge (SOC).
 10

2.1.4 Temperature measurement

The temperature sensor in the slave board is a NTC thermistor that is part of a
voltage divider circuit (TH in figure 5) that outputs temperature corresponding
voltage that can be read as a temperature by a transfer function calculated in
the AMS master board. The thermistor used in HPF023 has a 10k resistance
value at 25 °C.

Figure 5. KiCad schematic for the voltage divider circuit.

Resistance value of the temperature sensor dictates the output voltage (0.6 V-
2.6 V) that the AMS is reading. If this value goes over or under the set limit, it
will be considered as value out of range and thus short- or open circuit is
detected by a value out of range.

To calculate temperature circuitry accuracy at the maximum temperature of 60

°C, an error calculator was made (appendix 2). The calculator is based on the
datasheet values and considers the reference voltage error, ADC error,
thermistor value error and resistor value error. The maximum temperature
circuitry error is 3 °C.

Testing results (section 7.4 Temperature sensor test) show that for HPF023
there is maximum of 7 °C temperature difference between the sensor and the
heat source and this is considered to be maximum thermal error. The upper
limit for temperature monitoring can be calculated by subtracting circuitry and
thermal error from the allowed maximum. The upper limit for temperature
 11

measuring is set to be 50 °C. The minimum temperature is set to be 0 °C,

because the battery is never operated in colder conditions.

According to the rules, 30% of lithium-based cells need to be monitored evenly

from the negative cell tabs for temperature. Figure 6 shows how the
temperature sensors (orange ellipses) are distributed with the battery cells
(black and white outlined rectangles). The temperature sensors were decided to
be on the same side of the PCB because it is the configuration where most
individual negative cell terminals are monitored (50 %).

Figure 6. Temperature sensor distribution.

The maximum cell temperature is measured in the FSG-event by use of an

external temperature measurement device installed to the battery in the
accumulator scrutineering. The temperature logger is assembled to the warmest
negative terminal of the battery. The warmest position is one of the last stacks
towards the outlet fans as the air gets heated up from the first ones and so the
thermal dissipation via convection is not as effective in the back of the
accumulator.
 12

According to figure 7 CFD simulation, there is less airflow on the side and thus
the logger is placed to the orange marked position.

Figure 7. Temperature logger position.

Rule EV 5.8.4 [1] states: “Cell temperature must be measured at the negative
terminal of the respective cell. The sensor used must be in direct contact with
the electrically exposed negative terminal or less than 10mm along the high
current path away from the terminal in direct contact with the respective busbar.
It is acceptable to monitor multiple cells with one sensor if this requirement is
met for all cells sensed by the sensor.”
 13

HPF023 uses SMD thermistor that is placed one millimeter away from a cell tab
(figure 8) and is connected to it thermally by using Bergquist Thermal Gap Filler
3600 (TGF). The dielectric strength of the TGF material is given to be over 10
kV
, so the 1 mm distance is more than enough in terms of dielectric properties.
mm

Figure 8. Temperature sensor placement.

The benefits of this are that there are no wired connections in the measuring
circuit and thus the system is mechanically robust. However, because of the
usage of the TGF, a thermal delay must be calculated, and a thermal error test
needs to be conducted for the solution to be approved for competition use in
2023.
 14

The thermal delay can be neglected if the TGF has a maximum heat flow rate
greater than the thermistor’s ability to rise in its body temperature. When
calculating the heat flow rate δTGF , the following formula is used [3]:

∆𝑄 1
δTGF = = −𝜆 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑥 (2.1)
∆𝑇

∆𝑄
Where ∆𝑇 is heat flow rate, λ is thermal conductivity of TGF, A is cross-section

area of the thermistor, x is a distance between cell tab and sensor.

NTC thermistors are given a dissipation factor δth in the datasheet. The
dissipation factor is used to measure a steady-state heat load that makes the
thermistor’s body increase by one Kelvin.

Comparing the thermal intermediate material’s maximum heat flow rate to the
thermistor’s dissipation factor will indicate the safety factor for thermal delay.
The safety factor for thermal delay in HPF023 is 4.1, but it does not consider the
cooling effect of the heated TGF surface and ambient temperature air. This
affects the amount of thermal flow received by the thermistor and can cause a
temperature error between the source and receiver. This thermal error is
accounted for in the measurements according to the conducted temperature
sensor test (section 7.4 Temperature sensor test).

2.2 Insulation monitoring

Insulation resistance is monitored with off-the-self Insulation Monitoring Device

(IMD). Bender IMD IR155-3204 is the model used and is accepted by the
Formula Student rules.

IMD needs to be supplied by an isolated LV power source and the operation

signal is transmitted to the relay board using photocoupler to keep the supply
isolated. Binary operation signal controls a SDC safety contact in the relay
board.
 15

IMD is connected to the HV potentials, an accumulator ground and to the

vehicle main ground point (figure 9). The minimum allowed resistance between
HV potential and ground can be calculated by multiplying the minimum allowed
500 Ω
response value by the system’s maximum voltage.
𝑉

Figure 9. IMD typical application [4].

300 kΩ is the minimum resistance value required but the system should be
designed for greater isolation properties. HPF023 accumulator is measured to
have over MΩ of isolation resistance with the measuring voltage of 1 kV.

2.3 Overcurrent protection

Proper overcurrent protection is designed to avoid damage in the high voltage

path and battery cells in a case of short circuit. The high voltage path consists
of all the conductors that carry the high-voltage electrical current from the
battery cells to propel the vehicle. High voltage conductors need to be rated for
the system’s maximum voltage and -current in an ambient temperature of 85 °C
according to the rules. DC-link is referred to be the battery’s high voltage source
conductors.
 16

For a fuse to be able to act in case of short circuit, it needs to have interrupt
rating over the theoretical maximum short circuit current. Calculating the
theoretical short circuit current for accumulator can be done by dividing
maximum battery voltage by the accumulator’s DC-link resistance. HPF023 has
a fuse that has an interrupt rating of 30 kA and short circuit current of around
2.7 kA.

The following schematic (figure 10) is drawn for the high voltage components,
from it can be seen how the system is protected.

Figure 10. Overcurrent protection schematic.

The schematic in figure 10 shows that the weakest link in the HPF023 high
voltage path is the accumulator 70 A fuse as its continuous rating is less than
any individual conductor in the high voltage path.
 17

In a cyclic load environment, the main fuse needs to be able to withstand the
average operation current and peak currents. It also needs to be rated for less
current than the systems it protects.

2.3.1 Average current

Figure 11 shows test data from an older generation all-wheel-driven HPF021’s

track drive where negative values are discharge currents and positive currents
are regenerated from braking events.

Figure 11. Current curve, Amperes vs 10 Hz sampling rate.

 18

The average current of the system can be found by analyzing the absolute
values. The absolute average value (figure 12) used as a baseline current to
determine right rating for a fuse was calculated to be 39.8 A.

Figure 12. Absolute current curve, Amperes vs 10 Hz sampling rate.

2.3.2 Peak current

The maximum high-voltage power drawn to spin the wheels is 80 kW as

dictated by the rules. To calculate the theoretical maximum current I, the
following formula is used:

𝑃
𝐼=𝑈 (2.1)

Where P is the maximum power and U is the minimum battery voltage.

 19

Figure 13 shows a peak discharge event at 150 A while the acceleration event
between braking events is around 2 seconds.

Figure 13. Peak current curve.

 20

2.3.3 Fuse re-ratings

Fuse is used above the 20 °C ambient temperature and needs to be re-rated for
the actual ambient conditions. The nominal value gets downrated as figure 14
shows for Littelfuse EV1K series fuses.

Figure 14. Temperature re-rating curve [5].

An ambient temperature of 85 °C can be used similarly to other conductors, but

because the cell’s maximum temperature is 60 °C, the safer option is to reduce
the fuse rating for lower ambient conditions. In HPF023, the ambient
 21

temperature for 70 A fuse is expected to be maximum at 60°C, so the maximum

downrating for the fuse is 15%, which reduces the overall rating to 59.5 A.

The time that the fuse can withstand a current spike can be discovered by
studying the time-current characteristic curve. By finding the intersection point
for 200 A current value, a safe assumption for a realistic time it takes for 70 A
fuse to melt with 185 A can be found.

The melt time, according to graph (figure 15), is 4 seconds, which is greater
than the current spike (figure 13) the accumulator goes through in operation and
thus the fuse can act instantly if the current exceeds the operational limits.

Figure 15. Time-current characteristic curve [5].

 22

2.3.4 Charging

The charging schematic (figure 16) shows that the charging electrical system is
properly fused, and the charger is wired according to the rules.

Figure 16. Charging schematic.

The charger uses 16 A, 415 V, 3-phase inlet for power input with maximum
intake power of 11 kW. The charger consists of three parallel Brusa NLG514
units, combining charging power of 9.9 kW.

The discharge circuit is identical to the one used by the HPF023 vehicle. The
discharging energy and -time can be calculated with the calculator from
reference [6]. The maximum allowed discharging time from maximum voltage to
LV level is five seconds. The chargers have a combined capacity of 24 µF at the
DC output, and the discharge resistor has a resistance value of 3.3 kΩ and a
power rating of 150 W. The discharge time is around 0.2 s, and the peak
discharging power is 110 W. The resistor needs to be rated for continuous
discharging.
 23

2.4 Pre-charge circuitry

Pre-charge circuit protects the battery and the system connected to it when the
contactors are closed. 600 V potential difference and a low resistance path
generates high in-rush currents. This in-rush current can, for example, cause
micro-welding in the contactor’s main contacts and make them stuck.

When closing the accumulator contactors with proper pre-charge circuitry, the
current is routed through a pre-charge resistor that is restricting the rushing
current and lowering the potential difference between the battery and connected
system slowly to 5% of the high voltage potential before connecting the main
contact.

The pre-charge time is dependent on the connected system’s capacitance and

the resistor value, for example HPF023 inverters have 480 µF capacitance that
takes about 1.5 seconds to pre-charge with 1.1 kΩ pre-charge resistor
according to the reference [7] calculator.

Figure 17 is a schematic for a simple pre-charge circuit.

Figure 17. Pre-charge circuit [7].

 24

2.5 Shutdown circuit

Shutdown circuit (SDC) is a high voltage interlock-loop that is routed through

every high voltage connector and safety device to ensure that there are no open
high voltage potentials or safe state present when entering the operation state.

The SDC is supplied directly from the LV main fuse and is driving the main
contactors when the loop is closed. An interrupted SDC opens the contactors
and starts discharging the high voltage potential through a discharge resistor in
the connected system.

A relay board is a part of the accumulator SDC. All safety contacts in the relay
board are closed and the vehicle is in operation state if safe state is off, and the
pre-charge has been completed.

Figure 18 has SDC schematics for the vehicle and charger.

Figure 18. Shutdown circuit.

 25

3 Stack

HPF023’s battery cell module (figure 19) is a combination of rigid aluminium

frame, plastic top part, and a slave board PCB. The manufacturing methods
used enabled rapid prototyping for swift revisioning.

The structural properties were defined with assistance of Finite Element

Analysis (FEA) and estimated failure cases are confirmed with hand
calculations for Structural Equivalency Spreadsheet (SES). Pouch cells are kept
in place with a preload that does not allow for undesired movement within the
stack.

Figure 19. Rendering image of the HPF023 accumulator stack.

 26

3.1 Cell selection

Selecting the battery cells has several factors that need to be considered:
gravimetric energy density, current carrying capacity and volumetric energy
density. High gravimetric energy dense cells are referred to as energy cells and
cells with high C-rates are power cells.

Energy cells can form the most lightweight pack for a given capacity. With
racing cars, it is one of the most important factors, because a lighter car can be
propelled to motion with less energy used. Gravimetric energy density is given
in the form of capacity over mass. The most gravimetric energy dense Li-ion
cells the team can purchase from the previous cell provider Melasta are around
250-270 Wh/kg.

C-rate is a multiplier indicator that indicates how many times the cell can draw
current of its nominal capacity value constantly or as an intermittent peak
without overheating. For example, HPF023 cell has a nominal capacity of 13 Ah
and discharge C-rate of 11.5 C that equals to 149.5 A of constant current.
Discharge peak of 25 C can be drawn for 2 seconds.
 27

High currents compromise high energy density. Figure 20 is a cross section

presentation, where the power cell has thinner electrode layers which means
lower internal resistance and thus more current carrying capacity but also worse
energy density due to the electrodes with less volume.

Figure 20. Power density vs energy density [8].

In figure 20, the black area is an anode, the green area is a cathode, and the
yellow strips are separator layers. Cell layers are usually folded or winded to
increase the effective internal surface area for ion transfers.

In HPF023, the battery cells were provided by a sponsor, Tesla Motors, and
those have an energy density of 180 Wh/kg. While the cells could be more
energy dense, the discharge and charge rates are higher. Compared to the
previously used Melasta’s similar capacity cell configuration, HPF023 can
charge with peak C-rate of 18 C instead of 8 C.
 28

The ability to charge the battery pack with over 200 A for short duration enables
a strong regenerative braking capability that is a part of the vehicle’s endurance
event strategy, where the usage of mechanical brakes is minimized. The
objective of the high regeneration is to recuperate a large portion of the
expended energy and assure that the vehicle can sustain full power throughout
the duration of the endurance event. In addition, because of the higher
regeneration capability, the driving assistance systems are not limited when it
comes to negative torque requests and so the vehicle can act more
aggressively and efficiently.

Volumetric energy density is one of the reasons why the team uses pouch cells
instead of cylindrical. Pouch cells do not suffer from a circle packing problem
and there are no air gaps between the cells when packed tightly. Figure 21
displays a render image CAD-model comparing the volumetric density of pouch
cells and cylindrical cells. The cylindrical cells used in comparison are 21700
cells that were a possible replacement to be used in HPF023. Different sizes of
cylindrical cells are available to be used but are not considered in this thesis.
The pouch cell size used in figure 21 has same energy density as the 21700
cell.

Figure 21. Cylindrical cells vs pouch cells.

 29

Same capacity pouch cells have 5 % better volumetric density than circular cells
and 31.7 % when the height is not considered. The cylindrical cell poles are
located on different sides of the cell, resulting in a challenge for connecting the
DC-link on both the top and bottom sides. In contrast, pouch cells have tabs
situated on top, simplifying cell connections, and making the implementation of
monitoring circuit easier.

Another factor is a cell count, as to achieve the same capacity as with the
HPF023 pouch cells, three times as many cylindrical 21700 cells are required.
Having fewer cells means less welded contacts. To achieve the same
regeneration potential as with HPF023 cells, there would be a need for five
cylindrical cells in parallel, which would end up having too much capacity and
weight for an FS vehicle. In addition, pouch cells can also be safely mounted
with bolted compression contacts.

The benefit of using a cylindrical cell is that the preload is integrated in the roll
winding design. Additionally, if a cylindrical cell has an integrated safety vent
design (figure 22) and the accumulator container is properly ventilated, a
cylindrical cell can theoretically vent out dangerous gases and disconnect from
the DC-link without catching fire.

Figure 22. Cylindrical cell safety vent [9].

 30

While the pouch cells are in general more dangerous than the cylindrical cells, a
module design that considers the pouch cell dimensional changes and by
following a safety protocol in the assembly phase to avoid mechanical damage,
a safe battery pack can be manufactured with the pouch cells.

3.2 Cell expansion

Cell expansion can be divided into reversible- and irreversible expansion.

Figure 23 shows how charging the cell increases the thickness in the darker
graphite anode.

Figure 23. Cell expansion [10].

Li-ion pouch cells need an external preload to reduce Solid Electrolyte

Interphase (SEI) from forming on the graphite layers and to prevent premature
capacity loss. Preload is also beneficial in terms of cell resistance as it ensures
that the cell’s internal layers have a compression contact.
 31

3.2.1 Reversible expansion

Lithium-ionized graphite causes reversible expansion in Li-ion battery cells

(lithiation in figure 26). When the cell is charged, Li-ions interact with the
graphite anode and causes swelling.

Different types of electrode compositions can have different amount of

reversible expansion. The maximum battery cell thickness expansion of the
HPF023 was tested to be up to 2 % with a fresh cell (section 7.2 Reversible cell
thickness test).

3.2.2 Irreversible expansion

Cell fatigues after every charge- and discharge cycle. Chemical reactions start
forming fractures on the electrode layers and increase the amount of gas inside
of a cell. The pouch cell’s gas generation (figure 24) can be accelerated by the
end user by a mechanical damage, insufficient mounting or with an electrical
abuse. The importance of the minimal gas generation multiplies if the same
battery cells are used for multiple seasons of FS. The gas pressure inside of a
cell makes the pouch swell in all directions.

Figure 24. Gas generation [11].

 32

A chemical reaction called SEI forms a permanent solid layer to the graphite
anode surfaces and decreases the cell’s capacity. If SEI is let to expand freely
without enough force pressing the cell layers together, it will cause a lot of
premature irreversible swelling (figure 25).

Figure 25. NMC111-Gr Pouch cell premature irreversible cell expansion at 2C

cycling and constant 45 °C temperature [10].
 33

Figure 26 shows the steps of how the irreversible SEI expansion is formed. First
lithium-ions interact with graphite particles and make them increase in size. This
reaction forms larger gaps between the graphite layers that can be exploited by
SEI. After each charge cycle, more SEI is formed to the graphite and after the
discharge cycle the electrode has slightly worse ion-receiving capacity and
thicker layers than in a cycle before.

Figure 26. SEI formation in a lithiation cycle [10].

SEI layer can in the worst-case scenario start thermal runaway if it is able to
puncture the separator layer and short circuit cell electrodes. Effects of the
irreversible swelling in pouch cells can be managed by keeping the cell
electrically and thermally within the operation ranges and by designing
controlled expansion volume for the inevitable dimensional changes.
 34

3.3 Pouch cell mounting

In HPF023, preload mounts cells to the stack so that they can withstand the rule
requirement of 40 g of force without the cells dislocating and causing physical
damage. Proper preload accounts for enough friction force at pouch minimum
thickness and an expansion volume that allows the cell to be at the dynamic
maximum thickness. Material choices need to have desired insulation properties
when grounded aluminium is used in the stack assembly.

3.3.1 Preload

HPF023 stack preload is applied within aluminium frame and Thermal Gap
Pads (TGP) are used as an expansion volume (figure 27).

Figure 27. HPF023 preload compression layup.

According to figure 25, higher preload is usually better. However, because of

the cell’s ability to expand irreversibly with cycling and thus increase the
pressure the stack must structurally hold, the initial preload for the fresh cells is
set to be the amount that is required for the 40 g withstanding friction.
 35

To determine the requirement, the calculated friction force can be considered

for a single cell since all the cells are secured in place with individual TGPs. The
TGPs are fixed to the aluminium cooling plates, that are shape locked in place
to avoid undesired movement.

Calculating the required friction force 𝐹40𝑔 :

𝐹40𝑔 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝑔 ∗ 40 (3.1)

Where m is the mass of one cell and g is a gravitational constant.

Friction coefficient µ between pouch and TGP was determined with a friction
test (section 7.3 Friction test). Calculating the minimum initial compression force
N was made by using following formula:

𝐹40𝑔
𝑁= (3.2)
µ

When assembling the HPF023 stack with battery cells that are in a storage
voltage, the compression layup is pressed together with 410 N or 38 kPa of cell
pressure before the bolts are tightened.

3.3.2 Insulation materials

Pouch materials are usually thermoplastics, polypropylene (PP) for example.

𝑘𝑉
The general dielectric strength for PP is over 20 𝑚𝑚 [12], so to insulate 600 V

from grounded cooling parts, only a 30 µm thick layer is the minimum

requirement for this material.

For HPF023, the pouch material was unknown, so a physical test was carried
out (section 7.1 Pouch material insulation test) and the result was that the
breakdown voltage was somewhere in between 500 V and 1 kV. So, to be used
with 600 V, extra insulating was necessary.
 36

The material of choice to insulate the cooling plates is a half millimeter thick
TGP, that has a dielectric breakdown voltage of 6 kV. Material acts as an
insulator, expansion volume and as a thermal carrier between the cell and the
cooling structures. An additional material used to insulate cells from aluminium
parts was Polyimide (PI) tape also known as Kapton® tape. The tape used has
a dielectric breakdown voltage of 6.5 kV.

3.4 Cell tab connection

Cell tabs of the pouch cells can be joined with multiple different methods. Only
methods considered in this thesis are compression contacts, laser welding and
ultrasonic welding. Most important factors of the joint between the cell tabs are
low electrical resistance and a mechanical integrity.

3.4.1 Compression contact

HPF023 has a compression contact where 3 bolts are used across the cell tabs
(figure 28).

Figure 28. HPF023 compression contact.

 37

The M4 center bolt is pressing the cell tab conductor to the slave board and the
side M3 bolts provides even compression pressure for the surface area. The M4
bolt is secured from loosening using DIN980 standard nut (not shown in figure
28). The side bolts are mechanically restricted from loosening by using an
external fixed aramid reinforced plastic sheeting.

The needed amount of compression pressure for copper can be seen in figure
29. As seen from the graph more pressure lowers the resistance but not
significantly after a certain point. As the contact resistance is also dictated by
the surface area of the compression, it is important that the pressure is even.

Figure 29. Copper compression resistance [13].

3.4.2 Laser welding

Laser welding was the initial plan for joining the HPF023 cell tabs. Laser welded
tabs have less connection resistance than compression contacts as the
materials are melted together, and the connection is affected less by the
oxidation of the cell tab surfaces over time.
 38

Laser welding makes local hotspots to the area of the focal point. The heating of
the cell internals is a general concern but because of the spotwelding time on
the cell tab is a maximum of 20 milliseconds, the hotspot is quickly cooled down
by the cool argon flow in the welding process.

In general, when melting metals with each other, same materials are preferred
because of the same melting points. For the HPF023, the team could not
determine the cell tab materials that came with the sponsorship and therefore
another difficulty arose with a 400 °C of a melting point temperature difference.
However, the attempt to weld different cell tab materials, aluminium, and
copper, together (section 7.8 Laser welding test) was successful using Aalto
University’s CNC laser welding machine. Nevertheless, due to a software
malfunction in the machine, the process was interrupted, requiring a switch to
compression contacts. Future revisions of the battery modules could
significantly benefit from the laser welded cell tabs. This approach would reduce
the contact resistance and eliminate the need for numerous fasteners.

3.4.3 Ultrasonic welding

Ultrasonic welding was in the consideration for HPF023 accumulator. The

benefits of using ultrasonic welding instead of laser welding are that the cell tab
materials do not affect the result as much as in laser welding and the welding
temperatures are lower. The welding process is based on compression contact
between a vibrating sonotrode and stationary anvil.
 39

Figure 30 shows a schematic for the process as well as an ultrasonic welded

Chevy Volt battery module. The challenge of this method is that the cell tabs
need to be accessed from both sides for the anvil and sonotrode to be able to
produce the desired seam. Other factor is layer deformation due to high
vibrations, as copper for example can start to detach from its nickel plating.

Figure 30. Ultrasonic welding on cell tabs [14].

3.5 Slave board

The slave board is responsible for individual module’s voltage-/temperature

measurements, passive cell balancing, and its electrical schematic is based on
LTC6813 integrated circuit from Analog Devices [15].
 40

Figure 31 is the HPF023 slave board in KiCad software. The board layout
presentation is divided to the outer layer sections, where the red section is the
topmost layer and blue is the bottom layer, and both outer layers have surface
mounted components. PCB has four layers where the middle sections are used
only for routing and as a ground layer. The bottom section is a rendering image
of the board top.

Figure 31. KiCad design of HPF023 slave board.

 41

Holes in the pads are used for the cell tab compression contacts. After the first
stack was assembled, it was clear that there should be at least two bolts
because of the lack of even pressure. Additionally, the topmost ground layer
should be removed next to the cell connection joints as it is easy to short circuit
a washer plate to it through the PCB silkscreen in the assembly phase.

To have every slave board similar, SPI ports are routed to both sides of the
PCB and the one that is not used can be disconnected from the cross-section
point to avoid electrical echoing in the communication line.

If the team decides to change to laser welded cell tabs, these pads could be
used to solder copper plates where the bottommost cell tab can be welded.
Copper plate under the cell tabs would make the welding process safer
because if the laser beam is able to penetrate through the thin bottom tab, it
could possibly stop at the copper plate and not reach the cells and cause a
hazard. In addition, two-piece slave board should be used in this case as the
welded contacts cannot be cut and rewelded easily. In case of a need to
change circuit components, an external PCB could be changed and connected
back to the stationary stack board.
 42

Figure 32 presents the layup used for the HPF023 slave board. Manufacturing
of the board was done by manufacturer JLCPCB, the components were bought
from electronics supplier DigiKey and the soldering was made by the team.

Figure 32. HPF023 slave board layup.

PCB has electroless nickel immersion gold (ENIG) finish that protects exposed
copper pads from the oxidation. This is crucial with compression contacts when
the resistance for the voltage measurement needs to be minimal, and when the
contacts might be opened for maintenance.
 43

3.6 Failure cases

The mass of the stack needs to be supported in estimated failure cases in linear
motion dimensions of x (surge), y (sway) and z (heave) (figure 33). The
supporting material needs to be able to withstand 40 g of acceleration in x, 40 g
in y and 20 g in z.

Figure 33. Motions of a Formula 1 car [16].

 44

First, the failure cases are estimated using Finite Element Analysis (FEA), after
which those are calculated using strength theory. Figure 34 is the used Finite
Element Method (FEM) model of the battery stack where the parts are defined
to have rigid contacts to each other, and the supported faces are fixed in space.

Figure 34. Siemens NX FEM-model for upwards z-direction.

The compressed battery cells, TGP and the cooling plates are modeled as a
singular aluminium block that matches the weight, and the gravity is set to have
a small amount of safety factor to overshoot the result displacement and
material stress forces.

Tensile strengths of the materials used:

• UL94 V-0 rated ABS plastic, 58 MPa

• PCB FR-4 glass-reinforced epoxy laminate, 310 MPa
• 6082-grade aluminium, 310 MPa.
 45

In the vertical axis the forces are calculated in both directions as the structure is
asymmetrical. Figure 35 (downwards z-direction) shows maximum
displacement of 0.067 mm and greatest nodal stress of 10 MPa at the
aluminium feet parts. These forces can be neglected.

Figure 35. Z-axis downwards 20 g acceleration, left is nodal displacement and

right is nodal stress.

Figure 36 (upwards z-direction) shows maximum displacement of 0.226 mm

and greatest nodal stress of 107.01 MPa for aluminium and 20.64 MPa for the
plastic supports on the top. Safety factors for tensile deflection are 2.9 for
aluminium and 2.8 for ABS. Failure case would be the plastic support failure. If
a smaller mesh size would be used, the nodal stress at the aluminium bend
would be more accurate and have less value.

Figure 36. Z-axis upwards 20 g acceleration, left is nodal displacement and right
is nodal stress.
 46

Using real values and calculating accurate tensile stress 𝜎𝑧20𝑔 for plastic
supports is done with the following equation:

𝑚∗𝑔∗20
𝜎𝑧20𝑔 = (3.3)
𝐴

Where m is mass of the stack and A is cross-section area of the supports.

Compared to plastic material’s tensile strength, the safety factor for yielding is 5.

Displacement and stress in x-direction (figure 37) are small enough to be

neglected.

Figure 37. X-axis 40 g acceleration, left is nodal displacement and right is nodal
stress.

Displacement and stress in y-direction (figure 38) are small enough to be

neglected.

Figure 38. Y-axis 40 g acceleration, left is nodal displacement and right is nodal
stress.
 47

3.7 Manufacturing

The manufacturing processes used were sheet metal work and additive
manufacturing in the form of filament 3D-printing. The aluminium parts were cut
with CNC fiber-laser and bent with CNC press-brake. The plastic top was 3D-
printed with UL94 V-0 rated fire-retardant filament. Both processes enable rapid
prototyping that allows for trial-and-error type fast-paced manufacturing.

3.7.1 Annealing & re-aging

The aluminium sheet used in the stacks is 6082-grade alloy with T6 tempering.
This alloy is strong but brittle enough to break if bent without a heat treatment
called annealing [17]. Annealing affects the grain structure making the metal
softer and easier to manipulate. Structural integrity of the T6 tempering can be
obtained again by artificial re-aging process. Metallic alloys also tend to reform
the grains to more mechanically strong formations over a long time of natural
aging, but more research is required if this method would be used.
 48

The amount of re-crystallization is dependent on the annealing temperature and

time. Figure 39 shows the steps of what happens to cold deformed aluminium
alloy’s grain structure during annealing. Smaller grains equal to softer material
as they can move around easier while plastic manipulation such as bending a
sheet. Larger uniform grains tend to hold more stresses without breaking the
structure and resist plastic deformations.

Figure 39. Schematic diagram of the processes that may occur during the
annealing of a deformed metallic material [18].
 49

As figure 40 shows, the material is first retrogressed by annealing that allows

further plastic deformation to it without the material crumbling across the bend.

Figure 40. Retrogression and re-aging for aluminium alloys [19].

 50

After the retrogression process, the alloy is re-aged for the high strength
properties. Figure 41 shows that the peak-aging at 175 °C for grade-6082 is
eight hours.

Figure 41. Tensile strength vs artificial aging time [18].

Heat treating the aluminium material also adds dimensional tolerances that
need to be considered when designing the CAD-model of the battery. For
example, the aluminium part can elongate to 15 % in x-direction while
decreasing 7.5 % in width of y-direction. Material tests are advised to be
performed if the elongation is wanted to be eliminated by manipulating the
original laser cutting dimensions.
 51

3.7.2 3D-Printing

The team has found 3D-printing nonproblematic when it comes to normal

filaments, but the printing of UL94 V-0 rated ABS was found difficult to print with
an unenclosed printer that was initially used.

The needed high printing temperatures, ununiform cooling and low layer height
caused jammed nozzles, layer adhesion failures and bad manufacturing
tolerances. Ultimately, these problems were solved by choosing a larger printing
nozzle that allowed for greater layer height and nozzle speed, an enclosed
printer that maintained a uniform ambient temperature and an additional printed
structure that helped the actual print part to adhere better to the build plate and
cool down more uniformly such as thick brim and additional non-connected
walls.
 52

4 Component rack

Component sections in the accumulator are combined into a singular plastic

holder structure in the rear of the container that can be removed from the
accumulator for easier and safer maintenance. The component rack’s
component placing has also been designed to not interrupt too much the
cooling airflow of the accumulator.

In figure 42, the rack itself (blue) acts as a component holder that isolates HV
and LV by physical fire-retardant non-conductive walls. HV components
(orange) are separated from LV components (green) by wall or by a minimum
distance of 30 mm through air. Wiring (schematic in appendix 1) made to the
accumulator is restrained in place to avoid unintentional damage and violation
of insufficient spacing. Components, where both voltage levels are present
(yellow), need to have rule compliant and sufficient galvanic separation between
the voltage levels.

Figure 42. Rendering image of a HPF023 component rack.

 53

The component rack constructs of fire-retardant plastic sheeting, which is glued

together by 57% glass bead infused fire-retardant epoxy resin Sicomin SR1126.
To achieve the required temperature rating of 85 °C, the epoxy needs post
curing cycle. Datasheet for the epoxy and for the post curing cycle are found in
reference [20]. Gluing method is similar to the one used to assemble the
container itself (section 6.3 Manufacturing).

Disassembling the rack for the maintenance event could be made faster in the
next iteration by reducing the amount of untightening of the back wall
connectors.
 54

5 Cooling

The battery cells have an internal resistance that generates heat when current
is applied through them. The average amount of heat generated can be
estimated by using the following formula:

𝑄 = 𝑅𝑖 ∗ 𝐼 2 (5.1)

Where Q is the average heat load in Watts, 𝑅𝑖 is pack’s internal resistance

(section 7.6 Internal resistance test) and I is average current (section 2.3.1
Average current).

5.1 Design targets

Design targets for the HPF023 cooling system:

• Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) optimized airflow

• Easy upgradability
• Ambient temperature of 40 °C
• Max cell temperature of 55 °C
• Average heat load of 500 W
• Max fan power 30 W
𝑊
• Minimum air heat transfer coefficient of 30 𝑚2 ∗𝐾.

Targets were set for the cooling system to be able to function at full power draw
in the heat of Southern Europe and utilize air cooling system to function with
aerodynamical pressure differences and rely less on powerful fans. The
maximum temperature was set to 55 °C instead of the maximum of 60 °C to act
as a safety factor for overheating and measuring errors.

The simulation has many safety factors on the purpose of that the HPF023’s
endurance event strategy is based on maximizing regenerative braking. For the
first time in the team’s history, the battery cells are rated for regenerative peak
capabilities of up to the TS power limit of 80 kW. Utilizing the maximum
 55

capabilities of the regenerative braking will allow for more energy to be

harvested back from the endurance event but it will also reach higher amount of
heat load that needs to be removed from the cooling surfaces. According to
section 7.6 Internal resistance test, charging has worse efficiency as the
battery’s internal resistance is higher than with an equal amount of discharge. In
case the cooling is found to be insufficient in future, HPF023 accumulator
cooling can be boosted with larger fans or by adding fans and by modifying
airflow guiding structures to allow more laminar airflow if necessary.

𝑊
The heat transfer rate for the simulation was set to be 30 𝑚2 ∗𝐾, which is
𝑚
achieved with a flow speed of 4 𝑠 , shown in figure 43. The accumulator fans
𝑚
have an airflow rate of 5.6 and the flow is accelerated on top of the cooling
𝑠
𝑚
surfaces to over 45 according to the simulations. The heat transfer rate is set
𝑠

to be low to compensate for errors between the simulation and real-life scenario
such as air leaks and air filtration losses.

Figure 43. Heat transfer coefficient [21].

 56

5.2 Thermal & flow simulation

Simulations were carried out in Ansys DISCOVERY program. A static thermal

simulation is performed by considering the calculated average heat load and
estimated thermal convection with air. Figure 44 shows the simulation model of
the flow volume and one stack. Cooling plates between the cells boost the
amount of heat transfer on the underside. The heat load is set to radiate equally
from the stack surfaces.

Figure 44. Ansys DISCOVERY simulation model.

 57

5.2.1 Static pressure

Airflow in general is a by-product of air pressure differences equalling out. The

accumulator uses pull-type fans to create relative under pressure of -6 kPa to
the cooling surfaces (figure 45). Relative under pressure inside of the
accumulator and relative overpressure at the intake of the car maximizes the
pressure difference between the accumulator outlet fans and the intake air.

Figure 45. Accumulator static pressure.

Figure 46 is a split image of the vehicle’s Ansys Fluent CFD simulation model,
where the airflow streamlines can be seen on the right side. On the left side the
white circle highlights the accumulator air intake location. Intake is placed in a
position that has clear view to the frontal laminar airflow (streamlines).

The black circle in figure 47 is the accumulator intake position. Relative

overpressure at the accumulator intake is boosted by the placement of the
radiator (black outlined rectangle) that is generating more local pressure which
is colour coded according to the static pressure bar on top. The bar on the
bottom is colour coding for the velocity streamlines.
 58

Figure 46. Accumulator air intake.

Figure 47. Intake static pressure.

5.2.2 Static temperature

Figures 48 and 49 show colour coded temperatures on the stack surfaces and
the airflow is shown with the streamlines. The simulation results indicate that
the temperature at the last stacks is kept at a maximum of 55 °C.
 59

Figure 48. Static temperature simulation top view.

Figure 49. Static temperature simulation bottom view.

The simulation parameters could be adjusted to be more accurate to the real-

life scenario and the heat could be simulated with the actual dynamic behaviour.
This is recommended for the future if the team wants to reduce the amount of
cooling structure and still be able to have a cooling system that is kept operating
with the same design targets.
 60

6 Container

Tractive System Accumulator Container (TSAC in figure 50) is a structure that

contains battery cells and necessary electronics.

Figure 50. HPF023 TSAC without right-side wall.

The rules dictate the baseline materials for the TSAC. These materials are steel
and aluminium. The aluminium sheets need to have more thickness than the
steel to achieve the required strength properties. HPF023 TSAC uses
aluminium for the back wall, floor and supports. Other than the back wall, all the
other panels are alternative materials and need to be proven for equivalent
strength properties to the baseline materials by physical testing.

The alternative materials used are self-made composite panels. The usage of
these composite panels is justified by reduced weight while having better
flexural rigidity and shear strength (table 2 in the section 6.1 Alternative
materials).
 61

6.1 Alternative materials

The testing process and data graphs are in section 7.7 (Alternative material
tests). The thickness of the panels can vary depending on the laminating epoxy,
fiber orientation, core material and manufacturing method. This needs to be
considered in the manufacturing process (section 6.3 Manufacturing).

Figures 51-53 are layups used in the HPF023 TSAC modelled in Siemens NX
ply sketcher.

Figure 51. Composite floor layup.

The floor (figure 52) has 0.5 mm aluminium sheet glued on top of it. This has
the sole purpose of acting as a protective earth conductor for the accumulator
aluminium stacks that lay on top of it.

Figure 52. Composite wall layup.

 62

The lid panel (figure 53) is similar to the floor panel, but instead of 0.5 mm glued
aluminium skin, it has 2 mm thick aluminium strips adding local bending
strength on top of the accumulator stack segments (figure 50). HPF023 Lid
properties listed in the table 2 do not take into account the added bending
strength from these strips.

Figure 53. Composite lid layup.

Equivalency is calculated using a similar calculator as in table 2. The reference

material is baseline steel and the strength values for it can be obtained from the
rules and from the official SES document.

Table 2. Equivalency table.

TSAC Member Reference HPF023 Reference HPF023 Reference HPF023

Floor Floor Wall Wall Lid Lid

Material type Steel Composite Steel Composite Steel Composite

Youngs Modulus, E 2.00E+11 1.04E+10 2.00E+11 1.62E+10 2.00E+11 1.07E+10

Yield strength, Pa 3.05E+08 6.84E+07 3.05E+08 8.14E+07 3.05E+08 6.81E+07

UTS, Pa 3.65E+08 6.84E+07 3.65E+08 8.14E+07 3.65E+08 6.81E+07

 63

Yield strength, welded, 1.80E+08 N/A 1.80E+08 N/A 1.80E+08 N/A

Pa

UTS welded, Pa 3.00E+08 N/A 3.00E+08 N/A 3.00E+08 N/A

UTS shear, Pa 2.19E+08 1.25E+08 2.19E+08 9.97E+07 2.19E+08 2.26E+08

Panel thickness, mm 1.25 8.1 0.9 4 0.9 7.3

Inner skin thickness, N/A 2.3 N/A 1 N/A 1.4

mm

Outer skin thickness, N/A 1.8 N/A 1 N/A 1.4

mm

Panel width, mm 431 431 173 173 449 449

I, m^4 7.02E-11 1.68E-08 1.05E-11 7.28E-10 2.73E-11 1.12E-08

EI 1.40E+01 1.75E+02 2.10E+00 1.18E+01 5.46E+00 1.19E+02

Area mm^2 538.75 1767.1 155.7 346 404.1 1257.2

UTS, N 1.97E+05 1.21E+05 5.68E+04 2.82E+04 1.47E+05 8.56E+04

Density, g/cm^3 7.85 0.72 7.85 0.51 7.85 0.54

Mass, g 404.77 240 291.43 84 291.43 162

Safety factor, bending 1 0.61 1 0.5 1 0.58

Safety factor, flexural 1 12.45 1 5.61 1 21.87

rigidity

Safety factor, Shear 1 1.87 1 1.01 1 3.21

 64

As shown in table 2, the panels used have a multitude better flexural rigidity and
higher shear strength compared to the baseline materials, but they do not have
the required bending strength. However, these panels contain aluminium stack
structures that will not cause any bending to the walls or lid in any of the three
dimensions.

6.2 Failure cases

All estimated failure cases are the panels shearing from the structural glue and
causing deformation to the container structure. The required withstanding
accelerations and scenarios are the same as used in section 3.6 (Failure
cases).

The strength properties used for structural adhesives need to be reduced to

50% according to the FS rules. The shear strength used in calculations with this
epoxy adhesive is 13.5 MPa.

All failure cases neglect the area where the adhesive is in tensile stress, the
structural support of the attachments and only adhesive shear scenarios are
concerned. This results in lower safety factors that more accurate calculations
would result in and is concerned as an additional safety factor.
 65

Figure 54 highlights the effective glue shearing area in x-direction.

Figure 54. X-direction effective adhesive shear area.

Shear force F is calculated with the following formula:

𝐹 = 𝑚 ∗ 40 ∗ 𝑔 (6.1)

Where m is the mass of two accumulator stacks that are lying behind the front
wall. The mass of other stacks is not concerned as they are kept in place with
internal walls.

Adhesive shear stress 𝜏 is calculated by the following formula:

𝐹
𝜏=𝐴 (6.2)

Where A is the effective adhesive shear area. Compared to the adhesive shear
strength, the safety factor for a shear failure in x-direction is 5.8.
 66

Figure 55 highlights the effective glue shearing area in y-direction.

Figure 55. Y-direction effective adhesive shear area.

Shear stress is calculated using formulas 6.1 and 6.2, but where the F is
calculated with the mass of four stacks and the component rack (figure 56). Red
lines in figure 56 mark the effective adhesive area in shear stress. Calculated
safety factor in y-direction is 8.5.

Figure 56. Acting force in y-direction.

 67

Figure 57 highlights the effective glue shearing area in z-direction.

Figure 57. Z-direction effective adhesive shear area.

Shear stress is calculated using formulas 6.1 and 6.2, but where the F is
calculated with the total mass of accumulator internal components. The
calculated safety factor in z-direction is 11.8.

6.3 Manufacturing

Aramid fiber was chosen to be used because of its electrically insulating

properties and greater strength to weight ratio than glass fiber [22]. According to
the rules, if electrically conductive material is used in the panel composition, it
needs to have a minimum thickness of 0.5 mm, minimum resistance of 300 mΩ
to LV ground and rated to at least 10% of the main fuse current.

In addition to having electrically insulating internal segment walls, TSAC needs

to be rated for fire retardancy. Accepted ratings are UL94 V-0 and FAR 25.853
(a)(1)(i). Sicomin SR1126 epoxy [20] offers UL94 V-0 rating for 1.4 mm thick E-
glass laminates that are composed with slow hardener SD 8203, where 57 % of
the volume is occupied by glass fiber. Aramid and filler glass beads are
 68

considered to have similar self-extinguishing properties with glass fiber as they

all resist ignition.

As all the accumulator materials need to be rated for 85 °C of ambient

temperature, the glass transition temperature for the used epoxy needs to be
higher than the limit. The epoxy used with fiber laminate can have glass
transition temperature over 90 °C, when post cured according to the datasheet.
Without the needed post curing cycle, the material temperature rating drops to
58 °C which is insufficient.

First, the different aramid-PVC-aramid panels (section 6.1 Alternative materials)

are wet laminated into two 1200 mm x 850 mm rectangular stock panels. Then,
the desired part shapes are nested to the stocks (figure 58). These nests are
then exported to DXF-files that can be read by CNC program in a waterjet
cutting machine.

Figure 58. Waterjet cutting DXF files.

 69

After the parts are cut from the stock, the aluminium supports, and grounding
layer are glued to respective panels and all panels are test fitted to combine a
complete TSAC. The test fit can reveal dimensional issues such as wrong sized
holes or too tight segments for the stacks. Too tight shape lock holes can mean
that the panels do not fit each other making the assembly impossible. Too tight
segments mean that the designed tolerance for manufacturing errors was too
small, and the cell stacks cannot physically fit inside of the container. As there
are so many different factors that can lead to bad fitments, it is recommended
that the CAD-model has manufacturing tolerances modelled between the
components.

Figure 59 is an exploded view from the container and shows the order in which
the TSAC is assembled. Filler glass bead infused SR1126 is used to join the
panels together on the contact surface areas. Aluminium parts are bolted
together to ensure the low resistance contacts.

Figure 59. HPF023 TSAC assembly.

 70

7 Testing and validating

Testing and validating a high-voltage accumulator system is vital to ensure its

safety, reliability, and performance across various conditions and operational
scenarios. Comprehensive assessments help mitigate risks and build
confidence in the system's durability and functionality.

7.1 Pouch material insulation test

Figure 60 is an image of the test setup. The test meter used was Bosch FSA
050 and used test voltages of 500 V and 1 kV.

Figure 60. Pouch insulation test setup.

The test was conducted by placing the meter electrodes on the cooling plate
and cell tab. The cooling plate was pressurized against the cell as it would be in
the actual stack.
 71

PI tape coating was also tested on the cooling plate (cell surface side) and it
provided acceptable insulation with 1 kV like the actually used TGP. If PI tape is
used as a sole insulator, its weak mechanical properties need to be considered
in the stack assembly phase to not cause any damage to it.

Without additional insulations, the 500 V test resulted in 2 GΩ resistance but the
1 kV test showed current leakage between the cooling plate and pouch edge.
This leakage could be seen with naked eye by conducting the test in a dark
room.

7.2 Reversible cell thickness test

Cell thickness is measured with micrometer on 5 different points (red dots in

figure 61) on the cell.

Figure 61. Reversible thickness test cell and micrometer.

 72

Thicknesses that were used in calculations (table 3) were the points where the
cell was at its thinnest at lower voltage level and thickest at upper voltage level.

Table 3. Pouch cell expansion test.

Voltage 1 Voltage 2 Thickness 1 Thickness 2 Change % Change in mm

per stack

3.20 4.18 8.87 9.03 1.8 2.88

3.25 4.18 8.87 9.04 1.9 3.06

7.3 Friction test

Friction coefficient was tested (figure 62) and calculated between the
thermoplastics that are used in the pouch cell and in the Thermal Gap Pad
(TGP).

Figure 62. Friction coefficient test.

 73

The maximum acting friction force 𝐹µ between the components before the event
of sliding can be calculated by using following formula:

𝐹µ = sin(𝛼) ∗ 𝐺 (7.1)

Where 𝛼 is the maximum angle before sliding and G is the static weight of the
cell and the angle sensor on top of the TGP surface. Comparing the friction
force at the maximum angle to the static weight, the friction coefficient is
calculated to be 0.259.

7.4 Temperature sensor test

The temperature difference was tested with a test slaveboard where the mock
up cell connection conductor was heated with a heat gun and an oscilloscope
was used to monitor the temperature corresponding with the output voltage of
the voltage divider circuit. Figure 63 is a thermal camera image of the test.

Figure 63. Temperature sensor test.

 74

The temperature difference between a 60 °C heat source and the sensor was 7
°C, that needs to be considered in the temperature measuring circuit as a
thermal error. This error can be minimized by using a different type of a sensor
or by insulating the existing SMD thermistor from the cooling effect of the
ambient air by modifying the placement or adding thermally insulating material
on top of the thermal gap filler.

7.5 Cell connection temperature test

If a cell tab connection has an abnormal amount of resistance, a battery cell

would start heating up. If this happens and the connection heats up over the
maximum cell temperature, there is a possibility of thermal runaway. To prevent
this from happening, the cell tabs are monitored with external temperature
reader.

When the accumulator build is finished, the accumulator is set up to the

charger. While the battery is charging, a thermal camera can be used to monitor
the physical temperatures of the cell tab connections and those can then be
compared to the AMS readings that should be verified before this test. Each
connection should have identical temperature as the thermal load should be
almost identical between the connections. If a single connection starts to heat
up slightly more than the others, it will heat up more under heavier loads.
 75

If a thermal camera is used, the reflectivity of metals should be considered

when conducting the test. In figure 64 cell tab connections are taped with an
electrical tape and the camera is used to read the tape temperatures.

Figure 64. Thermal camera monitoring of cell tab connections.

 76

7.6 Internal resistance test

After the cell tab resistances have been verified to not heat up the cell internals,
the battery pack is tested for internal resistance and voltage drop. Tests in the
figures 65 and 66 were conducted with the university’s new battery tester
system.

Figure 65 is a bar chart where the tester measures the battery resistance in Ω
with different charge and discharge loads in Amperes.

Figure 65. Battery internal resistance.

 77

Figure 66 is a graph for the overall voltage drop in Volts across the battery cells
with different loads in Amperes.

100 A
80 A
60 A
40 A
20 A

-20 A
-40 A
-60 A
-80 A
-100 A

Figure 66. Battery voltage drop, x-axis timestamps have 10 Hz frequency.

7.7 Alternative material tests

The alternative material’s equivalency to the baseline material needs to be

proven in two different physical tests: 3-point-bending to test the equivalency of
the material bending strength and shear perimeter test to test the equivalent
material shear strength. The physical dimensions of the test pieces can be
obtained from the rules and the test pieces need to be present in the
scrutineering event at a competition site.
 78

7.7.1 3-point-bending test

3-point-bending test is conducted to determine alternative material properties

(section 6.1 Alternative materials) in a bending scenario. Figures 67-69 are test
results from the HPF023 TSAC panels. The marked gradient on the linear
section of the force curve is used to determine flexural rigidity.

Distance between the panel supports is 400 mm.

Figure 67. TSAC floor 3-point-bending test.

Figure 68. TSAC lid 3-point-bending test.

 79

Figure 69. TSAC wall 3-point-bending test.

7.7.2 Shear perimeter test

Shear perimeter test is conducted to determine alternative material properties

(section 6.1 Alternative materials) in a shearing scenario. Figures 70-72 are test
results from the HPF023 TSAC panels.

The metallic load applicator is 25 mm in diameter and the test ends after it has
pierced both skins of the laminate. This can be seen as twin peaks in the test
graphs.

Figure 70. TSAC floor shear test.

 80

Figure 71. TSAC wall shear test.

Figure 72. TSAC lid shear test.

 81

7.8 Laser welding test

Laser welding test (figure 73) was made with the HPF023 cell tab materials and
a copper busbar. The materials are melted successfully together but there are
visible burning marks due to the parameters not being optimal. Compression is
applied to eliminate an air gap between the metals.

Figure 73. Laser welding test, aluminium (Al) cell tab on the top, nickel plated
copper (Ni/Cu) cell tab in the middle and copper (Cu) busbar at the bottom.
 82

Table 4 provides the welding parameters that were used to bond different cell
tab metals and copper busbar together with a CNC laser welder machine. This
table is only the initial parameter set when the testing can be further continued
and should not be considered as optimal.

Table 4. Laser welding parameters.

Materials Power, Focal, Gas, Time, Freq, Wave

W mm bar ms Hz

Ni/Cu+Cu 4 0.7 1 20 1 Slo+

Ni/Cu+Al 4 1.3 1 20 1 Slo+

Relationship with power and focal point equals to the actual melting
aggressivity. It is possible to produce aggressive melting with a tiny spot, but if a
larger focal point is used, the laser needs relatively more power or time to
achieve the same melting result. The directed protective gas used is pure argon
and it also cools down the heated spots.

The welding time is a parameter that could be optimized, less time equals to a
lower heat output to the cell internals but using more power to compensate
shorter weld times ended up piercing almost through the thick copper busbar.
Too much intensified power can burn the metals to the point of vaporization.
Frequency of 1 Hz is slow but still fast enough for a sufficient welding puddle
control.
 83

8 Conclusions

The goal of documenting the design and manufacturing guide for Metropolia
Motorsport Formula Engineering -team was successful. This thesis will be used
for education purposes and the next accumulator system will be designed using
it as a reference guide.

HPF023 accumulator was built according to the document, and it passed

Electrical System Form, Structural Equivalency Spreadsheet, and the
scrutineering in the Formula Student Germany 2023 -event. The accumulator
can be also used for the season 2024 of Formula Student, where further testing
and validation can be carried out to learn and optimize the overall accumulator
system of the future vehicles.

Known improvements can be implemented, such as a temperature sensor

modification by improving the used system or by switching to a different kind of
a sensor.

Cooling simulations could be redone to better match with the actual tested
conditions such as airflow speeds. The cooling circuit may be upgraded with the
increased regenerative braking heat load if found needed. When the model
matches with an accumulator temperature test data, the cooling structure could
be optimized for weight while keeping the maximum ambient temperature at the
level of the warmest competition.

Cell tab joining via laser- or ultrasonic welding should be implemented in the
future with slave board design changes. Lower resistance across the battery
modules improves the efficiency.

Manufacturing tolerances should be considered in the design phase when the

accumulator is being 3D-modelled to avoid dimensional tolerance errors in the
physical assembly. Aluminium stack parts should also be tested for dimensional
changes caused by the heat treatment processes.
 84

Alternative materials should be modified to have an equivalent bending strength

to the baseline materials to have a clear pass for the future SES reviews.

Maintainability of the component rack can be improved by decreasing the

amount of untightening of the connectors by using less of them.
 85

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 87

Polymer-Composites%3A-Manufacturing%2C-Rajak-
Pagar/30314a5cc60fb8a17f6432c11b87dbcced4a7fd4>
 Appendix 1
1 (1)

Accumulator schematic
 Appendix 2
1 (1)
Temperature circuitry error calculator