ME 255 Handout 2015(1)

ME 255 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS I KNUST-2015/AAA/03
1.0 Moments of Areas
1.1 The Centroid of an Area and First Moment of an Area
The definition of the first moment of an area A as given in Figure 1 in the x-y plane, with dA
indicating a small element of the area, is given as the integral:
Figure 1 The first Moment of an Area
=∫ with reference to the x-axis and

=∫ with reference to the y-axis.
The centroid of the Area A in Figure 2 is defined as the point C of coordinates and which satisfy
the relations:
Figure 2 The Centroid of an Area
=∫ and =∫ or = and = . That is, the first moment of area can be

expressed as the product of the area A and the coordinates of its centroid. Also for a composite area the
expression: ∑ = ∑ and ∑ = ∑ holds for the coordinates of the common centroid
( , ).
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1.1.1 The first Moment of Area of a Rectangle

From Figure 3 the first moment of area of the rectangle can be calculated as follows:
Figure 3 The first moment of area of the rectangle
= = bh × (h/2) = ℎ
= = bh × (b/2) = ℎ
1.2 Second Moment or Moment of Inertia of an Area and Radius of

Gyration
Considering the area A in the x-y plane given in Figure 4, the second moment of area or moment of
inertia of the area A with respect to the x-axis, and the second moment of area or moment of inertia of
the area A with respect to the y-axis are defined, respectively, as:
Figure 4 The Moment of Inertia of an Area
=∫ and =∫
2
Given that R is the distance of the element dA from the point O, the polar moment of inertia of area A
is given as the integral:
=
But R2 = x2 + y2, therefore
=∫ ( + ) =∫ +∫ = Ix + Iy
The radius of gyration of an area with respect to the x-axis is defined as the quanty rx that satisfies the
relation:
Ix = rx2A where Ix is the moment of inertia of the area A with respect to the x-axis. Thus rx is given as
Similarly, Iy = ry2A where Iy is the moment of inertia of the area A with respect to the y-axis. Thus ry is
given as
Also, Jo = ro2A and = where ro2 = rx 2 + ry 2.
When an area possesses an axis of symmetry, the first moment of area about that axis is zero. Since the
first moment of area is a product of the area and the distance from the centroid to the reference axis,
the centroid lies on the axis of symmetry, if the area possesses one.
1.2.1 The Second Moment of Area or Moment of Inertia of a Rectangle

From Figure 5 the second moment of area of the rectangle and its radius of gyration can be calculated
as follows:
Figure 5 The Moment of Inertia of a Rectangle
3
A horizontal element of the area with length b and width dy is used for the calculation.
The moment of inertia of the element area with respect to the centroidal x-axis is
dIx = y2dA = y2(bdy)
Integrating from y = − to + - gives
/
1 /
= = ( )= [ ] /
/ 3
= + = ℎ
The radius of gyration is by definition given by the expression:
Ix = rx2A which by substitution gives = = = =
√
1.2.2 Parallel Axis Theorem

Consider the moment of inertia Ix of the irregular area A in Figure 6 about an arbitrary x-axis. Let the
distance from the element of area dA to the x-axis be y. Drawing a new axis x’ through the centroid
and parallel to the x-axis at a distance d apart, and denoting the distance of the element from the x’ as
y’ , it can be said that y = y’+d. Substituting for y in the equation of moment of inertia:
Figure 6 Illustration of the Parallel Axis Theorem
= = ( + )
= ′ +2 ′ +
∫ = ̅ the moment of inertia of the area with respect to the x’ axis.

∫ = d2A and
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∫ ′ = Qx’= ′ = A(0) = 0 since the reference axis for the first moment of area, Qx’ passes
through the centroid. Therefore the moment of inertia of the area with respect to an axis at a distance d
from a parallel axis through the centroid is given as:
= ̅ +
This formula, also called the parallel axis theorem, states that the moment of inertia Ix of an area with
respect to an arbitrary x axis is equal to the moment of inertia ̅ of the area with respect to the
centroidal x’ axis parallel to the x axis, plus the product of the area A and the square of the distance d
between the two axes. This makes it possible to determine the moment of inertia of an area with
respect to a given axis, when its moment of inertia with respect to the centroidal axis of the same
direction is known.
Similarly, an equation can be derived for the polar moment of inertia Jo of an area with respect to an
arbitrary point O and the polar moment of inertia ̅ of the same area with respect to its centroid C.
Let d be the distance between points O and C. Then it can be said that
= ̅ +
Example 1.1
Determine the centroid and the moment of inertia of the composite area in Figure Ex 1.1.
Figure Ex 1.1
Section Area [cm2] [cm] A [cm3]

A 5 x 30 = 150 2.5 375
B 5 x 20 = 100 7.5 750
C 5 x 10 = 50 12.5 625
Sum 300 1750
∑
∑ =∑ A⇒ = = = 5.833333 5.83 cm
∑
Ix’ = ∑ ( + ) = ∑( + )
5
× ×
= +30 5× (5.83 − 2.5) + +20 5× (7.5 − 5.83) +
×
+ +10 5× (12.5 − 5.83)
= (1975.8350 + 487.2233 + 2328.6117) cm4
= 4791.67 cm4
Example 1.2
Determine the centroid and the moment of inertia of the composite area in Figure Ex 1.2.
Figure Ex 1.2
Section Area [cm2] [cm] A [cm3]

A 4 x 0.5 = 2 0.25 0.5
B 2 x 0.5 = 1 1.5 1.5
Sum 3 2
∑
∑ =∑ A⇒ = = = 0.666666667 ≈ 0.6667 cm
∑
Ix’ = ∑ ( + ) = ∑( + )
× . . ×
= +4 0.5× (0.6667 − 0.25) + +0.5× 2 × (1.5 − 0.6667)
= 0.3889 + 1.0277 cm4
= 1.4166 cm4
Homework Assignment 1
For the shaded area in Figure HW 1.1 (a), determine:

a. the centroid, and sketch to show the centroid on the area
b. the moment of inertia Ix with respect to an x-axis through the centroid and
c. the moment of inertia Iy, with respect to a y-axis through the centroid.
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a. b.
Figure HW 1.1
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2.0 Axial Loading
When a load P is applied to an object with cross-sectional area A, the stress on the object is defined as
the force per unit area, and is given by = . The strain experienced by the object as a result of the
introduction of P is defined as the deformation per unit length or = . These are engineering stress
and strain. From Hook’s law, σ = εE, therefore = . The expression for the deformation
experienced axially as a result of the applied force P is = .
Example 2.1
The rod in Figure Ex 2.1 is made up of two different materials bonded firmly together. It is made of
brass of diameter 4 cm and steel of diameter 3 cm, and is subjected to an axial force, P of 10 kN. Take
the modulus of elasticity of brass to be 105 GPa and that of steel to be 200 GPa.
Figure Ex 2.1
a. Draw free body diagrams of the rod components.

b. Find the stresses in the two components.
c. Find the deformation in the two components.
d. Find the total deformation in the rod.
Solution:
(a)
∑ = 0; -FAB + 10 × 10 = 0
∑ = 0; -FBC + 10 × 10 = 0
FAB = FBC = 10 × 10
(b)
×
= = = 7,957,747.155 = 7.96 MPa
( . )
×
= = = 14,147,106.05 = 14.15 MPa
( . )
(c)
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10 × 10 × 1.5
= = = 1.136821022 × 10 m = 0.114 mm
105 × 10 × (0.02)
10 × 10 × 1.0
= = = 7.073553026 × m = 0.007 mm
200 × 10 × (0.015)
(d)
+ = 0.121 mm
Example 2.2
A horizontal bar AB is hinged at A and has a load of 5 kN attached at B, as shown in Figure Ex 2.2.
Assume the bar AB to be rigid and of a negliggible weight. If the bar is supported by a bronze rod 2.44
m long and a steel rod 0.91 m long, use the data in the table below to answer the questions.
Figure Ex 2.2
Table Ex 2.2
Steel Bronze
Cross-sectional Area 6.45 cm2 3.23 cm2
Modulus of Elasticity 207 GPa 83 GPa
Proportional limit 242 MPa 138 MPa
a. Draw a free body diagram of the bar.

b. Find the support forces supplied by the bronze and steel rods.
c. Find the stresses in the bronze and steel rods.
d. Find the deformation in the bronze and steel rods.
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Solution:
(a)
(b)
The free body diagram is statically indeterminate.

↶∑ = 0; 3Fs + 8Fb = 12 × 5 × 10 (1)
From the similar triangles formed in the free body diagram

× . × .
= ⇔ = ⇔ =
× . × × × × . × × ×
= 5.008 (2)
Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously gives:
= 5.008
23.024 = 60 × 10
⇒ = 2,605.976 N and = 13,050.730 N
(c)
, .
= = . ×
= 20,233,689.920 Pa ≈ 20.23 MPa
, .
= = = 8,068,037.152 Pa ≈ 8.07 MPa
. ×
, . × .
= = = 8.895003782 × 10 mm ≈ 0.089 mm
. × × ×
, . × .
= = = 2.371808512 × 10 m ≈ 0.237 mm
. × × ×
Example 2.3
A copper rod of length 4 m with a uniform cross-sectional area hangs freely and vertically from the
ceiling of a building at one end. If the diameter is 1 cm, draw a free body diagram of the rod and use it
to find the deformation in the rod as a result of its own weight. Copper: E = 120 GPa, ρ = 8910 kg/m3,
g = 9.81 m/s2.
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Solution
From the free body diagram, the force in the copper rod Fc is obtained by summing forces in the y
direction:
∑ = 0; Fc – W = 0; where W is the weight of the rod.
W = mg = ρVg = ρAyg where m = mass, A = cross-sectional area, V = volume.
i.e. P(y) = W = ρAyg
( ) ( ) ( )
For a variable load, = or here = and = ∫ , therefore
× . ×
=∫ = ∫ = = = 3.329794286 × 10 m ≈ 3.33 × 10 m
× ×
2.1 Tensile Test

The tensile test is one of the common ways of assessing the mechanical behavior of a material. It is
used mostly for metals and polymers, but not used for ceramics except at very high temperatures.
During the test, information about forces and their corresponding displacement is gathered and used to
assess “strength” and “deformability” of materials. Figure 2.1 shows a diagram of the set up used for
the tensile test.
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Figure 2.1 Tensile Test Machine
Materials to be tested are usually made into some standard geometries for the test. Figure 2.2 shows
examples of specimen used for the test; the “Buttonhead” is used for specimen with a circular cross-
section and the “Dogbone” is used for specimen with flat cross-section.
Figure 2.2 Tensile Test Specimen for Circular Cross-Section
A graph is plotted for the engineering stress against the corresponding engineering strain and used to
assess the strength of the material. The unit for the stress (load per unit area) is the Pascal (Pa) or
Newton per square meter. Pound per square inch (psi) is used in the imperial system of units.
1 psi = 1 lb/in2 = 6.895 x 10-3 MPa = 7.032 x 10-4 kg/mm2 = 6.8 x 104 dynes/cm2
1 MPa = 1 MN/m2 = 1 N/mm2 = 1 x 106 N/m2
Engineering stress is defined as the ratio of the applied load to the original cross-sectional area;
F
σE = . This gives the average stress in the object and here represents the normal tensile stress.
Ao
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Engineering Strain on the other hand is defined as the ratio of the change in length to the original
length. Strain is either expressed as a fraction or as a percentage. For example 0.02 is the same as 2%
strain. This represents the average linear strain in the object concerned;
L L
εE = f o . A typical engineering stress-strain curve for a tensile test of a ductile material is shown
Lo
in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3 A typical tesile test curve for a ductile material
During axial loading there is elastic deformation up to the elastic limit, followed by plastic
deformation after the elastic limit. Between the elastic limit and the ultimate tesile strength (UTS) is a
uniform plastic deformation followed by a non-uniform plastic deformation after the UTS. In tension
this non-uniform deformation is called necking.
True stress is defined as the ratio of the applied force to the instantaneous cross-sectional area. The
true strain is defined as the ratio of the natural logarithms of the final length to the original length.
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2.2 Shear Stress and Strain

Shear stress is a stress that results due to a force that tends to shear an object or a component, the force
is distributed within a planar area under shear. The shear stress is defined as the ratio of the shearing
force to the area under the shear action. Shear stresses tend to distort objects. Shear strains are a
measure of the shear distortion. Figure 2.4 gives an illustration of a shearing action.
Figure 2.4 Shearing action of a force
Figure 2.5 shows a combination of normal tensile and shearing stresses experienced at different
sections in a butt joint.
Figure 2.5 Normal Tensile and Shear Stresses at a Joint
Figure 2.6 shows a hydraulic powered punch used to cut circular holes into plates. The average
shearing stress used to cut the hole is given by = =
14
Figure 2.6 Shearing action of a Punch
Example 2.4
The butt-joint shown in Figure Ex 2.4 is fastened with a pin of diameter 15 mm. The force P on the
joint has a magnitude of 3 kN, calculate the average shearing stress on the pin.
Figure Ex 2.4 Butt Joint
/ × ×
= = /
= = ×( . )
= 8,488,263.632 Pa ≈ 8.49 MPa
2.3 Thermal Stresses and Strains

Most engineering materials expand when heated and contract when cooled. The strain caused by a
change of one degree (1°) in temperature is known as the coefficient of thermal expansion (α). The
strain caused by a temperature change ΔT, εt, is αΔT. That is, εt = αΔT. The thermal deformation is the
length multiplied by the thermal strain. That is δ = εtLo = αΔTLo. The thermal stress σt, induced as a
result of the thermal strain is obtained by making use of the Hook’s law; i.e by multiplying the thermal
strain by the modulus of elasticity. σt = Eεt = EαΔT.
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Example 2.5
The machine component in Figure Ex 2.5 is designed in such a way that the gap d, which is 0.25 mm
just closes at the operational temperature. Given that the bar is 50 cm long and is made with
aluminium of cross-sectional area 2000 mm2, coefficient of thermal expansion of 23× 10 /° and
modulus of elasticity of 75 GPa, find the change in temperature that will cause the gap to just close.
Figure Ex 2.5
Solution
d = δ = εtLo = αΔTLo
×
ΔT = = = 21.73913 ° ≈ 21.7 °
× × .
Besides tension, compression and torsion, here are other modes of deformation experienced by objects
when forces are applied. Figure 2.7 illustrates some of these modes of deformation.
Figure 2.7
2.4 Stress Components on an Oblique Plane

Figure 2.8 shows the resolution of an axial force on a plane inclned at θ degees.
16
Figure 2.8 Resolution of an axial force on an inclned plane
The total force F, can be resolved onto an oblique plane. This gives the normal stress and shearing
stress components on the plane as follows:
∅
= = =
( / )
∅
= = =
( / )
2.5 Poisson’s Ratio

During axial loading of homogeneous and isotropic materials, stress and strain result. In the lateral
direction, the stresses are zero. However, the lateral strain as a result of the axial loading is not zero.
For example, if an axial load P is introduced in the x-direction, the stress introduced, = , where A
is the cross-sectional area. This causes an elongation and for that mater a positive strain in the x-
direction, but contraction in the lateral y- and z-directions. This introduces negative strains. The
Poisson is used to account for this effect. The Poisson’s ratio ν, is defined as:
lateral strain lateral strain
= − = − =− = −
axial strain longitudinal strain
The Poisson’s ratio has no dimension. Hook’s law gives σ = Eε and = within the elastic region.
Therefore for an applied axial load in x-direction, the strain = and = = −
Generally for multi axial loading,
= − ( + ), = − ( + ) and = − ( + ).
Also = where = ( )
.
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Example 2.6
A steel bar with a square cross-sectional area has a width of 1 cm and a length of 1 m. If it is loaded
axially with a tensile force of 500 kN, determine the decrease in the width as a result of the load. E =
210 GPa, = 0.3.
∆ =
=− =−
. × . × ×
Therefore ∆ = − =− =− = −7.142857143 × 10 m
. × . × ×
≈ −0.071 mm
2.6 Torsion
Torsion is a mode of deformation that results from the twisting effect of an applied force or torque.
Figure 2.8 shows an example of a circular shaft and a square bar in torsion. Figure 2.8 (a) and (c)
show the object before the application of the torque, T; while (b) and (d) show the deformed objects
after the application of the torque.
Figure 2.8
Consider the cylindrical shaft in Figure 2.9 of length L and radius r. If it is subjected to torsion from a
twisting torque T, then the deformation experienced at every cross-section is considered to remain
plane and undistorted. The arc length d, is equal to γL. d is also equal to θr.
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(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.9 Torsion in a circular shaft
Torque T = ∫ . ; But =
Then =∫ . =; Therefore =∫ . = ∫ . . But = ∫
Therefore Tr = , giving =
The application of Hooke’s law gives: τ = Gγ = Grdθ/dL
Therefore = and =
Which implies ∫ = ∫
i.e. = and =
Figure 2.10 (a) shows a circular shaft undergoing torsion due to the torques T1 and T2 the torque
distribution along the shaft is shown in Figure 2.10 (b).
Figure 2.10
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Example 2.6
The steel shaft in Figure Ex 2.6 has different torque applied at B and C. Given that G = 77.2 GPa,
determine:
a. the normal stresses in sections AB and BC
b. the shearing stress in section AB.
c. the shearing stress in section BC.
d. the angle of twist in degrees between B and C.
e. the angle of twist in degrees between A and B.
f. the angle of twist in degrees between A and C.
Figure Ex 2.6
Solution
∑ = 0; – FAB + 20× 10 = 0; ⇒ FAB = 20 × 10 N (1)

∑ = 0; – FBC + 20× 10 = 0; ⇒ FBC = 20 × 10 N (2)
∑ = 0; TBC – 8 × 10 = 0; ⇒ TBC = 8 × 10 N.m (3)
∑ = 0; TAB – 8 × 10 + 5 × 10 = 0; ⇒ TAB = 3 × 10 N.m (4)
a. FAB = FBC = 20 × 10 N
×( . )
AAB = ABC = = = 7.853982 × 10 m2
×
σAB = = . ×
= 2,546,478.971 Pa ≈ 2.55 MPa
×
σBC = = . ×
= 2,546,478.971 Pa ≈ 2.55 MPa
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b. τAB =
( . )
= = = 9.817477042 × 10
0.1
= = = 0.05 m
2 2
× × .
τAB = = = 15,278,869.93 ≈ 15.28 MPa
. ×
c. τBC =
( . )
= = = 9.817477042 × 10 m4
0.1
= = = 0.05 m
2 2
× × .
τBC = = . ×
= 40,743,653.16 Pa ≈ 40.74 MPa
× × . °
d. = = = 0.01266642 rad = 0.01266642 ×
. × × . ×
= 0.725732
× × . °
e. = = = 2.374953876 × 10 rad = 0.01266642 ×
. × × . ×
= 0.136075
f. = + = 0.725732 + 0.136075 = 0.861807 0.86
2.6 Stresses in Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels

The stresses in the thin walled vessel can be found by resolving the forces on the vessel. Let σh be the
hoop’s stress or normal stress tangential to the curved surface of the vessel and σa be the normal stress
along the longitudinal axis as shown in Figures 2.10 and 2.11.
Figures 2.10 Hoop’s Stress in a Pressure Vessel
Resolving and summing forces in Figure 2.10 gives:

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∑ = 0; 2Fh – Fx = 0
2σhLt – p2rL = 0.
σh = =
Figures 2.11 Longitudinal Stress in a Pressure Vessel
Similarly, resolving and summing forces in Figure 2.11 gives the longitudinal normal stress as:
∑ = 0; FR – Fa = 0
2πrtσa – pπr2 = 0.
σa = =
Example 2.7
For the tank in Figure Ex 2.7, the internal diameter, D is 450 mm and the uniform wall thickness t is 6
mm. If it is filled with compressed-air at a pressure of 1.2 MPa, determine:
a. the hoop stress
b. the longitudinal stress
c. the shearing stress in the walls of the tank.
Figure Ex 2.7
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Solution
a. Hoop Stress
. × × .
σh = = = 45,000,000 Pa = 45 MPa
.
. × × .
b. σL = = = 22,500,000 Pa = 22.5 MPa
× .
c. The shearing stress due to pressure in a thin wall pressure vessel is zero; τxy = 0.
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3.0 Deflection of Beams
3.1 Bending Moment and Shearing Force Diagrams

To draw the bending moment and shearing force diagrams of a beam under transverse loading, the free
body diagram is first drawn and the reaction forces at the supports calculated. The bending moment
along the beam is then calculated with emphasis on the extreme and critical points. The calculated
forces and moments are used in the drawing of the diagrams. Figure 3.1 (a) shows a beam supported at
the ends A and B. (Assume a simple support). Figure 3.1 (b) shows the relevant free body diagram
with calculated reactions. Since the loading is strictly transverse, the reactions in the x- direction are
equal to zero. Figure 3.1 (c) and (d) show respectively the shearing force and bending moment
diagrams.
Figure 3.1 Bending Moment and shearing force diagrams of a uniformly distributed load.
Example 3.1
For the beam in Figure Ex 3.1, draw:

a. a free body diagram
b. the shearing force diagram
c. the bending moment diagram.
24
Figure Ex 3.1
Solution:
Example 3.2

Figure Ex 3.2
25
Solution:
Example 3.3

Figure Ex 3.3
26
Solution:
Example 3.4
For the simply supported beam in Figure Ex 3.4

a. draw a free body diagram
b. find the reactions at the supports
c. find the bending moment of the beam segment AC
d. find the bending moment of the beam segment CB
e. find the equation of the shearing forces in the beam
f. find the equation of the deflection of the beam at C.
g. find the general equation of the deflection of the beam.
Figure Ex 3.4
27
b.
∑ = 0; Ax = 0;
∑ = 0; Ay + B – P = 0;
∑ = 0; − + BL = 0; ⇒ B = and Ay =
c.
For section AC x < L/4

↶∑ = 0; − + M1 = 0; ⇒ M1 =
d.
↶∑ = 0; − + P(x− ) + M2 = 0; ⇒ M2 = −P(x− )
e. Shearing forces:
V1 = =
V2 = = − =
f.
28
Bending Moment = EI
For section AC
EI = M1 =
EI = +C1
EIy1 = +C1x + C2
For section CB
EI = M2 = −P(x− ) = − +
EI =− + PLx + C3
EIy2 = − + PL + C3x + C4
Boundary conditions:
x = 0, y1 = 0; ⇒ C2 = 0
x = L, y2 = 0; ⇒ 0 = + C3L + C4
At C
x= , = ;
⇒ + C1 = + C3
x= , = ;
⇒ + C1 = + C3 + C 4
Solving for the constants give:
C1 = − PL2; C3 = − and C4 =
Substituting C1 and C2
EI = − PL2
EIy1 = − PL2x
=−
yc = −
g.
EIy2 = − + PL + C3x + C4
Substituting C3 and C4
EIy2 = − + PL − +
Using singularity functions:
29
From previous solution:

B = , Ax = 0 and Ay =
Mx = −P〈 − 〉
EI = Mx = −P〈 − 〉
EI = EIθ = − P〈 − 〉 + C1
EI = − P〈 − 〉 + C1x + C2
Boundary conditions:
x = 0, y = 0 (1)
x = L, y = 0 (2)
From (1): 0 = 0 − P〈0 − 〉 + 0 + C2

The content of bracket 〈 − 〉 turns negative, therefore 〈0 − 〉 is set to 0
Therefore C2 = 0.
From (2): 0= − P〈 〉 + C1L
The content of bracket 〈 − 〉 turns positive, therefore 〈 − 〉 becomes −
Therefore C1 = −
EI = − P〈 − 〉 −
y= − 〈 − 〉 −
For the beams in Figure HW 3.1, draw:

a. free body diagrams
b. the shearing force diagrams
c. the bending moment diagrams.
30
a.
b.
Figure HW 3.1
For the beam and loading in Figure HW 3.2, draw:

a. a free body diagram of the beam
b. the shearing force diagram of the beam
c. the bending moment diagram of the beam
d. calculate the stresses due to bending at section A-A positions a, b and c.
Figure HW 3.2
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Example 3.5
For the beam and loading shown in Figure Ex 3.5, determine
Figure Ex 3.5
a. the equation of the elastic curve

b. the maximum deflection for the beam.
Example 3.6
A simply supported beam is loaded as shown in Figure Ex 2.6, find:

a. a general equation for the deflection of the beam using singularity function,
b. the deflection at a distance x = L from the left support,
c. the deflection at the middle of the span.
32
Figure Ex 3.6
Example 3.7
A beam is loaded and supported as shown in Figure Ex 3.7. Use singularity functions to determine the
deflection
a. at the point C
b. at a point midway between the supports
33
Figure Ex 3.7
Example 3.8
A beam is loaded and supported as illustrated in Figure Ex 3.8. Use singularity functions to determine
a. the deflection at point C
b. at a section midway between the supports.
34
Figure Ex 3.8
Example 3.9
A beam is loaded and supported as illustrated in Figure Ex 3.9. Use singularity functions to determine
c. the deflection midway between the supports
d. the maximum deflection of the beam.
35
Figure Ex 3.9
36
4.0 States of Stress and Strain
In most service conditions and forming operations, loading is not uni-axial. Most engineering
structures and materials experience multi-axial loading. This means that they will be subject to varying
combinations of normal and shear stresses. Stress and strain under these conditions need to be defined
and investigated. Stresses in different directions and different inclinations can be investigated by
resolving forces on components along different inclined planes. State of stress at any point in a
component is easily described by the normal and shear stress components.
4.1 Transformation of Plane Stress

Structures and components in engineering are subjected to many different types of applied loads.
These include loads that cause the objects to be in tension, compression, bending, torsion, or under
pressure, and sometimes a combination of two or more of such conditions. This brings about complex
states of normal and shear stress conditions. The stress components vary in magnitude and direction
relative to their location in the structure and the coordinate system with which they are related. There
is the need to make sure that the structures and components designed do not fail as a result of the
applied stresses. There is therefore the need to identify locations where stresses are severe in order to
dimension the component appropriately to avoid failure.
The maximum and minimum stresses occur along the principal axes. Steps will be taken to identify the
principal stresses and axes. Figure 4.1 (a) shows the stresses in all three directions of the cartesian
coordinate system. These stresses are put together in a matrix form as shown in Figure 3.1 (b) to give
the stress tensor.
Figure 4.1 Three Dimensional Stress and the Stress Tensor
If we limit ourselves to two dimensions, we achieve a condition called plane stress. This is a situation
in which all stresses in one particular dimension are set to zero. Thus in plane stress condition all
stresses in one particular primary direction are equal to zero as illustrated in Figure 4.2.
37
Figure 4.2
Through the transformation of stresses, the stress conditions of an object at different points and in
different orientations can be obtained. For example, stresses in the x- and y-directions can be
transformed to the x’- and y’-directions inclined at and angle θ to the x and y axes respectfully, by
resolving and balancing all forces in the new directions. This transforms the stress state in Figure 4.3 a
to that in Figure 4.3 b.
Figure 4.3 Plane Stress Transformation
Resolving and summing forces along the x′ followed by y′ direction using Figure 4.4:
38
Figure 4.4 Stress and Force Components of the State of Stress
Dividing through by dA and solving for σx’ and τx’y’ yields:
Since σy′ is 90° away from σx′, σy′ is:
The three boxed equations are known as the transformation of stress equations. The transformation of
stress equations can further be simplified by using the trigonometry double-angle identities:
39
, and to give:
The transformed equations provide us with the stresses re-oriented to a new coordinate system. It is
observed that for a plane stress situation the sum of the normal stresses exerted on a cubic element of
material is independent of the orientation of that element. That is
4.2 Principal planes

The principal plane plane on which the maximum and minimum normal stresses occur. The orientation
can be found by finding the derivative of σx’ and equating it to zero.
The normal stress, σx’ is maximum or minimum when its derivative is equal to zero:
Solving for θ yields, the angle of inclination of the plane on which maximum and minimum normal
stresses occur.
40
By definition the Principal Plane is the plane where shear stress is zero. Similarly, to find the plane on
which the shear stress is maximum, the derivative of τx’y’ can be used.
The maximum in-plane shear stress can therefore be found as folows:
Solving for θ yields the plane of maximum/minimum shear stress.
41
4.3 Mohr’s Stress Circle
The Mohr’s stress circle provides a graphical way of representing the transformation of stress
equations. The equation for the Mohr’s circle can be derived by rearranging the stress transformation
equations. The stress transformation equations
and
Re-writing the equations as:
Squaring both sides of each equation and adding the two together yields:
or
Equation for a circle expressed in coordinates with the center at ,
Recall the equation for a circle with center coordinates (a, b) and radius R:
(x-a)2 +(x- b)2 = R2. Comparing, the center of Mohr’s circle lies at
The radius of Mohr’s circle, R is:
Therefore σmax = σ1 = σaverage + R and σmin = σ2 = σaverage – R.
42
4.3.1 Steps in the Construction of Mohr’s Circle

1. Draw a state of stress free body diagram. i.e. show the stresses σx, σy, and τxy on a cube. Label the
vertical plane V and the horizontal plane H.
2. Write the coordinates of points V and H as V(σx, - τxy) and H(σy, τxy). A positive value for σij
produces a clockwise (CW) moment about the center of the cube (i.e. CW rotation of the cube).
3. Draw the horizontal axis with the tensile normal stress to the right (i.e. positive) and the
compressive normal stress to the left (i.e. negative).
4. Draw the vertical axis with the clockwise (CW) direction of shear stress (i.e. positive) up and the
anti-clockwise (ACW) direction of rotation down.
4. Locate points V and H and join the points by drawing a line. Label the point where line VH
intersects the horizontal axis as C, the center of the circle. The center has coordinates C (σaverage, 0).
5. Draw Mohr’s circle with point C as the center and a radius, R of length CH or
6. The angle between lines CV and Cσ1 is labeled 2θ because the angles on Mohr’s circle are double
the actual angle between planes.
7. To determine the direction of rotation (i.e. the sign) we first record the direction in which we move
from point V(σx, -τxy) to point (σ1, 0) on Mohr’s circle. If the direction of rotation is ACW (i.e.
towards the positive shear direction), then the sign of θ is positive. If the rotation is CW then the
sign of θ is negative. This is illustrated in Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5 The Mohr’s Stress Circle
43
Figure 4.6 State of Stress free body Diagram
Note that some engineering literature construct Mohr’s circle with shear stress pointing downwards. In
this case, the rotations between the principal stress axes and the state of stress on the volume element
will be opposite of that on this Mohr’s circle. It is therefore necessary to note the convention used in
the literature you are using.
Example 4.1
Consider a point in a solid that is subjected to the following state of stress:
σx = 90 MPa; σy = -50 MPa; τxy = -60 MPa.
a. Draw a free body diagram representing the stress state.
b. Determine the principal stresses, the maximum in-plane shear stress acting on the point, and the
orientation of the principal planes using Mohr’s circle.
c. Show the stresses on an appropriate diagram.
44
Solution
a.
b.
45
c.
4.4 Mohr’s Strain Circle
Mohr’s strain circle is very close to the stress circle. The differences would be outlined.
The center is given by: (εave, 0), where εave = ( + ε )
The radius of the Mohr’s strain circle is: = +

The principal strains are given by: ε1 = εave + R and : ε2 = εave - R
The maximum shearing strain is: γmax = 2R
As a result of the similarity of the Mohr’s stress and strain circles, Mohr’s circle of strain can be
transformed into a concentric Mohr’s circle of stress by means of the scale transformations:
= ;( ) =( )
Where and are respectively the radii of the stress and strain circles in Figure 4.7 and
( ) and ( ) are respectively the stress and strain coordinates of the centers of the concentric
circles. E is modulus of elasticity and ν is the Poisson’s ratio of the material.
46
Figure 4.7 Transformation of Mohr’s circle of strain to Mohr’s circle of stress
Example 4.2
The grain of a wooden member in a structure makes an angle of 15 to the vertical. For the state of
stress shown in Figure Ex 4.2, determine:
a. the in-plane shearing stress parallel to the grain

b. the normal stress perpendicular to the grain
Solution
a.
From the state of stress diagram:
= 0 MPa, = −2.5 MPa, = −1.5 MPa, θ = −15°
−
= − 2 + 2
2
(−2.5) − (−1.5)
= − sin(−30) + 0
2
= -0.25 MPa
b.
+ −
= + 2 + 2
2 2
47
(−2.5) + (−1.5) (−2.5) − (−1.5)

= + cos(−30) + 0
2 2
= -2.45 MPa
Example 4.3
For the wooden member in Example 4.2, subjected to the state of stress shown in Figure Ex 4.3,
determine:
Figure Ex 4.3
a. the in-plane shearing stress parallel to the grain

b. the normal stress perpendicular to the grain
Solution
= 600 MPa, σ = 0 MPa, σ = 0 MPa, θ = −15°
Solving as in Example 3.2 the answers are:
a. = 520 MPa
b. = -300 MPa
48
5.0 Failure Criteria

Mathematical tools and formulae are used to decide whether the state of stress in a material will cause
plastic deformation or failure. Considering an isotropic polycrystalline metal deformed in uni-axial
tension. It will yield when the applied stress is equal to or greater than the yield stress. For the stated
problem the yield criterion is: ≥ , where is the yield stress or yield strength.
However, considering the same isotropic polycrystalline metal deformed in a multi-axial stress state.
We can not simply determine the stress at yielding because stress will vary from point to point. Instead
we calculate an equivalent stress from the components of the stress tensor and compare it with the
critical stress for yielding or failure.
For an isotropic metal under a uni-axial tension for example, the material deforms elastically up to the
yield stress. When applied load reaches the critical load (i.e., the yield point), plastic deformation
occurs. The yield or failure criterion could be expressed as:
( )= − =0
For an isotropic material, the yield criteria can be expressed in terms of the principal stresses;
( , , )=0
If the function ( , , ) is plotted on an orthogonal σ1, σ2, σ3 axes a yield surface is obtained. The
yield surface can be used to determine, for each possible state of stress, whether or not a material
yields or fails.
There are many different yield criteria. Only three are going to be considered. They are the Mohr’s
criterion (for brittle fracture prediction), the maximum shearing stress criterion and the maximum
distortion energy criterion (for ductile yielding prediction).
5.1 Mohr’s Fracture Criterion

The Mohr’s criterion is used to predict the failure of brittle materials. The criterion states that if the
plot of the principal stresses falls within the envelope in Figure 5.1, then no failure occurs. However, if
it falls outside the enclosed region, failure will occur.
Figure 5.1 Mohr’s Fracture Criterion Yield Surface
49
In other words, if the value of the expression: − is less than one, no fracture occurs, else if
it is more than one, then fracture would occur.
i.e., if − > 1 yielding occurs.
But if − < 1 no yielding occurs.
Example 5.1
For a cast iron material with ultimate tensile strength of 160 MPa, and ultimate compression strength
of 320 MPa, having the stress conditions shown in Figure Ex 5.1, determine:
Figure Ex 5.1
a. The principal stresses

b. The maximum shearing stress
c. Check for failure using the Mohr’s fracture criterion.
Solution
= 0 MPa, = −150 MPa, τ = 100 MPa
a. = + = −75 + 125 = 50 MPa
= − = −75 − 125 = −200 MPa
b. = + = −75 MPa
= = + = √75 + 100 = 125 MPa

c.
( )
− = − = 0.9373 < 1; Therefore there will be no Rapture or failure.
5.2 Tresca or Maximum-Shearing-Stress Criterion

Yielding in a material occurs when the maximum shearing stress, reaches a critical value, the
shearing yield strength, . The shearing yield strength is half the tensile yield strength according to
the criterion, ( = ). If the principal stresses are either both positive or both negative, =
50
| | = | |; and = | − |= | − | if the maximum stress is positive and the

minimum stress is negative or = .
Thus in this criterion:
If > , yielding occurs

If < , no yielding occurs
That is, if a plot of the principal stresses in the plot shown in Figure 5.2 lies within the shaded region,
no yielding occurs, but if it lies outside the enclosed region, then yielding will occur.
The factor of safety, N for this criterion is defined as N = .
Figure 5.2 Tresca yield surface or Tresca Hexagon
5.3 Von Mises or Maximum-Distortion-Energy Criterion

The von Mises criterion states that, a given structural component is safe as long as the maximum value
of the distortion energy per unit volume in that material remains smaller than the distortion energy per
unit volume required to cause yield in a tensile-test specimen of the same material. Under plane stress,
the distortion energy per unit volume in an isotropic material is given by:
= ( − + ); = 0.
Where and are the principal stresses and G is the modulus of rigidity. For yielding to occur, the
equivalent stress, = ( − + ) = ( − + +3 ), should be greater
than the yield strength. Figure 5.3 shows the plot of the safe region of this criterion, which is an
ellipse. The dashes in the diagram give the plot of the Tresca criterion as a comparison to the von
Mises criterion.
i.e. if > ; yielding occurs.
But, if < ; no yielding occurs.
The factor of safety, N for maximum-distortion-energy criterion is defined as N = .
51
Figure 5.3 Maximum-Distortion-Energy yield surface
Example 5.2
The circular shaft in Figure Ex 5.2 is made of a material with a yield strength of 248 MPa.
Figure Ex 5.2
Given that the tensile force P is 250 N and the diameter of the shaft is 3.8 cm, determine the maximum
torque T, that the shaft can bear without failing.
Solution
σY = 248 MPa
d = 3.8 cm = 0.038 m
P = 250 N
×
σx = = = 220.4362 MPa ≈ 220.44 MPa
×( . )
σy = 0 MPa
τxy = ? =
52
From the sketch of the Mohr’s stress circle, the principal stresses have different signs.
Therefore τmax = R = +τ = 110.22 + τ

But for yield to occur, τmax = τY = = = MPa
⇒ 1242 – 110.222 = τ
τ = √124 − 110.22 = 56.8115 MPa
But τ =
( ) . × ( × . )
⇒T= = = = 6.120923× 10 = 612.09 N.m
Example 5.3
For the state of stress given in Figure Ex 5.3 of a material with yield strength of 42 MPa, determine:
Figure Ex 5.3
a. the principal stresses
b. the maximum shearing stress
c. whether the material will yield using the maximum-shearing-stress criterion
d. the factor of safety using the maximum-shearing-stress criterion
e. whether the material will yield using the maximum-distortion-energy criterion
f. the factor of safety using the maximum-distortion-energy criterion
Solution
σx = 6 MPa, σy = 18 MPa, τxy = 8 MPa
σave = (σx + σy) = (6 + 18) = 12 MPa
53
R= +τ = (−6) + 8 = 10 MPa
a. Principal Stresses
σ1 = σave + R = 12 + 10 = 22 MPa
σ2 = σave R = 12 10 = 2 MPa
b. Maximum shearing stress

Since both σ1 and σ2 have the same sign (+ve)
τmax = = = 11 MPa
c. Failure, using Maximum-shearing-stress criterion

τY = = = 21 MPa
11 < 21; i.e. < ; Therefore there will be no failure
d. F.S. using Maximum-shearing-stress criterion

F.S. = = = 1.91
e. Failure using the Maximum-distortion-energy criterion

σE = + − = √22 + 2 − 22 × 2 = 21.0713 MPa
21.0713 MPa < 42 MPa; i.e. σE < σY therefore there will be no failure
f. F.S. using the Maximum-distortion-energy criterion

S.F = = = 1.99
.
Example 5.4
For the state of stress given in Figure Ex 5.4 of a material with yield strength of 42 MPa, determine:
Figure Ex 5.4

54

Solution
σx = -6 MPa, σy = 18 MPa, τxy = 8 MPa

σave = (σx + σy) = (-6 + 18) = 6 MPa
R= +τ = (−12) + 8 = 14.4222 MPa ≈ 14.42 MPa
σ1 = σave + R = 6 + 14.42 = 20.42 MPa

σ2 = σave R = 6 14.42 = -8.42 MPa

Since σ1 and σ2 have opposite signs (+ve and –ve)
τmax = R = 14.42 MPa

τY = = = 21 MPa
14.42 < 21; i.e. < ; Therefore there will be no failure

F.S. = = = 1.4563 ≈ 1.46
.
σE = + − = 20.42 + (−8.42) – 20.42 × (−8.42) = 25.6868 MPa

≈ 25.69 MPa

S.F = = . = 1.6351 ≈ 1.64
55
Example 5.5
For the state of stress given in Figure Ex 5.5 for a material with yield strength of 250 MPa, determine:
Figure Ex 5.5

Solution
σx = 90 MPa, σy = 120 MPa, τxy = -36 MPa
σave = (σx + σy) = (90 + 120) = 105 MPa
R= +τ = (−15) + (−36) = 39 MPa
σ1 = σave + R = 105 + 39 = 144 MPa
σ2 = σave R = 105 39 = 66 MPa

Since σ1 and σ2 have the same sign (+ve)
τmax = = 72 MPa

τY = = = 125 MPa
72 < 125 ; i.e. < ; Therefore there will be no failure

F.S. = = = 1.7361 ≈ 1.74
56
σE = + − = 144 + 66 – 144 × 66 = 124.8519 MPa

≈ 124.85 MPa

S.F = = . = 2.0024 ≈ 2.00
6.0 Appendix
6.1 Appendix A Syllabus
ME 255 Strength of Materials I, (3, 0, 3)

1. Simple stress and strain within elastic limit.
2. Thermal stress.
3. Tensile bending and shear bending of beams.
4. Torsion of circular shafts.
5. Torsional stress and strain.
6. Strength of solid and hollow shafts.
7. Theories of failure.
8. Compound stress-strain system (Mohr's stress and strain circles).
57
6.2 Appendix B Past Examination Questions
ME 255 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS I

DECEMBER 2008 3 HOURS
Useful Formulae
n
Ti Li Mz E
1.   ; 2.  3. G
i 1 Gi J i I 2(1  v)
x y x  y Tr
4.  x   cos 2   xy sin 2 5. 
2 2 J
x y x  y
6.  y   cos 2   xy sin 2 7.    .T.L
2 2
x  y n
Pi Li
8.  xy    sin 2   xy cos 2 9.  
2 i 1 E i Ai
x y 2 xy
10.  ave  11. tan 2  
2  x  y
2
  y 
12. R   x    xy 2 13.  1 , 2   ave  R
 2 
Sy Sy
14.  e  12   2 2  1 2 15. n 16. n
2 max e
Section A: Answer all questions

1. A steel rod is 2.5 m long and subjected to 8.5 kN force as shown in Figure 1. If the modulus of
elasticity of the steel is 200 GPa and the rod must not be stretched more than 0.0015 m,
determine minimum diameter of the rod required.
(4 marks)
Figure 1
2. A 10-kN force is applied to a hollow pipe as shown in Figure 2 (a). If the cross-section of the
pipe is as shown in Figure 2(b), determine the
58
(a) polar moment of inertia of the section (4 marks)

(b) stress at point A. (4 marks)
(c) stress at point B. (4 marks)
(a) (b)
Figure 2
3. In Figure 3, the aluminium rod AB is rigidly bonded to the brass rod BC. Rod AB is hollow and
has inner diameter of 40 mm and outer diameter of 60 mm. The moduli of rigidity of aluminium
and brass are GAl = 27 GPa and Gbrass = 40 GPa. Determine
(a) the polar moment of inertias of section AB. (4 marks)
(b) the maximum stress in section AB. (4 marks)
(c) the diameter d of section CD if the angle of twist at D is 4.9o (4 marks)
Figure 3
4. The bar shown in Figure 4 consists of two square portions AB and BC bonded together at B and
fixed at C. Portion AB has a side of 5 mm and is made with bronze, while portion BC is made
with aluminium with a side of 4 mm. Determine the maximum rise in temperature allowed, if the
bar should touch the rigid wall at A. (αBronze = 21.6 x 10-6/oC αAl = 23.2 x 10-6/oC )
59
(4 marks)
Figure 4
5. For the state of stress shown in Figure 5, determine the

(a) value of τxy for which the maximum shearing stress is equal to 45 MPa.
(4 marks)
(b) the corresponding principal stresses. (6 marks)
30 MPa
τxy
40 MPa
Figure 5
6. In a plane strain situation, εz = 0. Show that

(a)  z    x   y  (3 marks)
1
(b) x 
2G
 
 x    x   y  (5 marks)
7. Figure 6 shows a plot of stress against strain for the tensile test of a material. The plot covers
from the beginning of the test to fracture. Figure 7 is a plot of the same stress-strain data using a
lower scale. Thus, Figure 7 is a magnification of part of the plot in Figure 6. Using the two
figures, determine
(a) modulus of elasticity of the material (4 marks)
(b) the proportional limit (2 marks)
60
(c) the ultimate strength (2 marks)

(d) the fracture stress. (2 marks)
Figure 6
Figure 7
61
Section B: Answer only one question. All questions carry equal marks. (40 marks each)
8. In Figure 8, the machine ABED weighs 240 kN and its centre of gravity is located at C. The
machine is to be supported on the beam FG, which has a uniform cross-section and a span of 6
m. Assume that the upward reaction of the ground is uniformly distributed.
(a) Determine the forces at D and E acting on the beam
(b) Find the upward reaction of the ground per unit length on the beam FG
(c) Draw the shear force and bending-moment diagrams for the beam FG
(d) Determine maximum shear force and bending moment.
(e) Determine maximum bending moment.
Figure 8
9. A sign post is subjected a total force of 2 kN and the centre of the force is located at point C in
Figure 9. The stand AB has a radius of 110 mm and is made of a material with a tensile yield
strength of 25 MPa. Determine the
(a) maximum shearing stress at section A.
(b) maximum bending stress at section A due to bending.
(c) the maximum principal stresses at section A
(d) the factor of safety of at section A, using the maximum-shear-stress criterion.
62
Figure 9
10. A machine component is loaded in such a way that σx = 85 MPa, σy = 55 MPa and τxy = 26 MPa
as shown in Figure 4. If the component is made with a material of a tensile yield strength of 250
MPa, determine:
(a) the principal stresses.
(b) the maximum shearing stress.
(c) the minimum absolute angle that each principal stress makes with the 85-MPa stress.
(d) the factor of safety, using the maximum-shear-stress criterion.
(e) the factor of safety, using the maximum-distortion-energy criterion.
55 MPa
26 MPa
85 MPa
Figure 10
63
CHE 250: STRENGTH OF MATERIALS FOR CHEMICAL ENGINEERS

April, 2009 3 HOURS
Useful Formulae
n
Ti Li Mz E
1.   ; 2.  3. G
i 1 Gi J i I 2(1  v)
x y x  y Tr
4.  x   cos 2   xy sin 2 5. 
2 2 J
x y x  y
6.  y   cos 2   xy sin 2 7.    .T.L
2 2
x  y n
Pi Li
8.  xy    sin 2   xy cos 2 9.  
2 i 1 E i Ai
x y 2 xy
10.  ave  11. tan 2  
2  x  y
2
  y 
12. R   x    xy 2 13.  1 , 2   ave  R
 2 
Sy Sy
14.  e  12   2 2  1 2 15. n 16. n
2 max e
Pr Pr
17.   E 18.  19. 
t 2t
3V 4V
20.  xy  (rectangular section) 21.  xy  (solid cylindrical section)
2A 3A
2V
22.  xy  (thin wall cylindrical section) 23. T = F.rarm
A
 ( ro 4  ri 4 )  .r 4
24. J  (hollow circular section) 25. J (solid circular section)
2 2
 ( ro 4  ri 4 )  .r 4
26. I  (hollow circular section) 27. I (solid circular section)
4 4
64
Answer all questions in Section A and one question only in Section B

Section A: Answer all questions in this section
Q1.
A 2-m steel rod is subjected to a 10-kN tensile force as shown in Figure 1. If the modulus of elasticity
of the steel is 200 GPa and the diameter of the rod is 25 mm, determine:
i. the extension in the rod (5 marks)
ii. the normal stress in the rod. (5 marks)
iii. If the force is removed and the temperature is increased by 50 ºC, find the extension in the
rod (αsteel = 12 x 10-6/oC). (5 marks)
Figure 11
Q2.
A force of 10 kN is applied to a hollow pipe as shown in Figure 2. The outer and inner diameters of the
pipe are 50 mm and 40 mm respectively. Determine:
a. the moment of inertia of the section (5 marks)
b. the bending moment at point A (5 marks)
c. the stress at point A due to bending. (5 marks)
d. the stress at point B due to bending. (5 marks)
Figure 12
Q3.
65
Figure 3 shows a tank containing a compressed gas under a pressure of 8 MPa. The inner and outer
diameters of the tank are 490 mm and 500 mm respectively. Determine:
a. the axial stress  x , in the wall of the tank (5 marks)
b. the tangential stress  y , in the wall of the tank, and (5 marks)
c. the shearing stress  xy in the wall of the tank. (2 marks)
Figure 13
Q4. Using a graph sheet,

a. sketch the graph of a typical tensile test for steel indicating the proportional limit PL, and the
ultimate stress  U , and the fracture stress  F . (4 marks)
b. sketch the graph of a typical tensile test for a concrete slab indicating the proportional limit
PL, and the ultimate stress  U , and the fracture stress  F . (4 marks)
Section B: Answer only one question from this section. All questions carry equal marks. (45
marks each).
Q5.
A sign post is subjected to a wind pressure of 2 kN/m2. Assume the effective force from the wind Fw, is
concentrated at point C as shown in Figure 4. Given that the surface area of the sign post is 2 m2 and
the stand AB has a radius of 100 mm and is made of a material with a tensile yield strength of 25 MPa.
Determine
(e) the maximum shearing stress at point A due to torsion
(f) the maximum shearing stress at point A due to the shearing force
(g) the total shearing stress at the point A
(h) the maximum stress at point A due to bending
(i) the principal stresses at point A
66
(j) the maximum shearing stress at the point A,  max
(k) the factor of safety, using the maximum-shear-stress criterion

(l) whether the material will fail at point A, using the maximum-shear-stress criterion.
(45 marks)
Figure 4
Q6.
A machine component is loaded in such a way that at a critical point on the component, the state of
stress is as shown in Figure 5. If the component is made with a material of a tensile yield strength of
200 MPa, determine:
(f) the principal planes
(g) the principal stresses
(h) the maximum shearing stress
(i) check for failure of the material using the maximum-distortion-energy criterion
(j) the factor of safety, using the maximum-distortion-energy criterion.
(45 marks)
Figure 5
67

ME 255 Handout 2015(1)

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ME 255 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS I KNUST-2015/AAA/03

1.0 Moments of Areas

1.1 The Centroid of an Area and First Moment of an Area

Figure 1 The first Moment of an Area

=∫ with reference to the x-axis and

Figure 2 The Centroid of an Area

=∫ and =∫ or = and = . That is, the first moment of area can be

1.1.1 The first Moment of Area of a Rectangle

Figure 3 The first moment of area of the rectangle

1.2 Second Moment or Moment of Inertia of an Area and Radius of

Figure 4 The Moment of Inertia of an Area

Also, Jo = ro2A and = where ro2 = rx 2 + ry 2.

1.2.1 The Second Moment of Area or Moment of Inertia of a Rectangle

Figure 5 The Moment of Inertia of a Rectangle

1.2.2 Parallel Axis Theorem

Figure 6 Illustration of the Parallel Axis Theorem

∫ = ̅ the moment of inertia of the area with respect to the x’ axis.

Section Area [cm2] [cm] A [cm3]

Section Area [cm2] [cm] A [cm3]

For the shaded area in Figure HW 1.1 (a), determine:

2.0 Axial Loading

a. Draw free body diagrams of the rod components.

a. Draw a free body diagram of the bar.

The free body diagram is statically indeterminate.

From the similar triangles formed in the free body diagram

2.1 Tensile Test

Figure 2.1 Tensile Test Machine

Figure 2.2 Tensile Test Specimen for Circular Cross-Section

Figure 2.3 A typical tesile test curve for a ductile material

2.2 Shear Stress and Strain

Figure 2.4 Shearing action of a force

Figure 2.5 Normal Tensile and Shear Stresses at a Joint

Figure 2.6 Shearing action of a Punch

Figure Ex 2.4 Butt Joint

2.3 Thermal Stresses and Strains

2.4 Stress Components on an Oblique Plane

Figure 2.8 Resolution of an axial force on an inclned plane

2.5 Poisson’s Ratio

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.9 Torsion in a circular shaft

∑ = 0; – FAB + 20× 10 = 0; ⇒ FAB = 20 × 10 N (1)

2.6 Stresses in Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels

Figures 2.10 Hoop’s Stress in a Pressure Vessel

Resolving and summing forces in Figure 2.10 gives:

Figures 2.11 Longitudinal Stress in a Pressure Vessel

3.0 Deflection of Beams

3.1 Bending Moment and Shearing Force Diagrams

For the beam in Figure Ex 3.1, draw:

For the beam in Figure Ex 3.2, draw:

For the beam in Figure Ex 3.3, draw:

For the simply supported beam in Figure Ex 3.4

For section AC x < L/4

Using singularity functions:

From previous solution:

From (1): 0 = 0 − P〈0 − 〉 + 0 + C2

For the beams in Figure HW 3.1, draw:

For the beam and loading in Figure HW 3.2, draw:

For the beam and loading shown in Figure Ex 3.5, determine

a. the equation of the elastic curve

A simply supported beam is loaded as shown in Figure Ex 2.6, find:

4.0 States of Stress and Strain

4.1 Transformation of Plane Stress

Figure 4.1 Three Dimensional Stress and the Stress Tensor

Figure 4.3 Plane Stress Transformation