REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

S.O. 1.1 Describe the structure of the anther and the formation of pollen grains

S.O. 1.2 Describe the structure of the ovule and the formation of the embryo sac

S.O. 1.3 Explain the sequence of events from pollination to fertilization

S.O. 1.4 Explain how cross-fertilization is promoted

S.O. 1.5 Discuss the genetic consequences of sexual reproduction

S.O. 1.6 Explain the significance of double fertilization in the embryo sac

S.O. 1.7 Discuss the development of the seed and the fruit from the embryo sac and its contents,
the ovule and the ovary

Reproduction involves the production of new organisms from parent ones. There are two types of
reproduction:

• Sexual reproduction – involves the fusion of haploid nuclei within gametes

• Asexual reproduction – use of mitosis to produce new individuals from parents

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Structure of a Flower

Flowering plants, also known as angiosperms, produces flowers which is the reproductive organ of
the plant. Flowers can be regarded as highly specialized leaves. The part of the flower stalk to which
the flower parts are attached is the receptacle. Flowers that are clustered together are called an
inflorescence.

Flowers have three major parts called the perianth, androecium and gynoecium. The androecium
and gynoecium are the reproductive parts, while the perianth is the outer protective part that
consists of the sepals and petals. The sepals protect the inner flower parts of the bud, while the
petals assist in attracting pollinators to flowers. Collectively, the sepals form the calyx and the petals
form the corolla.

The androecium consists of the pollen-producing structures or stamens. Stamens comprise a

filament connected to an anther. An anther has two lobes containing four pollen sacs arranged in
two pairs. The pollen sacs are also called microsporangia and pollen is the microgametophyte. The
stamens of the flower are attached below the gynoecium. Meiosis occurs within the pollen sacs
leading to the production of pollen. Pollen is shed when the anthers open.

The gynoecium is the site of pollination and fertilization in a flower. It consists of all the carpels in
the flower. Carpels are composed of a stigma, style and ovary. A flower may contain one or more
carpels and the carpels may be separate or fused together. The individual carpels or fused carpels
may be referred to as the pistil. The stigma collects the pollen and aids in its germination. The style
is a slender stalk for pollen tube growth. The ovary is an enlarged portion of the carpel that
surrounds and protects the ovules. The ovule is the megasporangium and each contains the
megagametophyte, which is the female gametophyte of embryo sac.

Flowers may also have nectaries, which are glandular structures that secrete nectar, a sugary fluid
that attracts animals for pollination.

Flowers can be bisexual or hermaphrodite (contains both male and female parts, e.g. orchids) or
unisexual (contains either male or female parts). A plant with both male and female unisexual
flowers is said to be monoecious e.g. Oak trees. If male and female flowers are borne on separate
plants, the plant is dioecious, e.g. Willow trees, pistachio trees.
Structure of the anther and formation of pollen grains

Anthers have four pollen sacs arranged in two pairs. The wall of the anther has several layers of cells.
Amongst these is the protective epidermis and the fibrous layer which helps to liberate the pollen
grains when they ripe. The innermost layer is called the tapetum, which is a layer rich in food.

Two separate processes lead to the formation of pollen:

1. The formation of diploid microspores within the microsporangia (pollen sac) of the anther.

2. The development of the haploid microspores or pollen grain.

In the development of pollen, the anther first consists of a uniform mass of cells which develop into
four groups of fertile cells. Several layers of sterile cells surround each group of fertile cells. The
sterile cells develop into the wall of the tapetum, which supplies food to the developing
microspores. The fertile cells become microspore mother cells.
The microspore mother cells then divide by meiosis to give rise to a tetrad (4 cells) of haploid
microspores. Each haploid microspore then divides by mitosis to form two nuclei within the
microspore walls. These two nuclei are a small generative nucleus and a larger tube nucleus. This is
the stage the pollen grain is at when it is released from the anther.

When the pollen is mature and environmental conditions are appropriate, the anther opens to
release pollen. Dehiscence is the shedding of pollen from an anther.

Each pollen grain is surrounded by a tough protective wall called an exine. The surface of the exine
may have spines, ridges or other surface projections. The intine is another thin, protective coating.

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2hh23Fcg-g0
Structure of the ovule and formation of embryo sac

The ovule is a megaspore that develops into the female megagametophyte. Two protective layers
called integuments surround the ovule. The ovule is attached to the ovary wall by a stalk called the
funicle. The regions of the ovary wall that bear the ovules are the placenta. The integuments
surrounding the ovule leave a small opening called the micropyle that allows the pollen tube to
grow through to reach the embryo sac.

In the development of the ovule, a single diploid megaspore mother cell (megasporocyte) forms
and meiosis occurs within the ovule. Four haploid megaspores are generated. Three of the haploid
megaspores die and degenerate. The nucleus of the remaining living megaspore undergoes one
round of mitosis and two nuclei are formed. Each of the nuclei from the first round of mitosis
undergoes a second round of mitosis and four nuclei are formed. In the third round of mitosis eight
nuclei are formed. Therefore, there are now eight haploid nuclei inside one cell.

These eight nuclei arrange themselves in two groups of four at opposite ends of the haploid
megaspore (embryo sac). Four nuclei travel to the micropyle end of the embryo sac and four nuclei
travel to the opposite end. Next, one nucleus from each end migrates to the centre of the embryo
sac and are now called the polar nuclei. These two nuclei in the middle may fuse together to form a
single diploid nucleus called the primary endosperm nucleus.

The three nuclei at the micropyle end becomes three cells: the egg cell and two cells called
synergids. The three nuclei at the opposite end become three cells called antipodal cells. The
mature female embryo sac comprises six haploid nuclei and one diploid nucleus.
(Development of the Embryo Sac Diagram)

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eHIVMpq923g

Pollination

For fertilization to happen, the male and female gametes need to meet and fuse to form a zygote.
For the male gamete to reach the female gamete in the ovary, the pollen grains have to be
transferred from the anther to the stigma. This is called pollination. Pollen grains can either be
transferred within the same flower or a flower on the same plant (Self-pollination) or between
flowers of different plants (Cross-pollination).

For plants that cross-pollinate, some are wind pollinated, while others are insect pollinated.

Feature Wind Pollinated Flower Insect Pollinated Flower

Petals Small petals not brightly coloured, Large coloured petals, flowers are
sometimes absent; flowers are conspicuous. If flowers are
inconspicuous inconspicuous they may be gathered
together in inflorescences

Scent Not scented Scented

Nectary Absent Present

Stigma Large branched and feathery stigma Small stigma, sticky to hold pollen and
hanging outside flower to trap pollen enclosed within flower

Stamen Stamens hanging outside flower to Stamens enclosed within flower

release pollen

Anther Move freely so pollen is easily Fixed to filaments and positioned to

dispersed come into contact with visiting insects

Pollen Produced in large quantities, light Less produced, pollen grains larger,
and smooth sculptured walls to aid attachment to
insects and to stigma

Structure Flower structure relatively simple Complex structural modifications for

particular insects often occur

There are two types of fertilization: self-fertilization (selfing) and cross fertilization. When
pollination occurs in one individual and it fertilizes itself, it is self-fertilization. When fertilization
occurs between two different individuals, it is cross-fertilization. Many plants avoid self-fertilization
because this can lead to inbreeding. Inbreeding in plants is brought about by repeated self-
fertilization. Inbreeding increases the homozygote frequency and decreases heterozygote frequency.
In populations where inbreeding occurs, there is a high frequency of rare recessive traits. Inbreeding
affects body size, vigour, fertility and yield in agricultural crops. As inbreeding increases, fertility and
vigour decreases.

Cross-pollination leads to cross-fertilization and has the advantage of increasing the amount of
genetic variation. It is a form of outbreeding. There are often special features to encourage it such
as:

• Dioecious and monoecious plants

Dioecious plant species have separate male and female plants. Self-pollination is dioecious
plants is therefore impossible. Monoecious plants have separate male and female flowers on
the same hermaphrodite plant. This also favours cross-pollination but selfing may also occur.

• Protandry and protogyny

Sometimes anthers and stigmas mature at different times. If the anthers mature first, it is
protandry. Protandrous flowers are much more common, e.g. dandelion and sage. If the
stigmas mature first, it is protogyny, e.g. bluebell. In most cases of protandry and protogyny
there is an overlapping period when both anthers and stigmas are ripe, thus allowing selfing
if crossing has been unsuccessful.

• Self- incompatibility and sterility

Even if self-pollination does occur, the pollen grain often does not develop, or develops very
slowly, so preventing or reducing the chances of self-fertilization. In all cases of self-sterility,
there is a specific inhibition of pollen penetration of the stigma, or of pollen tube growth
down the style.

Fertilization

Once a pollen grain has landed on the stigma of a compatible species, it will germinate. A sucrose
solution is secreted by the epidermal cells of the stigma. This sucrose solution must be of the correct
concentration to stimulate germination of the grain and supply food. The ridge and groove patterns
on the pollen grains and the stigma are often complementary, encouraging the pollen grains to cling.
The pollen grains absorb water from the sucrose solution and germinates (bursts open) to release
the generative and tube nuclei.

A pollen tube emerges from one of the pits in the wall of the pollen grain and grows rapidly down
the style to the ovary. Its growth is controlled by the tube nucleus of the pollen grain, which is found
at the growing tip of the tube. Growth is stimulated by auxins produced by the gynoecium, and the
pollen tube is directed toward the ovary by certain chemicals, an example of chemotropism.

During growth of the pollen tube the generative nucleus of the pollen grain divides by mitosis to
produce two male nuclei that represent the male gametes. They depend on the pollen tube to reach
the female gamete which is located in the embryo sac of the ovule. The pollen tube enters the ovule
through the micropyle, the tube nucleus degenerates and the tip of the tube bursts, releasing the
male gametes near the embryo sac, which they enter. One nucleus fuses with the female gamete,
forming a diploid zygote and the other fuses with the diploid nucleus forming a triploid nucleus
known as the endosperm nucleus. This double fertilization is unique to flowering plants. It leads to
the two structures found in the seed, namely the embryo and the endosperm.
The synergid cells are to guide the pollen tube to the egg cell (female gamete). The antipodal cells
are for nourishment. Both synergid and antipodal cells degenerate after fertilization.

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bUjVHUf4d1I

Development of fruit and seed

Immediately after fertilization, the ovule becomes known as the seed and the ovary becomes the
fruit. The zygote grows by mitotic divisions to become a multicellular embryo which consists of a
plumule (shoot), radicle (root) and one or two cotyledons. The triploid primary endosperm nucleus
undergoes repeated mitotic divisions to form the endosperm. In some seeds this remains as the
food store, as in cereals such as wheat and maize.

If the cotyledons act as a food store they grow at the expense of the endosperm, which may
disappear altogether. The testa develops from the integument. It is a thin but tough protective layer.
The micropyle remains a small pore in the testa through which oxygen and water will enter when
the seed germinates. The final step in seed development involves a reduction in the water content of
the seed to about 15%. This greatly reduces the potential for metabolic activity and is an essential
step in ensuring seed dormancy. While the seed develop, the ovary becomes a mature fruit, its wall
being known as the pericarp. The fruit is generally adapted to protect the seeds and to help in their
dispersal.

Synergids and antipodal cells degenerate after double fertilization.

(diagram)
Changes in the ovary after fertilization

Before fertilization After fertilization

Ovary Fruit

Ovary wall Pericarp

Ovule Seed

Integuments Testa

Female gamete and first male gamete Diploid zygote, which grows and develops into
the embryo with a plumule, radicle and 1 or 2
cotyledons

Diploid nucleus and second male gamete Triploid endosperm nucleus, which develops into
the endosperm (food store)

Genetic consequences of sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction increases the genetic variation of the offspring of a particular species of plant.
Plant populations that practice self-fertilization have a high proportion of genetically similar
individuals. These individuals can be wiped out by disease leaving no survivors. Extreme changes in
environmental conditions can also seriously deplete the population. In comparison, plant
populations that practice cross-fertilization, there is a greater level of genetic diversity. Some plants
may have disease resistance and in the case of disease outbreak, there will be survivors.

Plants with a high level of genetic diversity can adapt to changing environmental conditions. Self-
fertilized plants may be well adapted to a particular habitat. Self-fertilization requires no outside
agents such as animals to help with the reproductive process. Many weeds are self-fertilized and
produce large amounts of seed.