Diseases of Field

Diseases of Field & Horticultural Crops & Their Management-II 3(2+1)
Unit-I
Syllabus
Wheat and pulses crops: Symptoms, etiology, disease cycle and Management
of the following diseases:
Wheat: Rusts, Loose smut, Karnal bunt, Powdery mildew, and Ear cockle;
Gram: wilt, and Ascochyta blight;
Lentil: rust
Greek word: Pathas suffering. Logus = study
Plant pathology is the study of plants and their management. Causes of suffering
→ Father of plant pathology - Anton de Bary
Etiology refers to the study of the causes of a disease, which may include factors
related to the host, pathogen, and environment that interact to produce the disease.
A disease is a condition that disrupts normal bodily function and is typically
characterized by the presence of symptoms resulting from continuous irritation
or damage.
Disease Cycle:
• Inoculation: The pathogen comes into contact with the host plant and
infects it.
• Incubation: The pathogen starts to grow and reproduce inside the host
plant.
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• Infection: The pathogen causes damage to the plant's tissues, leading to the
development of disease symptoms.
• Dispersal: The pathogen produces spores or other structures that allow it to
spread to other plants and infect them.
Symptoms:- Symptoms are the observable or internal changes in the host that
occur as a result of a disease or injury. These changes can include physical signs,
such as a rash or fever, and changes in behaviour or physiological processes.
Wheat Crops
Wheat Rusts:
Symptoms:
• Appearance of reddish-brown or yellowish-brown pustules on leaves,
stems, and grains.
• These pustules can rupture, releasing powdery rust spores that can easily
be rubbed off with a finger.
• Severely infected leaves can turn yellow, wither, and die, reducing
photosynthesis and affecting yield.
• Three types of Rusts:
• Stem rust: elongated reddish-brown pustules on stems and leaves.
• Leaf rust: small, roundish pustules causing yellowish appearance on
leaves.
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• Stripe rust: yellow stripes of pustules on leaves.
Etiology:
• Caused by fungal pathogens of the genus Puccinia.
• Stem rust: Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici.
• Leaf rust: Puccinia triticina.
• Stripe rust: Puccinia striiformis.
Disease Cycle:
• Rust pathogens survive on alternate hosts or as dormant spores on crop
debris.
• Urediniospores (spores) are produced on infected plants.
• When environmental conditions are conducive, spores (urediniospores) are
produced on infected plants and spread by wind to infect healthy plants.
• Infection occurs when spores land on susceptible plant tissues and
germinate.
Management:
• Cultural Practices:
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o Resistant Varieties: Plant rust-resistant wheat cultivars or hybrids
that are less susceptible to rust infections.
o Timely Sowing: Opt for timely sowing to avoid the peak period of
rust infection.
o Avoid Continuous Cropping: Practicing crop rotation with non-
host crops helps break the disease cycle.
• Sanitation Measures:
o Crop Residue Removal: Clear the field of infected crop residues
after harvest to reduce the source of inoculum.
o Weed Control: Control weeds that can serve as alternate hosts for
rust pathogens.
• Chemical Control:
o Fungicides: Application of appropriate fungicides can effectively
manage rust infections, especially during high disease pressure
periods.
o Application Timing: Apply fungicides preventively or as soon as
rust symptoms are observed.
• Integrated Disease Management:
o Resistant Varieties + Fungicides: Utilize both rust-resistant
varieties and fungicides for a more comprehensive approach.
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o Monitoring: Regularly scout the crop to detect early rust
symptoms for timely intervention.
• Early Sowing: Early sowing can reduce disease severity by escaping the
period of high rust incidence.
• Crop Rotation: Rotate wheat with non-host crops to break the disease
cycle.
• Farm Hygiene: Ensure farm equipment used in rust-infested fields is
properly cleaned before moving to uninfested fields.
Wheat Loose Smut:
Symptoms:
• Inflorescence Transformation: Loose smut primarily affects the wheat
inflorescence (flowering part). Infected heads are replaced by masses
of dark brown, powdery spores (smut balls) that contain fungal spores.
• Smuts at Maturity: At maturity, smut balls disintegrate, releasing large
quantities of spores that can infect healthy plants.
Etiology:
• Pathogen: Loose smut is caused by the fungus Ustilago tritici.
• Infection and Transmission: The fungus overwinters in infected seeds
(smut balls). These infected seeds, when sown, result in the growth of
infected plants.
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Disease Cycle:
1. Seed Contamination: Infected seeds (smut balls) are sown in the field.
2. Systemic Infection: The fungus penetrates young seedlings as they
germinate and grows systemically within the plant.
3. Smut Ball Formation: During flowering, the fungus replaces the wheat
head with smut balls.
4. Spore Dispersal: At maturity, smut balls rupture, releasing vast numbers
of spores.
5. Infection of Healthy Plants: Spores land on healthy plants, germinate,
and penetrate through the stomata, starting the infection cycle anew.
Management:
• Use Certified Seed: Use certified, disease-free seed to avoid introducing
smut into the field.
• Seed Treatment: Treat seeds with fungicides to reduce the risk of
infection. Fungicides like Thiram, Captan, Carbendazim etc.
• Hot Water Treatment: Immersion of seeds in hot water (52°C for 15
minutes) can help eliminate smut spores from the seed surface.
• Crop Rotation: Rotate wheat with non-host crops to reduce inoculum
buildup in the field.
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• Eradication of Volunteer Plants: Remove volunteer wheat plants that
may serve as a source of infection.
• Resistant Varieties: Plant resistant wheat varieties to reduce the risk of
smut infection.
• Systematic Survey: Regularly monitor the crop for smut symptoms and
take necessary measures if detected.
Karnal bunt
Symptoms:
• External Symptoms: The most noticeable symptom is the presence
of black masses of spores (smutted bunt balls) that replace kernels in the
wheat spikelet.
• Internal Symptoms: Infected kernels are partially or completely
replaced by spores, resulting in a smutty odor and discolored flour.
Etiology:
• Pathogen: Karnal bunt is caused by the fungus Tilletia indica.
• Infection and Transmission: The fungus survives in the soil as
teliospores, which can infect young wheat plants during germination.
Disease Cycle:
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1. Soil Contamination: Teliospores in the soil are the primary source of
inoculum.
2. Seedling Infection: The fungus infects the seedling as it germinates and
establishes itself systemically within the plant.
3. Systemic Growth: The fungus remains latent in the plant until the
reproductive stage.
4. Bunt Ball Formation: Infected kernels are replaced by bunt balls filled
with dark brown spores.
5. Spore Dispersal: Ruptured bunt balls release spores into the environment.
6. Infection of Healthy Plants: Spores infect healthy plants, and the cycle
continues.
Management:
• Use Certified Seed: Plant certified, disease-free seed to prevent
introducing the pathogen into the field.
• Seed Treatment: Apply fungicidal seed treatment to protect germinating
seedlings.
• Crop Rotation: Avoid planting wheat in consecutive seasons in
contaminated fields.
• Early Sowing: Early sowing can help escape the period of high disease
pressure.
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• Resistant Varieties: Planting resistant wheat varieties is an effective way
to manage the disease.
• Sanitation: Remove and destroy volunteer wheat plants to reduce
inoculum sources.
• Quarantine Measures: Ensure that seed and machinery are not
contaminated with bunt spores.
• Hot Water Treatment: Infected seeds can be treated with hot water
(52°C for 15 minutes) to kill the bunt spores.
Powdery Mildew:
Symptoms:
• White Powdery Growth: Powdery mildew appears as white, powdery
fungal growth on the leaves, stems, and heads of wheat plants.
• Chlorosis: Infected leaves may show yellowing (chlorosis) due to
reduced photosynthesis.
• Stunted Growth: Severe infections can lead to stunted growth and
reduced grain yield.
Etiology:
• Pathogen: Wheat powdery mildew is caused by several species of the
fungal genus Blumeria (formerly Erysiphe).
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Disease Cycle:
1. Overwintering Structures: The fungus overwinters as dormant
structures in crop residues.
2. Initial Infection: In spring, spores (conidia) are produced on infected
residues and are wind-dispersed to new growth.
3. Infection and Colonization: Conidia land on wheat leaves, germinate,
and produce specialized structures called appressoria to penetrate the leaf
surface.
4. Fungal Growth: The fungus grows within the leaf, forming a powdery
mycelium.
5. Spore Production: As the mycelium matures, it produces more conidia
that spread to other parts of the plant and neighboring plants.
Management:
• Resistant Varieties: Planting resistant wheat varieties can significantly
reduce disease severity.
• Timely Planting: Early planting can help avoid peak disease pressure.
• Fungicides: If the disease risk is high, timely application
of fungicides can suppress powdery mildew.
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• Cultural Practices: Adequate spacing between plants, good air
circulation, and proper irrigation can reduce humidity levels that favor
disease development.
• Crop Rotation: Rotate wheat with non-host crops to reduce the
carryover of inoculum.
• Sanitation: Remove and destroy crop residues after harvest to eliminate
overwintering structures.
• Monitoring: Regular scouting for disease symptoms can help determine
the need for fungicide application.
Ear cockle
Symptoms:
• Swollen Kernels: Infected wheat spikes develop swollen and distorted
kernels instead of normal grains.
• White to Pink Color: Infected kernels are often white or pinkish in color
and lack the typical grain structure.
• Reduced Quality: The presence of ear cockle reduces the overall quality
and market value of wheat.
Etiology:
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• Pathogen: Wheat ear cockle is caused by the fungus Anguina tritici,
which is a seed-borne pathogen.
Disease Cycle:
1. Infested Seeds: The fungus survives within the seeds of the wheat plant.
2. Infection of Floral Organs: During flowering, the fungus infects the
floral organs of the wheat plant.
3. Nematode Transmission: The fungus is vectored by a nematode
(parasitic worms found in plants) called the wheat seed gall nematode
(Anguina tritici), which feeds on the infected floral parts.
4. Gall Formation: The nematode feeding causes the development of galls
within the floral organs, leading to the characteristic swollen kernels.
5. Propagation: Infected seeds with swollen kernels produce nematode-
infested seeds that continue the disease cycle.
Management:
• Use Certified Seed: Plant certified disease-free seeds to avoid
introducing infected material into the field.
• Crop Rotation: Rotate wheat with non-host crops to reduce the
nematode population in the soil.
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• Early Planting: Plant wheat early to avoid peak nematode activity and
reduce the chances of infection.
• Nematicides: Soil-applied nematicides may help reduce nematode
populations, but their efficacy can vary.
• Sanitation: Remove and destroy infected plant residues after harvest to
minimize the carryover of nematodes.
• Resistant Varieties: Some wheat varieties have shown resistance to the
nematode vector; planting these can reduce the disease's impact.
• Monitoring: Regular field monitoring and scouting can help identify the
presence of swollen kernels and take appropriate action.
Gram:
Wilt
Symptoms:
• Wilting and Yellowing: Infected gram plants exhibit wilting and
yellowing of leaves, starting from the lower leaves.
• Leaf Drop: Infected leaves may drop prematurely.
• Stunted Growth: Plants infected at an early stage may show stunted
growth.
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• Brown Vascular Tissues: The vascular tissues of infected plants turn
brown due to the pathogen's invasion.
Etiology:
• Pathogen: Gram wilt is caused by the soil-borne fungus Fusarium
oxysporum f. sp. ciceri.
Disease Cycle:
1. Soil Infestation: The pathogen persists in the soil as chlamydospores and
mycelium.
2. Root Infection: The pathogen infects the root system of gram plants
through wounds or natural openings.
3. Vascular Invasion: Once inside the plant, the pathogen invades the
vascular tissues, causing blockage and disruption of water and nutrient
transport.
4. Wilting and Yellowing: As the vascular tissues are affected, the plant
experiences wilting and yellowing symptoms.
5. Spread: The pathogen spreads through infected soil, contaminated tools,
and infected plant debris.
Management:
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• Resistant Varieties: Plant resistant or tolerant gram varieties that have
shown reduced susceptibility to wilt.
• Crop Rotation: Practice crop rotation with non-host plants to reduce
pathogen populations in the soil.
• Sanitation: Remove and destroy infected plant residues to minimize the
source of inoculum.
• Seed Treatment: Treat seeds with fungicides before planting to reduce
the chances of initial infection.
• Soil Treatments: Application of soil fungicides can help reduce
soilborne pathogen populations.
• Proper Irrigation: Avoid excessive moisture, as wet conditions can
favor the pathogen's spread.
• Avoid Infected Soil: Avoid planting in fields with a history of gram wilt
to prevent disease recurrence.
Ascochyta blight
Symptoms:
• Lesions on Leaves: Infected leaves develop small, circular lesions with
dark centers and reddish-brown margins.
• Necrotic Spots: Lesions coalesce, leading to large necrotic spots on
leaves.
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• Leaf Drop: Severe infections can cause defoliation, leading to reduced
photosynthesis.
• Pod Infection: Pods may also be infected, showing circular, dark lesions
with raised centers.
Etiology:
• Pathogen: Ascochyta blight is caused by the fungus Ascochyta rabiei.
Disease Cycle:
1. Survival: The pathogen overwinters in infected plant debris and seeds.
2. Spore Production: In spring, conidia (spores) are produced on infected
debris.
3. Spread: Conidia are wind-dispersed and can infect leaves through
stomata.
4. Infection: Conidia germinate on leaves, forming appressoria and
penetrating through stomata.
5. Lesion Development: The fungus grows within the leaf tissues, causing
lesions.
6. Secondary Spores: New conidia are produced on lesions, and rain or
wind can splash or disperse them.
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7. Pod Infection: Conidia can also infect pods, causing lesions and
reducing seed quality.
Management:
• Resistant Varieties: Plant resistant or tolerant varieties that have shown
reduced susceptibility to Ascochyta blight.
• Crop Rotation: Practice crop rotation with non-host plants to reduce
pathogen populations in the soil.
• Seed Treatment: Treat seeds with fungicides before planting to reduce
the chances of initial infection.
• Sanitation: Remove and destroy infected plant residues to minimize the
source of inoculum.
• Foliar Fungicides: Application of fungicides can help manage disease
during the growing season.
• Proper Plant Spacing: Maintain proper plant spacing to promote air
circulation and reduce humidity.
• Early Planting: Planting early can help escape disease pressure in some
regions.
Lentil
Rust
Symptoms:
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• Yellow to Orange Pustules: Rust-infected lentil plants develop yellow to
orange pustules on the lower leaf surface.
• Spore Release: The pustules rupture, releasing powdery spores that can
rub off on fingers.
• Lesions on Pods: Pustules may also appear on pods, causing
discoloration and reduced seed quality.
Etiology:
• Pathogen: Rust in lentil is caused by the fungus Uromyces viciae-fabae.
Disease Cycle:
1. Survival: The fungus overwinters on infected plant debris.
2. Spore Production: In spring, uredinia (rust pustules) develop on leaves
and pods, producing urediniospores.
3. Spore Dispersal: Urediniospores are wind-dispersed and can travel long
distances.
4. Infection: Spores germinate on wet leaves, forming infection structures
and penetrating through stomata.
5. Lesion Development: The fungus grows within leaf tissues, causing
pustules to develop.
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6. Secondary Spores: New urediniospores are produced on pustules,
continuing the disease cycle.
Management:
• Resistant Varieties: Plant lentil varieties that are resistant to rust to
reduce disease impact.
• Crop Rotation: Rotate lentil with non-host crops to reduce pathogen
buildup in the soil.
• Sanitation: Remove and destroy infected plant residues to reduce
overwintering inoculum.
• Foliar Fungicides: Application of fungicides can help manage disease
during periods of high infection risk.
• Timely Planting: Plant lentil at the appropriate time to avoid peak
disease conditions.
• Monitoring: Regularly monitor fields for early signs of rust and take
action if necessary.
Integrated disease management practices, including the use of resistant varieties,
proper planting practices, and fungicides, can help control rust in lentil and
minimize its impact on yield and quality.
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Unit-II
Syllabus
Oil seed Cash crops:
Sunflower: Sclerotinia stem rot and Alternaria blight;
Mustard: Alternaria blight, white rust, and downy mildew;
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Sugarcane: red rot, smut, wilt, grassy shoot, and ratoon stunting;
Cotton: vascular wilt, and black arm
Sunflower
1. Sclerotinia stem rot: Sclerotinia stem rot is a fungal disease that affects
sunflower crops, causing wilt, lodging, and white mould on stems, leaves,
and flower heads. Management of Sclerotinia stem rot in sunflower crops
involves a combination of cultural, chemical, and biological approaches.
o Cultural practices: Cultural practices such as crop rotation, proper
plant spacing, and removing infected plant material can help reduce
the incidence and severity of Sclerotinia stem rot in sunflower crops.
Planting disease-resistant varieties and using certified disease-free
seeds can also aid in the prevention of disease spread.
o Chemical control: Fungicides can be used to manage Sclerotinia
stem rot in sunflower crops. Fungicides should be used as a
preventative measure or at the first sign of disease.
o Biological control: Some beneficial microorganisms, such as certain
strains of bacteria and fungi, can help suppress Sclerotinia stem rot.
These biocontrol agents can be applied to crops as a preventative
measure.
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2. Alternaria blight: Alternaria blight is a fungal disease that affects sunflower
crops, causing circular, dark spots on leaves and stems, and can lead to
yield loss. Management of Alternaria blight in sunflower crops involves a
combination of cultural, chemical, and biological approaches.
o Cultural practices: Cultural practices such as crop rotation, proper
plant spacing, and removing infected plant material can help reduce
the incidence and severity of Alternaria blight in sunflower crops.
Planting disease-resistant varieties and using certified disease-free
seeds can also aid in the prevention of disease spread.
o Chemical control: Fungicides can be used to manage Alternaria
blight in sunflower crops.
o Biological control: Some beneficial microorganisms, such as certain
strains of bacteria and fungi, can help suppress Alternaria blight.
These biocontrol agents can be applied to crops as a preventative
measure.
It's important to note that different sunflower varieties may require different
management strategies for Sclerotinia stem rot and Alternaria blight and that an
integrated approach combining multiple strategies is often the most effective.
Regular monitoring and early detection are also important for the successful
management of these diseases in sunflower crops.
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Mustard
Alternaria blight
Alternaria blight is a fungal disease that affects mustard crops, causing brown or
black spots on leaves and stems, and can lead to yield loss. Management of
Alternaria blight in mustard crops involves a combination of cultural, chemical,
and biological approaches.
1. Cultural practices: Cultural practices such as crop rotation, proper plant
spacing, and removing infected plant material can help reduce the
incidence and severity of Alternaria blight in mustard crops. Planting
disease-resistant varieties and using certified disease-free seeds can also
aid in the prevention of disease spread.
2. Chemical control: Fungicides can be used to manage Alternaria blight in
mustard crops. A combination of different fungicides with different
modes of action is recommended to prevent the development of resistance.
3. Biological control: Some beneficial microorganisms, such as certain
strains of bacteria and fungi, can help suppress Alternaria blight. These
biocontrol agents can be applied to crops as a preventative measure.
4. Integrated pest management: An integrated approach combining multiple
strategies is often most effective in managing Alternaria blight in mustard
crops. This may include a combination of cultural practices, chemical
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control, and biological control, as well as regular monitoring and early
detection.
It's important to note that different mustard varieties may require different
management strategies for Alternaria blight and that the timely application
of fungicides is critical for the successful management of the disease. Regular
monitoring and early detection are also important for the successful management
of Alternaria blight in mustard crops.
White Rust
White rust is a fungal disease caused by the pathogen Albugo candida, which
affects mustard plants, causing leaf spots, stem lesions, and blisters on pods. In
severe cases, the disease can cause significant yield loss. Here are some
management strategies for white rust in mustard crops:
1. Cultural practices: Cultural practices such as crop rotation, removal of crop
debris, and maintaining appropriate plant spacing can help reduce the
incidence and severity of white rust in mustard crops. Planting resistant
varieties and using certified disease-free seeds can also help prevent the
disease from spreading.
2. Chemical control: Fungicides can be used to manage white rust in mustard
crops. A combination of different fungicides with different modes of
action is recommended to prevent the development of resistance.
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strains of bacteria and fungi, can help suppress white rust. These biocontrol
agents can be applied to crops as a preventative measure.
strategies is often most effective in managing white rust in mustard crops.
This may include a combination of cultural practices, chemical control, and
biological control, as well as regular monitoring and early detection.
management strategies for white rust and that the timely application
of white rust in mustard crops.
Downy mildew
Downy mildew is a fungal disease caused by the pathogen Peronospora
parasitica, which affects mustard plants, causing yellowing and wilting of leaves,
stunted growth, and reduced yield. Here are some management strategies for
downy mildew in mustard crops:
1. Cultural practices: Cultural practices such as crop rotation, proper plant
spacing, and removing infected plant material can help reduce the
incidence and severity of downy mildew in mustard crops. Planting
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resistant varieties and using certified disease-free seeds can also help
prevent the disease from spreading.
2. Chemical control: Fungicides can be used to manage downy mildew in
mustard crops. Fungicides should be used as a preventative measure or at
the first sign of disease. A combination of different fungicides with
different modes of action is recommended to prevent the development of
resistance.
strains of bacteria and fungi, can help suppress downy mildew. These
biocontrol agents can be applied to crops as a preventative measure.
strategies is often most effective in managing downy mildew in mustard
crops. This may include a combination of cultural practices, chemical
control, and biological control, as well as regular monitoring and early
detection.
management strategies for downy mildew and that the timely application
of downy mildew in mustard crops.
Sugarcane
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1. Red rot: Red rot is a fungal disease caused by the pathogen Colletotrichum
falcatum, which affects sugarcane plants, causing reddish-brown
discolouration and soft rotting of the internodes. The pathogen can survive
in the soil and on infected plant debris and can spread through wind, water,
and infected plant material. Here are some management strategies for red
rot in sugarcane crops:
o Use certified disease-free seed cane for planting: It is important to
use high-quality, certified disease-free seed cane for planting to
minimize the risk of introducing the pathogen into the crop.
o Plant resistant/tolerant varieties: Some sugarcane varieties are more
resistant or tolerant to red rot than others. Planting these varieties
can help reduce the risk of disease.
o Practice proper sanitation measures: Remove and destroy diseased
plant debris to prevent the buildup of the pathogen in the soil. Proper
sanitation can help reduce the risk of disease.
o Avoid planting sugarcane in soils with a history of red rot
infestation: The pathogen can survive in the soil for long periods of
time, so it is important to avoid planting sugarcane in soils with a
history of red rot infestation.
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o Apply fungicides at the recommended time and rate as a
preventative measure: Fungicides can be applied preventatively to
protect plants from infection. Timing and rate of application will
depend on the specific fungicide used and the severity of the
disease.
2. Smut: Smut is a fungal disease caused by the pathogen Sporisorium
scitamineum, which affects sugarcane plants, causing the formation of
black, powdery spores on the inflorescences. The pathogen can survive in
the soil and on infected plant debris and can spread through wind, water,
and infected plant material. Here are some management strategies for smut
in sugarcane crops:
o Use certified disease-free seed cane for planting: It is important to
use high-quality, certified disease-free seed cane for planting to
minimize the risk of introducing the pathogen into the crop.
o Plant resistant/tolerant varieties: Some sugarcane varieties are more
resistant or tolerant to smut than others. Planting these varieties can
help reduce the risk of disease.
o Practice proper sanitation measures: Remove and destroy infected
plant debris to prevent the buildup of the pathogen in the soil. Proper
sanitation can help reduce the risk of disease.
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o Avoid planting sugarcane in soils with a history of smut infestation:
The pathogen can survive in the soil for long periods of time, so it is
important to avoid planting sugarcane in soils with a history of smut
infestation.
o Apply fungicides at the recommended time and rate as a
preventative measure: Fungicides can be applied preventatively to
protect plants from infection. Timing and rate of application will
depend on the specific fungicide used and the severity of the
disease.
It is important to note that different sugarcane varieties may require different
management strategies for red rot and smut and that regular monitoring and early
detection are important for the successful management of these diseases.
1. Wilt: Wilt is caused by the soil-borne fungus Fusarium sacchari. The
symptoms include yellowing of leaves, stunted growth, and premature
death of plants. The management of wilt includes the following steps:
o Use healthy, disease-free seed cane for planting.
o Avoid planting sugarcane in fields where wilt has occurred in the
past.
o Practice crop rotation with non-host crops like legumes, cereals, or
vegetables.
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o Use clean cultivation practices to minimize soil-borne inoculum.
o Apply fungicides like Carbendazim, Propiconazole, or
Thiophanate-methyl to the seed cane before planting.
2. Grassy shoot: Grassy shoot is caused by a bacterial pathogen known as
Spiroplasma kunkelii, which is transmitted by the leafhopper insect. The
symptoms include stunted growth, malformed leaves, and excessive
tillering. The management of grassy shoot includes the following steps:
o Use healthy, disease-free seed cane for planting.
o Avoid planting sugarcane in fields where grassy shoot has occurred
in the past.
o Practice crop sanitation by removing and destroying infected plants.
o Use insecticides to control leafhopper populations.
In addition to the above-mentioned management techniques, it is also important
to maintain proper cultural practices such as proper drainage, balanced
fertilization, and weed control. Regular monitoring of the sugarcane crop for the
presence of these diseases is also important to detect and manage them
effectively.
Overall, the key to managing these diseases in sugarcane is to use healthy,
disease-free seed cane, practice crop rotation and sanitation, and use
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appropriate fungicides or insecticides to control the pathogens responsible for
the diseases.
1. Ratoon stunting is a disease of sugarcane caused by the bacteria Leifsonia
xyli subsp. xyli. The disease affects the ratoon crop of sugarcane, which is
the crop that grows from the stubble of the previous crop. The disease can
lead to stunted growth, reduced yields, and ultimately, the death of the
plant. Here are some management techniques for ratoon stunting in
sugarcane:
1. Use healthy, disease-free seed cane for planting. Infected seed cane
is a major source of the disease, so it is important to use only healthy
seed cane.
2. Practice crop rotation with non-host crops like legumes, cereals, or
vegetables. This helps to reduce the build-up of bacteria in the soil.
3. Practice good sanitation by removing and destroying infected
stubble and debris from the field after harvest. This helps to reduce
the source of bacteria in the field.
4. Control the insects that transmit the bacteria. The disease is
transmitted by the sugarcane leafhopper, so it is important to control
leafhopper populations in the field.
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5. Apply appropriate fertilizers and irrigation practices to promote
healthy plant growth. Strong, healthy plants are better able to resist
the disease.
6. Use antibiotics such as oxytetracycline, penicillin, and streptomycin
to control the bacteria in infected plants. These antibiotics can be
applied through foliar sprays or soil drenches.
It is important to note that ratoon stunting can be difficult to manage once it is
established in a field. Therefore, prevention is key to managing the disease.
Regular monitoring of the sugarcane crop for the presence of ratoon stunting is
important to detect and manage the disease early.
Cotton
Cotton is susceptible to a number of diseases, including vascular wilt and black
arm. Here are some details about these two diseases and management techniques:
1. Vascular Wilt: Vascular wilt is caused by the soil-borne fungus Fusarium
oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum. The fungus infects the roots and blocks the
xylem vessels, which results in the wilting and eventual death of the plant.
The disease can be managed through the following techniques:
o Use resistant varieties of cotton, which are available in the market.
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o Practice crop rotation with non-host crops like cereals or legumes.
This helps to reduce the build-up of fungus in the soil.
o Practice good sanitation by removing and destroying infected plants,
debris, and soil from the field after harvest. This helps to reduce the
source of the fungus in the field.
o Apply appropriate fertilizers and irrigation practices to promote
the disease.
o Use fungicides such as azoxystrobin, carbendazim, and
thiophanate-methyl to control the fungus in infected plants.
2. Black Arm: Black Arm is caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas
campestris pv. malvacearum. The bacterium infects the plant through
wounds, such as those caused by insects, and causes the wilting and death
of the plant. The disease can be managed through the following techniques:
o Use resistant varieties of cotton, which are available in the market.
o Practice good sanitation by removing and destroying infected plants,
debris, and soil from the field after harvest. This helps to reduce the
source of the bacterium in the field.
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o Control the insects that transmit the bacterium. The disease is
transmitted by insects such as thrips and aphids, so it is important to
control their populations in the field.
o Use bactericides such as copper oxychloride and streptomycin to
control the bacterium in infected plants.
o Apply appropriate fertilizers and irrigation practices to promote
the disease.
It is important to note that prevention is key to managing both vascular wilt and
black arm in cotton. Regular monitoring of the cotton crop for the presence of
these diseases is important to detect and manage them early.
Unit-III
Syllabus
Fruits crops:
Mango: anthracnose, malformation, bacterial blight, and powdery mildew;
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Citrus: canker and gummosis;
Grapevine: downy mildew, Powdery mildew;
Apple: scab, powdery mildew, and crown gall;
Peach: leaf curl.
Mango
Anthracnose
Anthracnose is a common fungal disease that affects mango crops. The disease is
caused by the fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. The symptoms of
anthracnose in mango crops include the appearance of dark, sunken lesions on
the fruit skin. These lesions may be small at first but can grow larger and merge
with other lesions, causing the fruit to rot.
Anthracnose can also affect other parts of the mango tree, including the leaves,
stems, and flowers. On the leaves, the disease causes the appearance of brown
spots with yellow halos, while on the stems and flowers, it causes cankers and
dieback.
Anthracnose is spread through the air or by contact with infected plant material.
The disease is more common in warm, humid conditions, which create ideal
conditions for the growth and spread of the fungus. To manage anthracnose in
mango crops, several practices can be employed.
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Cultural Control: Cultural control methods include pruning infected branches,
removing infected fruit from the tree, and burying infected plant material to
prevent the spread of the disease.
Chemical Control: Fungicides can also be used to manage anthracnose in
mango crops. Fungicides containing azoxystrobin, trifloxystrobin, and
pyraclostrobin have been found to be effective against anthracnose in mango
crops.
Biological Control: Biological control methods involve the use of
microorganisms, such as Trichoderma spp. and Bacillus subtilis, to suppress the
growth of the anthracnose fungus.
Integrated Disease Management (IDM): A combination of the above control
methods can be used as an integrated disease management strategy to manage
anthracnose in mango crops.
It is important to note that prevention is key when it comes to managing
anthracnose in mango crops. Farmers should practice good orchard hygiene by
removing infected plant material, using disease-free planting material, and
avoiding overhead irrigation, which can create ideal conditions for the growth
and spread of anthracnose fungus.
Malformation
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Mango malformation is a physiological disorder that affects mango trees. The
exact cause of the disorder is not fully understood, but it is believed to be caused
by a combination of factors, including genetics, environmental conditions, and
viral infections.
The symptoms of mango malformation include the appearance of swollen,
distorted, and stunted vegetative shoots, as well as the development of abnormally
shaped inflorescences (flowering structures) and fruits. The leaves on affected
shoots may also be smaller, thicker, and darker in colour than normal leaves.
Mango malformation is more common in younger trees and is most severe during
the first few years of growth. The disorder can result in reduced fruit production
and poor fruit quality, as malformed fruits are often small, deformed, and of low
quality.
To manage mango malformation, several practices can be employed:
1. Cultural Control: Cultural control methods include pruning affected
shoots and branches, and removing and destroying malformed fruits. These
practices help to reduce the spread of the disorder within the orchard.
2. Chemical Control: Fungicides and bactericides can be applied to the
trees during the dormant season to control any secondary infections that
may occur as a result of the malformation.
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3. Nutritional Management: Nutritional management can also help to
reduce the severity of mango malformation. Adequate nutrition,
particularly the use of balanced fertilizers, can help to promote healthy
growth and development of the trees, which in turn can help to reduce the
severity of the disorder.
4. Virus Management: The use of virus-free planting material and the
removal of infected trees from the orchard can help to prevent the spread
of the viral infections associated with mango malformation.
It is important to note that prevention is key when it comes to managing mango
malformation. Farmers should select planting material from reliable sources and
ensure that the orchard is well-maintained with proper irrigation, fertilization, and
pruning practices. Regular monitoring of the orchard for any signs of
malformation and prompt action to control the disorder can help to reduce the
impact of mango malformation on crop yields and fruit quality.
Bacterial Blight:
Bacterial blight is a serious disease of mango crops caused by the bacterium
Xanthomonas campestris. The disease is more prevalent in areas with high
humidity and frequent rainfall. The symptoms of bacterial blight in mango crops
include the appearance of small, water-soaked lesions on the leaves and fruit.
These lesions may become necrotic and sunken as the disease progresses, and can
cause the fruit to rot and drop prematurely from the tree.
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To manage bacterial blight in mango crops, several practices can be employed:
• Cultural Control: Cultural control methods include pruning infected
branches, removing infected fruit from the tree, and burying infected plant
material to prevent the spread of the disease.
• Chemical Control: Copper-based fungicides can be used to control
bacterial blight in mango crops. However, it is important to note that
excessive use of copper-based fungicides can lead to the development of
copper-resistant strains of the bacterium, and can also have negative
impacts on soil health and beneficial microorganisms.
• Biological Control: Biological control methods involving the use of
beneficial microorganisms such as Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas
fluorescens can also help to suppress the growth and spread of the bacterial
blight pathogen.
• Integrated Disease Management (IDM): A combination of the above
control methods can be used as an integrated disease management strategy
to manage bacterial blight in mango crops.
Powdery Mildew:
Powdery mildew is a fungal disease that affects mango crops caused by the
fungus Oidium mangiferae. The disease is more prevalent in areas with high
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humidity and temperatures ranging from 20-30°C. The symptoms of powdery
mildew in mango crops include the appearance of a white or grey powdery
coating on the leaves, stems, and fruits of the tree. The affected leaves may also
curl, distort, and turn yellow, and the fruit may be stunted and of low quality.
To manage powdery mildew in mango crops, several practices can be employed:
• Cultural Control: Cultural control methods include removing infected
plant material, providing good air circulation around the tree, and avoiding
overhead irrigation.
• Chemical Control: Fungicides containing sulfur, myclobutanil, and
propiconazole can be used to control powdery mildew in mango crops.
beneficial microorganisms such as Trichoderma harzianum can also help
to suppress the growth and spread of the powdery mildew fungus.
to manage powdery mildew in mango crops.
It is important to note that prevention is key when it comes to managing both
bacterial blight and powdery mildew in mango crops. Farmers should practice
good orchard hygiene by removing infected plant material, using disease-free
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planting material, and avoiding overhead irrigation, which can create ideal
conditions for the growth and spread of these diseases.
Citrus
1. Citrus Canker:
Citrus canker is a highly contagious bacterial disease that affects citrus crops,
causing lesions on the leaves, stems, and fruit of the tree. The disease is caused
by the bacterium Xanthomonas axonopodis. The symptoms of citrus canker in
citrus crops include the appearance of small, raised, water-soaked lesions on the
leaves, stems, and fruit of the tree. These lesions can become surrounded by a
yellow halo and may exude a sticky, watery substance. Over time, the lesions can
enlarge and cause leaf drop, twig dieback, and fruit rot, leading to significant
yield losses.
To manage citrus canker in citrus crops, several practices can be employed:
• Cultural Control: Cultural control methods include pruning infected
branches, removing infected fruit from the tree, and burying infected plant
material to prevent the spread of the disease.
• Chemical Control: Copper-based fungicides can be used to control
citrus canker in citrus crops. However, it is important to note that excessive
use of copper-based fungicides can lead to the development of copper-
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resistant strains of the bacterium, and can also have negative impacts on
soil health and beneficial microorganisms.
beneficial microorganisms such as Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas
fluorescens can also help to suppress the growth and spread of the citrus
canker pathogen.
to manage citrus canker in citrus crops.
1. Gummosis:
Gummosis is a fungal disease that affects citrus crops caused by several species
of the fungus Phytophthora. The disease is more prevalent in areas with high
humidity and poorly drained soils. The symptoms of gummosis in citrus crops
include the appearance of a dark, sunken lesion on the trunk of the tree, which
exudes a gummy substance. Over time, the lesion can enlarge and cause dieback
of the tree, leading to significant yield losses.
To manage gummosis in citrus crops, several practices can be employed:
• Cultural Control: Cultural control methods include improving soil
drainage, avoiding overwatering, and providing good air circulation around
the tree.
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• Chemical Control: Fungicides containing copper, fosetyl-aluminum,
and metalaxyl can be used to control gummosis in citrus crops.
beneficial microorganisms such as Trichoderma harzianum can also help
to suppress the growth and spread of the gummosis fungus.
to manage gummosis in citrus crops.
It is important to note that prevention is key when it comes to managing both
citrus canker and gummosis in citrus crops. Farmers should practice good orchard
hygiene by removing infected plant material, using disease-free planting material,
and avoiding overwatering, which can create ideal conditions for the growth and
spread of these diseases
Unit-IV
Syllabus
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Vegetable:
Cucurbits: downy mildew, powdery mildew, wilt;
Onion: purple blotch,;
Pea: downy mildew, powdery mildew, and rust.
Cucurbits
Downy Mildew:
Symptoms:
• Yellow angular lesions on the upper leaf surface.
• White to grayish-purple fuzzy growth on the lower leaf surface.
• Reduced plant growth and vigor.
• Premature defoliation leading to reduced yield and fruit quality.
Etiology:
• Caused by the oomycete pathogen Pseudoperonospora cubensis.
• Thrives in humid and wet conditions.
Disease Cycle:
1. Infection: Pathogen infects leaves through stomata.
2. Symptom Development: Lesions form on the upper leaf surface, and
downy growth appears on the lower surface.
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3. Spore Production: Sporangia are produced on the lower surface and are
easily dispersed by wind and rain.
4. Dispersal: Sporangia are carried by air currents to other plants.
5. Secondary Infection: Sporangia germinate and infect new leaves,
continuing the cycle.
Management:
o Choose resistant cultivars when available.
o Rotate crops to reduce pathogen buildup.
o Avoid overhead irrigation which can create favorable conditions for
the pathogen.
o Fungicides can be applied preventively or curatively based on
disease severity.
o Use fungicides with different modes of action to prevent resistance.
o Apply fungicides on a regular schedule, especially during periods
of high humidity.
• Sanitation:
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o Remove and destroy infected plant debris to reduce overwintering
sources of the pathogen.
• Biological Control:
o Beneficial microorganisms and biopesticides can help suppress the
pathogen's growth.
Powdery Mildew
Symptoms:
• White to gray powdery patches on the upper surface of leaves, stems, and
fruits.
• Affected leaves may become distorted, curl, or die prematurely.
• Reduced plant growth and yield due to impaired photosynthesis.
• Fruits may develop with blemishes or deformities.
Etiology:
• Caused by different species of fungal pathogens, including Podosphaera
xanthii and Erysiphe cichoracearum.
• Flourishes in warm and dry conditions.
Disease Cycle:
1. Infection: Fungi produce spores (conidia) on the leaf surface, which are
wind-dispersed.
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2. Germination: Conidia land on plant surfaces and germinate, forming
hyphae.
3. Mycelium Growth: Hyphae penetrate the plant's epidermal cells,
extracting nutrients.
4. Symptom Formation: As mycelium grows, the characteristic white
powdery appearance develops.
5. Conidia Production: Mycelium produces new conidia on the powdery
growth.
6. Secondary Infections: Conidia are carried by wind to other parts of the
same plant or neighboring plants, initiating new infections.
Management:
o Choose resistant or tolerant cultivars when available.
o Provide adequate plant spacing to improve air circulation and reduce
humidity.
o Avoid overhead irrigation to minimize leaf wetness.
o Apply fungicides preventively before symptoms appear.
o Rotate fungicides with different modes of action to prevent
resistance.
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o Follow recommended application intervals based on disease
pressure.
• Pruning: Remove and destroy heavily infected plant parts to reduce
disease spread.
• Sulfur Dust: Sulfur-based products can provide effective control of
powdery mildew.
• Biological Control:
o Some beneficial microorganisms can help suppress powdery mildew
growth.
• Monitoring: Regularly scout plants for early symptoms to initiate control
measures promptly.
As with any disease, integrated management strategies that combine different
approaches offer the best chance of successfully managing Powdery Mildew of
Cucurbits
Wilt
Symptoms:
• Wilting of leaves during the hottest part of the day, recovering at night.
• Yellowing and browning of leaves, starting from the margins.
• Stunted growth and reduced fruit production.
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• Internal vascular discoloration in affected stems.
• Plants may die in advanced stages.
Etiology:
• Caused by soil-borne pathogens, particularly Fusarium
oxysporum and Verticillium dahliae.
• These pathogens infect plant roots and block water uptake, leading to
wilting.
Disease Cycle:
1. Infection: Pathogens enter plant roots through wounds or natural
openings.
2. Colonization: Pathogens invade and colonize the vascular tissues,
blocking water transport.
3. Symptom Development: As the pathogen multiplies and clogs the
vascular system, symptoms of wilting and yellowing appear.
4. Spore Formation: Pathogens produce reproductive structures (spores) in
the vascular tissues.
5. Soil Contamination: Infected plant debris and spores can remain in soil,
infecting subsequent crops.
Management:
• Resistant Varieties: Planting resistant cultivars is the most effective
strategy.
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• Sanitation: Remove and destroy infected plants to reduce pathogen
inoculum.
• Crop Rotation: Rotate cucurbit crops with non-hosts to break the disease
cycle.
• Soil Solarization: Covering soil with plastic in hot weather can reduce
soilborne pathogens.
• Fumigation: Soil fumigation with appropriate chemicals can help control
the pathogens.
• Seed Treatment: Treat cucumber, melon, and watermelon seeds with hot
water to reduce pathogen presence.
• Avoid Stress: Maintain optimal irrigation and nutrition to reduce plant
stress.
• Avoid Overhead Irrigation: Minimize wetting of foliage to prevent
pathogen spread.
• Biological Control: Some beneficial microorganisms can help suppress
pathogen growth.
• Chemical Control: Fungicides applied to soil can provide limited
control.
Onions
Purple blotch
Symptoms:
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• Purple to reddish-brown lesions with distinct yellow halos on leaves.
• Lesions expand and coalesce, causing leaves to wither and die.
• Severely affected plants have reduced bulb size and quality.
• Infections can also occur on bulbs, resulting in sunken lesions.
Etiology:
• Caused by the fungus Alternaria porri.
Disease Cycle:
1. Infection: Fungal spores land on leaves and penetrate through natural
openings or wounds.
2. Lesion Development: Lesions form within a few days, starting as small
purple spots.
3. Spread: Spores are produced in the lesions and can be spread by wind,
rain, or equipment.
4. Overwintering: The fungus can survive on plant debris, bulbs, or in the
soil.
5. Secondary Infections: Infections can occur throughout the growing
season under favorable conditions.
Management:
• Crop Rotation: Avoid planting onions in the same field for consecutive
years.
• Sanitation: Remove and destroy infected plant debris.

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• Resistant Varieties: Use onion cultivars resistant to Purple Blotch.
• Fungicides: Apply fungicides preventively or curatively, following
recommended guidelines.
• Proper Spacing: Ensure good air circulation between plants to reduce
humidity.
• Irrigation: Avoid overhead irrigation to minimize leaf wetness.
• Onion Bulb Treatments: Dip onion sets in fungicide before planting.
• Timing: Plant onions at the recommended time to avoid high disease
pressure.
• Weed Management: Control weeds that may harbor the pathogen.
• Good Drainage: Ensure proper drainage to reduce conditions favoring
disease development.
Pea
Downy Mildew
Symptoms:
• Yellowing and curling of leaves.
• Appearance of purplish-brown spots on the upper surface of leaves.
• Formation of downy growth on the lower leaf surface, giving a grayish
appearance.
Etiology:
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• Caused by the oomycete pathogen Peronospora viciae.
Disease Cycle:
1. Infection: Pathogen survives in infected plant debris or as oospores in the
soil.
2. Spore Production: Sporangia are produced on infected plants and
released during humid conditions.
3. Spread: Sporangia are wind-dispersed and can infect nearby plants.
4. Infection and Growth: Spores germinate in the presence of water and
infect pea leaves.
5. Secondary Infections: Sporulation continues under favorable conditions,
leading to secondary infections.
Management:
• Resistant Varieties: Use pea varieties that are resistant to Downy Mildew.
• Crop Rotation: Avoid planting peas in the same area consecutively.
• Spacing: Adequate spacing between plants for good air circulation.
• Avoid Overhead Irrigation: Reduce leaf wetness to minimize disease
development.
• Fungicides: Apply fungicides preventively or curatively as per
recommendations.
• Planting Date: Plant peas early to avoid high disease pressure.
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• Weed Management: Control weeds that can serve as alternative hosts.
• Avoid Excessive Nitrogen: Avoid excessive nitrogen fertilization, as it
can promote disease development.
Powdery Mildew
Symptoms:
• Initial symptoms appear as white powdery spots on the upper leaf surface.
• As the disease progresses, the white spots coalesce to form a powdery
white growth.
• Leaves may become distorted, curl, and exhibit necrosis.
• Pods and stems can also be affected, leading to reduced yield.
Etiology:
• Caused by the fungus Erysiphe polygoni.
Disease Cycle:
1. Overwintering: The fungus can survive on crop residues, volunteer pea
plants, or as cleistothecia (overwintering structures).
2. Spring Infection: Conidia (asexual spores) are produced on overwintered
structures and are wind-dispersed to infect young pea plants.
3. Infection and Growth: Conidia germinate and penetrate plant tissues,
forming a white powdery growth.
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4. Secondary Spread: Secondary conidia are produced and spread the
infection to other parts of the plant.
5. Cleistothecia Formation: In late season, cleistothecia form and serve as
a source of primary inoculum for the next year.
Management:
• Resistant Varieties: Plant pea varieties with resistance to Powdery
Mildew.
• Crop Rotation: Avoid planting peas in the same area consecutively.
• Sanitation: Remove and destroy infected plant residues.
• Spacing: Adequate spacing between plants for better air circulation.
• Fungicides: Apply fungicides preventively or curatively as per
recommendations.
• Avoid Overhead Irrigation: Reduce leaf wetness to minimize disease
development.
• Avoid High Nitrogen: Excessive nitrogen can promote disease
development.
• Early Planting: Plant peas early to reduce exposure to disease pressure.
• Biological Control: Use beneficial microorganisms that can suppress
Powdery Mildew.
• Pruning: Remove and destroy heavily infected plant parts.
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Rust
Symptoms:
• The symptoms of rust on peas include the appearance of small, round to
elongated pustules on the underside of leaves.
• These pustules are typically orange to reddish-brown in color.
• As the disease progresses, the pustules rupture and release rust-colored
spores.
Etiology:
• Caused by fungal pathogens, such as Uromyces spp. and Uromyces pisi.
Disease Cycle:
1. Spore Dispersal: Rust spores (urediniospores) are produced within
pustules on infected plants.
2. Wind Dispersal: Urediniospores are wind-dispersed to nearby pea plants.
3. Infection: Spores land on pea leaves, germinate, and penetrate the leaf
tissue.
4. Disease Development: Once inside the leaf, the fungus grows and
produces new pustules, completing the disease cycle.
Management:
• Resistant Varieties: Plant pea varieties with resistance to Rust.
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• Crop Rotation: Avoid planting peas in the same location year after year.
• Fungicides: Apply fungicides as per recommendations to protect plants
from rust infection.
• Timely Planting: Planting early or late may help reduce disease pressure.
• Spacing: Adequate spacing between plants for good air circulation.
• Remove Weeds: Eliminate alternate hosts, which can serve as a source of
infection.
• Fertilization: Maintain balanced fertilization to prevent excessive
nitrogen, which can promote disease.
• Monitor: Regularly scout the crop for early signs of rust and take action
as needed.
Managing rust in peas requires a combination of cultural
practices, fungicide applications, and the use of resistant varieties. The goal is to
reduce the initial inoculum, prevent the spread of spores, and maintain plant
health to minimize the impact of the disease on yield and quality.
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Unit-V
Syllabus
Spices and Ornamental crops:
Chillies: fruit rot, and leaf curl;
Turmeric: leaf spot;
Coriander: stem gall.
Marigold: Botrytis blight.
Rose: dieback, powdery mildew, & black leaf spot
Spices and Ornamental Crops
Chillies
Chillies, also known as hot peppers or chilli peppers, are a popular spice crop that
is widely grown throughout the world for their pungent flavour and medicinal
properties. However, like all crops, chillies are susceptible to a range of diseases
that can impact their growth and yield.
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Two common diseases that affect chillies are fruit rot and leaf curl. Here's what
you need to know about each of these diseases:
Fruit Rot
Symptoms:
• Symptoms of fruit rot in chillies include the appearance of water-soaked
lesions on the fruits.
• These lesions may enlarge and become sunken, often turning dark in color.
• Infected fruits can develop soft spots and may show signs of mold growth.
• In advanced stages, the entire fruit may become decayed and shriveled.
Etiology:
• Fruit rot in chillies can be caused by various fungal pathogens,
including Colletotrichum spp. and Phytophthora spp..
Disease Cycle:
1. Infection: Fungal spores land on chilli fruits and gain entry through
wounds, cracks, or natural openings.
2. Lesion Development: Once inside the fruit, the fungi grow and cause
water-soaked lesions.
3. Spore Production: As the lesions expand, fungal structures develop and
produce spores.
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4. Secondary Infections: Spores are released and can infect neighboring
fruits or other plants.
5. Disease Spread: The disease can spread rapidly under favorable
conditions, leading to fruit decay.
Management:
• Sanitation: Remove and destroy infected fruits and plant debris.
• Mulching: Use mulch to prevent soil-borne pathogens from splashing
onto fruits.
• Avoid Overhead Irrigation: Watering at the base of plants can help
prevent moisture on fruits.
• Proper Spacing: Adequate spacing between plants for air circulation and
light penetration.
• Fungicides: Apply fungicides as per recommendations during fruit
development.
• Resistant Varieties: Consider planting chilli varieties with resistance to
specific fruit rot pathogens.
• Crop Rotation: Avoid planting chillies in the same location year after
year.
• Weed Control: Remove weeds that may harbor disease-causing
pathogens.
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• Nutrient Management: Maintain proper fertilization to promote plant
health.
• Timely Harvest: Harvest fruits at the proper stage of maturity to reduce
susceptibility to infection.
Effective management of chilli fruit rot involves a combination of cultural
practices, proper sanitation, and timely fungicide applications. Preventing the
spread of spores, reducing conditions conducive to disease development, and
using resistant varieties are key strategies to protect chilli crops from fruit rot and
minimize yield losses.
Leaf Curl
Symptoms:
• Leaf curl in chillies is characterized by curling and upward rolling of the
leaves.
• The leaves may become thickened and brittle.
• The affected leaves often show a pronounced yellowing or bronzing of the
upper surface.
• Stunted growth and reduced fruit production may also be observed.
Etiology:
• Leaf curl in chillies is typically caused by a group of viruses known as
Begomoviruses.
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• These viruses are transmitted by whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci).
Disease Cycle:
1. Transmission: Whiteflies feed on infected plants, acquiring the virus.
2. Virus Acquisition: The virus replicates in the whitefly and becomes
transmissible.
3. Infection: Whiteflies transmit the virus to healthy chilli plants during
feeding.
4. Virus Movement: The virus moves through the plant's vascular system,
causing symptoms.
5. Vector Spread: Infected whiteflies transmit the virus to new plants,
continuing the cycle.
Management:
• Resistant Varieties: Planting virus-resistant chilli varieties can provide
effective control.
• Vector Management: Control whitefly populations with insecticides,
reflective mulches, or biological control agents.
• Sanitation: Remove and destroy infected plants to reduce the virus source.
• Avoid Planting Near Infected Crops: Keep chillies away from infected
crops to prevent virus spread.
• Timely Planting: Plant chillies early to avoid peak whitefly activity.
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• Reflective Mulches: Use reflective mulches to repel whiteflies and
disrupt their behavior.
• Insecticide Applications: Apply insecticides to manage whitefly
populations if necessary.
• Physical Barriers: Use floating row covers to physically exclude
whiteflies.
• Intercropping: Planting non-host crops alongside chillies can help deter
whiteflies.
• Avoid Overfertilization: Excessive nitrogen can promote whitefly
populations; use balanced fertilization.
• Scouting: Regularly monitor for whitefly populations and symptoms of
infection.
Chilli leaf curl is a viral disease that can lead to significant yield losses if not
properly managed. Implementing integrated pest management strategies, such as
using resistant varieties, controlling vector populations, and practicing good crop
hygiene, can help prevent and manage leaf curl in chillies effectively.
Turmeric
Turmeric, also known as Curcuma longa, is a perennial herbaceous plant that
belongs to the ginger family. It is widely cultivated for its rhizomes, which are
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used as a spice and in traditional medicine. However, like all crops, turmeric is
susceptible to a range of diseases that can impact its growth and yield.
Leaf Spot
Symptoms:
• Leaf spot in turmeric is characterized by the appearance of small to large
circular or irregular spots on the leaves.
• The spots may have a brown to reddish-brown center with a yellow halo
around them.
• As the disease progresses, the spots may coalesce and cause extensive
damage to the foliage.
• Severe infections can lead to premature defoliation and reduced rhizome
yield.
Etiology:
• Leaf spot in turmeric is caused by a fungus called Alternaria longipes.
Disease Cycle:
1. Infection: Fungal spores land on the leaves and infect through natural
openings or wounds.
2. Colonization: The fungus colonizes the leaf tissue, leading to the
formation of lesions.
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3. Spore Production: As the lesions mature, the fungus produces spores on
the surface.
4. Spore Dispersal: Wind and rain can dislodge the spores, facilitating their
spread to nearby plants.
5. Secondary Infections: New spores can cause secondary infections on
healthy leaves.
Management:
• Cultural Practices: Maintain proper spacing between plants to improve
air circulation and reduce humidity.
• Sanitation: Remove and destroy infected leaves to prevent disease spread.
• Crop Rotation: Avoid planting turmeric in the same area consecutively
to reduce pathogen buildup.
• Fungicide Applications: Apply fungicides with protective and curative
action according to recommended schedules.
• Resistant Varieties: If available, choose turmeric varieties with
resistance to leaf spot.
• Healthy Planting Material: Use disease-free rhizomes for planting to
prevent initial infection.
• Mulching: Apply organic mulch around plants to prevent soil splashing
and reduce pathogen contact.
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• Avoid Overhead Irrigation: Use drip irrigation to avoid wetting the
foliage, which can promote disease spread.
• Monitoring: Regularly inspect plants for symptoms and take prompt
action if leaf spot is detected.
Leaf spot can lead to reduced leaf area and compromised rhizome yield in
turmeric. Implementing a combination of cultural practices, such as proper
spacing and sanitation, along with targeted fungicide applications, can help
manage leaf spot and minimize its impact on turmeric crops.
Coriander
Coriander, also known as Cilantro or Chinese Parsley, is an annual herb that is
widely cultivated for its leaves, seeds, and roots. It is a popular spice crop that is
used in many cuisines around the world. However, like all crops, coriander is
susceptible to a range of diseases that can impact its growth and yield.
Stem gall
Symptoms:
• Stem gall disease in coriander is characterized by the development of
abnormal growths or galls on the stems of the plant.
• The galls may vary in size and shape, often appearing as swollen,
elongated, or distorted portions of the stem.
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• The galls can range in color from green to brown or even reddish, and they
may be covered with a powdery substance.
Etiology:
• Stem gall in coriander is caused by a bacterium called Pseudomonas
syringae pv. coriandricola.
Disease Cycle:
1. Infection: Bacteria enter the plant through natural openings or wounds.
2. Colonization: The bacteria multiply and cause localized infection,
leading to gall formation.
3. Gall Development: As the bacteria continue to multiply, galls develop on
the stem.
4. Spread: Rain, wind, and mechanical activities can spread bacterial cells
to nearby plants.
Management:
• Use Disease-Free Seeds: Start with certified disease-free seeds to reduce
the introduction of the pathogen.
• Sanitation: Remove and destroy infected plant material to prevent
further spread of the disease.
• Crop Rotation: Avoid planting coriander in the same location in
consecutive seasons.
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• Avoid Overhead Irrigation: Use drip irrigation to prevent water
splashing and reduce disease spread.
• Fungicide Applications: Copper-based fungicides can be applied
preventively to help manage bacterial diseases.
• Resistant Varieties: If available, choose coriander varieties that are less
susceptible to stem gall.
• Spacing: Proper spacing between plants can improve air circulation and
reduce humidity, which can inhibit disease development.
• Fertilization: Maintain proper nutrient balance to promote plant health
and vigor.
• Monitoring: Regularly inspect plants for the development of galls and
other symptoms.
Stem gall disease in coriander can cause deformities in stems, reduce plant health,
and potentially impact yield. Implementing a combination of preventive
measures, cultural practices, and fungicide applications can help manage stem
gall disease and protect coriander crops.
Marigold
Marigold is a popular ornamental plant that is widely cultivated for its attractive
flowers. It is a hardy plant that is relatively easy to grow, but like all plants, it is
susceptible to a range of diseases that can impact its growth and appearance.
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Botrytis blight
It is also known as gray mold, is a fungal disease that affects marigold plants. The
disease is caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea, which can infect all parts of the
plant, including the leaves, stems, and flowers.
Symptoms:
• Botrytis blight in marigold appears as small, water-soaked spots on leaves,
stems, and flowers.
• These spots enlarge and turn brown, often surrounded by a yellow halo.
• As the disease progresses, the affected tissue becomes covered with a
grayish-brown fuzzy growth of fungal spores.
Etiology:
• Botrytis blight is caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea.
Disease Cycle:
1. Infection: The fungus overwinters on plant debris and in the soil. Spores
are released during wet conditions.
2. Spore Germination: Spores germinate on plant surfaces and penetrate
the plant tissue.
3. Colonization: The fungus spreads within the plant, causing lesions and
decay.
4. Spore Production: Under high humidity, the fungus produces grayish-
brown spore masses that can be easily spread by wind or splashing water.
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5. Spread: Spores are carried by wind, water, or contact, and can infect
other plants.
Management:
• Sanitation: Remove and destroy infected plant material to prevent
overwintering of the fungus.
• Spacing: Proper spacing between plants improves air circulation,
reducing humidity that favors disease development.
• Avoid Overhead Irrigation: Use drip irrigation to minimize water
splashing on plant surfaces.
• Fungicide Applications: Apply fungicides at the first sign of disease to
prevent its spread.
• Remove Dead Flowers: Regularly remove spent flowers to reduce
potential sites for infection.
• Proper Planting: Choose well-draining soil and avoid planting in areas
prone to waterlogging.
• Good Air Movement: If growing in a greenhouse, ensure adequate
ventilation to reduce humidity.
• Resistant Varieties: Select marigold varieties that are less susceptible to
Botrytis blight.
• Monitoring: Regularly inspect plants for symptoms and take immediate
action if disease is detected.
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Effective management involves a combination of cultural practices, fungicide
applications, and vigilant monitoring to prevent and control the disease.
Rose
Roses are popular ornamental plants that are prized for their attractive flowers
and fragrance. They are susceptible to a range of diseases that can impact their
growth and appearance, but with proper management practices, these diseases can
be controlled.
Dieback
Symptoms:
• Rose dieback initially appears as wilting and yellowing of leaves on
individual branches.
• The affected branches may exhibit dieback, with leaves turning brown and
remaining attached to the stem.
• Black cankers or lesions may develop on the stems, causing a decline in
plant vigor.
• Affected canes may eventually die and can be easily snapped off.
Etiology:
• Rose dieback is caused by several fungi, including Diplocarpon
rosae (black spot pathogen) and Phomopsis spp..

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Disease Cycle:
1. Infection: The fungus overwinters on infected canes, fallen leaves, and
other plant debris.
2. Spring Infection: In spring, spores are produced on infected canes and
are spread by rain or splashing water.
3. Spread: Rain and water splash disperse the spores to new growth,
resulting in new infections.
4. Lesion Development: Infected canes develop lesions that may girdle the
stem, causing dieback.
5. Secondary Infections: Infections can occur repeatedly during the
growing season if environmental conditions are conducive.
Management:
• Pruning: Prune and destroy infected canes during the dormant season to
reduce overwintering inoculum.
• Sanitation: Remove and destroy fallen leaves and debris to reduce
sources of infection.
• Water Management: Avoid overhead watering to prevent water splash
and leaf wetness.
• Good Air Circulation: Proper spacing and pruning promote air
circulation, reducing humidity.
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• Fungicide Applications: Apply fungicides preventively or as directed by
a local extension office.
• Resistant Varieties: Choose rose varieties with resistance to dieback
pathogens.
• Mulching: Apply a layer of organic mulch around the base of rose plants
to prevent spore splash.
• Monitoring: Regularly inspect plants for symptoms and take action
promptly if dieback is observed.
Rose dieback can lead to reduced plant health, decreased flower production, and
overall decline of the rose plant. Proper sanitation, cultural practices, and targeted
fungicide applications are essential components of managing this disease and
maintaining healthy rose plants.
Powdery Mildew
Symptoms:
• Powdery mildew on roses appears as a white to gray powdery growth on
the upper leaf surfaces.
• Initially, small spots of powdery growth develop and spread to cover larger
areas.
• Affected leaves may become distorted, curl, and eventually drop
prematurely.
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• Buds and young stems can also be infected, leading to stunted growth and
deformed flowers.
Etiology:
• The powdery mildew on roses is caused by various species of fungi
belonging to the Podosphaera genus.
Disease Cycle:
1. Infection: The powdery mildew fungi overwinter on infected canes,
buds, and other plant parts.
2. Spring Infection: In spring, spores are produced in structures called
conidiophores and spread by wind.
3. Infection Spread: Spores land on susceptible plant parts and germinate,
forming new infections.
4. Secondary Infections: The fungus can produce multiple generations in a
single growing season.
5. Overwintering: The fungus can form resting structures that survive on
infected plant debris over winter.
Management:
• Pruning: Remove and destroy infected plant parts during the dormant
season.
• Sanitation: Remove fallen leaves and debris to reduce overwintering
sources of infection.
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• Water Management: Avoid overhead watering to minimize leaf wetness.
movement and reduce humidity.
• Fungicide Applications: Apply fungicides preventively or as
recommended by local experts.
• Resistant Varieties: Choose rose varieties with natural resistance to
powdery mildew.
• Sulfur Dust: Application of sulfur-based products can help manage
powdery mildew.
• Biological Controls: Beneficial microorganisms can help suppress
powdery mildew.
• Monitoring: Regularly inspect rose plants for symptoms and signs of
powdery mildew.
Powdery mildew can affect the aesthetics of roses and lead to decreased vigor
and flower production. A combination of cultural practices, sanitation, and
appropriate fungicide applications can effectively manage powdery mildew and
promote healthy rose growth.
Black Leaf Spot
Symptoms:
• Black leaf spot on roses appears as small, circular to irregular black spots
with fringed edges on the upper surface of the leaves.

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• These spots can coalesce and cover larger portions of the leaf, causing
yellowing and premature leaf drop.
• Severe infections can weaken the plant, reduce flowering, and lead to
overall decline.
Etiology:
• Black leaf spot is caused by the fungus Diplocarpon rosae.
Disease Cycle:
1. Overwintering: The fungus overwinters in infected leaves and canes.
2. Spring Infection: Spores are released from infected debris in spring and
are spread by splashing water.
3. Infection Spread: Spores land on susceptible leaves and penetrate the
leaf surface.
4. Lesion Development: Infections result in the formation of characteristic
black spots.
5. Secondary Infections: Additional spore production can occur throughout
the growing season.
6. Leaf Drop: Severely infected leaves can drop prematurely.
Management:
• Sanitation: Remove and destroy fallen leaves and debris to reduce
overwintering sources.
• Water Management: Avoid overhead watering to minimize leaf wetness.
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movement and reduce humidity.
• Fungicide Applications: Apply fungicides preventively or as
recommended by local experts.
• Resistant Varieties: Choose rose varieties with natural resistance to
black leaf spot.
• Pruning: Prune to improve air circulation and remove infected plant parts.
• Mulching: Apply organic mulch to prevent splashing of spores onto
leaves.
• Biological Controls: Beneficial microorganisms can help suppress the
disease.
• Monitoring: Regularly inspect rose plants for symptoms and signs of
black leaf spot.
Black leaf spot can impact the overall health and aesthetics of rose plants.
Integrated management practices, including proper sanitation, cultural practices,
and appropriate fungicide applications, can help control the disease and maintain
healthy roses.
Regularly inspecting your roses for signs of black spot and other diseases, and
promptly treating any infections, can help keep your plants healthy and beautiful.
With proper care and management, you can enjoy the beauty and fragrance of
your roses for years to come.

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Diseases of Field & Horticultural Crops & Their Management-II 3(2+1)

of the following diseases:

→ Father of plant pathology - Anton de Bary

A disease is a condition that disrupts normal bodily function and is typically

characterized by the presence of symptoms resulting from continuous irritation

development of disease symptoms.

• Dispersal: The pathogen produces spores or other structures that allow it to

spread to other plants and infect them.

such as a rash or fever, and changes in behaviour or physiological processes.

• Appearance of reddish-brown or yellowish-brown pustules on leaves,

stems, and grains.

be rubbed off with a finger.

photosynthesis and affecting yield.

• Three types of Rusts:

• Stem rust: elongated reddish-brown pustules on stems and leaves.

• Leaf rust: small, roundish pustules causing yellowish appearance on

• Caused by fungal pathogens of the genus Puccinia.

• Stem rust: Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici.

• Leaf rust: Puccinia triticina.

• Stripe rust: Puccinia striiformis.

• Rust pathogens survive on alternate hosts or as dormant spores on crop

• Urediniospores (spores) are produced on infected plants.

• When environmental conditions are conducive, spores (urediniospores) are

produced on infected plants and spread by wind to infect healthy plants.

• Infection occurs when spores land on susceptible plant tissues and

that are less susceptible to rust infections.

o Avoid Continuous Cropping: Practicing crop rotation with non-

host crops helps break the disease cycle.

o Crop Residue Removal: Clear the field of infected crop residues

after harvest to reduce the source of inoculum.

o Fungicides: Application of appropriate fungicides can effectively

manage rust infections, especially during high disease pressure

o Application Timing: Apply fungicides preventively or as soon as

rust symptoms are observed.

• Integrated Disease Management:

o Resistant Varieties + Fungicides: Utilize both rust-resistant

varieties and fungicides for a more comprehensive approach.

symptoms for timely intervention.

period of high rust incidence.

• Farm Hygiene: Ensure farm equipment used in rust-infested fields is

properly cleaned before moving to uninfested fields.

Wheat Loose Smut:

• Inflorescence Transformation: Loose smut primarily affects the wheat

inflorescence (flowering part). Infected heads are replaced by masses

• Smuts at Maturity: At maturity, smut balls disintegrate, releasing large

quantities of spores that can infect healthy plants.

• Pathogen: Loose smut is caused by the fungus Ustilago tritici.

• Infection and Transmission: The fungus overwinters in infected seeds

2. Systemic Infection: The fungus penetrates young seedlings as they

germinate and grows systemically within the plant.

head with smut balls.

4. Spore Dispersal: At maturity, smut balls rupture, releasing vast numbers

5. Infection of Healthy Plants: Spores land on healthy plants, germinate,

• Use Certified Seed: Use certified, disease-free seed to avoid introducing

smut into the field.

• Seed Treatment: Treat seeds with fungicides to reduce the risk of

infection. Fungicides like Thiram, Captan, Carbendazim etc.

• Hot Water Treatment: Immersion of seeds in hot water (52°C for 15

• Crop Rotation: Rotate wheat with non-host crops to reduce inoculum