1.

Physical quantities
i. Basic and derived quantities and units
ii. Common scientific instrument
iii. Calculation of micrometre screw gauge and vernier calliper reading.
iv. Dimensional analysis
2. Vectors
i. Scalar and Vector quantities
ii. Addition of vectors
iii. Resolution of vectors
iv. Triangle of vectors, Parallelogram of vectors and Graphical method
v. Relative velocity
3. Kinematics (Particles in motion)
i. Types of motion
ii. Newton’s equations of motion
iii. Graphs of motion
iv. Motion under gravity
v. Motion on an inclined plane
vi. Projectile motion
4. Dynamics
i. Types of forces
ii. Friction
iii. Equilibrium of force
iv. Viscosity
v. Newton’s Laws of motion
vi. Collision
vii. Connected bodies
viii. Moment of force; C.G, C.M and torque
5. Elasticity
i. Elastic and plastic deformation
ii. Modulus
iii. Hooke’s law
iv. Energy stored in a wire

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
In physics, physical quantities are things we can easily measure. Physical quantities are
quantities that can be quantified or measured.
Every measurement is a comparison between an unknown quantity and a standard. If this
comparison is to be valid, the measuring device must be compared against a widely accepted
standard. For a standard to be useful it must be practical for the type of measurement being
made, readily accessible, reproducible, and constant over time. There must be agreement among
users.
Units and Standards.
The laws of physics express relationships between physical quantities such as length, time, force,
energy and temperature. Measuring a quantity of this kind involves comparison of a quantity with
some fixed standard called the unit of measurement.

1
In order for measurements to be universally understood, a system of units has to be devised which
is accepted and used by everyone. The system most commonly used today is the International
System of Units (in French - Le Système International d'Unités). This name was adopted by the
Eleventh General Conference on Weights and Measures, held in Paris in 1960. It is a universal,
unified, self-consistent system of measurement units based on the MKS (meter-kilogram-second)
system. The international system is commonly referred to throughout the world as SI, after the
initials of Système International.

FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED QUANTITIES

In science and in physics in particular there are three basic quantities which are referred to as
Fundamental Quantities. These are length, mass and time. They are also known as Primary
quantities. Fundamental quantities are the basic quantities that are independent of others and
cannot be defined in terms of other quantities. In other words, they are the basic quantities upon
which most quantities depend. However, there are seven basic quantities. These are length,
mass, time, electric current, temperature, luminous intensity and amount of substance. So, the
fundamental quantities are subset of basic quantities. In Physics most quantities are assigned
units to differentiate them like human beings having different names. Fundamental units are the
basic units upon which other units depend.

TABLE1. BASIC QUANTITIES AND THEIR UNITS

QUANTITY UNIT UNIT SYMBOLS

Length Meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric Current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of Substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd

DERIVED QUANTITIES AND THEIR UNITS

Derived quantities are obtained by the combination of two or more of the fundamental quantities.
Likewise, their units, some examples of derived or secondary quantities are; area, volume,
momentum, power, density, velocity, acceleration, work etc.
TABLE 2 SOME EXAMPLES OF DERIVED QUANTITIES AND THEIR S.I UNITS
DERIVED DERIVATION SYMBOL DERIVED UNIT
Area Length x breadth Lxb m2

Volume Length x breadth x height Lxbxh m3

Velocity Displacement 𝑑 ms-1
Time 𝑡
Momentum Mass x velocity 𝑚𝑥𝐿 kg ms-1
𝑡

2
 Density Mass m kg m-3
Volume v

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
The Dimension of a physical quantity is an algebraic symbol assigned to the quantity
independent of its unit. The word dimension when applied to a quantity has nothing to do with
the size of its units. For example, centimeter (cm) and meter (m) are different sizes but both are
the units of dimension length.

The dimension of generalized physical quantity X is represented as [X].

Example [momentum] refers to the dimension of the physical quantity momentum.

Dimensions of a physical quantity mean the way it is related to the dimensions of the
fundamental quantities’ length, mass, and time.

In dimensions, length is represented by capital L, mass by capital M and time by capital T

Examples:
1) Area = length x breadth,
The dimensions of area are represented by [Area] and it is equal to [Area] = L x L = L2
The dimensions of area are 2 in L

2. Volume = Length x width x height

[Volume] = [length] x [width] x [height].

[Volume]= L x L x L = L3 i.e. the dimensions of volume are 3 in L.

3 The dimensions of density are given by the relation

mass
[Density] = [ ]
volume

M
[Density] = [ ]
LxLxL

M
[Density] = [ 3 ] = ML−3
L

[𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡] 𝐿
4. [Velocity] = = = LT-1
[𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒] 𝑇

NOTE: [Temperature] = ∅ and [Electric current] = I

Generally, if a physical quantity has dimensions of [M][L]-1[T]-1, then its unit can be written as

3
kgm-1s-1

APPLICATION OR USES OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

1. To determine the units of quantities.
E.g. the dimension of a quantity Q is given as M2 L-1 T-2. Find its units.

Solution: M, L, T represent mass, length and time respectively. Their corresponding S.I units are:
kg, m and s. Replacing each dimensional term by the unit: Q=kg2 m-1 S-2

E.g.2. find the unit of density

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
Solution: Density = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑀
Now dimensions of density are given by [Density] = L3 = ML-3
Therefore, from the equation of dimensions of density, the unit of density can be written as
kgm-3.

2. To check the correctness or the validity of equations.

When an equation is dimensionally homogeneous it means the two sides of the equation must be
equal not only in numerical value, but also in dimensions.

L.H.S = R.H.S.

Otherwise, it is NOT dimensionally homogeneous. However, the attainment of dimensionally

homogeneous does not automatically mean the equation is TRUE, though it is correct, based on
the method of dimensions.
• This is because the method of dimensions does not consider constants in the equation.
• When a side has more than one term, a term can be used in the comparison.

Example
Check if the equation V2 = U2 + 2as is dimensionally homogeneous where the symbols have
their usual meaning

Solution: [L.H.S ] = [v2] = L2 T-2

[R.H.S] = [u2 + 2as]

[u2]= [LT-1]2 = L2T-2

And [2as] = LT-2 x L = L2T-2

Therefore [R.H.S] = [u2 + 2as] = L2T-2 + L2T-2 = 2 L2T-2

Equating the LHS to the RHS we shall obtain

L2 T-2 = 2 L2 T-2

4
Since in dimensions constants are not considered, the equation is dimensionally correct because
the indices of both L and T are equal.
3. To derive an equation between quantities.
Considering the simple pendulum where a small mass, m is suspended from one end of a long
thread of length, L; the period T depends on the m, L and acceleration due to gravity; g. Derive
an equation linking the variables.

Solution:
From the question.
Solution
TmLg or T = k mX LY gZ
where X, Y and Z are unknown numbers and k is a dimensionless constant

The dimensions of both sides of the equation must be equal

[T]1 ≡ [M]X [L]Y [(LT-2)]Z
[T]1 ≡ [M]X [L]Y+Z [T]-2Z
[L]0 [T]1 = [M]X [L]Y+Z [T]-2Z

Equating the indices of M, L, and T on

both sides, we have
X = 0, Y + Z=0 or Y=-Z

1  1 1
and - 2Z = 1 or Z = -  Y = - -  =
2  2 2

1
1 1
L2 L
 T=k m 0 L2 g2 = k 1
or T = k
g
g2
The magnitude of k cannot be found since it is a number.
Class exercises
Using dimension to find the units of quantities
Examples:
1. Find the unit of the following quantities whose dimensions are given below.
a. LT-2
b. LT-1
c. ML-1T-1
d. ML2T-2
Identify the quantities (c), (d) and (e).
Using dimension to check the validity of an equation

NB: For an equation to be valid, the following principles must be obeyed;

1. Dimension on both sides of the equation must be the same.

2. Units on both sides of the equation must also be same.

5
 * Numbers are dimensionless and hence are not considered in comparing both sides of
the equation.
For examples:

1. Check the validity of the following equations;

a. v= u+ at
b. v2= u2+2as
𝑎𝑡 2
c. s= ut + 2
𝑚𝑣 2
d. F= + 𝑚𝑔
𝑟
Where, v=final velocity, u=initial velocity, a=acceleration, s= distance, t=time, F=
force, m=mass, r=radius and g=acceleration due to gravity.
𝑚𝑣 2
2. Show that F= is dimensionally correct, where, F=force, v=velocity, m=mass and r=
𝑟
radius.

Using dimension to derive an equation between different quantities

To derive an equation between different quantities, follow the guidelines below.

1. Suppose a quantity ‘A’ depends on quantities ‘B’ and ‘C’, we say ‘A’ is proportional to B
and C and this is written in an expression as AαBC, where α=proportionality sign.
NB: B and C are depending quantities (always at the RHS of the equation).
2. The depending quantities B and C are raised to power say x and y. That is; AαBXCY
3. By removing the proportionality sign, a constant k is introduced. Hence expression
A =k BX CY.…………………………………………………….(1)
4. To find the unknown powers x and y, the dimensions of both sides of the equation are
taken. That is: [A]=k [B]X[C]Y
5. Then the resulting expression is expanded and simplified to find the unknowns.
For examples:

1. The period, T of a simple pendulum depends on the length, L and acceleration due to
gravity, g. Use the method of dimensions to establish the equation between T, L and g.
2. The frequency, f of a vibrating string depends on the length l of the string, the tension T
in the string and the mass per unit length μ of the string. Establish an equation between f,
𝑘 𝑇
l, T and μ. [hint: f= 𝑙 √𝜇]
3. The distance ‘s’ travelled by a body depends partly on its initial velocity ‘u’ and time ‘t’
𝑎𝑡 2
and partly depends on its acceleration ‘a’ and time ‘t’. [ hint: final equation. S= kut +c ]
2

DIMENSIONLESS QUANTITIES

6
Quantities which have no units are said to be dimensionless, i.e. they have NO dimensions e.g.
Magnification, Relative Density, Relative Permittivity, Mechanical Advantage (force ratio),
Velocity ratio etc.

DISADVANTAGES OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

1. It cannot be used to check NUMERICS i.e. to find the values of constants.

2. It cannot be used to find relationship involving more than four quantities.
SOME MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR USES
1. Metre rule is used for measuring lengths.
2. Vernier callipers are used for measuring short straight lines, distances between two
points and diameter of a cup.
3. Micrometre screw gauge is used for measuring diameter of a wire, thickness of
paper, cloth, metal sheet and also for measuring extremely short distances.
4. Pair of callipers is used for measuring internal and external diameter of a solid hollow
object. E.g. bucket, cup etc.
5. Electronic, chemical or beam balance is used for measuring mass of a body.
6. Spring balance (weighing scale) is used for measuring weight of a body.
7. Stop watches/ clocks (digital and analogue) are used to measure time. E.g. in
experiment involving simple pendulum.
8. Thermometer is used for measuring the temperature of a body or substance.
9. Opisometer is used for measuring curved lines,
10. Spherometer is used for measuring radius of spherical surfaces, curved surfaces. E.g.
curved mirror, surface of an egg or football.
11. Voltmeter is used in measuring electric potential (voltage).
12. Ammeter is used for measuring electric current.
13. Photometer is used for measuring luminous intensity (intensity of light).
14. Aneroid barometer is used for measuring atmospheric pressure.
15. Speedometer is used for measuring the speed of moving objects.
16. Hydrometer is used for measuring the relative density of a liquid.
17. Calorimeter is used for measuring heat energy.
18. Potentiometer is used for measuring
a. Electromotive force of a cell
b. Potential difference (voltage)
c. For comparing small resistances etc.
ASSIGNMENT: Draw and label the parts of the following instruments.

1. Vernier callipers
2. Micrometre screw gauge.

Measurements, calculations and uncertainties

7
 The aim in every experiment is to produce the best possible result or to produce an accurate
result with the apparatus provided. The measurement of a physical quantity is always subject to
some degree of uncertainty. There are several reasons for this:
(i). the limitations inherent in the construction of the measured instrument or device
(ii). the conditions under which the measurement is made,
(iii). and the different ways in which the person uses or reads the instrument.
Experimental errors can therefore cause a measurement to differ from its true value.

Experimental errors are divided into two main types.

1. Systematic error 2. Random error.

1. Systematic error
This may be due to an incorrectly calibrated scale on an instrument, for example, on a meter rule
or an ammeter. A systematic error cannot easily be removed from a measurement, even by
repeating the values. A small systematic error may not affect the accuracy of a measurement.

2. Random error.
Random errors exist in any type of instrument, usually when the observer has to estimate the last
figure, possibly with an instrument which lacks sensitivity. With a very good experimenter, a
random is can be reduced to a very small value. Repeating the values and finding the mean is the
best way to remove a random error.
Consequently, in reporting the measurements made during a scientific experiment, it is necessary
to indicate the degree of uncertainty so far as it is known. The uncertainty of a measurement can
be expressed in the following terms:
(i) accuracy
(ii) precision
(iii) significant figures

LENGTH
Length is the distance between two points. The following instruments can be used to measure
length, meter rule, calipers (engineer), venire calipers, micrometer screw gauge, tape measure the
surveyors’ tape and sphere meter

THE METRE RULE.

The meter rule is graduated in centimeters and millimeters. The smallest graduation of the metre
rule is 1mm or 0.1cm this is the reading accuracy so we can have the smallest graduation of
0.005cm. This is the Estimated Uncertainty so we can record a length of 21.55 +0.05cm. In
measuring with a meter rule, we need to eliminate parallax by looking vertically downwards on
the marking instead of slanting as shown in the diagram

In using the meter rule the following precautions must be taken

1. Avoid a gap between the ruler and the object to be measured or you will be guessing the
position of both ends of the object on the scale of the ruler.

Ruler

8
Object to

be measured
2. Avoid end errors. Take care to line up the end of the object with the zero of the scale, Fig
….
3. Avoid parallax errors. Position your eyes vertically above the scale, Fig ……

Check no zero error

The Vernier calipers

It is used to measure short distances up to 0.01 cm. It consists of main scale in centimeters
and a small verifier scale in millimeters. The Vernier slides along the mini scale. It also has fixed
jaw and a movable jaw, Fig ……
When an object is placed between the jaws of the calipers, the reading is taken first from the
main scale. The reading to the second decimal place is obtained by finding the vernier mark which
is exactly opposite a mark on the main scale. Each division on the vernier equals 0.1 mm or 0.01
cm.

NOTE: the vernier calipers can measure to an accuracy of 0.01cm. The necessary precaution is
always to note if the instrument has zero error. This is done by setting the zeros of the main scale
and the venire to coincide.

DIAGRAM
Inside jaws
Main scale

0.5 1.5

Outside Sliding Vernier or

Fixed jaws jaw sliding scale
jaws

1.2 Main
scale
A B
cm
mm

The 6th vernier division

9 a scale mark
coincides with
 The reading A on the main scale is 1.2 cm. B on the main scale coincides with the 6 th on the vernier.
Therefore, the vernier reading equals 0.6 mm or 0.06 cm
Total reading = 1.2 +0.06 = 2. 26 cm
The vernier calipers also has a pair of jaws, which can be used to measure the inside diameter of tubes and
pipes.

The micrometer screw gauge

The micrometer screw gauge is used if a greater accuracy is required e.g. the diameter-of a
wire or the thickness of paper. This gauge can measure very small lengths to 0.001 cm. It has
two scales; one on the stem and a circular scale all in millimeters. Fig 1.7. Before making a
measurement, a check should be made to ensure that the reading is zero when the jaws are closed.
Otherwise, the zero error must be allowed for when the reading is taken.

How to use the micrometer screw gauge

Hold the object to be measured between the open jaws and screw them closed using the ratchet

Rotating
Anvil thimble
Spindle Sleeve

40
mm 5
35

R
30

Main Ratchet
scale Vernier
scale

The ratchet will slip when the grip of the jaws is just tight enough to give an accurate reading.
The main scale, marked along the sleeve, is numbered in millimeters (mm) and has millimeter and half
millimeter marks.

➢ Read this scale at the edge of the thimble (screw head)

When the ratchet turns the rotating thimble or screw head through one revolution, the gap between the jaws
either opens or closes by half millimeter (1/2 mm). A circular scale is marked around the edge of the thimble.
This scale has 50 divisions. When the screw head is turned through one complete revolution the circular
scale moves forwards 0.5 mm along the main. Therefore, each division on the circular scale is

0.5
= 0.01 mm
50

10
➢ Read the number of divisions on the circular scale opposite the centre line of the sleeve or main
scale.

In fig. …., the device is used to measure the diameter of an object. The sleeve scale reads 11.5 mm and the
circular scale reads 20 divisions = 0.1 x 20 = 0.20 mm
The diameter of the object is = 11.5 + 0.02 = 11.70

10

20
15

insert
10 11

20

Fig

MASS
Mass is one of the three fundamental quantities. It is the quantity of matter contained in a body
and this stuff is constant and never changes. It a body is made of wood it will be so everywhere.
Some instruments used to measure the mass of a body are: beam balance, top pan balance, a
lever balance, chemical balance and electronic balance. Mass of a body is measured in kilogram
(kg) but can also be measured in grams (g). Mass is a scalar quantity. Weight however is the pull
or force with which the earth attracts the body towards the center of the earth. It is measured in
Newton (N) and the instrument used is the spring balance. Weight of a vector quantity because it
has both magnitude and direction.

TIME
Time is the period between events. It is measured in the lab using stop watch or stop clock. Its
unit is the second. Stop watches can measure time to 0.1 second.

VECTORS

Vectors are quantities that have both magnitude and a specific direction.

VECTOR REPRESENTATION

A vector quantity is usually represented by boldface type with an arrow on top indicating the direction.
For example: A .moreover the magnitude of the vector say A is usually represented by italic type A .
Diagrammatically;

11
 A
ADDITION OF VECTORS
When two or more vectors are added, they must all have the same unit and their directions are very
crucial. Vectors can be added geometrically and algebraically.

Worked examples

1. A body is acted on by forces F1=(`15N, 180ᵒ), F2=(22N, 040ᵒ) and F2=(42N, 040ᵒ) and F2=(22N,
150ᵒ). Calculate:
i. the magnitude ( leave your answer in 1 d.p.);
ii. the direction of the resultant of the three forces (correct your answer to the nearest
whole number)
RESOLUTION OF VECTORS

It is a process of expressing a given vector into components. Consider vector F which makes an angle ɵ
with the horizontal below. The vector Fy is called the vertical component and Fx is called the horizontal
component of the vector.

Fy

ɵ
Fx

In resolving the vector, F in terms of the angle ɵ into vertical components, Fy=Fsin0 and horizontal
component as Fx=Fcos0. We make use of basic trigonometric ratios as shown below.
𝐹𝑌
1. Sine (SOH) ……………………. 𝑠𝑖𝑛ɵ =
𝐹
𝐹𝑋
2. Cosine (CAH)…………………. 𝑐𝑜𝑠ɵ = 𝐹
𝐹𝑌
3. Tangent (TOA)………………. 𝑡𝑎𝑛ɵ =
𝐹𝑋
Worked examples

1. A force of magnitude 25N acts at an angle of 30ᵒ to the horizontal. Calculate:

i. the vertical component of the force
ii. the horizontal component of the force
2. A vector of magnitude 15N acts in direction S60ᵒE. Find:
i. the horizontal component
ii. the vertical component

12
 3. A particle moving with a velocity of 28m/s at an angle of 120ᵒ to the horizontal. Find :
i. the vertical component;
ii. the horizontal component of the velocity.
4. Express the following vectors into horizontal and vertical components.
i. F1=(`15N, 240ᵒ)
ii. F2=(22N, 120ᵒ)
iii. I=(40Ns,85ᵒ)
iv. M=(37kgm/s,240ᵒ)
5. Two forces 2N and 5N are inclined 15ᵒ and 20ᵒ respectively with the horizontal, pull a body in
opposite direction as shown. Find the resultant force and direction of motion of the body.
PARRALLELOGRAM LAW OF VECTOR ADDITION

Parallelogram law of vector addition states that when two vectors are drawn from a common point
acting as adjacent sides of a parallelogram ,the resultant is the diagonal of the parallelogram.

OR

It states that if two vectors at a point are represented in a magnitude and direction by the adjacent sides
of a parallelogram drawn from a common point, the resultant vector is represented in magnitude and
direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from the point.

In calculating for resultant vector, cosine rule and sine rule is calculating for the angle (direction).

Considering triangle fig. 2, triangle DOE, by the cosine rule, the resultant force is given as:

R2=B2+D2 +2BDcosα

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 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 sin (180−ɵ)
Applying the sine rule: =
𝐵 𝑅
Worked examples

1. Two forces 4N and 5N act on a body. If the angle between the forces is 60ᵒ, calculate the magnitude
of the resultant force on the body.
2. Two aeroplanes A and B moving with velocity 10m/s due east and 12m/s in the direction N30ᵒE.
Calculate the resultant velocity of the aeroplanbes.
TRIANGLE LAW OF VECTOR ADDITION

It states that if any two vectors acting at a point are represented in magnitude and direction by two sides
of a triangle taken in the same order then the third side of the triangle taken in reverse order represents
the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector.

Consider the triangle below, vector A and vector B are in the same direction but vector R which is the
resultant vector is in reverse order. R= A + B

Worked example

A train moving at a velocity of 20m/s due east encountered a strong wind travelling at 12m/s in the
direction of bearing 230ᵒ. Find the resultant velocity.

RELATIVE VELOCITY IN ONE DIMENSION

Relative velocity describes how observations made by different observers in different frames of
reference are related to each other. For example, suppose two cars are moving in the same direction
with speeds of 50 km/h and 60 km/h. To a passenger in the slower car, the speed of the faster car is 10
km/h. A stationary observer will also measure the speed of the faster car to be 60 km/h, and not 10

14
km/h. Which observer is correct? They are both correct. This simple example demonstrates that the
velocity of an object depends on the frame of reference in which it is measured.

Consider two cars A and B moving with different velocities relative to a fixed reference point/frame of
reference, for instance the earth, E. Since the earth is relatively stationary, the velocities of the moving
cars are said to be the true velocities.

As an aid for describing relative velocity, the following symbols need to be defined:
→
= 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑪𝒂𝒓 𝑨
𝑉𝐴
→
= 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑪𝒂𝒓 𝑩
𝑉𝐵
→
= 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑪𝒂𝒓 𝑨 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑪𝒂𝒓 𝑩.
𝑉 𝐴𝐵
Consider the following instances:

1. For two cars A and B moving in the same direction relative to the ground/earth on the same
road, the velocity of car A relative to car B is represented vectorially as:
B

→ → →
= −
𝑉 𝐴𝐵 𝑉 𝐴 𝑉 𝐵
i.e. We subtract the velocities of the two cars.

Worked examples

i. Two cars A and B move with velocities of 60km/h north and 40km/h north respectively.
Calculate the velocity of B with respect to A.

ii. Two cars A and B move in the same direction with velocities of 60 m/s and 40 m/s
respectively. Calculate the velocity of B relative to A. Explain your answer.

2. For two cars A and B moving in opposite directions on the same road, the velocity of car A
relative to car B is represented vectorially as:
B

→ → →
= +
𝑉 𝐴𝐵 𝑉 𝐴 𝑉 𝐵
→ →
This is because =−
𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐵

15
 i.e. We add the velocities of the cars.

iii. Two bodies, A and B move with velocities 10m/s NW and 5m/s SE respectively. Calculate
the velocity of B with respect to A.

iv. A cyclist moves at 7m/s opposite to an observer also moving at 5m/s. calculate the
relative velocity of the cyclist.

3. When the two bodies are moving on different roads and meet at an intersection along a
perpendicular junction, the velocity of A relative B is gives as:

→
𝑉𝐴 Car A

θ
Car B
→ →
→ → →
⇒ = − 𝑉 𝐴𝐵 𝑉𝐵
𝑉 𝐴𝐵 𝑉 𝐴 𝑉 𝐵
→ → →
⇒ = +
𝑉 𝐴𝐵 𝑉 𝐴 𝑉 𝐵
→ → →
Since both and are meeting at a perpendicular point, the magnitude and direction of can be
𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐵 𝑉 𝐴𝐵
calculated using Pythagoras theorem and trigonometry ratio as:

→ → →
Magnitude: = 2+ 2
𝑉 𝐴𝐵 √ 𝑉 𝐴 𝑉𝐵
→ →
𝑉 𝑉
Direction: 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = → 𝐴 ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (→ 𝐴 )
𝑉 𝐴𝐵 𝑉 𝐴𝐵

→ →
𝑉𝐵 −1 𝑉
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = → ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (→𝐵 )
𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐴
→ →
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = →𝑉 𝐵 ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (→𝑉 𝐵 )
𝑉 𝐴𝐵 𝑉 𝐴𝐵

A boat crosses a river 1.5km wide in 15 minutes. If the river flows at 2km/h, calculate velocity of the boat

When the two bodies meet such that their meeting point is not perpendicular or the triangle formed is
not a right-angled triangle, then the sine or cosine rules can be used.

B C

θ 𝛼
16
A
Cosine Rule: 𝐶 2 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 − 2𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝐴2 = 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2 − 2𝐵𝐶𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽

𝐵2 = 𝐴2 + 𝐶 2 − 2𝐴𝐶𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
Sine Rule:
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼
= =
𝐶 𝐴 𝐵

Worked Examples

Q1. A man moves due east at 15m/s with respect to the earth. A train also travels due east at

25m/s with respect to the earth.

a. What is the man’s velocity relative to the train?

b. What is the train’s velocity relative to the man?

Solution

Let M = man, T = train, E = earth

→
𝑉 𝑀𝐸
→
𝑉 𝑇𝐸
→ → → →
= 15𝑚/𝑠, = 25𝑚/𝑠, =?, =?
𝑉 𝑀𝐸 𝑉 𝑇𝐸 𝑉 𝑀𝑇 𝑉 𝑇𝑀
→ → → → →
a. 𝑉 = 𝑉 + 𝑉 but 𝑉 = − 𝑉
𝑀𝑇 𝑀𝐸 𝐸𝑇 𝐸𝑇 𝑇𝐸
→ → →
⇒ = −
𝑉 𝑀𝑇 𝑉 𝑀𝐸 𝑉 𝑇𝐸
→
= 15 − 25 = −10𝑚/𝑠
𝑉 𝑀𝑇
→
The minus sign means that the speed of is in the western direction.
𝑉 𝑀𝑇
→ → → → →
b. = + = −
𝑉 𝑇𝑀 𝑉 𝑇𝐸 𝑉 𝐸𝑀 𝑉 𝑇𝐸 𝑉 𝑀𝐸

17
 →
= 25 − 10 = 10𝑚/𝑠
𝑉 𝑇𝑀
Q2. A train is moving with a velocity of 9m/s relative to an observer standing on the ground. A

passenger in the train moves with a velocity of 2m/s towards the front of the train. What is

the velocity of the passenger relative to the ground-based observer?

Solution

Let T = train, G = ground, P = passenger.

→ → →
= 9𝑚/𝑠, = 2𝑚/𝑠, =?
𝑉 𝑇𝐺 𝑉 𝑃𝑇 𝑉 𝑃𝐺
→ → →
= +
𝑉 𝑃𝐺 𝑉 𝑃𝑇 𝑉 𝑇𝐺
→
∴ = 9 + 2 = 11𝑚/𝑠
𝑉 𝑃𝐺
Q3. Two cars A and B are travelling in the same direction although car A is 186m behind B. The

speed of A is 24.4m/s and the speed of B is 18.6m/s. How much time does it take for A to

catch B?

Solution

Let A = Car A, B = Car B, E = Earth of which the cars move.

→ → →
S = 186m, = 24.4𝑚/𝑠, = 18.6𝑚/𝑠, =?
𝑉 𝐴𝐸 𝑉 𝐵𝐸 𝑉 𝐴𝐵

→ → → → →
= + but =−
𝑉 𝐴𝐵 𝑉 𝐴𝐸 𝑉 𝐸𝐵 𝑉 𝐸𝐵 𝑉 𝐵𝐸
→ → →
= − = 24.4 − 18.6 = 5.8𝑚/𝑠
𝑉 𝐴𝐵 𝑉 𝐴𝐸 𝑉 𝐵𝐸
𝑠
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑣 =
𝑡
𝑠 186
⇒𝑡= = = 32.07𝑠
𝑣 5.8
Q4. Two cars A and B travelling in different directions meet at an intersection along a

perpendicular road. The velocity of car A relative to the ground is 25m/s eastward and the

velocity of car B relative to the ground is 15.8m/s northward. Find the magnitude and

direction of the velocity of car A relative to car B.

18
Solution
→ →
= 25𝑚/𝑠, = 15.8𝑚/𝑠,
𝑉 𝐴𝐺 𝑉 𝐵𝐺

→
= 25𝑚/𝑠 Car A
𝑉 𝐴𝐺
θ
Car B
→ →
=15.8m/s
𝑉 𝐴𝐵 𝑉 𝐵𝐺

→ → →
Since both and are meeting at a perpendicular point, the magnitude and direction of can
𝑉 𝐴𝐺 𝑉 𝐵𝐺 𝑉 𝐴𝐵
be calculated using Pythagoras theorem and trigonometry ratio as:

→ → →
Magnitude: = 2+ 2 = √25 2 + 15.82 = 29.6𝑚/𝑠
𝑉 𝐴𝐵 √ 𝑉 𝐴𝐸 𝑉 𝐸𝐵
→ →
𝑉 𝐵𝐸 −1 𝑉 15.8
Direction: 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = → ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (→𝐵𝐸 ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 32.30
𝑉 𝐴𝐸 𝑉 𝐴𝐸 25

Q5. The velocity of ship A relative to ship B is 10m/s in a direction 450NE. If the velocity of

ship B is 20m/s in the direction 600NW, find the actual magnitude and direction of the

velocity of ship A.

Solution

Let A = ship A, B = ship B, W = water on which the ships move.

→ →
= 10𝑚/𝑠, 450 𝑁𝐸, = 20𝑚/𝑠, 600 𝑁𝑊
𝑉 𝐴𝐵 𝑉 𝐵𝑊

→
= 20𝑚/𝑠
𝑉 𝐵𝑊
600
300
450

→
𝑉 𝐴𝑊 →
= 10𝑚/𝑠
𝑉 𝐴𝐵
𝛼
450 19
Using the cosine rule
→ → → → →
2= 2+ 2−2 2 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
𝑉 𝐴𝑊 𝑉 𝐴𝐵 𝑉 𝐵𝑊 𝑉 𝐴𝐵 𝑉 𝐵𝑊

→
⇒ 2 = 102 + 202 − 2 ∗ 10 ∗ 20𝑐𝑜𝑠105
𝑉 𝐴𝑊
→
⇒ 2 = 603.5276
𝑉 𝐴𝑊

→
∴ = 24.6𝑚/𝑠
𝑉 𝐴𝑊
KINEMATICS (PARTICLES IN MOTION)
Kinematics deals with the concepts that are needed to describe motion, without any reference to
forces.
Dynamics deals with the effect that forces have on motion.
Kinematics and Dynamics form the branch of physics known as mechanics.
Motion is a continuous change of position of a body with time.
TYPES OF MOTION
Rectilinear/linear
Circular motion
Spin/rotational
Oscillatory/Vibrational
Random motion
Translational/Linear/rectilinear
Projectile
Simple harmonic motion (S.H.M)
Particle motion
Periodic motion
Rigid motion
Wave motion
Rectilinear/ linear motion: It is a motion of a body which takes place along a straight line. For
example; Motion of light waves
Circular motion: It is a motion of a body on a circular path about a centre (or axis) which lies
outside the body. For example; Motion of the moon around the sun, Motion of a car negotiating a
bend

20
Spin/rotational motion: It is a motion of a body on a circular path about a centre (or axis) which
lies inside the body. For example; Motion of a windmill, Movement of an electric fan
Oscillatory/vibrational motion: It is a motion performs by a body which moves forward and
backwards or to-and-fro about a fixed point. Examples; Motion of a car’s wiper, Motion of a
swinging pendulum.
Random motion: It is a motion which does not have a specific direction but occurs in all
directions. For example; Movement of molecules in a gas; this motion is sometimes called
Brownian motion, Motion of very fine particles in air.
Translational motion: It is a motion described by a body if; All the particles within the body
move in a straight line. All the particles within the body move in parallel directions. All the
particles within the body travel equal distances within the same time interval. All the particles
within the body have the same velocity at any given time. For examples; Motion of light waves,
Motion of body sliding on very smooth floor.
Projectile/parabolic motion: It is a motion in which a body moves and describes a parabolic
shape or path. For example; The motion of a bullet fired into the air, The movement of a football
kicked into the air.
Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M): It is a motion of a body which moves along a fixed point
such that its acceleration is directed towards the fixed point and also the acceleration is directly
proportional to its displacement from that fixed point. For example; The motion of a swinging
pendulum, The movement of a piston in a car engine
Periodic motion: It is a motion that repeats itself within the same time interval.it is Aperiodic if
it occurs at unequal time interval. For example; The heartbeat, The movement of the moon
around the earth.
Rigid motion: It is a motion which comprises of both pure translational motion and rotational
motion. For example; Motion of a tyre in a car, Motion of football along the turf.
Wave motion: It is a motion of disturbance which carries energy through a medium without the
medium itself moving. For example; Light motion, sound motion, heat motion, tidal motion etc.
Particle motion: It is a motion of a body in which the body moves along with all the energy
given to it. For examples; motion of a stone thrown into the air, movement of bullet fired from a
gun, movement of a car under the influence of the engine etc.

Kinematics in One Dimension

Linear motion
Definition of some terms
Displacement is a vector that points from an object’s initial position to its final position and has
a magnitude that equals the shortest distance between the two positions. OR Displacement is the
distance travelled by a body in a specified direction.
Distance is the separation or the interval between two points.
Both displacement and distance are measured in meters (m).
Speed and velocity:
Speed is the distance travelled by a body per unit time taken. It is a scalar quantity.
Velocity is the displacement of a body per unit time.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡(𝑠)
Velocity= 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑡)
Conversion: 36km/h=10m/s, 1hr=60minutes=3600seconds.
Both speed and velocity are measured in meter per second (m/s).
Acceleration is the change in velocity per unit time taken.
21
 𝑣−𝑢
Acceleration= 𝑡 , where, v=final velocity, u=initial velocity and t=time
Measured in m/s2.
Uniform/constant velocity occurs if the change of a body displacement per unit changes in time
taken is constant or does not change.
Average velocity is the change in displacement per unit change in time taken.
Average speed of a body is the total distance traveled divided by the total time taken.
Uniform/constant acceleration occurs if the change of a body velocity per unit changes in time
taken is constant.
Retardation is the decrease in velocity per unit time taken.
Uniform retardation occurs if the velocity of the body decreases by equal amount in equal time.

NEWTON’S EQUATIONS OF MOTION

Consider a body which starts moving with an initial velocity, u and accelerated (a) for a time, t
until it attains a final velocity, v. The acceleration of the body is given as;
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦−𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Acceleration, a= 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑣−𝑢
a= 𝑡 , it implies at=v-u and
v=u + at ……………………………………………….(I)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑡 𝑠
Average velocity = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 =𝑡 ……………………. (2)
But if the initial velocity and final velocity are known, then average velocity can be calculated
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦+𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣+𝑢
as; average velocity, v= = 2 …………………….(3)
2
𝑠 𝑣+𝑢 𝑣+𝑢
Comparing equations (1) and (2): 𝑡 = → s=( ) ∗ 𝑡…………………….(4)
2 2
𝑢+𝑎𝑡+𝑢 2𝑢+𝑎𝑡 2𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑡 2
Substituting v=u +at into equation (4), we have s=( ) ∗ 𝑡 → s=( ) ∗ 𝑡 →s= +
2 2 2 2
𝒂𝒕𝟐
s=𝒖𝒕 + ………………………………………….(II)
𝟐
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑡 𝑠
Again, Average velocity = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 =𝑡 ……………………. (2a)
But if the initial velocity and final velocity are known, then average velocity can be calculated
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦+𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣+𝑢
as; average velocity, v= = 2 …………………….(3a)
2
𝑠 𝑣+𝑢 𝑣+𝑢
Comparing equations (1) and (2): 𝑡 = → s=( ) ∗ 𝑡…………………….(4a)
2 2
𝑣−𝑢
From, v=u +at, t= …………………………………………….(5)
𝑎
𝑣−𝑢 𝑣+𝑢 𝑣−𝑢
Substituting t= into equation (4a), we have s=( )∗( ), expanding the two bracket
𝑎 2 𝑎
𝑣 2 −𝑢2
We have s=( 2𝑎 ) → 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔 …………………………….(III)
Now, the three Newton’s equations of motion:
1. v=u + at
𝒂𝒕𝟐
2. s=𝒖𝒕 + 𝟐
3. 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔, where, v=final velocity, u= initial velocity, a=acceleration,
s=distance covered, t=time taken.
Worked examples:
1. A body at rest accelerate uniformly to a velocity of 20m/s in 4s. calculate the acceleration
of the body.

22
 2. A bus travelling at a velocity of 12.5m/s accelerate at a 2.4m/s2 for 3s. Find its final
velocity.
3. The truck of a passenger car applies brakes at a velocity of 30m/s and comes to rest 5s
later. What is the deceleration?
4. A car moving with a speed of 90km/h was brought uniformly to rest by the application of
brakes in 10s. How far did the car travel after the brakes were applied?
5. A train travelling in a straight road with constant deceleration has a velocity of 35m/s at
point X, 25m/s at point Y and comes to rest at point Z where distance from Y to Z is
60m. Calculate the: I). distance XY II). Time taken to cover XY III). Time taken to
cover XZ.

Travelling Graph(Graph of motion)

A graph of motion explains the changes in the behaviour of a moving body.
1. Velocity time graph
Velocity(m/s) Velocity(m/s)

∆𝑣
Slope= ∆𝑡

(0,0) Time(s) (0,0) Time(s)

2. Displacement time graph
Displacement(m) Displacement (m)

∆𝑠
Slope=∆𝑡

(0,0) Time(s) (0,0) Time(s)

3. Non-uniformly velocity and non-uniform acceleration

Displacement(m)

∆𝑠
Slope=∆𝑡
(Slope represents instantaneous velocity)

Time(s)

Velocity(m/s)
∆𝑣
Slope= ∆𝑡
(Slope represents instantaneous acceleration)

23
 Time(s)

Velocity(m/s) OA=Uniform/constant acceleration

AB=Uniform/constant velocity
A B BC= Uniform/constant retardation/deceleration
Area under the curve represents the total distance covered

Time(s)
O C
Worked examples
1. a. Sketch velocity-time graphs to illustrate each of the following:
i. uniform motion
ii. uniform acceleration with initial velocity of 5m/s.
2. A body moves with an initial velocity, u and accelerates at a rate of a. Show that if the
body travels a distance s, then its final velocity v, is expressed in terms of other quantities
as: 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔
3. A particle starts from rest and accelerates to a velocity of 5m/s in 20s. it maintains this
velocity for 10s and then decelerates to rest in a further 10s.
i. Draw a velocity-time graph of the motion
ii. Calculate the initial acceleration of the particle and total distance covered.
4. A body initially travelling at a velocity of 8m/s accelerates uniformly to a velocity of
15m/s in a time of 3s. The body then moves at this constant velocity of 15m/s a further
time of 9s and then moves with a uniform retardation to a stop in a time of 5s.
i. Draw a velocity-time graph for the motion
ii. Calculate the initial acceleration, the total distance covered and the uniform
deceleration of the body.
Assignment
1. The table below shows the motion of a car
V(m/s) 0.0 25.0 35.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 35.0 25.0 0.0
Time(s) 0.0 4.0 8.0 12.0 14.0 15.0 17.0 18.0 20.0
i. Plot a velocity-time graph of the motion
ii. Use the graph to determine: initial acceleration of the car; the distance covered by
the car in 15s; the retardation of the car.
2. State two deductions that can be made from
i. Displacement-time graph
ii. Velocity-time graph
3. A body is projected vertically upwards from the ground with an initial velocity of 10m/s.
i. Sketch the trajectory (path) of the motion
ii. Sketch the velocity-time graph of the motion.

MOTION UNDER GRAVITY

It is a motion of a body which is so much affected and influenced by the earth’s gravity. For
motion under gravity, the acceleration of the body is as a result of the earth’s gravitational
influence on it.

24
Free (let) fall
It is a fall of a body which occur when the body fall only under the influence of earth’s
gravitational force.

Velocity-time graph of a motion under gravity

V/m/s V/m/s

t/m/s t/m/s
Upward motion Downward motion

Velocity-time Graph for Vertical motion for a body thrown vertically up and back to the
thrower

V/m/s V/m/s

A C A

or

0 B t/s 0 B t/s

NEWTON’S EQUATIONS OF VERTICAL MOTION UNDER GRAVITY(g)

Acceleration (a)= acceleration due to gravity (g) for vertical motion under gravity. Therefore;
1. v=u ±gt
𝟏
2. s=ut ± 𝟐 𝒈𝒕𝟐
3. v2=u2 ± 2gs

Equations of vertical motion under gravity for upward motion(a= -g)

A body thrown or shot upward into air slows down as it moves up because its direction is against
earth’s gravity. That is to say the body undergoes uniform retardation.

1. v=u -gt
𝟏
2. s=ut - 𝟐 𝒈𝒕𝟐

25
 3. v2=u2 - 2gs

Equations of vertical motion under gravity for downward motion(a= +g)

A body which falls freely downward to the ground speeds up with uniform acceleration because
it moves in favor of earth’s gravitational force acts on it.

1. v=u + gt
𝟏
2. s=ut + 𝟐 𝒈𝒕𝟐
3. v2=u2 + 2gs
Basic quantities that can be obtained from vertical motion

Time taken(tmax) to reach maximum height

At maximum height, the body stops momentarily, so the final velocity, v=0.
From equation (1); v= u -gt → 0= u-gt
𝑢
making t the subject, we have tmax=𝑔
Time of flight (T)
Time of flight is the total time taken by a body to cover the entire journey in the air until it comes
to a stop.
For a body thrown into the air from the ground and back to the thrower, the time of flight is
obtained as shown below.
𝑢 𝑢 2𝑢 𝑢 2𝑢
T=𝑔 + 𝑔 = 𝑔 or T=2×𝑔 = 𝑔

𝟏
Also, from equation (2): s=ut + 𝟐 𝒈𝒕𝟐 , the total displacement of body thrown into the air from
the ground and back to the thrower is equal to zero(0).
1
→ 0=ut - 2 𝑔𝑡 2 ,…………….. 𝑔𝑡 2 =2ut,
dividing both sides of the equation by ‘gt’, thus
𝑔𝑡 2 2𝑢𝑡 2𝑢 2𝑢
= → t= 𝑔 , where, t=time of flight (T). T= 𝑔
𝑔𝑡 𝑔𝑡
Maximum height (smax) reached
At maximum height, the body stops momentarily, so the final velocity, v=0.
From equation (3); v2=u2 - 2gs → 02=u2 - 2gs ……………… 2gs = u2
2𝑔𝑠 𝑢2
making ‘s’ the subject by dividing both sides by ‘2g, thus, = 2𝑔
2𝑔
𝑢2
we have s= , where s = maximum height reached.
2𝑔
NB:
1. Total distance, ST travelled by a body thrown from the top of a tower (building) until it
𝒖𝟐
hits the ground is given as ST= + h, where h=height of the tower (building).
𝒈
𝒖𝟐
ST= 𝟐𝒈 + H, H is the maximum height reached by the body from the ground.
2. Total time, T travelled by a body thrown from the top of a tower (building) until it hits
𝒖 𝟐𝑯
the ground is given as T= t1+t2= 𝒈 + 𝒈 , where, t1=time taken to reach maximum height,

26
 t2=time taken for the body to fall to the ground from the maximum height reached from
the ground and H is the maximum height reached by the body from the ground.
Worked examples
1. A stone is thrown up into the air takes a time of 4s to reached the maximum height. What
is the velocity with which the body was thrown up. [g=10m/s2]
2. A man stands at a top of a building 250m high and throws a ball vertically up into the air
with a velocity of 20m/s. calculate:
i. the maximum height reached by the ball from the ground.
ii. the time of flight. [g=10m/s2].
3. A ball is thrown vertically upwards from the top of a building 60m high with an initial
velocity of 15m/s. calculate
i. the maximum height the ball reaches
ii. the time taken to reach the maximum height
iii. the total distance the ball covers [g=10m/s2].
4. Two stones A and B are each positioned at a height of 100m above the ground. A is
projected vertically upwards with a speed of 10m/s while B is projected vertically
downwards with the same speed. Calculate the time interval between the arrival of A and
B on the ground. [g=10m/s2].

MOTION ON AN INCLINED PLANE

It is a motion on a plane which is raised at one edge and makes an angle, θ with the horizontal.

gsinθ h
θ gcosθ

NEWTON’S EQUATIONS OF MOTION ON AN INCLINED PLANE()

Acceleration (a)= acceleration due to gravity (gsinθ) for motion on an inclined plane. Therefore;
1. v=u ±gtsinθ
𝟏
2. s=ut ± 𝟐 𝒈𝒕𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏θ
3. v2=u2 ± 2sgsinθ

Equations of motion on an inclined plane

A body thrown or shot up along an inclined plane slows down as it moves up because its
direction is against earth’s gravity. That is to say the body undergoes uniform retardation.

1. v=u - gtsinθ
𝟏
2. s=ut - 𝟐 𝒈𝒕𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏θ
3. v2=u2 - 2sgsinθ

27
Equations of vertical motion under gravity for downward motion(a= +g)
A body which is left to fall freely downward along an inclined plane to the ground speeds up
with uniform acceleration because it moves in favor of earth’s gravitational force acts on it.

1. v=u + gtsinθ
𝟏
2. s=ut + 𝟐 𝒈𝒕𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏θ
3. v2=u2 + 2sgsinθ
Basic quantities that can be obtained from vertical motion

Time taken(tmax) to reach maximum height

At maximum height, the body stops momentarily, so the final velocity, v=0.
From equation (1); v= u -gtsinθ → 0= u-gtsinθ
𝑢
making ‘t’ the subject, we have tmax=𝑔sinθ
Time of flight (T)
Time of flight is the total time taken by a body to cover the entire journey in the air until it comes
to a stop.
For a body shot up along the plane and back to the thrower, the time of flight is obtained as
shown below.
𝑢 𝑢 2𝑢 𝑢 2𝑢
T=𝑔sinθ + 𝑔sinθ = 𝑔sinθ or T=2×𝑔sinθ = 𝑔sinθ

𝟏
Also, from equation (2): s=ut + 𝟐 𝒈𝒕𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉, the total displacement of body up the plane and back
to the thrower is equal to zero(0).
1
→ 0=ut - 2 𝑔𝑡 2 sinθ,…………….. 𝑔𝑡 2 sinθ=2ut,
dividing both sides of the equation by ‘gtsinθ’, thus
𝑔𝑡 2 sinθ 2𝑢𝑡 2𝑢 2𝑢
= 𝑔𝑡sinθ → t=𝑔sinθ , where, t=time of flight (T). T=𝑔sinθ
𝑔𝑡sinθ
Maximum height (smax) reached
At maximum height, the body stops momentarily, so the final velocity, v=0.
From equation (3); v2=u2 - 2gssinθ → 02=u2 - 2gssinθ ……………… 2gssinθ = u2
2𝑔𝑠 𝑢2
making ‘s’ the subject by dividing both sides by ‘2g, thus, = 2𝑔sinθ
2𝑔sinθ
𝑢2
we have s= 2𝑔sinθ , where s = maximum height reached.

Worked examples
1. A ball is shot up an inclined plane with an initial velocity of 20m/s. the inclined plane has an
inclination of 30º. Calculate the:
i. maximum distance travelled up the plane
ii. time taken to do this journey
iii. time of flight [g=10m/s2]
2. An inclined plane of inclination 20º with the horizontal and has a length of 15m. A body is
placed at the upper edge rolls down. What is the time taken for the body to move along the
entire length of the plane. [g=10m/s2]

28
 KINEMATICS IN TWO DIMENSIONS
PROJECTILE MOTION
Projectile or ballistics is the motion of a body in a non-viscous media such as the sky or space. A
typical example is a stone thrown into the air or a ball kicked above the ground. The stone or ball
traces a curved path and such a motion is known as a projectile motion. The path traced by the
projectile (object) is called a trajectory and this path is always a parabola. The projected object
makes an angle, θ with the horizontal and this angle is called the angle of projection or
projection angle.
In analysing this motion, the following assumptions are made:
1. Acceleration due to gravity, g is constant over the range of the motion and it is directed
downwards.
2. The effect of air is negligible.

Consider a body projected with an initial velocity, u which makes an angle θ with the
horizontal as shown in the figure below:
y

vy = 0 vx
vy v
θ vx
vx vy θ
uy u v

θ vx
t
0, 0 ux θ x
v
vy
Where θ = angle of projection, u = initial velocity, ux = initial horizontal velocity, uy = initial
vertical velocity, vx = final horizontal velocity, vy = final vertical velocity.
This motion has two components: the horizontal and vertical motions which need to be
considered separately. This will correspondingly yield two velocity components (i.e. horizontal
velocity, vx and vertical velocity, vy).
In the horizontal or x-direction of the motion, the x-component of the velocity remains constant
in the absence of air (i.e. vx = ux). This means the x components of the acceleration, ax = 0m/s2
𝑣𝑥 −𝑢𝑥
i.e. 𝑎𝑥 = but 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 ∴ 𝑎𝑥 = 0.
𝑡
In the vertical or y-direction of the motion, the body experiences the effect of gravity and as a
result the y-component of the velocity is not constant but changes. The y-component of the
acceleration is 𝒂𝒚 = −𝒈𝒎/𝒔𝟐 since the body is directed upwards.

29
To determine the horizontal and vertical initial velocities of the motion, the initial velocity, u
must be resolved about the origin (0, 0) at time t = 0 as shown in the figure below.
y
ux

uy
uy

θ t
0, 0 ux x
Horizontal Initial Velocity, ux
𝑢𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝑢
⇒ 𝒖𝒙 = 𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 (1)
Vertical Initial Velocity, uy
𝑢𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑢
⇒ 𝒖𝒚 = 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 (2)

To determine the final velocity components, vx and vy away from the origin (0, 0) after any time
t, we use the first equation of motion, 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕.
Horizontal Final Velocity, vx
From 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
⇒ 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡
But 𝑎𝑥 = 0
∴ 𝒗𝒙 = 𝒖𝒙 = 𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (3)

Vertical Final Velocity, vy

From 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
Since the object in moving against gravity 𝑎 = −𝑔
⇒ 𝑣 = 𝑢 − 𝑔𝑡
⇒ 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 − 𝑔𝑡
But 𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
∴ 𝒗𝒚 = 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝒈𝒕 (4)
The various distances covered in the x and y directions can be determined using the second
𝟏
equation of motion, 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝟐 𝒂𝒕𝟐 .
Horizontal Distance Covered, x
1
From 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2
But 𝑠 = 𝑥, 𝑢 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑜
∴ 𝒙 = 𝒖𝒙 𝒕 = (𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)𝒕 (5)
30
 Vertical Distance Covered, y
1
From 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2
But 𝑠 = 𝑦, 𝑢 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑥 = −𝑔
1
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
𝟏
∴ 𝒚 = (𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽)𝒕 − 𝟐 𝒈𝒕𝟐 (6)
DYNAMICS
Dynamics deal with effects of forces on the motion of two or more interacting particles.
NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION AND INERTIA
Isaac did not derive the three laws of motion, but rather deduced them from
a multitude of experiments performed by other scientists, especially Galileo Galilee.
NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION
Consider a box of chalk lying on a table; the box will continue to remain at rest if left alone.
Moreover if a horizontal force great enough to overcome the force of friction between the box
and the table is applied, the box starts to move.
This happens because the magnitude of the applied force exceeds the magnitude of the frictional
force, the box accelerates. When the applied force is withdrawn, friction soon slows the box to a
stop.
Again imagine pushing the book across a smooth, waxed floor. The box again
comes to rest once the force is no longer applied, but not as quickly as before. Finally, if the box
is moving on a horizontal frictionless surface, it continues to move in a straight line with
constant velocity until it hits a wall or some other obstruction. NB: This idea was first described
in 1600s by Galileo who concluded that it’s not the nature of an object to stop, once set in
motion, but rather to continue in its original state of motion.
Newton’s first law of motion states that an object moves with a velocity that is constant in
magnitude and direction unless acted upon by a nonzero net force or external force.
OR in otherwise, it can be stated that unless acted on by an external force, an object at rest will
remain at rest and an object in motion will continue in motion with constant velocity.
Similarly, an object continues in a state of rest or in a state of motion at a constant velocity
(constant speed in a constant direction), unless compelled to change that state by a net force.
NB: The net force is the vector sum of all of them. An inertial reference frame is one in which
Newton’s law of inertia (first law) is valid.
The acceleration of an inertial reference frame is zero, so it moves with a constant velocity.
Newton’s first law indicates that if no net force acts on an object, then the velocity of the object
remains unchanged. The second law deals with what happens when a net force does act.
Newton’s second law of motion states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the force acting on it and the change takes place in the direction of the force
applied.
In otherwise, when a net external force acts on an object of mass m, the acceleration that result
is directly proportional to the net force and has a magnitude that is inversely proportional to the
mass. The direction of the acceleration is the same as the direction of the net force.
SI Unit of Force: kgm/s2 =newton (N).
Newton’s third law of motion states that for every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction. In other words, action and reaction are equal but opposite in direction. The third law is

31
often called the “action–reaction” law. Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object,
the second object exerts an oppositely directed force of equal magnitude on the first object.
Application of Newton’s third law of motion
1. Gun and bullet
2. Launching of rocket
3. Jet engine.

INERTIA
A greater net force is required to change the velocity of some objects than of others. For
instance, a net force that is just enough to cause a bicycle to pick up speed will cause only an
imperceptible change in the motion of a taxi. In comparison to the bicycle, the taxi has a much
greater tendency to remain at rest. Accordingly, we say that the taxi has more inertia than the
bicycle. Quantitatively, the inertia of an object is measured by its mass.
The following definition of inertia and mass indicates why Newton’s first law is sometimes
called the law of inertia:
Inertia is the natural tendency of an object/body at rest to remain at rest and an object/body in
motion to continue moving at a constant velocity.
NB: The mass of an object is a quantitative measure of inertia. Inertia mass is the ratio of force
to acceleration. The bigger the mass of a body, the larger the inertia of the body. In otherwise,
the more masses a body has, the greater its inertia.
SI Unit of Inertia and Mass: kilogram (kg)
FORCE
A force is a push or a pull. Force is that which tends to change a body’s state of rest or uniform
motion in a straight line.
In basketball, a player launches a shot by pushing on the ball. Forces such as those that launch
the basketball are called contact forces, because they arise from the physical contact between
two objects.
There are circumstances, however, in which two objects exert forces on one another even though
they are not touching. Such forces are referred to as noncontact (field) forces or action-at-a-
distance forces. One example of such a noncontact force occurs when a diver is pulled toward
the earth because of the force of gravity.
Types of forces
1. Contact forces
2. Field (non-contact) forces
Contact force is a force between two bodies which results in changing the shape or the motion of
bodies involved. For examples: frictional force, tension in a rope, weight, centripetal force,
thrust, upthrust etc.
Field force is the force that exist between two objects even though the object is not touching each
other. For examples: Magnetic force, electric(electrostatic) force and gravitational force.
Effects of Forces
1. It causes a body at rest to move.
2. It causes a moving body to stop.
3. It changes the shape of the body.
4. It changes the dimension of a body.
5. It changes the direction of a moving body.

32
 MOMENTUM
Linear momentum of an object is the product of its mass and velocity of a moving body.
P=mv
SI units of momentum is kilogram-meter per second (kg.m/s).
FORCE AND MOMENTUM
A change in velocity (acceleration) requires a force. Similarly, a change in momentum also
requires a force.
𝐯−𝐯𝐨
From F=ma and using a= 𝒕 , where the mass is assumed to be constant.
𝐦(𝐯−𝐮) 𝐦𝐯−𝐦𝐮)
F=ma= 𝜟𝒕 = 𝜟𝒕
Where, F is the average force
Newton’s second law states that the net external force acting on an object is equal to the time rate
of change of the objects momentum. F=ma indicates that an acceleration is the evidence of a net
force.
IMPULSE OF A FORCE
Impulse is the product of force applied and the time taken for its action.
Impulse=force × time
When two objects collide they exert large force on one another for a short period of time.
For example, a hammer and a nail. NB: The force is not constant in this case. So the law states
that the average force is equal to the time rate of change of momentum.
SI unit of impulse and momentum: newton-seconds (N.s)
Thus, the impulse exerted on a body is equal to the change in the body’s momentum.(impulse-
momentum theorem). (1kgm/s=1N.s).
Impulse=change in momentum=mv-mu
EXAMPLE:
A golfer drives a 0.10kg ball from an elevated tee, giving the ball an initial horizontal speed of
40m/s. The club and the ball are in contact for 1.0ms. What is the average force exerted by the
club on the ball during this time?
THE CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
Like total mechanical energy, the momentum of a body or system is conserved quantity under
certain conditions.
If the net force acting on particle is zero, that is F=∆p/∆t=0, where ∆p=change in momentum
Then, ∆p=0=p-po, where po is the initial momentum and p is the momentum at some later, since
they are equal, the momentum is conserved:
p=po or mv=mvo.
This conversation is consistent with Newton’s first law: An object remains at rest (p=0), or in
motion with a uniform velocity (constant p), unless acted on by a net external force.
The principle of conservation of momentum states that in a closed system, the total
momentum before collision is equal to the total momentum after collision.
OR It states that in a closed system, the total momentum is conserved.
That is mAuA+ mBuB = mAvA + mBvB
Conditions for momentum to be conserved
1. There should be no external force
2. The colliding bodies must move in a straight line.
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM BY 2ND AND 3RD LAWS OF MOTION
𝑚𝑣1−𝑚𝑢1
From the second Newton’s laws of motion, F = ……………………. 1 for body 1
𝑡

33
 𝑚𝑣2−𝑚𝑢2
F= …………………….2 for body 2
𝑡
By the 3rd Newton’s law of motion; the action of body 1 cause reaction of body 2 in the opposite
𝑚𝑣1−𝑚𝑢1 𝑚𝑣2−𝑚𝑢2
direction. That is F1 = -F2. = −( ), multiplying both side by t,
𝑡 𝑡
m1v1 –m1u1 =-(m2v2 –m2u2), but change in momentum = impulse (l), hence l1 = -l2
EX: A 0.150-kg baseball, thrown with a speed of 40.0 m/s, is hit straight back at the pitcher with
a speed of 50.0 m/s.
(a) What is the impulse delivered by the bat to the baseball? (b) Find the magnitude of the
average force exerted by the bat on the ball if the two are in contact for 2.00s.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF MOMENTUM
1. Recoil of a gun.
2. Propulsion of jet engine.
3. Propulsion of rocket.
4. Hose pipe as used in car washing.
COLLISION/CRASH
Collision or crash is an event in which two or more bodies exert forces on each other for
relatively short time.
In a crash test (an inelastic collision), much of the car’s initial kinetic energy is transformed into
the energy it took to damage the vehicle.
TYPES OF COLLISION
1. Elastic collision
2. Inelastic collision
3. Perfectly elastic collision
4. Perfectly inelastic collision
ELASTIC AND INELASTIC COLLISIONS
If the forces between the bodies are also conservative, so that no mechanical energy is lost or
gained in the collision, the total kinetic energy of the system is the same after the collision as
before. Such a collision is called an elastic collision.
When a collision occurs in an isolated system, the total momentum of the system doesn’t change
with the passage of time. Instead, it remains constant both in magnitude and in direction. The
momenta of the individual objects in the system may change, but the vector sum of all the
momenta will not change. The total momentum, therefore, is said to be conserved
As A Practical Application
An inelastic collision is used to detect glaucoma, a disease in which the pressure inside the eye
builds up and leads to blindness by damaging the cells of the retina. In this application, medical
professionals use a device called a tonometer to measure the pressure inside the eye. This device
releases a puff of air against the outer surface of the eye and measures the speed of the air after
reflection from the eye. At normal pressure, the eye is slightly spongy, and the pulse is reflected
at low speed. As the pressure inside the eye increases, the outer surface becomes more rigid, and
the speed of the reflected pulse increases. In this way, the speed of the reflected puff of air can
measure the internal pressure of the eye.
PROPERTIES OF THE TYPES OF COLLISIONS
Elastic and perfectly elastic collision
1. Both momentum and kinetic energy is conserved.
2. Coefficient of restitution is one (elastic collision).
Inelastic and perfectly inelastic collision

34
 1. Momentum is conserved
2. Kinetic energy is not conserved
3. Coefficient of restitution is between 0 and 1(inelastic collision) and 0 for perfectly
inelastic collision.
EX:
1. A ball of mass 2.0kg moves with a speed of 15m/s and collides with another stationary
ball of mass 1.5kg. if the two balls stick together after collision, calculate their common
speed.
2. A body A of mass 4kg moves with a velocity of 2m/s and collides head-on with another
body B of mass 3kg moves in the opposite direction at 5m/s. After the collision, the
bodies move together with velocity, calculate v.
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM AND KINETIC ENERGY
For Elastic Collision
By momentum conservation: mAuA +mBuB= mAvA +mBvB
1 1 1 1
By kinetic energy conservation: 2mAuA2 +2mBuB2= 2mAvA 2+2mBvB2, multiplying by 2.
mAuA2 +mBuB2= mAvA2 +mBvB2
𝒗 −𝒗
For elastic collision, e=1 -1=𝒖𝟏 −𝒖𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
For Inelastic/ perfectly inelastic collision
By momentum conservation: mAuA +mBuB= (mA+ mB) v + E, where E = loss kinetic energy.
1 1
By kinetic energy conservation: 2mAuA2 +2mBuB2= (mA+ mB) v2+ E, multiplying by 2.
mAuA2 +mBuB2= (mA +mB) v2 + E, where E = loss kinetic energy.

COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION(e)
It is the ratio of the relative velocity after impact to the relative velocity before the impact of two
colliding bodies. It has no unit, hence dimensionless. It has value that ranges from 0 to 1. It is
zero (0) for perfectly inelastic collision and one (1) for perfectly elastic collision.
𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒆𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒆𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
e= 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒉 OR e= 𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒉
Consider two bodies with initial velocities u1 and u2 and final velocities v1 and v2 respectively
after collision. Then the coefficient of restitution is given as
𝒗 −𝒗
-e=𝒖𝟏 −𝒖𝟐
𝟏 𝟐

EX:
1. A bullet of mass, 20g is fired with a velocity of 50m/s from a gun of mass 2.5kg.
calculate the recoil velocity of the gun.
2. Two balls of masses 4kg and 5kg move with velocities 6m/s and 3m/s respectively. If the
balls collide inelastically, find the velocity of the ball after collision.
3. Two particles A and B of masses 5kg and 2.5kg moving in the opposite direction with
velocities 10m/s and 15m/s respectively collide with coefficient of restitution, 0.67.
i. Find the velocities of the particles after collision.
ii. What is the kinetic energy lost in the collision?
4. State Newton’s laws of motion and deduce the expression F = ma.
5. A car of mass 2000kg is accelerating at 2ms- ². What force is exerted by the engine?
6. Explain why the police insist that passengers should wear seat belts when cars are in
motion.
35
 7. A bullet of mass 20g is fired horizontally into a suspended wooden block of mass 180g
with a velocity of 100ms-1. Calculate the common velocity with which the embedded
wooden block moves.
8. State the principle of conservation of momentum.
9. In the diagram below, a body A, travelling with the velocity UA collides perfectly
elastically with another body B, initially at rest.

i. If the mass of A is twice that of B, show that, after collision, the velocity VA of A is
= 𝟏⁄𝟑
given as VA UA
ii. Calculate the initial velocity of A if it moves at 15ms-1 after the impact.
EX:
1. Two forces 10N and 4N pull a body in opposite directions. Find the resultant (net) force.
2. Two forces 15N and 9N act on a body in the same direction. Calculate the net force on
the body.
3. Differentiate between contact forces and field forces.
4. A worker applies a constant horizontal force with magnitude 20 N to a box with mass 40
kg resting on a level floor with negligible friction. What is the acceleration of the box?
5. List any six different types of forces. Describe the forces involved in the following
i. Grating cassava.
ii. Blending of vegetables
iii. Weaving a sisal rope
6. What is surface tension?
7. State two methods by which the surface tension of a liquid can be reduced.

Connected bodies
Connected bodies can be defined as any two particles connected by a light inextensible string
passing over a fixed light smooth frictionless pulley.
Tension is a force that is transmitted through a string, rope, cable or wire when it is pulled tight
by forces acting from opposite ends.
Consider the following connected bodies below.
(a)

36
From the diagram;
For m1: R=m1g and T=m1g
For m2: m2a=m2g-T
NB: If the plane on which the body of mass, m1 moves is rough, then; For m1: R=m1g but T-
fr=m1g, where, fr=frictional force.
(b)

From the diagram above: For m1: R=m1gcosɵ,

If the body moves up the plane, then T- (fr+m1gsinɵ) =m1a
For m2: m2a=m2g-T
(c)

From the diagram;

For m1: m1a = T-m1g
For m2: m2a=m2g-T , where, a=acceleration, T=tension in the string.
Worked examples
1. Two strings AB and CD acting on a uniform sphere of mass 5kg. If AB is horizontal and
CD is inclined at 30ᵒ to the horizontal, calculate the tension in each string. (Take g=
10m/s2).
2. A mass 6kg is placed on a smooth horizontal table and connected by a light inextensible
string passing over a smooth pulley and connected to 9kg hanging freely. Calculate the;
i. Acceleration of the motion

37
 ii. Tension in the string.
3. A mass of 6kg rest on a smooth horizontal table and is connected by a light string with mass
of 4kg hanging freely. Find the
a. Resulting acceleration of the system.
b. Tension in the string. (Take g=10m/s2).
4. Two particles of masses 7kg and 5kg hang freely on a light inextensible string connecting
them and passing over a smooth pulley. Calculate the acceleration of the resulting motion.
FRICTION
When an object is in contact with a surface, there are forces acting on the object.
The component of this force that is perpendicular to the surface is called the normal force. When
the object moves or attempts to move along the surface, there is also a component of the force
that is parallel to the surface. This parallel force component is called the frictional force, or
simply friction.
Friction is the force that tends to oppose two relative sliding surfaces that are in contact with
each other.
TYPES OF FRICTION
1. Static/limiting friction
2. Dynamic/kinetic friction.
a. Sliding friction
b. Rolling friction
c. Fluid friction ( air, water, oil resistance)
Static/ limiting friction is the friction between two surfaces that are not in relative motion with
each other. When a small force is applied to the block, it produces no movement, because the
static frictional force is exactly balances the applied force. The block just begins to move when
the applied force is slightly greater than the maximum static frictional force.
The maximum static frictional force that the surface of the table can exert on a block is the same,
whether the block is resting on its largest or its smallest side. The other main characteristic of is
that its magnitude is proportional to the magnitude of the normal force N. The magnitude of the
normal force indicates how hard two surfaces are being pressed together.
Dynamic/kinetic friction is the friction between two surfaces that are in relative motion with
respect to each other.
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
It is the ratio of the frictional force, f to the normal reaction, R acting on the body. It has no unit
and hence dimensionless.
𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟
μ=𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛= 𝑅 →fr=μR
There are two types of coefficient of friction.
1. Static coefficient of friction
Consider a box just moved by a horizontal force, F on a rough horizontal force.

fr F

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 mg
𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟
μ=𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛= 𝑅 →fr=μR
2. Dynamic coefficient of friction.
Coefficient of friction is minimum if its value is zero and maximum, if its value is one,1.
LAWS/CHARACTERISTICS OF FRICTIONAL FORCE
1. It depends on the nature of two surfaces in contact.
2. It depends on normal reaction.
3. It is independent of surface area of contact.
4. It always acts in the direction opposite the direction of the motion of the object.
5. It is independent of velocity of relative motion of the two bodies.
Merits
1. It is applicable in automobiles braking system
2. Clutching
3. Nailing
4. Writing
5. Walking
Demerits
1. Production of heat
2. Causes wear and tear ( e.g. in the pistons and cylinder walls of an automobile engine)
METHODS OF REDUCING FRICTION
1. Lubrication (oiling, greasing, alloying, powdering)
2. Use of ball bearing and rollers
3. Polishing
4. Streamlining
Forces at work
1. Consider a box of mass, m just moved by a horizontal force, F on a rough horizontal force.

fr F

mg
At equilibrium, normal reaction, R= weight of the body, mg and frictional force, fr= horizontal
force applied, F
𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟 𝐹
μ=𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛= 𝑅 =𝑚𝑔 →fr=μmg

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2. Consider a box of mass, m resting on an inclined plane making an angle, ɵ to the horizontal.
R
fr

mgsinɵ ɵ
ɵ mgcosɵ

mg
If the body is at equilibrium: The force parallel to the plane fr=mgsinɵ and the force
perpendicular to the plane, R= mgcosɵ
𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛ɵ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ɵ
But μ= 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠ɵ, in trigonometry; 𝑐𝑜𝑠ɵ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛ɵ therefore, μ=tanɵ

3. Consider a box of mass, m resting on rough inclined plane making an angle, ɵ to the
horizontal. The force, F parallel to the plane holds the box of mass, m at rest to prevent it
from sliding down the plane.
At equilibrium: The forces parallel to the plane, F +fr= mgsinɵ and
force perpendicular to the plane, R=mgcosɵ
R F fr

ɵ mgcosɵ
mgsinɵ ɵ

mg

4. Consider a box of mass, m resting on rough inclined plane making an angle, ɵ to the
horizontal. The force, F acts horizontally on the body.
Resolving, the force, F parallel and perpendicularly; Parallel force to the plane=Fcosα and
perpendicular force to the plane=Fsinα
At equilibrium: Forces parallel to the plane: Fcosα + fr =mgsinα
Forces perpendicular to the plane: R= mgcosα +Fsinα
R
fr
F
α
ɵ mgcosɵ
mgsinɵ ɵ

mg

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 Fluid friction ( Viscosity)
Viscosity is the property of a liquid which opposes the relative motion between different layers.
Terminal velocity is the maximum velocity attained by a body falling freely in a liquid.
Stoke’s law: According to the law, the backward viscous force acting on a small spherical body
of radius, r moving with a uniform velocity, v through a fluid of viscosity, is given by 6πrղv.
Where constant, k=6π, r= radius of the spherical body, v=velocity of the spherical body.
Forces acting on a body falling through a viscous liquid
1. Upthrust, U due to the liquid displaced
2. Weight, mg of the body
3. Viscous force, V which opposes motion.

Surface tension
Surface tension is the property of a liquid which makes its surface behave as though covered
with an elastic skin.
OR it is the tangential force on the surface of a liquid.
OR it is the force per unit length on the surface of a liquid.
Applications of surface tension
1. Mosquito larvae able to remain suspended on the surface of water due to surface tension
2. Razar blade or needle is able to float when placed on the surface of water due to the
surface tension.
3. Umbrella, raincoats and tents(canopies) made of canvas able to prevent rain from passing
through it due to surface tension.
4. Insects able to walk on the surface of ponds due to the surface tension of the pond.
Ways of reducing surface tension
1. Addition of soap and detergents
2. Heating the liquid
3. Spraying the surface of the liquid with kerosene or oil
4. Increasing the temperature of the liquid
Adhesive and Cohesive force
Adhesion is the force of attraction between molecules of different substances
Cohesion is the force of attraction between molecules of the same substance.
Capillarity
Capillarity is the ability of a liquid to rise or fall through narrow tubes or pores.
Effects/Applications of capillarity
1. Water rising up the stem of a plant
2. Absorption of ink by a blotting paper
3. Kerosene rising up the wick of a stove

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 4. Drink rising up in a straw put into an soft drink.
Moment of a force
Moment of a force about a point is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance from
the fulcrum to the point of application of the force. Its S.I unit is Nm.
Principle of moment
It states that if a body is acted on by a number of forces and the body still remains in equilibrium,
then the sum of all clockwise moments about a point is equal to the sum of all anticlockwise
moments about that same point.
Verification of the principle of moment using a lever (metre and knife edge and standard mass)
Consider a metre rule supported on knife-edge and acted on by three forces, F1, F2 and F3 below.
Suppose moments are taken about the point A of the knife-edge.
F3
x3

x1 x2
Knife-edge

F1 F2

If the metre rule remains in equilibrium, then the principle of moments is applied. Hence, from
the diagram:
Sum of clockwise moments= F2×x2
Sum of anticlockwise moments= F1×x1+ F3×x3
By the principle of moments; sum of clockwise moments is equal to the sum of anticlockwise
moments. That is F2×x2= F1×x1+ F3×x3
Torque and Couple
Couple are two equal forces that act on a body such that they act in opposite direction and are
parallel to one another.
Torque is the turning effect produced by the couple.
OR Torque is the moment of a couple. Torque=force × distance between the forces=F×d

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Centre of gravity (C.G)
Centre of gravity of a body is a point within the body where the total weight of the body acts.
Methods of determining the centre of gravity of a body
1. Balancing method: This is done by simply balancing a metre rule on a knife-edge
horizontally.
C.G

2. Plumb-line method
Plumb-line method
i. Make three small holes, A, B and C along the edge of the irregular sheet lamina.
ii. Suspend the plumb-line on a string pin and push it through one of the holes say A.
When the system is stationary, make a mark X on the lamina along the plumbline on
the opposite end of the hole, a straight line is drawn joining A and x.
iii. Repeat step II for two other holes B and C. Draw three lines on the lamina to meet at
G and that point, G represents the centre of gravity of the body.

Centre of mass
Centre of mass of a body is a point within the body where the entire mass of the body is
concentrated.
Stability of a body
It is the ability of a body to retain to its original position after being slightly tilted and released.
Factors affecting stability of a body
1. Base of the body: The broader the base of a body, the more stable the body and the
narrower the base of the body, the more unstable the body.
2. Position of centre of gravity (c.g) above the ground: A higher the position of centre of
gravity above the ground, the more stable the body and the lower the centre of gravity of a
body, the more unstable the body.
3. Potential energy of the body: The bigger the potential energy of the body, the more stable
the body and vice-versa.

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EQUILIBRIUM AND EQUILIBRANT
A body is said to be in equilibrium if;
1. The resultant (net) force on it is zero, 0.
2. The forces acting on it meet at common point.
3. The sum of all the forces in one direction is equal to the sum of all forces in the opposite
direction.
Equilibrium
A body is said to be at equilibrium if the body all the forces act remains at rest or moves with a
constant (linear or angular) velocity.
Types of Equilibrium
1. Stable equilibrium
2. Unstable equilibrium
3. Neutral equilibrium
Stable equilibrium
A body is said to be in stable equilibrium if the body after slightly tilted and released will come
to its original position. Examples; A cone resting on its base, A brief case lying on its side on a
table etc.
Unstable equilibrium
A body is said to be in stable equilibrium if the body after slightly tilted and released will not
come to its original position. Examples; A cone resting on its apex, A pen resting on its tip, A
candle stick standing on its tip.
Neutral equilibrium
A body is said to be in stable equilibrium if the body after slightly tilted and released will stay in
the position or rolls on. Examples; A cone rolling on its side, A moving football, A pen rolling
on its side.

EQUILIBRANT
Equilibrant is a single force equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the resultant force of
a number of forces.
EX:
1. A body of mass 200kg is placed on a rough horizontal floor. If the body is moved at a
constant speed by the application of a horizontal force of 500N, calculate:
i. The force exerted by the floor on the body
ii. The coefficient of friction (take g= 10m/s2)
2. A body of mass 20kg moves down along an inclined plane of inclination 30ᵒ. If the plane
is smooth, calculate the acceleration.

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